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People who are deaf or hard of hearing use a variety of ways to communicate. Some rely on sign language interpreters or assistive listening devices; some rely primarily on written messages. Many can speak even though they cannot hear. The method of communication and the services or aids the hospital must provide will vary depending upon the abilities of the person who is deaf or hard of hearing and on the complexity and nature of the communications that are required. **Effective communication is particularly critical in health care settings where miscommunication may lead to misdiagnosis and improper or delayed medical treatment.**
Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), hospitals must provide effective means of communication for patients, family members, and hospital visitors who are deaf or hard of hearing.
The ADA applies to *all* hospital programs and services, such as emergency room care, inpatient and outpatient services, surgery, clinics, educational classes, and cafeteria and gift shop services. Wherever patients, their family members, companions, or members of the public are interacting with hospital staff, the hospital is obligated to provide effective communication.
Exchanging written notes or pointing to items for purchase will likely be effective communication for brief and relatively simple face-to-face conversations, such as a visitor’s inquiry about a patient’s room number or a purchase in the gift shop or cafeteria.
Written forms or information sheets may provide effective communication in situations where there is little call for interactive communication, such as providing billing and insurance information or filling out admission forms and medical history inquiries.
For more complicated and interactive communications, such as a patient’s discussion of symptoms with medical personnel, a physician’s presentation of diagnosis and treatment options to patients or family members, or a group therapy session, it may be necessary to provide a qualified sign language interpreter or other interpreter.
**Sign language interpreters**
Sign language is used by many people who are deaf or hard of hearing. It is a visually interactive language that uses a combination of hand motions, body gestures, and facial expressions. There are several different types of sign language, including American Sign Language (ASL) and Signed English.
**Oral interpreters**
Not all people who are deaf or hard of hearing are trained in sign language. Some individuals with hearing disabilities are trained in speech reading (lip reading) and can understand spoken words fairly well with assistance from an oral interpreter. Oral interpreters are specially trained to articulate speech silently and clearly, sometimes rephrasing words or phrases to give higher visibility on the lips. Natural body language and gestures are also used.
**Cued speech interpreters**
A cued speech interpreter functions in the same manner as an oral interpreter except that he or she also uses a hand code, or cue, to represent each speech sound.
**Computer Assisted Real-time Transcription (CART)**
Many people who are deaf or hard of hearing are not trained in either sign language or speech reading. CART is a service in which an operator types what is said into a computer that displays the typed words on a screen.
Situations where an interpreter may be required for effective communication:
- discussing a patient’s symptoms and medical condition, medications, and medical history
- explaining and describing medical conditions, tests, treatment options, medications, surgery and other procedures
- providing a diagnosis, prognosis, and recommendation for treatment
- obtaining informed consent for treatment
- communicating with a patient during treatment, testing procedures, and during physician’s rounds
- providing instructions for medications, post-treatment activities, and follow-up treatments
- providing mental health services, including group or individual therapy, or counseling for patients and family members
- providing information about blood or organ donations
- explaining living wills and powers of attorney
- discussing complex billing or insurance matters
- making educational presentations, such as birthing and new parent classes, nutrition and weight management counseling, and CPR and first aid training
Hospitals may need to provide an interpreter or other assistive service in a variety of situations where it is a family member or companion rather than the patient who is deaf or hard of hearing. For example, an interpreter may be necessary to communicate where the guardian of a minor patient is deaf, to discuss prognosis and treatment options with a patient’s spouse or partner who is hard of hearing, or to allow meaningful participation in a birthing class for a prospective new father who is deaf.
Individuals with hearing disabilities have different communication skills and the hospital should consult with each individual to determine what aids or services are necessary to provide effective communication in particular situations.
Sign language or other interpreters must be qualified. An interpreter is qualified if he or she can interpret competently, accurately, and impartially. In the hospital setting, the interpreter must be familiar with any specialized vocabulary used and must be able to interpret medical terms and concepts. Hospital personnel who have a limited familiarity with sign language should interpret only in emergency situations for a brief time until a qualified interpreter can be present.
It is inappropriate to ask family members or other companions to interpret for a person who is deaf or hard of hearing. Family members may be unable to interpret accurately in the emotional situation that often exists in a medical emergency.
Hospitals should have arrangements in place to ensure that qualified interpreters are readily available on a scheduled basis and on an unscheduled basis with minimal delay, including on-call arrangements for after-hours emergencies. Larger facilities may choose to have interpreters on staff.
A doctor uses a sign language interpreter to communicate with a patient who is deaf.
For training or other educational services offered to patients or members of the public, additional aids and services such as note takers, captioned videos, and assistive listening systems may be necessary for effective communication.
Hospitals should develop protocols and provide training to ensure that staff know how to obtain interpreter services and other communication aids and services when needed by persons who are deaf or hard of hearing.
It is helpful to have signs and other types of notices to advise persons with disabilities that services and assistance are available and what they need to do to obtain them. It is most useful to post signs at locations where patients or visitors typically seek information or assistance and to include information in general information packets.
Hospitals cannot charge patients or other persons with hearing disabilities an extra fee for interpreter services or other communication aids and services.
For telephone communications, many people who are deaf or hard of hearing use a teletypewriter (TTY, also known as a TDD) rather than a standard telephone. These devices have a keyboard and a visual display for exchanging written messages over the telephone.
The ADA established a free nationwide relay network to handle voice-to-TTY and TTY-to-voice calls. Individuals may use this network to call the hospital from a TTY. The relay consists of an operator with a TTY who receives the call from a TTY user and then places the call to the hospital. The caller types the message into the TTY and the operator relays the message by voice to the hospital staff person, listens to the staff person’s response, and types the response back to the caller. The hospital must be prepared to make and receive relay system calls, which may take a little longer than voice calls. For outgoing calls to a TTY user, simply dial 7-1-1 to reach a relay operator.
If telephones and televisions are provided in patient rooms, the hospital must provide patients who are deaf or hard of hearing comparable accessible equipment upon request, including TTY’s, telephones that are hearing-aid compatible and have volume control, and televisions with closed captioning or decoders.
Visual alarms are not required in patient rooms. However, hospital evacuation procedures should include specific measures to ensure the safety of patients and visitors who are deaf or hard of hearing.
A hospital need not provide communication aids or services if doing so would fundamentally alter the nature of the goods or services offered or would result in an undue burden.
Certain built-in communication features are required for hospitals built or altered after the effective date of the ADA:
- Visual alarms must be provided in all public and common-use areas, including restrooms, where audible alarms are provided.
- TTY’s must be provided at public pay phones serving emergency, recovery, or waiting rooms and at least one TTY must be provided at other locations where there are four or more pay phones.
A certain percentage of public phones must have other features, such as TTY plug-in capability, volume controls, and hearing-aid compatibility. Consult the ADA Standards for Accessible Design for more specific information. [ADA Standards 4.1.3(17), 4.31]
**ADA Information**
You may view or download ADA information on the [ADA website](http://www.ada.gov). This website provides access to the ADA Business Connection, ADA design standards, regulations, policy letters, technical assistance materials, and general ADA information. It also provides links to other Federal agencies and news about new ADA requirements and enforcement efforts.
If you have specific questions concerning the ADA, call the Department of Justice [ADA Information Line](http://www.ada.gov).
(800) 514-0301 (voice)
(800) 514-0383 (TTY)
---
A man uses a TTY that is connected to a pay telephone in a hospital emergency room waiting area.
The Americans with Disabilities Act authorizes the Department of Justice (the Department) to provide technical assistance to individuals and entities that have rights or responsibilities under the Act. This document provides informal guidance to assist you in understanding the ADA and the Department’s regulations.
This guidance document is not intended to be a final agency action, has no legally binding effect, and may be rescinded or modified in the Department’s complete discretion, in accordance with applicable laws. The Department’s guidance documents, including this guidance, do not establish legally enforceable responsibilities beyond what is required by the terms of the applicable statutes, regulations, or binding judicial precedent. | dcb1e177-cf2f-4e30-9521-b96aff6268b9 | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://archive.ada.gov/hospcombrprt.pdf | 2023-03-31T05:38:54+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949573.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20230331051439-20230331081439-00566.warc.gz | 136,962,176 | 1,995 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993775 | eng_Latn | 0.997429 | [
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HITHERFIELD PRIMARY SCHOOL AND CHILDREN’S CENTRE
PSHE and Citizenship policy
Creation date: October 2014
Review date: October 2016
1. Philosophy of PSHE & Citizenship
Learning PSHE and Citizenship helps pupils develop as individuals in a wider society. Pupils learn to understand themselves physically, emotionally and socially as well as understanding their relationships with others. It is also develops the necessary skills for young people to play an active part in society. PSHE and Citizenship is an integral part of everything we do at Hitherfield.
2. Legal requirements
In September 2013 the government published the new curriculum framework (to take effect from September 2014) and, although PSHE remains a non-statutory subject, it states:
‘All schools should make provision for personal, social, health and economic education drawing on good practice’.
3. Aims
The school aims to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and achieve. The school curriculum aims to promote pupils’ spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life.
- To enable pupils to develop skills in decision making.
- Develop personal autonomy by having a degree of responsibility and control over their lives.
- Make a difference or make changes by their individual or collective actions.
- Find out that there are different viewpoints which lead to respect for the opinions of others.
- Help to develop a positive self image, to have self respect and respect for others.
- Provide basic health knowledge and enable pupils to acquire an understanding of this knowledge and the skills to interpret it.
- Help pupils to adapt to changes in themselves and their environment.
- Give the knowledge, skills and understanding they need to lead confident, healthy, independent lives and to become informed, active, responsible citizens.
- Help prepare pupils for the opportunities and responsibilities of adult life including providing children with strategies to deal with a variety of social situations.
This policy links with other policies including: behavior, anti-bullying, drugs education, sex and relationship education and equal opportunities.
4. Staff responsibilities
Class teachers take responsibility for the delivery of PSHCE sessions in their class. However, this will be in partnership with session delivery from the Learning Mentors and, on occasion, guest speakers as well as assemblies linked in with PSHCE objectives.
Teachers receive short term plans from the subject coordinator (saved on Google Drive). Teachers are able to teach from these plans adapting when necessary as well as using the additional resources form google drive when appropriate for their class’s needs.
5. Short Term Plans
Each teacher is supplied with the short term plans by the coordinator (from the PSHE folder on Google Drive. These plans give the intended learning (WALT); learning outcomes (WILF) as well as in-depth activities and necessary resources. From year 1 to 6 progression and continuity are shown both in the WALT and WILF as well as topics covered and included throughout the year e
6. Curriculum content
The curriculum overview (see Google drive: PSHCE folder) incorporates SEAL units for all year groups alongside units on drugs education, sex and relationship education and personal finance education. Alongside this, are additional units (to be used at the teacher’s discretion) on emotional intelligence, relationships, good to be me and philosophy for children.
7. Cross curricular links
Throughout the school, units in PSHE have been re-arranged and adapted to work alongside the six school values as well as the whole school curriculum topics (where appropriate).
Furthermore, the PSHE curriculum build strong links with the Science curriculum linking in with statutory requirements such as ‘Identify and labeling parts of the body (Year 1); ‘Describe the importance for humans of exercise, eating the right amounts of different types of food, and hygiene.’ (Year 2); ‘Describe the life process of reproduction in some plants and animals’ (Year 5); ‘Describe the changes as humans develop to old age.’ (Year 5) and ‘recognise the impact of diet, exercise, drugs and lifestyle on the way their bodies function’ (Year 6). This will be further supported by class based wok with the edible garden.
8. Delivery of curriculum
Although PSHE will be explicitly taught during class based sessions, there will be many other opportunities for the aims to be met through cross curricular links (as mentioned above); through the school behavior policy; through the school’s focus on termly values; through the role of the school council and through guest speakers (e.g. Trident and TFL). In addition to this, much of the work will be linked in the school’s work towards Healthy Schools Status.
9. Departmental resources
These can be found in the resource room or the 6E classroom:
| PSHCE resources: |
|------------------|
| DVDs: |
All about living and growing DVD: Ages 5-11 (Channel 4 learning): 2 copies
15 m video clips
Unit 1
Programme 1: Differences
Programme 2: How did I get here?
Programme 3: Growing up
Unit 2
Programme 4: Changes
Programme 5: How babies are made
Programme 6: How babies are born
Unit 3
Programme 7: Girl talk
Programme 8: Boy talk
INSET
Programme 10: Primary sex education (45m)
Resources book to accompany.
The Human Body: Robert Winston
Life story - overview
An everyday miracle - The drama of conception
First steps - first four years of life
Raging teens - The hormone driven rollercoaster of adolescence
Brain power
As time goes by
The end of life
Celebrating Difference: Challenging homophobia in primary schools (15min films)
Introduction
Chapter 1: Families
Chapter 2: Being Yourself
Chapter 3: Language
Chapter 4: Bullying
Chapter 5: Make it happen
Teacher INSeT (45 mins)
10. Assessment, recording and reporting
The PSHCE school improvement leader monitors the topic areas covered and the approaches utilised by each year group. Assessment will be self and teacher assessment at the outset and the end of each term based on the work covered including teacher assessment of responses during circle time, work produced during group activities and marking of written work. Children, up to Year 6, do not have exercise books as they will store any written work in their 'other' folders. All written work must be headed with a learning objective (WALT) and marked according to the school policy.
11. Teaching methods
Lessons should be taught through: open discussions; development of higher order thinking skills (use of both open and closed questions); development of attitudes, opinions and values; use of video, ICT and other visual aids; role play; drama; practical activities; a range of individual, paired and group work and use of guest speakers and outside visits.
12. Homework
Homework should be given weekly in KS1 and 2 at the discretion of the class teacher. This does not have to be written: it may be research; collection of information; a behaviour target etc.
13. Equal opportunities
Hitherfield School is committed to the principle of equal opportunity for all pupils irrespective of race, religion, gender, language, disability or family background. We believe that equal opportunity is at the heart of good educational practice. All pupils deserve equal access to the PSHCE curriculum that is sensitive to their needs. This is reinforced by our school’s vision and values.
15. Parental and community involvement
Parents are invited to join in school events such as class assemblies and celebration occasions (e.g. opening of the edible garden) as well as termly open mornings within their child’s class. In addition, parents are regularly informed of events and developments in the weekly newsletter. Furthermore, we frequently invite members of the local community to support delivery of the curriculum e.g. representatives from TFL and Trident to run workshops for Year 6.
This policy will be a working document and will be reviewed annually.
Last reviewed: October 2014
Creation date: October 2014
Review date: October 2016 | 57123971-b320-45e2-8c42-077b0f027dfa | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://www.hitherfield.co.uk/MainFolder/LJP/FIles/PSHCE/PSHCE-policy.pdf | 2021-06-16T15:00:16+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487623942.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20210616124819-20210616154819-00173.warc.gz | 720,098,882 | 1,683 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.957021 | eng_Latn | 0.996124 | [
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Learners Speak Out Against Child Abuse!
This information was made possible by the following organizations:
Speak Out: A handbook for learners on how to prevent sexual abuse in public schools: A Department of Basic Education, MiET and UNICEF collaboration
Centre for Applied Legal Studies, Lawyers Against Abuse and Section 27: Managing Sexual Abuse in Schools: A Guide for Children, Families and Communities Members
For more information contact:
012 357 3000
012 357 3357/ 3790
What is child abuse?
Any form of harm or ill-treatment deliberately inflicted on a child. These include assault, sexual abuse or bullying. Sexual abuse is very common in our schools and learners need to speak out against it.
Did you know?
A teacher is never allowed to have a sexual relationship with a learner under any circumstances, even if the learner is over the age of 16 and agrees to the relationship.
If someone tries to touch your private parts, scream NO!!!!!!!
Run away to another grown up that you know – it could be your teacher that you trust
Don’t keep secrets from your parents
Did you also know that?
Learners can sexually abuse each other or one another. It is still wrong and you need to report it.
Some examples of sexual abuse are:
Sexual Harassment:
- when someone sends you an sms saying they like your bum, unwanted sexual notes or pictures from a cellphone (called ‘sexting’)
- when someone presses or rubs their body against yours
- when someone offers you a reward for sexual favour e.g when they offer you marks in exchange for sex
- when someone makes a sexual joke that makes you feel uncomfortable
- when someone writes rude graffiti about you, or spreads sexual rumours about you
- when someone calls you rude names like ‘bitch’, ‘moffie’, ‘slut’ etc
Rape:
- when someone forces you to have a sexual intercourse or oral sex with him or her
- when someone puts an object such as a broom stick into your bum or vagina
Sexual Assault:
- when someone touches you in a way that makes you feel uncomfortable
- when someone forces you to look at pictures of naked people or people having sex
If you have been sexually abused, there are certain steps you need to follow (not in any order) to ensure you get help as soon as possible.
Go to the hospital to seek medical treatment. You have a right to this so as to stop pain, prevent pregnancy, prevent HIV and other STIs and treat injuries.
Report your abuse to the police. If possible, don’t go to the police station alone. Take someone you trust with to support you.
If the abuser is an educator, report the abuser to the Provincial Education Department @ 0800 202 933, can report the abuse to the South African Council of Educators (SACE) @ 086 1007 223
You can apply for a protection order at any magistrate court in the country.
You can request to be transferred to a new/nearby school. There are considerations with this option such as a need for transport, new uniform etc. It is important for your family to support and help you with this decision. | cf4e5316-390a-429d-8124-d17daf9de3b5 | CC-MAIN-2020-29 | https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Publications/Learners%20Speak%20Out%20Against%20Abuse%20Pamphlet.pdf?ver=2016-02-04-142113-583 | 2020-07-14T23:03:37+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593657151761.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200714212401-20200715002401-00192.warc.gz | 825,845,341 | 661 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.979104 | eng_Latn | 0.998383 | [
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Happy Easter
I have thoroughly enjoyed having all the children back at school for the last 3.5 weeks. Their joy and delight at being back at school has been written all over their faces. Like you, I am very pleased that we have started to come out of lockdown and, provided everyone continues to be sensible and stick to the rules, we should continue to see the rules relax so that we can have a summer term that includes our traditional activities - sports’ days and Year 6 events etc.
Please do email the school if your child starts symptoms of Covid 19 (and then tests positive) between now and Saturday 3rd April, as we may have to inform others to isolate. After Saturday 3rd, you do not need to inform us, but please do inform anyone you have had contact with.
I wish everyone an enjoyable Easter holiday and I look forward to welcoming you all back on Tuesday 20th April.
Chris Ashley-Jones
DATES FOR DIARY
Children return to school on Tuesday 20th April
Year 6 Year Book & Class photos Wednesday 21st April
Friday 30th April – NHS Vision Screening for Reception classes
Letter to children from the Secretary of State for Education
The Secretary of State for Education has written to children and young people to recognise the impact of the disruption they have faced over the past year and to thank them for their resilience. He outlines his continued commitment to supporting children and young people to recover from the disruption now that they have returned to school and college.
The letter is published on the DfE media blog and on DfE’s Twitter, Facebook and Instagram.
Eggstravaganza Winners
We had an huge number of amazingly creative entries this year. Well done everyone (apart from the adults, as we only had 2 entries!) and all entries will receive a creme egg for entering. The winners and runners up, listed in the table below, receive larger Easter eggs. The assembly announcing the winners is on Seesaw and Tapestry for everyone to watch - the children watched it this afternoon.
| Year | Winner | Runner up | Runner up |
|------|-------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|
| N | Ida - Robin | Rafferty – Jurassic Egg | Keir - Heggo |
| R | Eleanor - Chick | Annie – Egg Hunt Eggstravaganza | Beatrice – Chicken |
| 1 | Sophia – Ya-Yolk Kusama | Laurence - Eggtarctica | Dorry – The Chronicles on Narniegg |
| 2 | Bea – Magical Eggchanted | Etta – Happy Egg | Arlo – Greta Thunb Egg |
| 3 | Clem – Eggtroordinary Sea World | George – Viking Ship | Gabriel – International Eggstation |
| 4 | Reuben – Denis the Menace V Scovegg 19 | Alex – Egg-cution | Noah - Eggephant |
| 5 | Angus - Speggsavers | Sasha – Boris Eggson’s Covid Update | Rowan – Time to Poach, Egglephant |
| 6 | Arthur – Support the Hen HS | Frankie and Diego – Spacial Distancing | Phoebe - Eggplant |
| Adult| Reception Team – Eggvile Pea and Supereggtloe | Mr Ashley-Jones - Veggcination |
Egg-cellent Displays
The Easter Eggstravaganza at Hitherfield Primary School was a huge success, with all the children’s hard work on display in the school hall.
The theme for this year’s competition was ‘Egg-cellent Displays’ and the children had to create their own egg-themed display using recycled materials. The displays were judged by Mrs. Blyth, Mrs. Smith and Mrs. Jones.
The winning display was created by Year 6 pupil, Charlie, who won a £10 voucher from the local supermarket. Well done, Charlie!
The other winners were:
Year 5: 1st place - Lily, 2nd place - Isla, 3rd place - Charlie
Year 4: 1st place - Millie, 2nd place - Maisie, 3rd place - Charlie
Year 3: 1st place - Charlie, 2nd place - Millie, 3rd place - Charlie
Year 2: 1st place - Charlie, 2nd place - Millie, 3rd place - Charlie
Year 1: 1st place - Charlie, 2nd place - Millie, 3rd place - Charlie
Reception: 1st place - Charlie, 2nd place - Millie, 3rd place - Charlie
Congratulations to all the winners!
Dear Hitherfield families,
We know that you’ve had a lot of home learning to do recently, but would love you to do this task so that we can use it for our individual ‘door displays’.
We are expecting all of the children to have a go at this; although the youngest may need more support than the older ones!
- Talk with your children about the Hitherfield Learning Dispositions: being collaborative, creative, curious, resilient, risk-taking and reflective.
- Discuss which disposition is their strength…how do they meet the learning challenges they face? Are they great collaborators like ants, creative like spiders, curious like dolphins, resilient like rhinos, risk-taking like ibexes or reflective like owls? Write this down in their home learning books so that the children remember or use the Seesaw and Tapestry journals to make a voice recording or a film to show what they think.
- Discuss which disposition your child needs to be better at and why it would help them to do so. Make a record of this as well.
It is really important that you complete this task before the children get back to school on Tuesday 20th of April because they will be using their reflections for a writing project starting that week!
Good news card
Congratulations to these children who have really impressed their Teachers this week.
| YEAR 1 | YEAR 2 | YEAR 3 |
|-----------------|-----------------|-----------------|
| COBRA | SUNBIRD | DUGONG |
| Levi, Khallah, Arthur & Alba | Felix, Gilbert, Tilly & Lola | Rafi, Bachir, Beth & Alexandra |
| MANATEE | MONGOOSE | HUMMINGBIRD |
| Caleb, Oren, Javier & Amelia G | Mourell, April, Za'Leeyah & Jack | Shanel, Lyamna, Javaun and Amelia |
| JAGUAR | MACAW | ANACONDA |
| Skye, Riley, Juliet & Shani | Naby, Ahmed & Huey | Tim, Zoe, Trequan and Aminata |
| YEAR 4 | YEAR 5 | YEAR 6 |
|-----------------|-----------------|-----------------|
| HIPPOPOTAMUS | FLAMINGO | CHEETAH |
| Stanley, Ja-Yeon, Nia | Otto, Jamelia & Emile | Rafaela, Noah & Verity |
| KINGFISHER | HEDGEHOG | OTTER |
| Castley, Seren, Lily & Jeremiah | Shiloh, Florence, Karanveer & Brooklyn | Syrine, Hooman, Gabby & Asmahan |
| ORCA | PUFFIN | WOLVERINE |
| Tawanda, Nicolas, Orla, Emilia, Nicole, Amber & Michelle | Nadah, Max & Ramel | Conor, Devonte & Millie |
Help When Isolating
Lambeth Council has today launched a comprehensive Covid-19 self-isolation support service, including payments of up to £500 for residents on low incomes who are told to stay at home.
The support package will use the council’s local expertise to ensure residents are supported financially as well as working with Age UK Lambeth to deliver practical advice and support.
The £500 payment scheme is aimed at filling gaps in the government’s existing Test and Trace Support Payment that may exclude some Lambeth residents due to the strict eligibility requirements.
Payment is also available to parents or guardians of children who cannot attend school or nursery due to staff shortages as well as carers for those with learning difficulties.
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Welcome to Year 6’s sensational blog!
This week was money week therefore, we did some activities all about money. Firstly, we talked about digital money and cryptocurrency (Bitcoin), which are online money. After that, we created our own cryptocurrencies; then we worked in our table groups and created our own digital money system, our group’s money system was called ‘Crystal Currency’. To create our own digital money system, we first agreed on a suitable and unique name for our money system and then planned out the format of our money system in our books.
In History, we have been exploring steam trains. We made timelines on the evolution of steam locomotives. Did you know that Thomas Savery made one of the first ever steam engines in 1698? Adding onto this, we did some comprehension questions and described one of four famous steam trains (Mallard, Evening Star, Rocket and Flying Scotsman) in detail. Alongside this, we drew an image of a steam locomotive we looked at previously. Now, we are going to write a newspaper report on one of the four famous steam trains.
In Music we received our roles for the end of year school play and went through our lines.
In Spanish, we took part in a Spanish fair which took place on Monday in the school playground. We did this so we could afford to go to a Spanish restaurant as a whole class. We raised a total of about £40. Thank you for reading our blog. By Mojtaba and Mark 😊
Welcome to Year 5’s mind-blowing blog!
In English, we were looking at poems about the sea. We highlighted the metaphors and personification. Personification is when we give an object a human qualities or abilities. E.g. “the sea is snoring at the cave like a dog.” We then answered questions about the poem like “Why do you think the poet made the poem? What image has it made in your mind etc.
In Geography, we learned about rivers and the water cycle. We drew a diagram about a river cycle in many locations. It starts off as a source and then it goes to the midstream. Rivers normally end up in the ocean or the sea. River banks protect the land from floods which happen when the bank bursts. A curving river is called a meandering river, like the Thames in London. Rivers are always freshwater which means if you want to drink water and you are in a forest with just a river, a river is the safest option to drink water.
In RE, we are learning about the faith in our community like Earls Court is made up of 57.1% Christian and 9.4% Muslim. England is 71% Christian and 31% Muslim.
In Spanish, we played Spanish memory games where we had to match the colours with the names. We played a memory game with numbers like 10 and we matched it with the word in Spanish. We also had a 2 minute timer for each game.
At the St Thomas school foot ball tournament our football team won four points by playing against St Thomas, St Francis and St Mary’s School. By Lymar and Cole
Gabriel YN “We mixed colours to make a new one. Red and yellow to make orange. Blue and green to make purple and blue and yellow to make green.”
Sophia YR “I painted a pirate portrait. He is going to hunt for a treasure.”
Rayan Y1 “In English we have been changing the setting of the story. We changed where Max went, In My story he went to the Amazon rain forest and watched ants.”
Mesbah Y2 “In Maths we are learning block pictograms. We used them to sort items. They are similar to tally charts.”
Year 4’s Blog
Welcome to Year 4’s dazzling blog!
In Maths we learnt about money. We learnt how to solve word problems and found out how to add and estimate the change. Yesterday we figured out word problems. We also used number cards to many combinations that are less than 5 pounds but more than 3 pounds E.g. 3.24 pounds and 4.24 pounds. Last week we did part whole models and bar models to add and subtract.
In Art we learnt about sculptures. We explored the lives and works of famous sculptors such as: Augusta Savage, Henry Spencer Moore and Sir Anish Kapoor. Augusta Savage was born in 1892 and died in 1962. Henry Spencer Moore was born in 1898 and died 1986 and Sir Anish Kapoor was born in 1954, he made Cloud Gate/ Bean that is the centrepiece of AT&T Plaza at Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. Augusta Savage was an American sculptor. She retired in the 1940s.
In RE we learnt about liturgy. Today we stuck in pictures and also wrote their definitions E.g. a sanctuary is the raised area of the church. It is holy and special where the word of God is read out loud. After we were given pictures and put them in order. We also wrote down the names of what happened first and after in chronological order.
In English we learnt about an American woman called Rosa Park, who refused to get up her seat for a white person in 1943. She got arrested. This led to black people boycotting all the bus rides. And eventually it caused the law being changed. We are going to do a Big Write on the story.
In Music we were preparing our song for our graduation. By Sobhan and Ashley
HEADTEACHER’S LETTER
Dear St Cuthbert children and parents,
The much-awaited summer sunshine continues to shine upon us, but given we have waited so long for these sunny days, we are not complaining (too much)!
Taking a look at our Good Samaritan list this week, I have had to check my stock of rosettes. Fortunately, good news.
During class worship this week, we had a whole-school focus on one of the words in our school vision: thoughtfulness.
And just for those who are not too certain, here is our vision as a reminder…
‘As a school community we are inspired by the parable of the Good Samaritan from the Bible (Luke 10:25-37), where we are encouraged to love one another courageously and with compassion. Through friendship, kindness and thoughtfulness, we will nurture each other to learn and flourish as individuals.’
Loving one another. Learning for our future.
Incredibly, our deep thoughtfulness has revealed a multiple of amazing actions taking place daily that support others and inspire us to keep up the excellent Good Samaritan works. We hope you will spot these in our Good Samaritan list in today’s newsletter…
As an example, one tiny and lucky ladybird has benefitted from an act of thoughtfulness in school this week. Thank you Nahom!
We head a little further afield for our next news snippet. A warm thank you to all at Leighton House for hosting our Y1 children to an amazing afternoon of geometry and music last Friday (which included a picnic lunch in the garden)! The children were immensely proud of their geometric designs, and thoroughly enjoyed their introduction to the beautiful music of a Qanun. Leighton house has been shortlisted as one of 5 finalists for the Art Fund Museum of the Year prize and we felt very honoured to be part of their special day as they hosted special visitors onsite. Thank you!
And finally, a beautifully scented rose garden came to visit me this week. Well done Theo (Y1) on creating such a wonderfully detailed project following your visit to Queen Mary’s Rose garden in Regents Park.
We wish you a restful weekend ahead!
With best wishes, Miss Putterill and the St Cuthbert Teaching Team
Year 3’s Blog
Welcome to Year 3’s amazing blog!
In Maths we have been learning about pence and pounds. We were able to change from an amount. We also used 100 times table to convert from pound to pence and vice versa. Then we made our own shop and went into groups to buy and sell items. Finally we wrote down all our transactions.
In English we are learning to use subordinating conjunctions. They are conjunctions words that connect two clauses at the end of a sentence. E.g. The Queen’s crown was pretty before it got dirty. We then underlined the subordinating conjunctions, such as: because, when, while, although and as.
In RE we have been exploring the meaning of Jesus being ‘the light of the world’. We looked at a paint of Jesus holding a lamp and knocking at someone’s door. He also had a halo. We then wrote a text describing the picture. We talked about the two light sources. The halo represents salvation and the lantern represents Jesus being the light of the world.
In History we are investigating how to protect the rainforest. We watched a video that shows people cutting trees to make space for growing crops. Unfortunately that animals in the rainforest won’t have a place to live. They also used to kill Rhinos and elephants for their horns. By Lalo and Sarah
Joana Y1
“In Maths we have been learning about money. We recognize coins and notes. We have 8 coins and 4 notes.”
Elion Y2
“In Re we have been learning about baptism. The priest in the church baptise a bay by washing the babies head.”
We designed our own £1 coin. Aisha did a Jellyfish and the ocean on the front and Ezare did an image of King Charles III.
Good Samaritans
This week our Good Samaritans are Yafet (YR), for picking up a plastic bottle in the playground and putting it in the bin. Sonia (Y2), for selling lemonade and popcorn in the park to raise money a hospital and a charity. Nahom (Y5), for saving a ladybird from being hurt. Anna (Y6), for helping take the cones in from the road a the end of the day.
Notice to Parents
Here are some key dates for your diary - Sports morning Holland Park field 5th July. Summer Fair 3pm-4.30 Thursday 6th July. Talent Show: 14th July EYFS, KS1 9.30am/ KS2 2pm. Parents welcome.
Music Maestros of the week:
Neimah (Y3) for being sensible and excited about the upcoming talent show.
Lewis (Y4) for excellent understanding of harmony.
STAR LEARNERS OF THE WEEK
Congratulations to you all!
YR Carl For using his words to speak with others.
YR Jacob For being able to name several differences about the past and present.
Y1 Jani For flourishing in class worship and being thoughtful.
Y2 Christian For always engaging in class discussions and being eager to express his thoughts.
Y4 Mark For speaking very confidently about difference between urban and rural life.
Y5 Nahom For pushing himself in English and flourishing in his independent work as a result!
Y6 Judah For a more thoughtful participations and mature attitude.
YN Nourah For working so hard with her toilet training.
YR Anabia For consistently striving for excellence in all pieces of homework.
Y1 Theo For creating a detailed project.
Y3 Lalo For consentient effort with his phonics homework.
Y2 Christina Always going the extra mile for her homework task.
Y4 Hannah For completing research about rural life to a high standard.
Y5 Abdul For creating a well researched and detailed project on rhinos.
Y6 Alfarouk For producing amazing facts on the history of the under ground.
There will be exciting prizes, for the right answer to this week’s puzzle handed in on Thursday. Please write your name and answer on a separate piece of paper. Good luck!
Puzzle time
Amazon Rainforest Animals
Word Search
AGOUTI
ALLIGATOR
ANACONDA
ARMADILLO
BINTURONG
BOA CONstrictor
BONOBO
CAIMAN
CAPYBARA
COCKATOO
CUCKOO
ELECTRIC EEL
GECKO
GIANT ANTEATER
GORILLA
HOWLER MONKEY
IGUANA
JAGUAR
MACAW
PIRANHA
POISON DART FROG
RIVER DOLPHIN
SLOTH
TAMARIN
TAPIR
TOUCAN
TREE FROG
ALGAE
BARRACUDA
BASS
BIVALVE
CLAM
COD
CONCH
CORAL
CRAB
DIATOMS
EEL
KELP
KRILL
MACKEREL
MANATEE
OCEAN
OCTOPUS
ORCA
OTTER
RAY
REEF
SEAL
SHAD
SHARK
SHIMP
SNAKE
SQUID
TUNA
DIRECTIONS: Find all of the vocabulary words in the grid. Look for them in all directions including backwards and diagonally.
DIRECTIONS: Find all of the vocabulary words in the grid. For them in all directions including backwards and diagonally.
Well Done
Nahom (Y5) for getting the right answer for last week’s puzzle.
Under the Sea
Word Search
DID YOU KNOW?
The Amazon rainforest is home to over 2.5 million insect species and tens of thousands of other animals, including monkeys, jaguars, sloths, and pink river dolphins. | 9a834041-b8d6-4f7e-805d-78b6570b664f | CC-MAIN-2024-33 | https://www.scwsm.rbkc.sch.uk/_site/data/files/documents/newsletters/2022-23/9AC9F22E9DC3F45F445C56E549A41DB9.pdf | 2024-08-15T19:18:21+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-33/segments/1722641311225.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20240815173031-20240815203031-00506.warc.gz | 747,230,415 | 2,791 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996749 | eng_Latn | 0.998425 | [
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Year 6 Summer 2 Home Learning
We would like you to complete as many of these home learning tasks as you can before the end of half term. When you bring in your home learning, your achievements will be celebrated. Please see the box near the bottom to see how we will do this.
| English | Maths | Other Subjects |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Write a play script based on a scene from ‘Goodnight Mr Tom’. Remember to include stage directions. | Select a question to ask people around you. Collect the information on a table and represent your findings using a pie chart. | Science: Create a video which explains how our eyes are able to see. |
| Create a character description to include all the things you now know about William. You can choose how to present this. | Select five 3D shapes and draw their nets. Think carefully about the shapes you can see and their positions. | Geography: Use Google Earth or other virtual tour websites to explore a location of your choice. |
| Using APFOREST devices, create a poem based on how William might feel about leaving Little Weirwold. | Find five acute, right, obtuse and reflex angles around your home and present them on a table. | History: Design a virtual museum presenting artefacts, photos and information about different aspects of WWII. |
| Write a speech to your future secondary English teacher, explaining what knowledge you’re most proud of in English. | Write out your 6, 9 and 12 times tables and known division facts and practise them daily until you know them. | PSHE: Create a poster for younger children, explaining what they could do if they feel upset (e.g. speaking about how they feel). |
| Research the use of tenses then create a poster to explain how to use them. Tip: There are 12 different types of tenses – not just past, present and future! | Create a poster to help others remember the total angles of different regular polygons (e.g. triangles = 180°). | Art: Create a sculpture to represent how you feel about going to secondary school. |
How we will celebrate your home learning achievements
Some of the ways in which we recognise home learning achievements are:
- Through classroom display
- Published in the newsletter
- By gaining home learning bingo stamps - a minute per line!
Websites to support pupils’ learning
MyOn for your reading
Times Tables Rockstars for your times tables
Sumdog for your Maths
Purple Mash for games and other subjects.
SATS Companion
Reminders
Children are expected to read every day for 15 mins.
Practise your weekly spellings on Spelling Shed.
Bring your AR reading book every day.
Use your CGP revision guides to practise | e5797627-38e3-4f29-a6a4-4903ff55f02a | CC-MAIN-2024-33 | https://welbourne.haringey.sch.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Year-6-Summer-2-Home-Learning-Menu.pdf | 2024-08-07T19:33:06+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-33/segments/1722640707024.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20240807174317-20240807204317-00426.warc.gz | 480,437,415 | 572 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.999277 | eng_Latn | 0.999277 | [
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ULTIMATE FOOTBALL HEROES
KANE
FROM THE PLAYGROUND TO THE PITCH
Thursday, 5 October 2017
In the Wembley tunnel, Harry closed his eyes and soaked up the amazing atmosphere. He was back at the home of football, the stadium where he had first achieved his childhood dream of playing for England. 19 March 2015, England vs Lithuania – he remembered that game like it was yesterday. He had scored that day and now, with England facing Slovenia, he needed to do it again. As England’s captain and Number 9, it was his job to shoot them to the 2018 World Cup.
‘Come on, lads!’ Harry called out to his teammates behind him: friends like Joe Hart, Kyle Walker and...
Eric Dier. It was a real honour to be their leader. With a victory over Slovenia, they would all be on their way to the biggest tournament of their lives in Russia.
Harry looked down at the young mascot by his side and smiled at him. ‘Right, let’s do this!’
As the two of them led the England team out onto the pitch, the fans clapped and cheered. Harry didn’t look up at the thousands of faces and flags; instead, he looked down at the grass in front of him. He was totally focused on his task: scoring goals and beating Slovenia.
‘If you get a chance, test the keeper,’ Harry said to his partners in attack, Raheem Sterling and Marcus Rashford, before kick-off. ‘I’ll be there for the rebound!’
Harry’s new Premiership season with Tottenham Hotspur had not begun well in August, but by September he was back to his lethal best. That month alone, he scored an incredible thirteen goals, including two goals for England against Malta. He could score every type of goal – tap-ins, headers, oneon-ones, long-range shots, penalties, even free kicks. That’s what made him such a dangerous striker.
With Slovenia defending well, Harry didn’t get many chances in the first half. He got in good positions but the final ball never arrived.
‘There’s no need to panic yet,’ Harry told his teammates in the dressing room. He really didn’t want a repeat of England’s terrible performance against Iceland at Euro 2016. That match still haunted him. ‘We’re good enough to win this by playing our natural game. Be patient!’
As Ryan Bertrand dribbled down the left wing, Harry sprinted towards the six-yard box. Ryan’s cross didn’t reach him but the ball fell to Raheem instead. His shot was going in until a defender deflected it wide.
‘Unlucky!’ Harry shouted, putting his hands on his head. ‘Keep going, we’re going to score!’
Without this kind of strong self-belief, Harry would never have made it to the top of European football. There had been lots of setbacks along the way: rejections, disappointments and bad form. But
every time, Harry bounced back with crucial goals at crucial moments. That’s what made him such a superstar.
A matter of seconds later, a rebound fell to him on the edge of the penalty area. Surely, this was his moment. He pulled back his left foot and curled a powerful shot towards the bottom corner. The fans were already up on their feet, ready to celebrate. Harry never missed… but this time he did. The ball flew just wide of the post. Harry couldn’t believe it. He looked up at the sky and sighed.
On the sideline, England manager Gareth Southgate cheered his team on. ‘That’s much better – the goal is coming, lads!’
But after ninety minutes, the goal still hadn’t come. The fourth official raised his board: eight minutes of injury time.
‘It’s not over yet, boys!’ Harry shouted, to inspire his teammates.
The Slovenian goalkeeper tried to throw the ball out to his left-back but Kyle got there first. Straight away, Harry was on the move from the back post
It was yet another moment that Harry would never forget. Against the odds, he was making his childhood dreams come true. He was the star striker for Tottenham, the club that he had supported all his life. And now, like his hero David Beckham, he was the captain of England.
Harry had never given up, even when it looked like he wouldn’t make it as a professional footballer. With the support of his family and his coaches, and lots of hard work and dedication, he had proved everyone wrong to become a world-class goal machine.
It had been an incredible journey from Walthamstow to Wembley, and Harry was only just getting started.
‘Mum!’ Charlie shouted, stamping his feet.
Kim sighed and put her magazine down. ‘What’s happened now?’
‘I spent ages building a Lego tower and Harry just kicked it over,’ her older son answered. ‘That was my tower!’
‘I’m sorry, darling, but I’m sure Harry didn’t mean it. Your brother doesn’t know what he’s doing with his little feet yet.’
Harry was nearly two years old and he was always on the move around their house in Walthamstow, North London. He had a few bumps on his head but it was his legs that caused the most trouble. Everywhere he went, they never stopped kicking.
Kim wasn’t surprised, though.
‘Do you remember before your brother was born when he was still in my tummy?’ she asked Charlie as she lifted Harry up onto the sofa. Charlie didn’t reply; he was busy building a new tower. ‘He was always kicking, even back then, wasn’t he? I didn’t get a good night’s sleep for months!’
Kim held Harry up in the air to give his legs room to swing. ‘No, you don’t like letting me sleep, do you?’ He smiled and wiggled his hands and feet. ‘I knew you’d be a boy; there was no doubt about that. I told your Daddy that you were going to be sporty and do you know what he said? He said, “Great, he’ll play for TOTTENHAM!”’
Harry’s smile grew wider when he heard the name of their local football club. It was a word that his dad, Pat, said so often that it had become his favourite word. The Kane family lived only five miles away from Tottenham’s stadium, White Hart Lane.
‘Wow, you really love that idea, don’t you!’ Kim laughed. ‘Well, your Grandad Eric was a good footballer in his day. Maybe you’ll get his talent,
rather than your Dad’s. Bless him, he always says that bad injuries ruined his career but I think it was his bad first touch!’
It was a bright, sunny afternoon and so Kim took her two sons out to the local park. Hopefully, after a few hours of open space and fresh air, Charlie and Harry would sleep well that night, and so would their mum. Once they found a shady spot on the grass, Kim lay down the picnic rug and lifted Harry out of the pushchair.
‘Charlie, you’ve got to stay where I can see you!’ she called out as he chased after a squirrel.
After doing a few laps of the rug, Harry sat down and looked around him. He saw leaves and twigs and insects. He saw huge trees above him and patches of blue sky in between. Then his eyes fixed on the exciting scene in front of him. A group of kids were playing football with jumpers for goalposts. That looked like fun. He stood up and went over to explore.
‘Harry, stop!’ Kim shouted. She chased after her son and scooped him up just before he reached the other kids’ football game. In her arms, Harry kept
watching and his legs kept moving. He was desperate to kick the ball.
‘Not today, darling,’ his mum said, giving him a kiss on the cheek. ‘But soon, I promise!’
*
‘So, how was your day?’ Pat asked, as they all ate dinner together. After a long day’s work at the garage, he loved to come home to his happy family.
Charlie could now feed himself like a grown-up but Harry still needed a high chair and some help. Even with Pat holding the spoon, Harry got strawberry yoghurt all over his hands and face.
‘I built an awesome tower but Harry broke it with his silly little feet,’ Charlie told his dad. He was looking for sympathy, but Pat had other ideas.
‘Good, your brother’s getting ready for his big Tottenham career! Football runs in the family, you know. Just ask your Grandad – I was one of Ireland’s best young players but sadly…’
Kim rolled her eyes. Not again! She decided not to mention Harry’s kicking in the park. It would only get her husband’s hopes up even more.
Normally, Harry celebrated with the Klinsmann dive but his Spurs shirt was white and he couldn’t make his White Hart Lane debut wearing a muddy shirt! So instead, he jumped up and pumped his fist. He could tell that it was going to be a very good day.
After lunch, it was finally time for them to leave.
‘Have you got your hats?’ Kim asked at the front door.
Harry nodded.
‘Gloves?’
Harry nodded.
‘Good, stay close to your dad and have a great time!’
They were off! Harry couldn’t wait to get to White Hart Lane. On the bus, he imagined the people, the noise, the goals. As they crossed through the Walthamstow reservoirs, Charlie had a thought.
‘Dad, have you got the tickets?’
There was panic on Pat’s face as he checked all of his pockets, once and then twice. ‘Oh dear,’ he muttered.
Harry’s face dropped with disappointment. How had his dad forgotten the tickets? Why hadn’t he checked before they left?
Suddenly, a smile spread across Pat’s face, and he held up the tickets. ‘Just kidding!’ he cheered.
‘Dad, don’t scare us like that!’ Harry shouted. He didn’t find the joke funny at all.
When they got off the bus, the stadium was right there in front of them. Harry stood there looking up, his mouth wide open. It was even bigger than he’d expected.
‘Come on, let’s go in and find our seats!’ his dad said. ‘Don’t let go of my hand, okay? If you get lost, Mum won’t ever let us come back.’
Harry held on tightly as they moved through the crowds towards the turnstile, on their way to their seats. There were so many people everywhere and so much to see and hear.
‘Get today’s match programme here!’ the sellers shouted.
Some Tottenham fans talked about their players in between bites of burgers and hot dogs. Other
Tottenham fans were already singing songs even before they entered the stadium. It was all so exciting.
Once they were through the turnstile, Harry could see a square of green in the distance. His eyes lit up – the pitch! As they got closer, he couldn’t believe the size of it. How did the players keep running from box to box for ninety minutes? It looked impossible.
‘Look, there’s Ginola!’ Charlie shouted, pointing down at the players warming up. ‘And there’s Klinsmann!’
Harry stood up on his seat to get a better view. He was in the same stadium as his heroes; it didn’t get any better than that.
*Tottenham, Tottenham!*
As the players ran out of the tunnel for the start of the game, the noise grew even louder. Spurs needed a win to stay out of the relegation zone. After a few minutes, Ginola got the ball on the left wing.
‘Come on!’ the Tottenham fans cheered, rising to their feet.
Ginola curled a brilliant cross into the penalty area. Harry held his breath as Klinsmann stretched to reach it…
What a start! Harry and Charlie jumped up and down together, cheering for their heroes.
The rest of the match was very tense but Tottenham held on for the victory. By the final whistle, Harry was exhausted but very happy. He was already looking forward to his next trip to White Hart Lane.
‘So, who was man of the match?’ Pat asked his sons on the bus home.
‘Ginola!’ Charlie replied.
‘Klinsmann!’ Harry replied.
Their dad shook his head. ‘If we ever keep a clean sheet, it’s always the goalkeeper!’
ULTIMATE FOOTBALL HEROES
MESSI
FROM THE PLAYGROUND TO THE PITCH
‘Hey, how’s it going?’ Lionel said, giving his fellow Argentinian Carlos Tevez a big hug as they waited in the tunnel.
Lionel was about to play in the 2014–15 Champions League final but he wasn’t nervous at all. It was the third time he had played in the final with Barcelona and he had won both times before. He was a born winner and he was the best player in the world. So he felt very confident as he walked out on to the pitch at the Olympiastadion in Berlin to face Italian giants Juventus.
Lionel looked up into the stands and saw the huge wall of red and blue, or ‘azulgrana’ as they called it
in Spanish – the colours representing Barcelona, one of the world’s biggest clubs and Lionel’s home since the age of thirteen. He had played in some amazing Barcelona teams but this was perhaps the best team of all. They had already won the Spanish League and the Spanish Cup – now could they win the Champions League to make it an incredible Treble?
‘Yes we can!’ they cheered together.
Lionel’s old friends Gerard Piqué and Javier Mascherano were the rocks in defence, Andrés Iniesta and Xavi controlled the midfield, while ‘MSN’ scored the goals up front. That’s what the media were calling the world’s best ever strikeforce – Lionel Messi, the Uruguayan Luis Suárez, and the Brazilian Neymar. Together, they had scored 120 goals already, with one big game left to play.
‘Come on!’ Lionel shouted as they waited for kickoff. When he was younger, he was too shy to speak to his teammates but he was twenty-seven now and one of their leaders.
Within four minutes, Neymar passed to Andrés, who passed to Ivan Rakitić, who scored. Barcelona
were 1-0 up. They made everything look so easy with their quick, passing football, and Lionel hadn’t even been involved – but he knew how important teamwork was.
‘Great work!’ he shouted to Ivan. Even he couldn’t do everything on his own.
Playing just behind Neymar and Luis, Lionel kept searching for the space to work his magic. He was known as The Flea, buzzing around everywhere and terrorising his opponents. With his close control, quick feet and footballing brain, he only ever needed one second. Especially in his favourite spot: just outside the penalty area on the right side, he could dribble with his amazing left foot. Lionel loved scoring goals but he loved creating goals too – there was nothing he couldn’t do.
Barcelona were playing well but in the second half, Juventus equalised. Just when his team needed him most, Lionel came alive. He passed to Neymar, who flicked it back to Lionel, who passed to Luis, who passed back to Lionel. His shot went wide but ‘MSN’ were looking dangerous.
‘If we keep this up, we’ll score again!’ Lionel told the others.
Minutes later, he dribbled forward again. The defender tried to tackle him but Lionel was too quick and too skilful. When he grabbed his shirt, Lionel shrugged him off. He wasn’t the biggest footballer but he had worked hard to build up his strength.
As Lionel flew towards goal, Neymar made a run to make space for him. On the edge of the penalty area, Lionel decided to shoot. The ball flew straight at the goalkeeper but it swerved and dipped and he couldn’t hold on to it. Luis sprinted towards the ball and smashed it into the net. 2-1!
As Luis jumped the advertising board, Lionel and Neymar were right behind him. It was yet another ‘MSN’ goal and Barcelona were one step closer to another Champions League trophy.
‘There’s plenty of time to score another!’ Neymar said with a big smile on his face. Their favourite form of defence was attack.
In injury time, a clearance fell to Lionel. He looked up and saw his Brazilian teammate sprinting forward.
Stretching out his leg, he played a perfect through-ball. Neymar and Luis had a two-on-one against the Juventus centre-back. Neymar passed to Luis and as the defender moved across, Luis passed it back to Neymar. His shot rocketed into the bottom corner. 3-1! Barcelona were the Champions of Europe.
At the final whistle, Lionel hugged Andrés and Xavi. Together, they had conquered the football world again. He was so grateful to his amazing teammates. Their clever passes always arrived at his feet, no matter where he was on the pitch.
‘After my injuries last year, some people thought that my best days were over,’ Lionel said. ‘They were so wrong!’
In the 2014/15 season he had helped Barcelona win the Treble with 58 goals and 25 assists in only 57 games. He was very proud of his return to form.
As Xavi lifted the trophy into the air, Lionel was right at the centre of the celebrations. He hadn’t scored a goal in the final this time round, but he had still played a very important role.
‘Thiago!’ Lionel called to his three-year-old son,
who was wearing a Barcelona shirt with ‘10 MESSI’ on the back. He kissed his girlfriend Antonella and carried Thiago around the pitch to wave to the fans. His little family meant the world to him.
‘Look, there’s your Grandpa and Grandma!’ Lionel said to Thiago, pointing to Jorge and Celia in the crowd.
Without the love and support of his parents, Lionel wouldn’t have made the brave move from Argentina to Spain to chase his dream of playing professional football. He had arrived at Barcelona as a tiny teenager with amazing natural talent but some of his coaches had their doubts. Did he really have the strength and desire to make it to the very top?
Nearly fifteen years later, the answer was there in Lionel’s trophy cabinet: seven La Liga titles, four Champions League trophies, four FIFA Ballon d’Or trophies and one Olympic Gold Medal. He was the best player in the world but The Flea had plenty more magic up his sleeve.
Jorge’s Dream
Jorge Messi stood on his doorstep and slowly rocked his newborn son in his arms. It was a warm, sunny afternoon in Argentina and Jorge had stories to share with him.
‘Welcome to La Bajada, Lionel,’ he said quietly. ‘This will always be your home. You’ll love it here – it’s a nice and peaceful community. The people are very friendly and the kids play freely in the streets. Plus, all of your family live nearby: your grandparents, your aunts and uncles, and your cousins too.
‘I built this house myself with my father – your grandfather, Eusebio. He worked as a builder and he taught me all of his skills. The house is nothing special
but it will do for now, until your brothers Rodrigo and Matías want their own bedrooms, and then so will you!
‘What else shall I tell you? Your great-grandparents came to Argentina from Italy and Spain a long time ago. So our culture is a real mix of Europe and South America. And luckily for you, your grandmother Celia makes the best pasta dishes in the world!
‘Just before you were born, we nearly moved to Australia. There are lots of good jobs there but in the end, we couldn’t bear to leave our family behind. It’s strange to think that you might have grown up speaking English as well as Spanish, and you might have become a surfer or a cricketer! But don’t worry, you’re an Argentinian and so you will be a footballer instead.
‘As you’ll soon find out, this whole country is football-mad. When Diego Maradona lifted the World Cup for Argentina last summer, the party went on for weeks! And Rosario is a particularly special place. So many great Argentinian footballers have come from this city. Maybe you will be the next!’
Celia tiptoed into the room. ‘Is he asleep yet?’ she whispered.
Jorge nodded and gave a big thumbs-up. When his wife left the room, he continued.
‘Let me tell you the story about your name. I’m sure you’ll hear it many times during your life! Your mum loved “Leonel” with two “e”s and I liked it too. But as I went to register your name, I thought about how people would shorten it. I really don’t like “Leo” – don’t ask me to explain why!
‘So I asked for a list of other names and I found the English spelling – “Lionel”, with an “i” instead of an “e”. “Lio” – that sounds much better to me. When I got home and told her, your mum was so angry with me! I don’t think she’ll let me make a decision like that ever again. But soon she’ll love your name just as much as me. It’s a special name for a special boy. Now let’s get back to football. I’m afraid you won’t have a choice about what team you support – our family are all “Lepers”, fans of the best local team, Newell’s Old Boys. When I was younger, I played for their youth team. I was a pretty good central midfielder but then I had to go away for military service and when I returned, I married your mum
and then Rodrigo and Matías were born. I didn’t have time to play at a high level anymore – I needed to earn money to feed my growing family.
‘So I got a good job as a factory manager but I still play football every now and again. Soon, you’ll come and watch me play and hopefully you’ll be proud of your dad. One of you will play for Newell’s Old Boys – I’m sure of it! That was my dream and now I’m passing it on to my sons.’
Jorge pointed across the road to a small grassy area.
‘For the first few years, that will be your stadium. You’ll have your first football battles there with your brothers and your friends. You’ll get your first cuts and bruises and you’ll score your first goals. Then, you’ll move on to the youth football pitches at Newell’s and when you’re ready, you’ll make your debut at their stadium, El Coloso del Parque. You’ll become a local legend – no pressure!
‘There is no better feeling in the world than hearing thousands of fans chanting your name. Everyone wants to be a hero. If you work hard, you can achieve any goals. But first, get some sleep!’
When he was nine months old, Lionel took his first, wobbly steps.
‘That’s it, steady now!’ Celia cheered as she waited to catch him if he fell.
Lionel giggled and moved his little legs faster. He was free!
Once he was a confident walker, the family had to keep a very close eye on him. In La Bajada, people always left their front doors open and one day, he walked right out into the street.
‘Lionel, stop!’ Jorge shouted as he chased after him. ‘It’s dangerous!’
There wasn’t usually much traffic in the
neighbourhood but as Lionel stepped out, a boy rushed past on a bicycle and knocked him over. After the shock of the fall, he cried and cried.
‘You’re safe, son,’ Jorge kept saying, hugging Lionel tight. ‘You gave us quite a scare there. Please promise me you won’t do that again!’
On his first birthday, Lionel got his first Newell’s Old Boys kit. It was so big for him that it looked like a dress.
‘You’re a proper fan now!’ Jorge told him with a big smile on his face. They took photos for the family collection.
Lionel wore the red-and-black shirt every day and he became upset when it had to be washed. Jorge was delighted to see his son’s growing interest in football.
‘He’ll be playing with Rodrigo and Matías in no time!’ Jorge told his wife excitedly.
‘Maybe that will tire him out a bit,’ Celia replied with a sigh. ‘He never stops running around at the moment.’
When his brothers went out to play, Lionel
followed behind with his grandmother. He loved watching football but he really wanted to be playing. That was the next step.
On his third birthday, Lionel got the best present ever – a brand new football.
‘Amazing, thanks!’ he shouted out, giving his parents big hugs. ‘It’s beautiful!’
‘And it’s about as big as you!’ Rodrigo joked. It was a size 5 and Lionel could barely hold it in his little hands.
‘Come on, let’s go and have a kickabout!’ Jorge cheered and they all crossed the road to play.
The ball came up above Lionel’s knee but he controlled it well and, with light touches, he dribbled towards goal. There was a very serious look on his face as he kicked it with all his power. Jorge was always going to let it in but the ball went right in the corner.
‘Wow, you’re a natural!’ Matías cheered as they lifted Lionel up into the air to celebrate his first goal.
The ball went everywhere with Lionel: sometimes in his arms but usually at his feet. He even slept with
it in his bed. His brothers liked to tease him – ‘How’s your best friend?’ – but he didn’t care. He was getting better and better.
When Lionel turned four, his mum finally let him go and play with his brothers in their local matches. ‘Look after him!’ Celia shouted to Rodrigo and Matías as they rushed out of the house.
From the window of their house, she kept an eye on her youngest son but she didn’t need to worry. Lionel ran and ran, snapping at defenders’ heels like an excited puppy. When he got the ball, he kept it simple with neat passes to his new teammates. He didn’t want them to think he was a show-off.
‘You’re doing well! Now try one of your dribbles,’ Matías suggested.
Lionel waited patiently until he spotted a gap in the defence. Then with a burst of speed, he dribbled between two defenders and passed it to his teammate Javier to score.
‘Great work, Titch!’ Javier laughed. Lionel didn’t really like his new nickname but it was nice to have one. It added to his growing confidence on the pitch.
Lionel was much smaller and younger than his opponents but they still couldn’t get the ball off him. It was as if it was glued to his foot. Eventually, they got frustrated and kicked him.
Owwwwww!
If it was really painful, Lionel did sometimes cry but he always got back up and carried on.
‘How’s the ankle?’ Rodrigo asked him. He was following his mum’s orders. ‘Do you want to rest it for a bit?
Lionel shook his head. ‘No, it’s fine. I want to win!’
He loved the challenge of playing against older kids, but playing with his own friends was fun too. He didn’t need to worry so much about getting hurt and it was nice to escape from his brothers for a bit. The pitch became a magical space for their fun football adventures.
‘What shall we play today?’ Lionel asked the other players. ‘A penalty shoot-out? World Cup Doubles? Three versus three?’
‘How about the five of us versus you?!’ Walter suggested with a big grin on his face.
‘No, I’d still win!’ Lionel laughed.
‘Not if we tie your feet together!’ Diego argued.
Once they became hungry, most of his friends headed home for dinner but Lionel always stayed behind to practise. His mum didn’t have far to go to find him.
‘I won’t tell you again – the food is getting cold,’ Celia shouted from the doorstep. ‘If you’re not at the table in one minute, I’ll give your dinner to Matías!’
‘Coming!’ Lionel replied.
‘When can I join Grandoli?’ Lionel asked Jorge. If he asked enough times, surely his dad would give in and let him play. That was his big plan.
Grandoli Football Club played their matches at the end of the road that the Messi family lived on. The pitch was poor, with stones and bits of glass in amongst the mud. The teams only played in the evenings because a school used the pitch during the day, and the lighting wasn’t good at all. But at least Grandoli was a proper team with a proper kit. And Rodrigo and Matías already played there.
‘Okay, I’ll take you to training tomorrow,’ Jorge said eventually when his youngest son turned five.
Lionel jumped into the air. His time had come. He couldn’t wait for ‘baby football’, the seven-a-side game that young Argentinians played until they turned eleven. All of his training on the pitch next to his house would finally be put to the test.
‘Thanks Dad, I’m ready for this!’
Salvador Aparicio was the coach of Lionel’s age group, the team all born in 1987. He had seen Lionel at Grandoli before, when the boy had watched his older brothers play, but it was only as he practiced keepy-uppies before training in his massive red-and-white shirt that Salvador realised just how small he was. Most of his new teammates towered over him.
‘The most skilful players are often very small,’ the coach told himself. ‘And he’s got plenty of time to grow!’
Salvador liked his players to have fun, both in training and in matches. It was very important for youngsters to enjoy their football and not get too stressed about fitness and tactics.
‘Right kids – let’s start with a few rondos!’
Rondos were the South American version of piggy
in the middle. It was an entertaining way for the team to improve their control, balance and passing. Lionel was already brilliant at all three, and after fifteen minutes, he still hadn’t made any mistakes.
‘Wow, his touch is incredible!’ Salvador said to one of the other coaches.
In the game at the end of training, Lionel wasn’t a selfish show-off – that wasn’t his style. He had a lot of the ball but he dribbled and passed patiently, waiting for the right opportunity to create a goal. In thirty minutes of football, he didn’t lose possession once and he scored ten goals.
‘That kid’s got a very special gift,’ Salvador told Lionel’s grandmother, Celia. He loved discovering great new talents and this new player was the best he’d ever seen.
‘I know – you can thank us later!’ she replied. ‘Lionel, come on, it’s time to go home now!’
Lionel sighed and dragged himself away from his own shooting exercises. He was the last one left on the pitch but he could have stayed out there for hours. If he didn’t practise, he wouldn’t become perfect.
The team trained three times a week and then played matches every Saturday. It was a lot of football but it was never enough for Lionel. He was always hungry for more. At Las Heras Primary School, he sat in class waiting for the bell to ring. In between each lesson, they had a fifteen-minute break.
‘Come on, let’s go and play!’ he yelled as they all ran to get the football.
Lionel was the best footballer and therefore the leader of the gang. In lessons, he was a quiet boy but with a football at his feet, he was a completely different character. No-one could get it off him as he danced around the playground. At first it was amazing to watch but soon, the other boys got frustrated and sometimes they complained to the teacher.
‘Miss, Titch won’t pass the ball!’
‘What do you want me to do?’ she replied, smiling. ‘I can’t tackle him either!’
On weekdays, Lionel’s grandmother, Celia, picked him up from school, took him home for a biscuit and a glass of juice, and then took him to football. It
was a routine that they both loved and soon Lionel’s younger cousin, Emanuel, joined them too.
‘With you in goal and me in attack, no-one will be able to beat us!’ Lionel said happily.
It was true. The more Lionel played, the better he became, and Grandoli hardly lost a game. Sometimes, he dribbled around the whole team to score. Defenders tried everything to stop him – kicking him, pushing him, elbowing him, and pulling his shirt – but it was no use.
‘Keep going, kid!’ Salvador told Lionel if his head ever dropped. He didn’t have much to teach his superstar. He just encouraged him to play his natural, beautiful game.
With wondergoal after wondergoal, big crowds started to come and watch Lionel play. Sometimes, even his opponents clapped at his skills. People called him ‘the next Maradona’.
Celia was a very proud grandparent as she cheered from the sidelines:
‘Great save, Emanuel!’
‘Referee – that should have been a penalty!’
‘Pass it to Lionel – he’ll score!’
Lionel was only six years old but he took football very seriously. Before every match, he prepared his boots carefully. He washed them with water, and then he cleaned them with a cloth and a brush until they sparkled.
‘You’re not a professional yet!’ Matías joked.
‘No, not yet!’ Lionel replied with a cheeky grin. It was only a matter of time.
ULTIMATE FOOTBALL HEROES
MBAPPE
FROM THE PLAYGROUND TO THE PITCH
On 14 July 2018, Kylian sent a message to his millions of social media followers, from Russia with love: ‘Happy French national day everyone. Let’s hope the party continues until tomorrow night!’
‘Tomorrow night’ – 15 July – the French national team would be playing in the World Cup final at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. It was the most important football match on the planet and Kylian’s country was counting on him.
So far, he hadn’t let them down at all. In fact, Kylian had been France’s speedy superstar, scoring the winning goal against Denmark, and then two more in an amazing man-of-the-match performance
against Argentina. That all made him the nation’s best ‘Number 10’ since Zinedine Zidane back in 1998.
That was the year that France last won the World Cup.
That was also the year that Kylian was born.
Thanks to their new young superstar, ‘Les Bleus’ were now the favourites to lift the famous golden trophy again. They had already beaten Lionel Messi’s Argentina, Luis Suárez’s Uruguay in the quarter-finals, and Eden Hazard’s Belgium in the semi-finals. Now, the only nation standing in their way was Luka Modrić’s Croatia.
‘You’ve done so well to get this far,’ the France manager, Didier Deschamps, told them as kick-off approached and the nerves began to jangle. ‘Now, you just need to go out there and finish off the job!’
A massive ‘Yeah!’ echoed around the room. It was one big team effort, from captain Hugo Lloris in goal through to Kylian, Antoine Griezmann and Olivier Giroud in attack. Everyone worked hard and everyone worked together.
By the way, those jangling nerves didn’t
belong to Kylian. No way, he was the coolest character around! He never let anything faze him. When he was younger, he hadn’t just hoped to play in a World Cup final; he had expected it. It was all part of his killer plan to conquer the football world.
Out on the pitch for the final in Moscow, Kylian sang the words of the French national anthem with a big smile on his face. As a four-year-old, some people had laughed at his ambitious dreams. Well, they definitely weren’t laughing now.
‘Right, let’s do this!’ Paul Pogba clapped and cheered as they took up their positions. His partnership with Kylian would be key for France. Whenever Paul got the ball in midfield, he would look to find his pacy teammate with a perfect pass.
Kylian’s first action of the final, however, was in defence. He rushed back quickly to block a Croatia cross.
‘Well done!’ France’s centre-back Samuel Umtiti shouted.
Once that was done, it was all about attacking.
Even in a World Cup final, Kylian wasn’t afraid to try his tricks and flicks. They didn’t always work but it was worth the risk.
It was an end-to-end first half, full of exciting action. First, Antoine curled in a dangerous free kick and Mario Mandžukić headed the ball into his own net. 1–0 to France! Kylian punched the air – what a start!
Ivan Perišić equalised for Croatia but then he handballed it in his own box. Penalty! Antoine stepped up… and scored – 2–1 to France!
The players were happy to hear the half-time whistle blow. They needed a break to breathe and regroup. Although France were winning, they still had work to do if they wanted to become World Champions again.
‘We need to calm things down and take control of the game,’ Deschamps told his players. ‘Stay smart out there!’
Kylian listened carefully to his manager’s message. He needed to relax and play to his strengths – his skill but also his speed. This was his chance to go
down in World Cup history:
Pelé in 1958,
Diego Maradona in 1986,
Zidane in 1998,
Ronaldo in 2002,
Kylian in 2018?
In the second half, France’s superstars shone much more brightly. Kylian collected Paul’s long pass and sprinted straight past the Croatia centre-back. Was he about to score in his first World Cup final? No, the keeper came out to make a good save.
‘Ohhhh!’ the supporters groaned in disappointment.
But a few minutes later, Paul and Kylian linked up again. From wide on the right wing, Kylian dribbled towards goal. Uh oh, the Croatia left-back was in big trouble.
With a stepover and a little hop, Kylian cut inside towards goal but in a flash, he fooled the defender with another quick change of direction.
‘Go on!’ the France fans urged their exciting young hero.
What next? Kylian still had two defenders in front
a little jump, he planted his feet, folded his arms across his chest, and tried to look as cool as he could. That last part was really hard because he had just scored in a World Cup final!
The next thirty minutes ticked by very slowly but eventually, the game was over. France 4 Croatia 2 – they were the 2018 World Champions!
Allez Les Bleus! Allez Les Bleus! Allez Les Bleus!
Kylian used the last of his energy to race around the pitch, handing out hugs to everyone he saw: his sad opponents, his happy teammates, his manager, EVERYONE! In that amazing moment, he would have hugged every single French person in the world if he could. Instead, he blew kisses at the cameras. From Russia with love!
And Kylian’s incredible night wasn’t over yet. Wearing his country’s flag around his waist, he walked up on stage to collect the tournament’s Best Young Player award from Emmanuel Macron.
‘Thank you, you’re a national hero now!’ the French President told him proudly.
‘My pleasure, Sir!’ Kylian replied.
Would his smile ever fade? Certainly not while he had a World Cup winners’ medal around his neck and the beautiful World Cup trophy in his hands. He didn’t ever want to let go. Kylian kissed it and raised it high into the Moscow night sky.
‘Hurray!’ the fans cheered for him.
At the age of nineteen, Kylian was already living out his wildest dreams. The boy from Bondy had become a World Cup winner and football’s next great superstar.
‘What if he doesn’t like sports?’ Wilfried Mbappé whispered to his wife, Fayza Lamari, as they watched their new-born son, Kylian, sleeping peacefully in his cot. He was a man who loved to laugh but at that moment, he had a worried look on his face.
Fayza smiled and spoke softly so as not to wake the baby. ‘Does it really matter? Kylian can do whatever he wants to do, and we’re going to love him no matter what!’
Her husband nodded but she could still see the frown lines on his forehead.
‘Relax, Wilfried, he’s our son, so of course he’s going to LOVE sports!’
With parents like his, Kylian was always destined
to be a sporting superstar.
Wilfried’s favourite sport was football. When he was younger, he had moved to France from Cameroon in order to find a good job. As well as that, Wilfried had also been lucky enough to find the two loves of his life – his wife, Fayza, and his local football club, AS Bondy. His playing days were now over, but he had become a youth team coach instead.
Fayza’s favourite sport was handball. She was a star player for AS Bondy in France’s top division. Ever since she was a kid, Fayza had been racing up and down the right wing, competing fiercely with her rivals. She couldn’t wait to get back out on the court, now that Kylian was born.
‘No-one messes with your mum!’ Wilfried always told his sons proudly.
Not only were the Mbappés a very sporty family, but they also lived in a very sporty suburb of Paris. Over the years, so many successful athletes, basketball players and footballers had grown up in Bondy. There was top talent on display wherever
you turned!
The sports club, AS Bondy, was at the heart of the local community, right in the middle of all the shops and tower blocks. Growing up, Kylian could see the local stadium from the windows of their apartment. It was an inspiring sight.
AS Bondy was a place where people from lots of different French-speaking backgrounds – Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Haiti, Togo, Mali, Senegal, Ivory Coast – could come together and enjoy themselves. That was really important because life wasn’t easy for the local people. They had to work long hours in order to feed their families and strive towards a brighter future.
For the young people of Bondy, the sports club was particularly special. It was their home away from home, where they could develop their skills, while at the same time staying out of trouble. Coaches like Wilfried taught them three simple rules to live by:
1) Respect each other.
2) Stay humble.
3) Love sport.
At AS Bondy, youngsters could forget about their
problems and just focus on their sporting dreams.
In years to come, the local kids would look up at a big mural showing Kylian’s face under the words, ‘Bondy: Ville Des Possibles’. No, it wasn’t the wealthiest part of Paris, but it was a ‘City of Possibilities’ where, with hard work and dedication, you could achieve your dreams.
So, what was Kylian’s sporting dream? To play handball like his mother, or football like his father? His adopted older brother, Jirés Kembo Ekoko, was already the star of Wilfried’s Under-10s football team. Would Kylian follow in his footsteps?
Or perhaps Kylian would choose to play a different sport…
‘He can do whatever he wants to do,’ Fayza reminded Wilfried, ‘and we’re going to love him no matter what!’
Growing up, Kylian enjoyed playing tennis and basketball with his friends, but there was really only one sport for him. To his dad’s delight, that sport turned out to be football!
Little Kylian didn’t know the meaning of the word ‘slow’. He was a football hero in a hurry.
By the age of two, he was already a familiar face in the AS Bondy dressing room. Just as the players were preparing for the match ahead, a little boy would race in with a football tucked under his arm.
‘Look who it is – our mascot, the Little Prince of Bondy!’ the club president, Atmane Airouche greeted him. ‘You’re just in time for the team-talk!’
Even if Wilfried wasn’t there with him, Kylian was never any trouble. When the manager was talking, he just sat there quietly next to the Bondy players and listened. Before they went out onto the pitch, they all high-fived him. He was their good luck
charm.
‘Are we going to win today?’ the captain asked Kylian.
He nodded eagerly. ‘Yeah!’
Kylian would then go out and watch the games with a football at his feet.
By the age of six, Kylian already had his own future all planned out.
‘What do you want to be when you’re older?’ Wilfried asked, recording his son’s reply.
‘I want to be a footballer,’ Kylian said, looking confidently at the video camera. ‘I’m going to play for France and I’m going to play in the World Cup too.’
Fayza tried very hard not to laugh at the serious expression on her son’s young face. He had such amazing ambition! As the French national anthem played, Kylian sang along with his hand on his heart, just like the players he saw on TV.
‘Great, and what club would you like to play for?’
‘Bondy!’
Kylian was already training with the juniors. His coach, Antonio Riccardi, was one of Wilfried and
Fayza’s closest friends, and so he had been kicking balls around with their sons for years. However, this was the first time that he would see Kylian playing a proper match against kids his own age.
‘Wow!’ was Antonio’s response.
He looked so tiny in his baggy green shirt and shorts, but boy, could Kylian play football!
Even during the warm-up, Antonio could see the difference. He was so much better than everyone else. For a young kid, he really seemed to understand the game. Kylian didn’t just kick and chase, like the others; he thought about what he wanted to do with the ball, and then did it. All those weekends at Bondy, spent watching and listening to the adults around him… Kylian had been taking everything in.
‘Right, let’s practise our dribbling!’ Antonio called out.
The coach had set up a line of cones for them to weave through before taking a shot at goal. It looked easy but it wasn’t. The first four kids either took it too fast or too slow. They either bumped the ball off cone after cone, or crawled their way down the line.
like a sleepy tortoise.
‘At that speed, you’re going to get tackled every time!’ Antonio told them as kindly as he could.
At last, it was Kylian’s turn and he couldn’t wait to show off his skills. He had been working hard on his dribbling at home with his dad and Jirés. It was now time to test himself in front of a bigger audience.
One, two, three, four – as Kylian raced through the cones, the ball stayed stuck to his right foot. His control was so good that he didn’t knock a single one of them.
‘Excellent!’ Antonio called out. ‘Now shoot!’
But by then, Kylian was already rushing over to collect his ball from the back of the net. His shot hit the top-left corner of the net before the goalkeeper had even moved.
Kylian was the standout player in the passing practice too. The touch, the movement, the accuracy – it was like he was a professional already! Antonio was blown away by the Little Prince of Bondy. He had coached a lot of impressive kids in Paris, but
he had never seen a six-year-old with that much footballing talent. Never!
‘Surely he’s too good to play with kids his own age?’ the coach was thinking, and that was before the match at the end of the session had even started.
‘Wow!’ Antonio was soon saying again.
To go with his silky ball skills, Kylian also had electrifying pace. It was a winning combination that the poor Bondy defenders just could not cope with. Every time he got the ball, it was goal-time. ZOOM! Kylian was off, sprinting down the right wing, just like his mum on the handball court. Sometimes, he set up goals for his teammates and sometimes, he scored himself.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6–0!
‘Okay, let’s switch the teams around a bit. Kylian, put on an orange bib!’
6–1, 6–2, 6–3, 6–4, 6–5, 6–6, 6–7, 6–8!
In the end, Antonio had to stop the game early because he didn’t want his players to get too down-hearted. Kylian was simply in a league of his own. He was better, faster and more consistent than
anyone else.
Once practice was over, Antonio went to find Wilfried.
‘I don’t think Kylian should be playing for the Under-7s,’ he explained.
‘Why not?’ Wilfried replied, looking surprised. ‘Did my son play badly today?’
‘NO!’ the coach replied, laughing at the idea. ‘Quite the opposite; he was absolutely incredible! He’s the best I’ve ever seen at that age. The Under-7s league would be a walk in the park for him; he would just get bored. He needs a challenge!’
By the age of eight, Kylian was playing for the Bondy Under-11s, skilling left-backs all game long. He was on a fast track to the top. His killer plan to conquer the football world was going very well indeed.
ULTIMATE FOOTBALL HEROES
SALAH
FROM THE PLAYGROUND TO THE PITCH
Anfield, 24 April 2018
The atmosphere at Anfield was always amazing but on big European nights, it was extra special. The chorus of the Kop started hours before kick-off and, if Liverpool were to beat Roma, it would go on for days afterwards. The fans sang the old favourites like ‘You’ll Never Walk Alone’, and they sang the new favourites too:
Mo Salah, Mo Salah
Running down the wing,
Salah la la la la la la
Egyptian King!
The eyes of the world were on Liverpool’s
‘Egyptian King’. Mohamed was in the best form of his life, with forty goals and counting. He had already scored thirty-one in the Premier League and nine in the Champions League. Could he keep shooting his team all the way to the final?
For Mohamed, it was going to be an emotional night, no matter what. First of all, he was playing in his first-ever Champions League semi-final, a moment that he had dreamed about ever since he was an eight-year-old boy. He was following in the footsteps of his heroes like Zinedine Zidane and Francesco Totti.
Mohamed was also playing against his old club. When his big move to Chelsea hadn’t worked out, it was Italian football that saved him. At Fiorentina, and then Roma, he had rediscovered his passion, his confidence, and the path to superstardom. He would always be grateful for that.
Mohamed’s old manager, Luciano Spalletti, had moved on, but lots of his old teammates were still there – Radja Nainggolan, Stephan El Shaarawy, and his old strike partner, Edin Džeko. In the tunnel,
Mohamed hugged each and every one of them.
‘Good luck,’ he said with a smile, ‘may the best team win!’
Liverpool were far from a one-man team. Mohamed was one part of ‘The Big Three’, the hottest strikeforce in the world. With Sadio Mané on the left, Roberto Firmino in the middle, and Mohamed on the right, the Reds looked unstoppable. Even Philippe Coutinho’s move to Barcelona hadn’t slowed them down. They had scored five against Porto in the Round of 16 and then five against Manchester City in the quarter-finals too. If the Roma defenders weren’t careful, ‘The Big Three’ would run riot again.
‘Come on lads, let’s win this!’ the Liverpool captain Jordan Henderson shouted as the players took up their positions for kick-off.
Even during his days at Roma, Mohamed had been more of a winger than a striker. With his amazing sprint speed, he would race past defenders and set up chances for Edin. At Liverpool, however, manager Jürgen Klopp had helped turn Mohamed into a
proper forward and a goalscoring machine. He still worked hard for his team but he did it higher up the pitch. That way, if a defender made a mistake, he was always ready to pounce.
Liverpool created their first good opening after twenty-seven minutes. One clever flick from Roberto was all it took to set speedy Sadio away. He had Mohamed to his right but Sadio wanted the glory for himself. In the penalty area, he pulled back his left foot and... blazed it over the crossbar!
The Liverpool fans buried their heads in their hands – what a missed opportunity! Two minutes later, another one arrived. Mohamed played a great pass to Roberto, who squared it to Sadio. He hit it first time... high and wide!
Groans rang out around Anfield. They couldn’t keep wasting these opportunities! Liverpool needed more composure in front of goal. What they needed was a cool head...
Sadio passed to Roberto, who passed to Mohamed on the right side of the box. With a quick tap of the boot, he shifted the ball onto his lethal left foot. Time
second half, he beat Roma’s offside trap again and crossed to Sadio for a simple tap-in. 3–0!
They pointed over at Roberto. ‘Bobby, it’s your turn to score now!’
Mohamed picked the ball up on the right wing and attacked the poor Roma left-back, who backed away in fear. Hadn’t Mohamed done enough damage for one day? No! He danced his way through and crossed to Roberto at the back post. 4–0!
Liverpool’s ‘Big Three’ were all on the scoresheet yet again. It was party time at Anfield:
We’ve got Salah, do do do do do do!
Mané Mané, do do do do do,
And Bobby Firmino,
And we sold Coutinho!
After seventy-five brilliant minutes, Klopp gave his superstar a well-deserved rest. As Mohamed left the pitch, both sets of fans stood up to clap his world-class performance, and the humble hero clapped right back.
At Basel, Mohamed had become a European star; at Liverpool, he had become a European superstar.
With two great goals and two amazing assists, Mohamed had led Liverpool towards the Champions League final, just as he had led his country, Egypt, to the 2018 World Cup.
‘So, just how good is Mohamed Salah?’ the TV presenter asked.
Liverpool legend Steven Gerrard smiled and replied: ‘He’s the best player on the planet right now!’
That had always been Mohamed’s dream, ever since he first kicked a football on his local pitch in Nagrig.
‘Come on!’ Mohamed Salah called out impatiently to his brother. ‘The others will be waiting!’
‘Coming!’ Nasr replied, his voice echoing down the corridor. He quickly pushed his feet into his shoes and slammed the front door behind him.
The Salah brothers didn’t have far to go. Nagrig was a small farming village in Egypt, with only one main dusty street cutting through wide fields of green and yellow. Around that one main dusty street, however, was everything that they needed – their home, their school, the shop, the post office, the café, the community centre and the mosque.
Most importantly of all, tucked in between the
crumbling blocks of flats and the community centre, was their football pitch. It was the same football pitch that their dad and uncles had played on when they were young boys. The surface was bone dry and bobbly but there was a rusty set of goalposts and plenty of space to play.
‘Hey, wait for me!’ Nasr shouted as he chased after his older brother.
With a loud sigh, Mohamed slowed down to let him catch up. That was their parents’ one condition; the two boys could go out and play as much football as they liked, just as long as Mohamed looked after Nasr.
When they arrived at the pitch, they found a group of boys sitting sadly in the goalmouth. They had no football, so what were they supposed to do?
Fortunately, Mohamed and Nasr had brought one.
‘Finally!’ the other boys called out, jumping up and dusting down their shorts. ‘Yeah, pass it over here!’
Mohamed kicked the ball to them and they took it in turns to shoot. The goal didn’t have a net, but the ball bounced back off the low wall around the
pitch. The boys knew to keep everything under head height. They had learnt this lesson the hard way.
‘Hey! What do you think you’re doing?’
High shots had a horrible habit of landing in the surrounding flats. Sometimes they just got a telling-off; sometimes, they didn’t get the ball back. It all depended on the damage done and the mood of the neighbour. So, it was best to aim low and hard instead.
‘Right, let’s pick teams!’ Mohamed declared. After a few kicks, he was warmed up and ready to go. What were they waiting for?
‘You can have Nasr, Abu and Khalid, okay?’ decided Mahmoud, the eldest boy.
Mohamed nodded and tried to look happy. He would need to be at his very best because this was the worst team possible! His brother was the youngest and the smallest, while Ahmed and Khalid weren’t exactly natural footballers.
‘You can have kick-off!’ Mahmoud offered.
‘Wow, how kind of you!’ Mohamed muttered to himself.
It was a good thing that he was feeling determined. When Ahmed passed the ball back to him, Mohamed came alive. He dribbled forward at full speed, keeping the ball glued to his left foot. Three opponents eventually stopped him, but they still couldn’t get it off him. With all attention focused on him, Mohamed slipped a pass through to Nasr. 1–0!
‘Come on, guys!’ Mahmoud moaned, throwing his arms up in the air.
Mohamed, on the other hand, didn’t say a word. He just high-fived his brother and got ready to defend. They had a battle on their hands.
Mahmoud’s team scored lots of goals, but they just couldn’t cope with Mohamed’s trickery. Every time he got the ball, he found a new way to get his team a goal. Sometimes it was a turn and shot; sometimes it was a stepover and a burst of speed; and sometimes it was a clever pass or cross.
‘Right, half-time!’ Mahmoud panted, sitting down in the shade.
But Mohamed didn’t want the fun to stop.
While the others rested, he carried on practising his skills. When he played football, everything else disappeared, especially the poverty and decay around him. He allowed himself to dream of a better life as a superstar footballer. He loved Nagrig, but how cool would it be to travel the world and become an international hero?
‘You’re going to be a big player one day,’ his friends were always telling him.
But as soon as he stopped kicking a ball, that dream seemed silly. How was he ever going to become a superstar footballer when even Cairo, Egypt’s capital city, felt like a million miles away?
MATT AND TOM OLDFIELD
ULTIMATE FOOTBALL HEROES
VAN DIJK
FROM THE PLAYGROUND TO THE PITCH
DINO
1 June 2019, Wanda Metropolitano Stadium, Madrid
For Virgil and his Liverpool teammates, it felt great to be back in the Champions League Final for the second year in a row. Last time, they had lost 3–1 to Cristiano Ronaldo’s Real Madrid; this time, only a win would do.
Liverpool! Liverpool! Liverpool!
Although the location had changed, from Ukraine to Spain, the electric atmosphere in the stadium had stayed the same. That’s because the Liverpool fans were the best in the world, and they had plenty to cheer about, especially after the ‘Miracle of Anfield’.
Their terrific team had fought back from 3–0 down in the semi-final first leg, to beat Lionel Messi’s Barcelona 4–3! Now, with a victory over their Premier League rivals Tottenham, they could lift the trophy and become Champions of Europe for the sixth time.
*Liverpool! Liverpool! Liverpool!*
‘Are you ready, big man?’ the manager Jürgen Klopp asked his star centre-back as the players left the dressing room before kick-off.
Virgil didn’t say a word; he didn’t need to. Instead, he just gave his manager a confident nod. Oh yes, he was ready and raring to go! Big games called for big game players, and he was the ultimate big game player. That’s why Liverpool had paid £75 million to sign him from Southampton, making him the most expensive defender in the world. He was always so calm and composed. He never got nervous and he loved playing under pressure. He was born for this – the biggest stage in club football.
‘Right, lads,’ their captain Jordan Henderson called out from the front of the Liverpool line. ‘It’s time to
go out there and win the Champions League!’
‘YEAH!’ the other ten players cheered behind him:
Alisson,
Joël Matip,
Andy Robertson,
Trent Alexander-Arnold,
Gini Wijnaldum,
Fabinho,
Roberto Firmino,
Sadio Mané,
Mohamed Salah,
and in the middle, the man at the centre of everything – Virgil!
What a talented team, and their spirit was so strong too. After the ‘Miracle of Anfield’, the Liverpool players felt like they could achieve absolutely anything. They were all fired up and determined to put their previous disappointments behind them – losing the 2018 Champions League Final to Real Madrid, and also losing the 2019 Premier League title to Manchester City. That one still hurt badly, but a European trophy would help make them feel a whole
lot better. This was their moment to bring glory back to Liverpool Football Club.
As he waited in the tunnel, Virgil casually reached up a long arm to touch the ceiling above him, just like he did with the ‘This is Anfield’ sign back home. He liked to tap it for good luck, not that they would need any of that…
When the big moment arrived, Virgil walked slowly out onto the pitch in Madrid, straight past the Champions League trophy without even looking at it.
‘That can wait until it’s ours to keep!’ he told himself.
Virgil wasn’t messing around. In the very first minute, he muscled his way past Tottenham’s star striker Harry Kane to win the ball. He headed it down to Gini, who passed to Jordan, who lifted it over the top for Sadio to chase. The Liverpool attack looked so dangerous already. And as Sadio tried to chip the ball back to Jordan, it struck the Spurs midfielder Moussa Sissoko on the arm.
‘Handball!’ cried Sadio.
‘Handball!’ cried Virgil, way back in defence.
The referee pointed to the spot. *Penalty!*
Mohamed stepped up and… scored – 1–0!
What a perfect start! Virgil jogged over to join in the team celebrations but then it was straight back to business. When there was defending to do, he was Liverpool’s leader, organising everyone around him.
‘That’s your man, Joël!’
‘Close him down, Gini!’
‘Watch that run, Robbo!’
‘Stay focused, Trent!’
‘Come on guys, this isn’t over yet!’
Virgil loved talking, and he spoke from experience. Once upon a time, he had been a talented young defender who made too many mistakes, but not anymore. He had learnt so many harsh lessons during his years with Willem II, Groningen, Celtic, Southampton and the Netherlands national team. And each one had helped to make him an even better, smarter footballer.
At half-time, Liverpool still had their 1–0 lead. They were now just forty-five minutes away from Champions League glory…
‘Come on lads, keep fighting!’ Klopp urged his tired players. ‘One more, final push!’
It was the end of a very long season, but Virgil wasn’t going to head off on his summer holidays empty-handed. No way, this trophy belonged to Liverpool! He fought hard for every header and tackle, and he won them all.
He’s a centre-half, he’s a number four,
Watch him defend, and watch him score,
He’ll pass the ball, calm as you like,
He’s Virgil van Dijk, he’s Virgil van Dijk!
Tottenham weren’t giving up, though. As Dele Alli played a quick pass forward to Son Heung-min, they had two vs. two in attack. Joël was marking Kane, which meant that it was Virgil’s job to stop Son Heung-min.
No problem! The South Korean had lots of speed and skill, but so did Virgil. He was the complete centre-back and not one Premier League striker had got past him all season. He knew exactly what to do.
in these difficult situations...
Virgil followed Son all the way into the Liverpool penalty area, keeping up but never diving in. He wasn’t that kind of a defender. Instead, Virgil waited patiently and cleverly until the crucial moment. Then he used his strength and long legs to clear the ball away for a corner-kick.
‘Phew!’ the Liverpool fans breathed a big sigh of relief. Virgil had saved the day yet again!
‘Great work!’ shouted Alisson, patting him on the back.
‘Keep going!’ shouted Virgil, clapping encouragingly towards his teammates.
There were still fifteen minutes to go, and a second Liverpool goal would really help to calm things down. What could Virgil do to help his attackers at the other end of the field? He sliced his shot in the Tottenham penalty area, but then battled to win the second ball. Virgil’s flick-on landed at Joël’s feet, who set up super sub Divock Origi to score. 2–0!
As the goal went in, Virgil was racing back
into defence. He turned and threw his arms up triumphantly. What would Liverpool do without him? He had played his part yet again. Now, they just had to hold on...
At last, the final whistle blew – Liverpool were the new Champions of Europe! Virgil didn’t jump for joy like many of his teammates; instead, he fell to the floor. The exhaustion, the emotion, the excitement – at first, it was all too much for him to take. He had been dreaming about this moment since he was six years old. Was he still dreaming? No, it was real!
Virgil didn’t stay down on the grass for long. His teammates wouldn’t let him.
‘We did it! We did it!’ Gini Wijnaldum shouted, high-fiving his friend.
‘Yes, Virg!’ Alisson cheered, wrapping him in a big bear hug.
With tears in his eyes and the Anfield roar ringing in his ears, Virgil walked proudly around the pitch. He was a Champions League winner now. ‘Champions League winner’ – yes, he liked the sound of that.
‘I told you we’d win it!’ Virgil told his manager as they embraced near the halfway line.
After lots of hugs and high-fives, it was time for the Liverpool players to collect their winners’ medals and then, best of all, the trophy! As Jordan the captain lifted the cup high above his head, flames shot up around the stage. Virgil, of course, was at the back of the team huddle, towering over everyone and cheering at the top of his voice:
*Campeones, Campeones, Olé! Olé! Olé!*
What a feeling! One by one, Virgil was achieving all his childhood football dreams. First, he had become the new captain of the Netherlands national team and now, the Boy from Breda was a European Champion too.
Hellen van Dijk had four important life lessons that she wanted to pass on to her children:
Be respectful.
Work hard.
Stay positive.
Always follow your dreams.
For her eldest son Virgil, those dreams were all about becoming a professional football player. It had been his favourite sport since the very first time he kicked a ball. It was the only thing he ever talked about, and the only thing he wanted to do, all day, every day. At the age of six, he was already out there on the local pitches, battling for the ball and battling to be the best.
‘Pass it!’
‘Hey, that’s a foul!’
‘Goooooaaaaaaalllllllllll!’
Virgil was far from the only youngster with those superstar dreams, however. Football was the most popular sport in the Netherlands, where he lived, and also across the whole, wide world. So, the road to the top would be a long and winding one, especially for a boy from Breda.
Breda was a city in the south of the Netherlands, more famous for its factories than for its football stars. Although they did have a local team, NAC Breda, they played down in the Dutch second division. To Virgil, the big clubs like Ajax and Feyenoord felt a long, long way away. He didn’t really have many local football heroes to look up to, other than the big kids who showed off their skills on the pitches near where they lived.
Most of the best Dutch footballers either came from big cities in the north of the country:
Dennis Bergkamp, Johan Cruyff, Marco van Basten, Frank and Ronald de Boer…
Or, their families had moved to the Netherlands from a small country in South America called Suriname:
*Patrick Kluivert, Edgar Davids, Clarence Seedorf, Aron Winter, Frank Rijkaard, Ruud Gullit…*
And Virgil’s mum! Yes, Hellen was from Suriname too, just like Seedorf and Davids! Sadly, she didn’t have enough money to take her children on the long flight back to visit her birthplace. So instead, from their home in Breda, she taught them as much as she could about the history and culture of the country.
‘We Surinamese like to stay calm and enjoy life,’ she joked with Virgil. ‘We’re not as uptight as Dutch people like your dad!’
‘Hey, I heard that!’ Ron replied with a smile.
‘Good!’ Hellen laughed, before moving on to her son’s favourite subject. ‘And when it comes to football, our players have got it all – power, pace, and of course, that South American skill. No, you don’t find that kind of natural talent in the Netherlands!’
At first having parents from different countries made Virgil feel a bit different from his friends, both
those at school and on the pitch. But the older he grew, the prouder he became of his background. The Netherlands and Suriname – like all those football heroes before him, he was determined to bring together the best of both worlds.
When Virgil arrived at his first training session with his local youth team in Breda, WDS’19, the coaches asked him the usual question: what position do you like to play?
‘Striker,’ he replied without even pausing to think.
Like most seven-year-old footballers, Virgil thought scoring goals was way cooler than stopping them.
The powerful feeling of ball hitting boot,
BANG!
The awesome sight of it flying past the keeper and into the net,
ZOOM!
And, best of all, the roar of the crowd celebrating your huge hero moment.
HURRAAAAAAY!
What could be better than that? Definitely not blocking other people’s shots, that’s for sure! Shooting or tackling – was that question even worth asking?! Not to young Virgil – he knew which one he preferred.
‘Remember, the goalscorers get all the glory,’ he taught his younger brother, who was learning fast about football. Soon, he’d be ready to go in goal and face Virgil’s fierce shots. ‘That’s why the best players are always attackers.’
Virgil was aiming to become the next Ronaldinho, not the next Paolo Maldini. The Brazilian was always smiling and always trying out exciting new tricks. Virgil loved watching skilful players who looked like they were having lots of fun. To him, that’s what football was all about.
‘OK, well let’s see how you get on up front then,’ agreed Ferdi Hoogeboom, John van den Berg and Rik Kleyn.
They were the three coaches in charge at WDS’19. The first thing they noticed about Virgil – other than
his confidence – was his size. He was easily the tallest boy on the team, and once he started playing, easily the strongest too.
Virgil started the match in the striker’s role, but he didn’t stay there long. He wanted to be on the ball all the time, and he wasn’t just going to wait for it to eventually arrive at his feet. He dropped deeper and deeper until he was in the middle of the field, at the centre of everything.
Then calmly and cleverly, Virgil took control of the game. He used his superior size and strength to win the ball back for his team, and then pushed his team forward with his dribbling and passing.
‘He looks so comfortable on the ball,’ van den Berg turned to Hoogeboom, sounding impressed. ‘And he’s not shy, is he, for a new kid?’
Virgil was organising everything, telling his teammates where to go and what to do.
‘Luuk, make the run!’
‘Bas, watch the left winger!’
‘Come on guys, I’m marking two players here!’
Already, at the age of seven, this kid was clearly a
leader. And he was clearly a defender or midfielder – not an attacker.
‘Why do kids always say they’re strikers?’ Hoogeboom, van den Berg and Kleyn laughed together, rolling their eyes. ‘Is that the only position they’ve heard of?!’
The WDS’19 coaches were delighted with their new young signing, and so were the players. Suddenly, the goalkeeper had hardly any saves to make, and the other defenders didn’t need to panic anymore – because, if their opponents did get through, Virgil was always there to save the day. No one got past Virgil – no-one. He wasn’t the quickest player, but it didn’t matter. He was really good at reading the game and working out what the striker would do next.
‘He plays like a little professional already!’ Kleyn thought to himself.
Virgil loved every minute of every WDS match. He was actually quite happy about not being the striker because it meant he got to be more involved in the
action – the passing, the tackling, the battling for the ball. Maybe he would be the next Maldini after all, or the next Edgar Davids in midfield. He would just have to save all his great goalscoring for kickarounds with friends.
Virgil wore his blue-and-white shirt with passion and pride. He was playing for a proper team now, with his own special shirt number on the back, just like his heroes. It felt like the first step on his journey to the top. WDS had links with the local professional football club, NAC Breda, and then after that? Who knew! Well, Virgil had a plan, of course.
‘One day, I’m going to play in a Champions League final,’ he told his dad excitedly as they drove home together after another WDS win, ‘and I’ll be the captain of the Netherlands national team too!’ | 6987e170-2d16-46a1-a8d0-4d49a5c34fe9 | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://cdn.literacytrust.org.uk/media/documents/Ultimate_football_heroes_Kane_extract.pdf | 2021-01-22T18:46:33+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703531335.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20210122175527-20210122205527-00271.warc.gz | 267,462,272 | 16,192 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.98635 | eng_Latn | 0.999384 | [
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Whilst studying about Anglo-Saxons we talked about different religions and beliefs. The children studied north American culture and they looked at how to create a Dreamcatcher.
The children used a number of different items. Using string, hoops, beads and thread to make an interesting, imaginative design.
The children understood that this was a different pre-Christian society. They were taught that North Americans would believe in different gods.
The year 3 children are starting to get used to the outdoor environment. They were asked to find a range of different objects that were collected. They enjoyed the task and worked really well together.
The children put all of their collected items into a hoop that were placed at the top of the nature trail on the school field.
All of the children skipped or walked around the trail.
Building an Anglo-Saxon Settlement:
The year 5s and 6s had to plan a piece of building that was similar to the designs of an Anglo-Saxon building. They had some resources to use, including: lollipop sticks, twigs, glue and cardboard.
The children were reminded that this wouldn’t be an easy task and the children would have had to persevere and work together in order to achieve.
All of the children were at least able to create a structure that was standing by the end of the session – these would be completed in the following Outdoor Learning session. Hopefully better weather will enable the chance to learn outdoors!
Wednesday 2nd October 2019
Collect and Play – The Game of NIM!
Year 3 were asked to complete the game of NIM. They needed to collect 21 different items from the nature trail.
The children had a hoop in to collect all their items and place them in a hoop. The children worked in a pair and they enjoyed changing the rules in order to suit both parties in the group.
Monday 7th October 2019
Completing Anglo-Saxon Homes!
Year 5 and 6 had their Anglo-Saxon settlements set up and drying in the classroom.
During this lesson they were given cardboard to help them with the development of the Anglo-Saxon settlements and this enabled them to complete the piece of work in this lesson.
By the end of the session the children had some wonderful designs and they worked incredibly well over the course of the two weeks.
Monday 4th November 2019
Bonfire Night - Creating your own Bonfire Art
This lesson builds on from the lesson this time last year. The children needed to think about how to make a piece of art using leaves, sticks and twigs from the nature trail. They were given 10 minutes to collect a wide range of items from the school’s grounds and put them in a wheelbarrow.
The children used yellow and red leaves to represent fire and they used pine needles to show shooting stars and clouds in the sky. The class worked in twos or threes for this lesson.
The black bin liner was used to represent the night sky. Once the activity was completed all the materials were taken down to the nature trail to be used again in the future.
Wednesday 13th November
Story-Telling
Year 3 and 4 were given the chance to work in a partnership. They needed to find an item from the nature trail and turn it into their own story. The original plan was to sit around the fire and tell our stories but with autumn being a very wet we made our way back to the classroom and shared our stories with the rest of the class. It was lovely to see and hear the Year 3’s improve their speaking and listening skills.
Monday 18th November 2019
Colours of Nature
With the autumnal season there is always a wide range of colours. The children were asked to create a colour palette using the different nature from outside. The children were given a sheet to complete their work, experiment with colour and identify how different items might give different colours.
Miss Price took this outdoor learning session. She prepared the classroom effectively and organised all of the resources. She modelled to the children what they needed to do in order to make a bird feeder.
The class used string, lard and seeds to attract the birds and hope that they will feed off the pine cones.
Sometimes it rains at lunchtime!
Due to a heavy downpour during the lunch hour I needed to bring in resources to the class. Having some leaves of differing colours in a wheelbarrow I brought it up to the classroom.
The children needed to help with a display board and they needed to create either a hedgehog or a leaf for the display. They also took a lot of interest in the insects that were in the wheelbarrow – important to wash hands afterwards.
Monday 25th November 2019
History – Making a Longboat - Roleplaying a Viking crew
This was one of the final sessions regarding the topic of Vikings and Anglo-Saxons. The children had been learning about how Vikings would travel around Europe and beyond.
In small groups the children were asked to find a range of materials – some larger pieces of work were put out to help the children build a framework of a boat.
In small groups the children were asked to look create a boat that would have been wide enough for them to sit in and pretend to row their boats.
They were able to work really well as a team and their oars and boats took shape over the course of the lesson.
CHRISTMAS TREE DESIGN
Over the last few weeks we have not been blessed with great weather and that has meant a number of lessons have to be planned over the weekend.
For this lesson I had gathered and dried out a large quantity of sticks. The children in the class had the opportunity to take the sticks, a lollipop stick and glue and they were able to create a Christmas tree design.
Once the trees were dry the children would then be able to add string, put their design in a plastic folder and take home at the end of the school day.
This was our final session before the Christmas bazaar and the practices for the school performance.
At the start of this lesson the children were all given a brief maths input about what symmetry is and what reflection is. The children had a choice of using a stick as a reflective line or they needed to produce shapes that had different lines of symmetry. The children were asked to work in pairs. One pair could create on side of a design and the other needed to copy it.
Those that were making a shape that had over one line of symmetry they needed to work and communicate effectively throughout the whole process.
The children were asked to find a space in which they could work and they had the choice of picking different items from the ground or from the bushes that surrounded the nature trail.
The sticks used are acting as a line of reflection. Children discussed and communicated effectively throughout the whole lesson.
Even though the weather was incredibly poor with the beginning of storm Brandon we went outside and aimed to build on our sensory skills. In the lesson input we talked about ‘Kim’s Game’. A memory game in which the children needed to identify which item had gone missing.
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RESEARCH STRATEGIES FOR CLASSROOM TEACHERS
FIVE PERSPECTIVES
PRESENTERS
Dr. Matthew Clauhs
Ithaca College
firstname.lastname@example.org
Dr. Sarah Gulish
F-flat Books, CEO
email@example.com
Erik Piazza
Eastman School of Music
firstname.lastname@example.org
Marissa Guarriello
Pennridge School District
email@example.com
Maggie Harrigan
Burlington Public Schools
firstname.lastname@example.org
What is Action Research?
- Identify a problem
- Collect data
- Organize, analyze, and interpret the data
- Develop and implement a plan to address the problem
- Evaluate the results
- Identify a new problem
- Repeat the process
Source: http://edglossary.org/action-research/
Action Research...
- Determines how an intervention has impacted student learning
- Provides evidence to your school community and leadership on how your program is best serving students
- Presents an opportunity to reflect on practice
“Without data you're just another person with an opinion” - W. Edwards Deming
RESEARCH IN THE CLASSROOM: DISPELLING MYTHS
| MYTH | TRUTH |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| You need to have a PhD/ Doctorate to conduct research of any kind | You can conduct research in your classroom at any point in your career! |
| If you aren’t enrolled in a college program, you can’t conduct research | You can partner with a college program or professor/student if you would like and/or it would be beneficial |
| If you do research, the only way to share it is in research journals or conferences (behind a paywall) | There are practical and accessible ways to use and share your research |
| Research is only beneficial to those at the collegiate level | Research can be beneficial to classroom teachers and students |
So... what does this look like??
Student perceptions of a composition project within a concert band setting
| The Research | The Data | The Action |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Composition project for HS students in two concert band ensembles of varying ability levels | Students reported increased communication skills, enjoyed working in small groups, had increased self-motivation and set high expectations to produce playable music | Increased integration of creative activities/composition at the secondary level ensemble classes |
| Students completed the projected over several weeks resulting in a final optional performance | Teacher took a risk, tried something new/out of his comfort zone and learned along with the students. Felt he was “given permission” to do so | Teachers being learners and facilitators of new musical skills |
| Students had the option to use notation software if they wanted | Time was a major factor in level of success of the project | Creation of new elective courses that encourage the creation of music- not just the reproduction of it |
| Data collected by observation and conducting interviews with students and the teacher | Removed facade that composition couldn’t be done in secondary ensemble classes | Fully funded recording studio at the HS building for students to create, record, produce, and mix their original work |
| | | Students that can create and share their ideas! |
RESEARCH IN THE CLASSROOM: REAL LIFE EXAMPLES
WHY?
- Personal Curiosity:
- How do my students learn?
- How can I better structure my lessons to enhance student learning?
- Personal Passion
- Degree
THE RESEARCH
- Music Play: How do my students learn through play?
- Play stations based on repertoire from class
- 10-15 minutes to explore
- Took myself out of my comfort zone as a teacher to give students a less structured environment
- Forced me to look at student learning in a new way
RESEARCH IN THE CLASSROOM: REAL LIFE EXAMPLES
WHAT I NOTICED
Improvisation
Helping their peers
Learning by ear
Developing music literacy
RESEARCH IN THE CLASSROOM: REAL LIFE EXAMPLES
IMPACT ON MY CLASSROOM
- Viewing student work through a research lens rather than a teacher lens
- Music play as part of my routine classroom instruction
- Learning to listen to students’ musical voices and ideas
- Understanding students’ perception of learning
Today in music play I finally mastered the base line of “Let her go go!”
BRIDGING THE GAP
“From the Tower to the Trenches”
FROM THE TOWER TO THE TRENCHES
1. Middle-Ground Scholarship
2. Undergraduate Research
3. Better Research Communication
4. Clear Writing Style
(Webster, 1979)
“Of course communication from the ‘trench’ to the ‘tower’ is of equal importance. The lack of this kind of communication is appalling. Rarely can there be observed any organized system of sharing with researchers what teachers feel are the primary issues for study.”
(Webster, 1979, p. 72)
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
NAfME professional development:
- NAfME Academy Webinars
- Live PLC webinar series
- 104 Music Educator Journal featured articles
- “Live” preK–12 practitioner sessions
Extend professional development to research:
- UPDATE: Applications of Research in Music Education
- Journal of Research in Music Education
- Music Research and Teacher Education sessions
“Bringing practicing music teachers together with university music faculty to improve teaching and learning for both [pre-service music teachers and preK–12] students . . . affords university professors an opportunity to make their work more professionally relevant.”
(Conkling & Henry, 1999, p. 23)
SCHOOL-UNIVERSITY PARTNERSHIPS
“Teachers can provide ideas, insights, and questions to guide research, or help provide access to their classroom(s) as possible research sites.”
(Culp, Piazza, Messina, & O’Reilly, 2019, p. 28)
Data Stories
Empowering teachers to use research to solve their problems and advocate for programs
WHERE SHOULD I START SOLVING MY PROBLEM?
Is my problem clearly worded as a question?
- Yes
- What information will answer my question best?
- Words
- Both words and numbers
- Numbers
- No
- Rework your question so that it is specific and clearly defined.
How will my audience understand my data story the best?
- Pictures
- Audio
- Written Story
- Video
- Compositions
DATA STORIES: Research-Based Conversations with Administration
Dr. Sarah Gubler, PhD
Victoria Baker
Do you know the problems that music teachers are facing?
- Students will enter classrooms having experienced trauma.
- I don't know how students will collaborate this year.
- Students need help navigating conflict with peers.
- Some of the repertoire in my canon is not uplifting.
- Not every student is represented in my curriculum.
I need to manage both in-person and virtual learning experiences.
When I'm stressed, I lose patience with my students more easily.
I'm teaching on a cart this fall.
Singing is not permitted in my general music room.
My schedule has been negatively impacted by COVID-19 restrictions.
I don't know what software I should be using.
Students are not playing their instruments at home.
How might action research and school-university partnerships create meaningful solutions?
- Students will enter classrooms having experienced trauma.
- I don't know how students will collaborate this year.
- Students need help navigating conflict with peers.
- Some of the repertoire in my canon is not uplifting.
- Not every student is represented in my curriculum.
- When I'm stressed, I lose patience with my students more easily.
- I'm teaching on a cart this fall.
- Singing is not permitted in my general music room.
- My students aren't engaging in remote learning.
- Students are not playing their instruments at home.
- I don't know what software I should be using.
- My schedule has been negatively impacted by COVID-19 restrictions.
- I need to manage both in-person and virtual learning experiences.
How do we empower teachers to use the data they already have to find solutions and share their stories with others?
**TOPIC: COVID-19 Challenges**
**Sample Problems**
- My students aren’t engaging in remote learning
- I don’t know what software I should be using
- Students are not playing their instruments at home
- We have restrictions on singing in music class
**Sample Questions**
- What self-reported barriers kept students from engaging in music instruction?
- Which program best met the needs of my students?
- Which students have access to instruments and what are the barriers to practicing music?
- Which pathways to musicianship besides singing are the most engaging and accessible to my students?
What is the basis of our research agenda?
- Personal Curiosity?
- Advancement of the field
- Problems you experienced as a teacher
- Personal Passions
- Helping Music Educators Reach More Students through Diverse, Equitable, Accessible, and Inclusive Means of Engagement?
- Tenure and Promotion
How do you plan to share your research with others?
- Expensive Research Conference
- Journal with Restricted Access
- K-12 focused print publications/Workshops
- Open-Access Resources (YouTube, blogs, podcast)
- Social Media
Least Accessible → Most Accessible
QUESTIONS?
Boler, V., & Gulish, S. (2020). Data Stories: FINISH THIS
Conkling, S. W., & Henry, W. (1999). Professional development partnerships: A new model for music teacher preparation. *Arts Education Policy Review, 100*(4), 19-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10632919909599465
Culp, M. E., Piazza, E. S., Messina, M., & O’Reilly, B. E. (2019). Engaging in research as a practicing music teacher. *School Music News, 82*(7), 26–30.
Sage Journals. (n.d.). *Manuscript submission Guidelines: Update: Applications of research in music education*. https://journals.sagepub.com/author-instructions/UPD
Webster, P. R. (1979). The ivory tower, the trenches, and the gap which separates. *Contributions to Music Education, (7)*, 68–73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24127461 | 66f8d6e2-ea10-457b-8d9d-3b9df728332d | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://6c9c519d-d514-42aa-a317-69f9c2ae3bb4.filesusr.com/ugd/03502c_0664ad81776b4d87b8d9e797e0bc170d.pdf | 2021-12-04T13:48:34+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964362992.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20211204124328-20211204154328-00312.warc.gz | 159,933,329 | 2,187 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.901685 | eng_Latn | 0.994791 | [
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Managing brownfields for butterflies
Wildflower-rich brownfields can be refuges for butterflies that have declined across the UK due to agricultural intensification and afforestation. The mosaic of habitats that develop on some brownfields can be the sole resources in the landscape that provide butterflies with all of the appropriate larval foodplants, adult nectar sources, bare ground and shelter required to survive. Around 30 butterfly species can regularly exploit brownfields, including scarce and declining species that rely heavily on a network of brownfields to support populations.
Key species of butterfly on brownfields
This document focuses on five species, the Small blue (*Cupido minimus*), Grayling (*Hipparchia semele*), Dingy skipper (*Erynnis tages*), Grizzled skipper (*Pyrgus malvae*) and Wall (*Lasiommata megera*). Other butterflies which can be strongly reliant on brownfields include Common blue (*Polyommatus icarus*), Brown argus (*Aricia agestis*), Small copper (*Lycaena phlaeas*), Essex skipper (*Thymelicus lineola*), Dark green fritillary (*Argynnis aglaja*), Marbled white (*Melanargia galathea*) and Small heath (*Coenonympha pamphilus*).
Species distributions
All five butterfly species have suffered from significant declines in numbers and range, however, all are still found across large areas of the UK in localised populations where suitable habitat remains. The Small blue is rare and localised throughout the UK, with populations in England, Scotland Wales and Ireland, but its stronghold is in the south of England. The Grayling is found throughout the UK, but it has a mainly coastal distribution, with inland colonies typically on heathland or brownfield sites. The Dingy skipper is found throughout the UK, but with a stronghold in central and southern England.
Key brownfield habitat features for butterflies
- Warm, sunny microclimate on dry, well-drained soils.
- Bare ground for basking and warm microclimate.
- Specific larval foodplants in abundance.
- Diverse nectar resource for adults during flight period.
- Unmanaged grassland and scrub for shelter.
The Grizzled skipper occurs in scattered populations across Wales and southern and central England. The Wall butterfly is widely distributed but with strongholds in northern and western England, Wales and southern Scotland, especially coastal areas.
**The importance of brownfields for butterflies**
Wildlife-rich brownfield sites can provide all of the habitat requirements for many declining butterflies. Thin, low nutrient soils and a history of disturbance prevent rapid succession and can lead to a favourable mosaic of sparsely vegetated habitats. The bare ground and varied topography often associated with brownfields can produce warm microclimates and basking spots that are ideal for these thermophilic species. Brownfields can also support a rich and varied ruderal wildflower resource for adult butterflies during the flight season and crucially, the specific larval foodplants required by many scarce species are often found in abundance. Short, herb-rich turf can be a particularly valuable feature of brownfields, especially where there is rabbit grazing.
Wildflower-rich grasslands have disappeared from much of the countryside, leading to the loss of some important colonies of rare butterflies. The widespread use of fertilisers on grasslands has led to taller, more competitive plants replacing low-growing larval foodplants. Intense cutting or grazing regimes in the heavily managed landscape have also led to a paucity of both larval foodplants and adult nectar sources. Conversely, many previously suitable sites have been lost where an absence of management has led to open habitats reverting to scrub and woodland.
Brownfields can mimic many of the traditional habitats used by rare butterflies which have declined in the countryside. For example chalk or limestone quarries, as well as industrial spoil such as blast furnace slag, develop habitat that strongly mimics the traditional chalk and limestone grasslands associated with Small blue and Dingy skipper. Whereas larval foodplants may be sparse in poorly managed chalk grasslands, many brownfields such as quarries can support plentiful amounts. The creation of new calcareous habitats from industrial activity, such as spoil heaps, provide new opportunities for these species, allowing them to colonise new areas. Some species are becoming increasingly reliant on brownfield sites to provide appropriate habitat at the landscape-scale, alongside natural and semi-natural habitats. The degree of reliance can vary geographically, for example Small blue and Dingy skipper are now almost entirely confined to brownfields in the Midlands part of their range.
The diverse nature of brownfield sites in terms of topography, hydrology, aspect and soil chemistry, encourages a range of vegetation communities to develop, providing diverse forage for adults throughout their flight period. In addition, patches of longer, unmanaged grassland and scrub pockets create sheltering opportunities for adults during unfavourable weather conditions.
**Larval foodplants for rare butterflies**
- Small blue requires Kidney vetch (*Anthyllis vulneraria*) which thrives in open, dry, calcareous conditions.
- Dingy skipper favours Common bird’s-foot trefoil (*Lotus corniculatus*) as a foodplant but will utilise Horseshoe vetch (*Hippocrepis comosa*) in calcareous conditions or Greater bird’s-foot trefoil (*Lotus pedunculatus*) on damper sites.
- Grizzled skipper larvae predominantly feed on Wild strawberry (*Fragaria vesca*), Creeping cinquefoil (*Potentilla reptans*) and Agrimony (*Agrimonia eupatoria*).
- Grayling requires fine grasses such as fescues (*Festuca* spp.) and Bristle bent (*Agrostis curtisii*), but will also use coarser grasses such as Tufted hair-grass (*Deschampsia cespitosa*).
- Wall butterfly larval foodplants include bents (*Agrostis* spp.), Cock’s foot (*Dactylis glomerata*), False brome (*Brachypodium sylvaticum*), Tor-grass (*Brachypodium pinnatum*), Wavy hair grass (*Deschampsia flexuosa*) and Yorkshire fog (*Holcus lanatus*).
**Butterfly metapopulations**
Butterflies exist in metapopulations, which are groups of small but linked populations using patches of suitable habitat
scattered across the landscape. Natural cycles of local extinction are balanced by re-colonisation from nearby sites, allowing their survival across the landscape. Where there is progressive loss of suitable habitat, remnant sites become fragmented and their populations isolated. As sites become more isolated, it is more difficult for suitable habitat to be colonised, with progressive local extinctions leading to their declines across the landscape and the potential loss of entire metapopulations.
Brownfield sites have the potential to act as habitat stepping stones within the wider landscape, providing both breeding sites and aiding movement across the landscape.
**Threats to butterflies on brownfields**
Brownfield sites are frequently favoured for development by local authorities. The loss of clusters of brownfield land is likely to have negative impacts on butterfly metapopulations as key sites are lost.
Inappropriate management of brownfields for public access can lead to sites being tidied up, resulting in the loss of early successional habitat features. Conversely, an absence of management on long abandoned brownfields can lead to scrub encroachment and the eventual loss of open habitats. It is important that the right balance of management is found to keep a site in good condition, as some poor dispersers do not easily colonise new habitat when a site becomes unfavourable.
**Creating & managing habitat for butterflies**
Although an absence of management is often a key factor in the high biodiversity of brownfields, management will eventually be necessary to maintain the early successional habitats required by rare butterflies. Habitat creation and management for rare butterflies should aim to produce open, sheltered and sunny areas, with a mosaic of herb-rich early successional habitat and bare ground. It is best to target low nutrient areas away from scrub or treelines to prevent the rapid succession of open habitats. Methods to enhance brownfield habitats for butterflies include:
- Rotationally creating new scrapes every few years to produce a mosaic of early successional stages. Scrapes are an effective method of creating disturbed, low nutrient habitats with a mosaic of early successional herbs and bare ground. Scrapes can be created at a small scale using hand tools or with machinery, by removing topsoil to a depth of around 20cm. The edges should be left as gentle rounded angles to diversify aspect and microclimate. They are ideally created on flat ground, or by cutting out wedges on south-facing slopes to create a bare wall fronted by a plateau, with
---
**Nectar sources for rare butterflies**
- **Grayling** - Common bird’s-foot trefoil (*Lotus corniculatus*), Bramble (*Rubus fruticosus* agg.), thistles (*Cirsium* and *Carduus* spp.), heathers (*Calluna vulgaris* and *Erica* spp.), Marjoram (*Origanum vulgare*), Teasel (*Dipsacus fullonum*), Red clover (*Trifolium pratense*).
- **Dingy skipper** - Common bird’s-foot trefoil, Bugle (*Ajuga reptans*), vetches (*Vicia* spp.), buttercups (*Ranunculus* spp.), Ragged robin (*Lychnis flos-cuculi*), hawkweeds (*Hieracium* and *Hypochoeris* spp.).
- **Grizzled skipper** - Ragged robin, buttercups, Bugle, Common bird’s-foot trefoil.
- **Small blue** - Common bird’s-foot trefoil, Kidney vetch (*Anthyllis vulneraria*), vetches.
- **Wall** - hawkweeds, knapweeds (*Centaurea* spp.), Marjoram, Ragged robin, Common ragwort (*Senecio jacobaea*), thistles, Daisy (*Bellis perennis*), Water mint (*Mentha aquatica*), Common fleabane (*Pulicaria dysenterica*) and Yarrow (*Achillea millefolium*).
the angle of the back wall dependent on the requirements of the target species. Any arisings can be piled into a bund at the front of the scrape to add further habitat variation. Scrapes should be larger than 2m by 2m to reduce the impact of encroaching vegetation. It is preferable to create a number of smaller scrapes across a site rather than a single larger one, ideally staggered over a number of years to encourage a site-wide mosaic of successional stages. To add further interest to scrapes, leave small ruts, mounds and hollows on the floor of scrapes rather than leaving it level, which will diversify the range of microclimates. It is important that once scrapes are created, the seed of larval foodplants are sown by dropping a pinch of seed onto bare areas, as there is no guarantee that they will colonise naturally.
- Combining sunny, south-facing butterfly banks with adjacent scrapes can create an ideal habitat mosaic with sheltered, sunny microclimates alongside forage and food plants. Butterfly banks are best when running east-west so that south-facing slopes dominate the longest edge. Small banks can be created using hand tools, but ideally larger banks can be created using machinery such as an excavator. To start a butterfly bank, the topsoil in the area surrounding the planned bank should be scraped off and stored to one side. A trench in the shape of the planned bank should then be dug with the low-nutrient sub-soil then put aside. The trench should then be filled with the topsoil from the whole area and a mound created. The topsoil mound should then be capped with the low nutrient sub-soil, effectively creating a raised, inverted soil profile. To complete the butterfly bank, cap the mound with 5-10cm of aggregate or rubble, choosing a material appropriate to the needs of the target butterfly’s foodplant. Consider spreading the same aggregate over some areas of the new scrape, providing a mosaic of bare underlying substrate and areas of aggregate. Seeding with larval foodplants is again important, by dropping pinches of seed onto bare areas. It can be helpful to introduce seeds on the top of banks, so that seeds are dropped downslope, facilitating their spread over time.
- Management of butterfly banks and scrapes should aim to maintain a mosaic of 50% bare ground and 50% early successional vegetation throughout a feature. This can be easily achieved by scraping off vegetation or turning over soils using either machinery or hand tools. Where vigorous species are invading new open areas, weeding should be done by hand where possible, however, spot treatment with Glyphosate can be used if necessary.
- Some butterflies will actively seek out warmer microclimates for egg laying, with both Grizzled and Dingy skipper favouring foodplants around highly localised features such as bare rock and warm hollows (Slater 2007, 2008). Creating butterfly walls of closely spaced brick and rubble pieces or laying them in floors can encourage egg laying in foodplant-rich areas. Plants will then grow around the rubble with shoots close to the low lying rubble preferred by laying adults due to the warmer microclimate.
- Increasing the quantity of larval foodplants across a site can be extremely beneficial. Seeding by hand can be very effective, scattering small pinches of seed over newly created or existing bare ground. Scattering seed at the top of slopes can be useful as developing plants will drop their seed downslope, facilitating their spread. Seeds can also successfully be sown in short sward areas, so long as there is localised disturbance to provide germination sites.
- Creating wildflower-rich areas can improve the nectar resource for foraging adults, particularly where there are only limited nectar sources of a target species. Wildflower enhancement should target low nutrient areas which are less likely to be dominated by coarse grasses. Creating suitable ground for sowing seed may require initial cutting, followed by herbicide spraying and a two week waiting period. Harrowing or other methods of disturbance can then remove overlying
vegetation and create disturbed ground for seeds. Sowing seed can be done simply by broadcasting or using machinery for larger areas. Seed sowing times will vary by species, with some requiring an autumn sowing to overwinter in the soil.
- The addition of substrates such as industrial spoil, sand or calcareous aggregates will enhance the floral resource by creating different soil conditions and bare substrates for characteristic plant communities to develop. Aggregate types can be targeted for the requirements of specific foodplants, such as by introducing chalk or calcareous aggregates to encourage Kidney vetch. Introducing substrates may be particularly useful where fertility is raised, with a layer of materials such as stony chippings suppressing vigorous vegetation and creating a good starting point for some foodplants to germinate and establish.
- Rotational disturbance in scattered areas around a site to help encourage a successional mosaic with a diverse flora. Creating newly disturbed areas every few years will ensure a continuity of colonisation opportunities for both adult and larval foodplants as well as a dynamic bare ground resource. Disturbance can be small scale and undertaken manually with hand tools or with machinery such as an excavator to scrape off larger areas of material and vegetation, overturn soil or simply be driven around and churn up soils.
- Rotational scrub and bramble clearance can help restore open habitats on sites where an absence of management has led to scrubbing over. Some areas of scrub and bramble should always be retained as they are valuable habitats in their own right, as well as providing and adult nectar source and pockets of shelter. Stumps should be treated after cutting and any humic layer or leaf litter scraped off to provide bare conditions for ruderal plants to colonise. Previously cleared areas are best managed by regularly pulling young saplings to slow succession.
- Some sites may feature grazing or cutting within their site management plans. A long rotation should be implemented, only cutting small patches of grassland in any one year. Cuttings should be either piled in an assigned part of the site or removed from the site to actively reduce the nutrient status of soils. Grazing is rarely possible or appropriate on brownfield sites. However, winter cattle grazing can open up swards to provide structural variation while creating localised poached areas that make suitable germination sites for foodplants.
- Cutting and grazing by livestock are best avoided on brownfields. However, if used it must be carefully considered so as not to interfere with flower availability during adult flight periods. Management should be restricted to a proportion of a site to retain a site mosaic, with longer grassland areas retained to provide shelter.
Links
http://www.warwickshire-butterflies.org.uk/downloads/Factsheets/Butterfly%20Bank%20Factsheet.pdf
http://www.warwickshire-butterflies.org.uk/downloads/Factsheets/Butterfly%20Scrape%20Factsheet.pdf
http://www.warwickshire-butterflies.org.uk/downloads/Factsheets/Seeding%20and%20Plug%20Planting%20Factsheet%20.pdf
http://butterfly-conservation.org/files/habitat-brownfield-leaflet.pdf
References
Slater, M., 2007 Creation of a drystone wall to create egglaying habitat for Grizzled Skipper *Pyrgus malvae* at Byton Wood Meadows Butterfly Conservation Reserve, Warwickshire, England. *Conservation Evidence* 4, 35-40.
Slater, M., 2008. Dingy Skipper *Erynnis tages*: Investigation to ascertain the preferred sites for ova deposition on its larval foodplant *Lotus* sp. in Warwickshire on a range of colony sites. | 9b55bf73-3a58-4bc2-8f87-58aad5a6ee7d | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://cdn.buglife.org.uk/2020/01/Managing-brownfields-for-butterflies.pdf | 2021-01-28T16:05:01+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610704847953.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20210128134124-20210128164124-00739.warc.gz | 241,993,783 | 3,752 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995346 | eng_Latn | 0.996771 | [
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Staying Safe: In Hospital
Easy Read
This document was written by the Health Care Consumers Association.
We speak up for people in the ACT.
We work on health care issues.
This guide tells you how to stay safe in hospital.
We also have guides for Staying Safe:
- Going to Hospital
- At Home
Your Rights in Hospital
Rights say how you should be treated by hospital staff.
Health care should be:
- **Respectful**
Staff should care about you and your needs.
- **Responsive**
Staff should listen and help you and not take too long.
- **Safe**
You should feel safe while in hospital.
You should feel like you can trust the staff that care for you.
- **High Quality Care**
The hospital staff should give the best care they can.
- **Care You Need**
You should have a say in your care.
Each person should get the care they need.
Being involved in your own care
Each day hospital staff will do a hand over. This is when they share information about your care with each other.
They do this when current staff start and finish work. This happens at least once a day.
You can talk to staff at any time to:
- Ask questions
- Share information about yourself.
You can ask staff:
- to tell you what words mean
- to write or draw an answer
- to explain it differently
You can ask for a free interpreter or information in your own language.
Hospital staff will ask you questions
Staff will ask you the same questions many times.
This is to make sure they get everything right.
They might ask:
- Your name and date of birth
- If you have any allergies.
An allergy is when your body reacts badly to something that is usually safe.
For example, parts of your body might itch, swell or go red.
- About the treatment you are having
This is to make sure you know what will happen to you.
Giving consent
Consent is when you say yes to something.
Informed consent is important.
This means that you are given all the information you need to make the best decision.
You or your decision-maker can choose to say yes or no to treatment in hospital. A decision-maker is a person who makes decisions for you if you cannot.
You can ask staff questions to help you decide to say yes or no to treatment.
You should be a part of decisions about your treatment and care.
Falls in Hospital
You are more likely to fall over when you are unwell.
If you fall in hospital you should always call for help.
Staff are there to help you.
These tips can help you to stay safe.
Keep the call button where you can reach it. Press it to ask staff for help:
- To go to the toilet
- If you feel dizzy
- If you need to leave the room.
Wear shoes that are not slippery. That means they have good grips on the bottom.
Aids are things that help you do things in your life. Such as:
- Glasses to see
- Hearing aids to hear
- Walker to move around.
Remember to use your aids:
- Wear your glasses
- Put in your hearing aids
- Use other aids if you need to.
Stop Bed Sores
Bed sores are also called pressure injuries. This is when your skin gets red, sore or broken.
They come from lying in the same position for too long. They can be very painful and take a long time to heal.
Follow these tips to help you stop getting bed sores.
Move positions on the bed:
- Roll onto different parts of the bed
- Try sitting up.
Sit in a chair when you can.
Stand and walk when you can.
Do the exercises a physiotherapist asked you to do.
Physiotherapists help people who have trouble moving their body.
Eat healthy food.
Drink enough water.
Use skin cream or moisturiser on your skin.
Look at your skin.
Tell hospital staff if your skin is red, sore, broken, tingling or numb.
Stop Infection
An infection is when germs enter your body and make you sick.
Infections can make getting better harder and take longer.
Germs can spread:
- From dirty hands
- From the breath of people who are sick.
Washing your hands helps stop infection.
Wash your hands:
- After the bathroom
- After coughing and sneezing
- Before eating
Staff should wash their hands before touching you.
Visitors should:
- Wash their hands before coming into your room
- Stay home if they are sick
- Wear a mask if you need them to.
You can also wear a mask if you want. Ask staff for masks.
Cannula and Catheter Safety
A cannula is a small tube that is put into your skin with a needle. It is usually used to put medicines into your blood.
A catheter is a small tube that takes urine from your bladder into a bag.
Cannulas and catheters sometimes give you an infection.
What you can do:
- Be careful not to knock or pull your cannula and catheter
- Wear loose clothing that does not pull on the cannula or catheter
- Keep the cannula dry and keep the dressing on
Ask staff for help if you are worried about your cannula or catheter.
Tell staff if:
- You notice redness, pain or swelling
- You feel hot or are shivering
- You notice any problems
- You notice leaking or blood
Your cannula or catheter needs to come out before you go home.
Tell staff if you still have it.
Your Medications
We take medications to make us feel better, like:
- Medications your doctor told you to take
- Medications you can buy yourself, like Panadol
- Vitamins
- Herbs or natural medicine.
Medication comes in different forms, like pills, creams, inhalers or injections.
In hospital they should give you all the medications you need.
You should tell staff:
- The medications you usually take
- About any medications you brought with you
Any allergies to medication you have
If you feel unwell after taking medication
You can ask staff any questions about your medications.
You can ask them:
- If you think there is a mistake
- How and when to take them
- About their side effects.
Tell Staff If You Feel Worse
Tell staff if you or your family notice changes in how you feel.
Tell staff if you notice:
- Breathing changes
- Symptoms you did not have before coming to hospital.
Symptoms are signs of an illness or condition that you can see or feel such as:
- Swelling or redness anywhere
- You need to vomit
- Pain that is new.
- Being hot or clammy
- Feeling confused or upset
- Anything you are worried about.
If you are worried, follow these 3 steps:
1. Press the buzzer and tell your nurse why you are worried.
2. If you are still worried ask to talk to the nurse in charge.
3. If you are still worried after you have done these steps, call the CARE team:
- (02) 6244 3337 at The Canberra Hospital
- (02) 6245 3111 at North Canberra Hospital.
A senior nurse will come to you and help as needed.
Getting Ready To Go Home
If you will need help at home, talk to staff. They will find someone to help you get support.
Plan how you will get home. Make sure:
- Someone helps you to get home
- Your home has food.
Make sure any follow up visits are booked with your usual doctor (GP) or community nurses.
Ask for things you brought to be given back including:
- X-rays and scans
- Your medication from home.
See our booklet *Staying Safe – At Home* for more information about planning for when you come home.
You will get a discharge summary.
A discharge summary has all the important information about your stay in hospital. It also says what you need to do after hospital. You can ask questions about it.
Your GP will also get a copy of your discharge summary.
Word list
Hand over: This is when hospital staff share information about your care with each other.
Allergies: An allergy is when your body reacts badly to something that is usually safe.
Decision-maker: A decision-maker is a person who makes decisions for you if you cannot.
GP: The doctor you usually see when you feel unwell.
Informed consent: This means that you are given all the information you need to make the best decision.
Physiotherapist: Physiotherapists help people who have trouble moving their body.
Symptoms: Symptoms are signs of an illness or condition that you can see or feel.
Discharge summary: A discharge summary has all the important information about your stay in hospital. It also says what you need to do after hospital.
Medications: This includes things you take to feel better. They might be pills, creams or injections. They might be from your doctor or your pharmacist.
For more information you can:
Read the other Staying Safe guides on our website.
Read our other resources on health care.
Read information about staying at:
- The Canberra Hospital
- North Canberra Hospital
- University of Canberra Hospital
Our next booklet is called
Staying Safe – At Home
Easy Read images by The Easy Read Toolbox, through Creative Commons (Microsoft 365, Wikipedia) or licensed through Canva.
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School and Industry Partnerships
A Framework for:
Developing the future workforce and creating work ready students
Purpose: Developing the future workforce
It’s a great opportunity for businesses, organisations and peak industry bodies to work with schools to develop work ready students. Workforce development outcomes can be considerable, at a local and regional level it can help to match workforce demand and address skills gaps, and at a broader level increase national productivity.
There are many ways to champion your business, organisation and industry within work-based learning, which encompasses ‘work exposure’ ranging from career expos, industry videos, labour market information, vocational and work placements, work experience, workplace tours, guest speakers to mentorship and much more.
This framework will provide insights into the phases of work exploration and the career building process young people go through. It aims to guide you on how to create opportunities to support Work-based Learning that meet both your needs and those of learners.
Objective: Creating work ready students
By providing Work-based Learning aligned work exposure opportunities you’ll be playing an important role in developing the future workforce in your local community. Helping young people to explore various industries/organisations, understand the requirements of the workplace and identify career pathways prepares them for work and life.
It also increases student’s engagement and participation in their education, where they can realise the practical application of what they are learning in the classroom and how it can be applied in the workplace.
How you can help: Connect
As a business, peak industry body or organisation, you can:
• connect with schools and talk with them about their student needs and how your work exposure opportunities can help
• contact the Senior Secondary Provision team who will direct you to the right people to speak with;
- firstname.lastname@example.org
- 26 Bathurst Street Hobart
- (03) 6165 5404
As a school, you can:
• use this framework to guide and form the conversations with businesses, organisations or peak industry bodies
• when planning Work-based Learning and work exposure activities, align business, organisation or peak industry body desired outcomes with that of the students.
About career building: What students need
To make an informed career decision there are phases a person should go through to explore their options, make and action their career decisions and then reflect on their decisions. These phases are known as Exploring, Aligning, Building and Acting & Reflecting. The type of information a student needs depends largely on which phase they are in, so not all students are at the same phase at the same time. Career building is not a linear process either, depending on the individual’s situation, they may move back and forward through these phases.
This means different types of work-based learning exposure should be aligned to the particular phases. In partnership with the school, we can develop new or modify existing work exposure programs that will align with the appropriate phases the students may be in.
**Exploring**
At this phase students:
- start to become aware of different industries and businesses within these industries
- should be exposed to a range of new possibilities to ignite their career interest by engaging in interesting, practical and fun work exposure activities
- plan future goals and explore aspirations
**Industry and organisations can support by:**
- being involved in career expos and developing industry videos that highlight interesting job tasks and people involved in the industry
- participating in work and/or career presentations, talks, or being part of panel discussions
- providing broad guidance on being work ready, such as what are the requirements to being a successful employee.
**Aligning**
At this phase students:
- investigate the specific career interests they have and/or explore results from completing online career assessments
- learn about the variety of skills required for different careers
- refine future goals and aspirations.
**Building**
At this phase students:
- should be making informed career decisions
- identify and understand what subject choices will help future career choices
- develop a plan for the next steps in their career journey
- align resumes to match career opportunities.
**Acting & Reflecting**
At this phase students:
- are putting their career decisions into action such as enrolling in a course, applying for scholarships, employment or volunteer opportunities and exploring options for gap years
- taking time out to review their career decision, reviewing their goals and aspirations and making the necessary adjustments where required.
**Phases of career decision making**
The career decision process is not linear and no two students are alike and nor will be the same stage of their career decision making process.
**Industry and organisations can support by:**
- providing specific information about a business or industry area and skills required to be a successful employee
- sharing labor market information
- hosting workplace site tours
- volunteering as a judge in school competitions, projects, performances and presentations.
- providing opportunities in the workplace, such as work experience, internships or vocational placements
- volunteering to be a mentor, such as involved in mock interviews, providing interviewing tips and feedback on resumes with job application writing tips
- developing projects that link to the curriculum or having input into training and assessment strategies for Vocational Education and Training (VET) offered within schools
- sponsoring competitions and entrepreneurship programs.
- providing Australian School-based Apprenticeships
- providing apprenticeships and traineeships
- having employment or volunteering opportunities available
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| General Terms | General Definition/Glossary |
|---------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Absence seizure | Occurring mostly in children, this consists of brief periods of loss of awareness, most often for less than 10 seconds. Some children can experience these types of seizures multiple times during the day which may compromise learning. Absence seizures can be mistaken for daydreaming. They are no longer called ‘petit mal’. |
| Abuse | See Child abuse definition below |
| Abuser | A person who mistreats and/or harms a child or young person. |
| Acceptable immunisation documentation | Documentation as defined by the Immunisation Enrolment Toolkit for early childhood education and care services as acceptable evidence that a child is fully vaccinated for their age or is on a recognised catch-up schedule if their child has fallen behind their vaccinations; or has a medical reason not to be vaccinated; or has been assessed as being eligible for a 16-week grace period. |
| Achievement Program | The Achievement Program is making it easier for Victorian children and adults to be healthier. The program closely aligns with the NQS and Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework. It supports the integration of health and wellbeing strategies into a comprehensive whole service approach’ to health and wellbeing which is integrated into Quality Improvement Plans. It’s free to participate and gives services tools and support to build on their current healthy practices. Supported by the Victorian Government, services receive recognition once healthy changes are achieved. |
| Active Play | Play that involves large muscle-based activities that are essential for a child’s social, emotional, cognitive and physical growth and development incorporating:
- child-initiated active play, which is developed by the child through exploration of the outdoor environment, equipment and games
- adult-guided active play which encourages children’s physical development through promoting movement skills in a non-competitive environment
- physical activity, which includes sport, incidental exercise and many forms of recreation.
- active travel, which includes walking, cycling, scootering or any similar transport where physical activity is used to travel. |
| Actively working towards | An educator who is enrolled in a course for a qualification and provides the Approved Provider with documentary evidence of their commencement in the course; their satisfactory progress towards completion of the course and ongoing evidence that they are meeting all the requirements to maintain their enrolment. Educators who are ‘actively working towards’ an approved diploma-level qualification must also hold an approved Certificate III level education and care qualification or have completed the mandatory units of study in an approved Certificate III level education and care qualification as determined by the national authority (ACECQA). |
| Additional Assistant | The Kindergarten Inclusion Support (KIS) program aims to build capacity of funded Kindergartens to support the access and participation of children with additional needs in inclusive kindergarten programs. The role of the Additional Assistant is to support the kindergarten staff in providing an inclusive program for all children in the kindergarten. |
| Additional Childcare Subsidy | Additional Childcare Subsidy provides additional fee assistance to support vulnerable or disadvantaged families and children. This support recognises the preventative and protective influence of quality child-care on a child’s health, wellbeing and development, and the importance of continuity of care. There are four different payments under Additional Childcare Subsidy: |
| Term | Definition |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Alcohol | A depressant drug that slows down activity in the central nervous system. |
| Allergen | A substance that can cause an allergic reaction. |
| Allergic reaction | A reaction to an allergen. Common signs and symptoms include one or more of the following:
**Mild to moderate signs & symptoms:**
- hives or welts
- tingling mouth
- swelling of the face, lips & eyes
- abdominal pain, vomiting and/or diarrhoea are mild to moderate symptoms, however these are severe reactions to insects.
**Signs & symptoms of anaphylaxis are:**
- difficult/noisy breathing
- swelling of the tongue
- swelling/tightness in the throat
- difficulty talking and/or hoarse voice
- wheeze or persistent cough
- persistent dizziness or collapse (child pale or floppy). |
| Allergy | An immune system response to something in the environment, which is usually harmless, e.g.: food, pollen, dust mite. These can be ingested, inhaled, injected or absorbed. |
| Anaphylaxis | A severe, rapid and potentially life-threatening allergic reaction that affects normal functioning of the major body systems, particularly the respiratory (breathing) and/or circulation systems. |
| Anaphylaxis action plan| Refer to the definition for **ASCIA action plan for anaphylaxis** below. |
| Anaphylaxis management training | Training that includes recognition of allergic reactions, strategies for risk minimisation and risk management, procedures for treatment and facilitates practise in the administration of treatment using an adrenaline autoinjector trainer. Approved training is listed on the ACECQA website. |
| Anaphylaxis ASCIA action plan | An individual medical management plan prepared and signed by the child’s treating, registered medical practitioner that provides the child’s name and confirmed allergies, a photograph of the child, a description of the prescribed anaphylaxis medication for that child and clear instructions on treating an anaphylactic episode. The plan must be specific for the brand of autoinjector prescribed for each child. Examples of plans specific to different adrenaline autoinjector brands are available for download on the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) website: [http://www.allergy.org.au/health-professionals/anaphylaxis-resources/ascia-action-plan-for-anaphylaxis](http://www.allergy.org.au/health-professionals/anaphylaxis-resources/ascia-action-plan-for-anaphylaxis) |
| Anti-spyware | Software designed to remove spyware: a type of malware, that collects information about users without their knowledge. |
| Approved childcare | Approved childcare services are services that have Australian Government approval to receive the Childcare Subsidy (refer to Definitions) on behalf of eligible parents. Approved childcare includes centre-based day care, including long day care and occasional care, family day care, outside school hours care and in home care. |
| Approved Asthma Management training | Training that is approved by the National Authority in accordance with Division 7 of the National Regulations, and is listed on the ACECQA website: [www.acecqa.gov.au](http://www.acecqa.gov.au). EAM training provides knowledge about the underlying causes of asthma, asthma triggers, and the recognition and treatment of an asthma attack. |
| Approved first aid qualification | A list of approved first aid qualifications, anaphylaxis management and asthma management training is published on the ACECQA website: [www.acecqa.gov.au](http://www.acecqa.gov.au) |
| Approved learning framework | A document that outlines practices that educators and co-ordinators must use to support and promote children’s learning. *The Early Years Learning Framework* |
| DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER | POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-------------------------|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| (Belonging, Being & Becoming) and the Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework | are approved learning frameworks for use in Victoria and Tasmania, approved by the Ministerial Council. |
| Approved Provider | An individual or organisation that has completed an application and been approved by the Regulatory Authority as fit and proper to operate one or more education and care services. Definitions: “person with management or control, in relation to an education and care service, means – (b) if the provider of the service is an eligible association, each member of the executive committee of the association who has the responsibility, alone or with others, for managing the delivery of the education and care service”.) |
| Approved service | An education and care service for which a service approval exists. A request for service approval must be made in writing to the Regulatory Authority and include prescribed information including details of the Nominated Supervisor and their written consent to be nominated as such. |
| Assault | An incident where a person causes injury, pain, discomfort or damage to another person. It also includes insult or deprivation of liberty. Assault can be physical or verbal. |
| Assessment and Planning Cycle | The assessment and planning cycle process includes observation, analysing learning, documentation, planning, implementation and reflection. This ongoing process is used by educators, with support from educational leader and in partnership with families and other professionals, to design programs that enhance and extend each child’s learning and development. |
| Asthma Care Plan | A record of information on an individual child’s asthma and its management, including contact details, what to do when the child’s asthma worsens and the treatment to be administered in an. Asthma Care Plan templates, including a plan specifically for use in children’s services, can be downloaded from Asthma Australia’s website: www.asthma.org.au. |
| Asthma emergency | The onset of unstable or deteriorating asthma symptoms requiring immediate treatment with reliever medication. |
| Asthma first aid kit | Kits should contain:
- reliever medication
- 2 small volume spacer devices
- 2 compatible children’s face masks (for children under the age of four)
- record form
- asthma first aid instruction card.
The Asthma Foundation of Victoria recommends that spacers are for single use only. It is essential to have at least two spacers in each first aid kit, and these should be replaced once used. |
| Asthma Thunderstorms | Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by a local thunderstorm. It has been proposed that during a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind.
The epidemic thunderstorm asthma forecast system will operate between 1 October and 31 December. It combines the forecasting of a certain uncommon type of thunderstorm and forecasting grass pollen counts across Victoria.
It spans three days and uses a colour-coded scale from low to high risk: green (low), orange (moderate) and red (high). |
| Asthma triggers | Things that may induce asthma symptoms, for example, pollens, colds/viruses, dust mites, smoke and exercise. Asthma triggers will vary from child to child. |
| At risk child | A child whose allergies have been medically diagnosed and who is at risk of anaphylaxis. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**Revision Due Date**
| V 13 | 01/10/2022 |
**Policy No:** 00
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled. Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Attendance record | Kept by the service to record details of each child attending the service including name, time of arrival and departure, signature of person delivering and collecting the child or of the Nominated Supervisor or educator (Regulation 158) |
| Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA) | The national authority established to oversee the National Quality Framework and guide its implementation in a consistent way throughout Australia. |
| Authorised delegate | The Approved Provider for an Organisation gives approval for a delegated person i.e. “Area Manager to be the delegated *person with management or control, in relation to an education and care service, means – (b) if the provider of the service is an eligible association, each member of the executive committee of the association who has the responsibility, alone or with others, for managing the delivery of the education and care service*”. |
| Authorised person | An authorised person means a person who belongs to one of the groups below.
- A person who holds a current working with children check (Vic) Working with Vulnerable person check (Tas) or working with children care; or
- A parent or family member of a child who is being educated and cared for by the education and care service of the family day care educator; of
- An authorised nominee of a parent or family member of a child who is being educated and cared for by the education and care service or the family day care educator; or
- In the case of an emergency, medical personnel or emergency service personnel
- A person who is permitted under the working with children law of a jurisdiction to remain at the education and care service premises without holding a working with children check (Vic) Working with Vulnerable person check (Tas) working with children card. |
| AV How to Call Card | A card that the service has completed containing all the information that Ambulance Victoria will request when phoned on 000. Once completed, this card should be kept within easy access of all service telephone/s. A sample card can be downloaded from [www.ambulance.vic.gov.au/Education/Calling-Triple-0.html](http://www.ambulance.vic.gov.au/Education/Calling-Triple-0.html) |
| Behaviour guidance | A means of assisting children to self-manage their behaviour. It differs from traditional ‘behaviour management’ or ‘discipline’ which generally implies that an adult is ‘managing’ children’s behaviour or using punishment to control children. Behaviour guidance applies to all forms of behaviour, not just behaviours labelled as ‘negative’. |
| Behaviour guidance plan | A plan that documents strategies to assist an educator in guiding a child with diagnosed behavioural difficulties to self-manage his/her behaviour. The plan is developed in consultation with the Responsible Person, educators, parents and families, and other professional support agencies as applicable. |
| Best Start | A prevention and early intervention project to improve the health, development, learning and wellbeing of all Victorian children from conception through to transition to school. It aims to strengthen the capacity of parents, families, communities and early year’s services to better provide for the needs of all young children and their families. There are 30 Best Start sites, six of which are Aboriginal Best Start sites. Further information is available in The Kindergarten Guide. |
| Be You | Be You is the national mental health in education initiative delivered by Beyond Blue, in collaboration with Early Childhood Australia and headspace. Be You supports educators from early learning services and schools to develop a positive, inclusive and resilient learning community where every child, young person, educator and family can achieve their best possible mental health. |
| Blood glucose meter | A compact device used to check a small blood drop sample to determine the blood glucose level. |
| Blood-borne virus (BBV) | A virus that is spread when blood from an infected person enters another person’s bloodstream. Examples of blood-borne viruses include human immunodeficiency |
| Term | Definition |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Blood-borne virus | A virus that is transmitted through blood or other bodily fluids, such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B, hepatitis C and viral haemorrhagic fevers. Where basic hygiene, safety, infection control and first aid procedures are followed, the risks of contracting a blood-borne virus are negligible. |
| Bullying | Repeated verbal, physical, social or psychological behaviour that is harmful and involves the misuse of power by an individual or group towards one or more person. Bullying occurs when one or more people deliberately and repeatedly upset or hurt another person, damage their property, reputation or social acceptance. |
| Chain email | An email instructing recipient to send out multiple copies of the same email so that circulation increases exponentially. |
| Challenging behaviour:| Behaviour that:
- disrupts others or causes disputes between children, but which is part of normal social development
- infringes on the rights of others
- causes harm or risk to the child, other children, adults or living things
- is destructive to the environment and/or equipment
- inhibits the child’s learning and relationship with others
- is inappropriate relative to the child’s developmental age and background. |
| Child | *In Victoria*, under the *Children, Youth and Families Act 2005*, a child or young person is a person under 18 years of age.
*In Tasmania*, Children and Youth Services CYS provides a range of service and support that contribute to ensuring children, young people and their families are safe, nurtured and well. |
| Child abuse | Child abuse can include physical abuse, sexual abuse, grooming, emotional or psychological harm, neglect or family violence. It doesn’t have to involve physical contact or force. Child abuse can include: talking to a child in a sexually explicit way, grooming a child for future sexual activity, forcing a child to watch pornography, being witness to family violence, failing to provide a child with an adequate standard of nutrition, supervision or medical care to the extent that the development of the child is placed at serious risk, or is significantly impaired.
**Child abuse** refers to an act or omission by an adult that endangers or impairs a child’s physical and/or emotional health and development. Child abuse may be a single incident but more often takes place over time. Abuse, neglect and maltreatment (refer to Definitions) are generic terms used to describe situations in which a child may need protection. Child abuse includes any and all the following:
- **Physical abuse**: When a child suffers or is likely to suffer significant harm from an injury inflicted by a parent, caregiver or other adult. The injury may be inflicted intentionally or be the consequence of physical punishment or the physically aggressive treatment of a child. Physical injury and significant harm to a child can also result from neglect by a parent, caregiver or other adult. The injury may take the form of bruises, cuts, burns or fractures, poisoning, internal injuries, shaking injuries or strangulation.
- **Sexual abuse**: When a person uses power or authority over a child, or inducements such as money or special attention, to involve the child in sexual activity. It includes a wide range of sexual behaviour from inappropriate touching/fondling of a child or exposing a child to pornography, to having sex with a child [www.bullyingnoway.gov.au](http://www.bullyingnoway.gov.au)
- **Office of the Child Safety Commissioner**, Victoria which is now the Commission for Children and Young People – document can be viewed at: [https://ccvp.vic.gov.au/](https://ccvp.vic.gov.au/)
- **Grooming**: Concerns predatory conduct undertaken to prepare a child for sexual activity at a later time. This is a criminal offence under Victorian law.
- **Emotional and psychological abuse**: Occurs when a child’s parent or caregiver repeatedly rejects the child or uses threats to frighten the child. This may involve name calling, put downs or continual coldness from the parent or caregiver, to the
extent that it significantly damages the child's physical, social, intellectual or emotional development.
**Neglect:** The failure to provide a child with the necessities of life, such as food, clothing, shelter, medical attention or supervision, to the extent that the child’s health and development is, or is likely to be, significantly harmed (Victorian Department of Health and Human Services).
**Family violence:** When children and young people witness or experience the chronic, repeated domination, coercion, intimidation and victimisation of one person by another through physical, sexual and/or emotional means within intimate relationships (adapted from the Australian Medical Association definition). For a more detailed definition of child abuse see to Appendix 2: Definitions of child abuse and indicators of harm in *Protecting the safety and wellbeing of children and young people* (refer to Sources)
**Racial, cultural, religious abuse:** Conduct that demonstrates contempt, ridicule, hatred or negativity towards a child because of their race, culture or religion. It may be overt, such as direct racial vilification or discrimination, or covert, such as demonstrating a lack of cultural respect (attitude and values) and awareness (knowledge and understanding) or failing to provide positive images about another culture.
**Child-related work:** In relation to the WWC Check (refer to *Definitions*), child-related work includes work with children which may involve physical contact, face-to-face contact, oral, written or electronic communication.
| **Childcare Safety Net** | A scheme that provides targeted assistance to vulnerable and at-risk children and their families, as well as supporting childcare services in disadvantaged communities to address barriers in accessing childcare. The Safety Net has three components:
- Additional Childcare Subsidy
- Community Childcare Fund
- Inclusion Support Program |
| **Childcare Subsidy** | CCS is the base level of subsidy that all families will be entitled to subject of some eligibility criteria families need to meet which are similar to the CCB/CCR. Monies are paid directed to the Service Provider and passed on to families as a fee reduction. Families will make a co-contribution to their childcare fees and pay to the provider the difference between the fee charged and the subsidy amount. Be better targeted and provide more assistance to the low- and middle-income families. Some basic requirements must be satisfied for an individual to be eligible to receive childcare Subsidy for a child these include;
- The age of the child (must be 13 or under and not attending secondary school)
- The child meeting immunization requirements
- The individual, or their partner, meets the residency requirements. Factors that will determine a family’s level of Childcare subsidy.
- Combines family income
- Activity test
- Service type
Targeted additional fee assistance vulnerable families through the Childcare Safety Net which has three (3) components and provides extra support for;
- **Child Wellbeing** – Families who require practical help to support their children’s safety and wellbeing.
- **Grandparents** – Grandparents in receipt of income support who are the principal carer of their grandchildren
- **Temporary Financial Hardship** – Short-term increased childcare fee assistance for families who are experiencing significant financial stress due to exceptional circumstances |
| **DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER** | **POLICY GLOSSARY** |
|-----------------------------|---------------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
| | Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled. Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Transition to Work | Parents transitioning to work from income support. Further information can be found at: [https://www.education.gov.au/child-care-subsidy-0](https://www.education.gov.au/child-care-subsidy-0) |
| Child FIRST | Child FIRST, as the access point for family services, is progressively transitioning to The Orange Door. A Victorian community-based intake and referral service linked with Family Services. Child FIRST ensures that vulnerable children, young people and their families are effectively linked to relevant services, including Child Protection. [https://services.dffh.vic.gov.au/referral-and-support-teams](https://services.dffh.vic.gov.au/referral-and-support-teams) The Orange Door is a new way for women, children and young people who are experiencing family violence or families who need assistance with the care and wellbeing of children to access the services they need to be safe and supported. The Orange Door holds perpetrators to account by planning interventions to address the risk they pose and challenging their controlling, violent and abusive behaviour. The Orange Door provides an integrated intake pathway to women’s and children’s family violence services, services for men who use violence and family services. The Orange Door keeps the whole family in view, with expert support tailored to each family member’s needs. [https://orangedoor.vic.gov.au/](https://orangedoor.vic.gov.au/) |
| Child information Sharing Scheme | The new Child Information Sharing (CIS) Scheme allows authorised organisations and professionals who work with children, young people and their families to share information with each other to promote children’s wellbeing and safety. Many services already work together to do this, but the new CIS Scheme makes it easier for professionals to support children, young people and families get the help they need as early as possible, and prevent any harm occurring. All Victorian children and young people from 0-18 years of age are covered by the new CIS Scheme. The Victorian Government will also build a new IT system called Child Link that will draw together information from existing government information management systems. |
| Child-initiated active play | Child-initiated active play is developed by the child through exploration of the environment, equipment and games. |
| Child protection | The term used to describe the whole-of-community approach to the prevention of harm to children. It includes strategic action for early intervention, for the protection of those considered most vulnerable and for responses to all forms of abuse. [https://providers.dffh.vic.gov.au/child-protection](https://providers.dffh.vic.gov.au/child-protection) |
| Child Protection Service | The statutory child protection service provided by the Victorian Department of Health and Human Services, to protect children and young people at risk of abuse and neglect. This service also works closely with Family Services (including Child FIRST) to support the assessment and engagement of vulnerable children and families in community-based services. In Tasmania, The Children, Young Persons and Their Families Act 1997, is strongly based on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and reflects the view that all efforts should be directed towards accurately balancing assessment of safety and risk with strengthening positive aspects in the individual, family and community systems. [Click here](https://www.dhhs.tas.gov.au/about-us/our-work/childrens-services/child-protection) |
| Child Restraint | A device used in conjunction with an adult seatbelt or ISOFIX-compatible lower attachment connectors and a tether strap, to restrain a child passenger of a motor vehicle in the event of a vehicle impact and thus minimise the risk of bodily injury. |
| Child sex offender | Someone who sexually abuses children, and who may or may not have prior convictions. |
| **Child Wellbeing and Safety Act 2005-Reportable Conduct Scheme** | The main purposes of this Act are—
- to establish principles for the wellbeing of children; and to establish the Victorian Children’s Council; and
- to provide for the oversight and enforcement by the Commission for Children and Young People of compliance by certain entities with standards in relation to child safety; and to enable specified entities to share confidential information in a timely and effective manner in order to promote the wellbeing and safety of children; and
- to provide for a scheme for the reporting to the Commission for Children and Young People of allegations of reportable conduct or misconduct that may involve reportable conduct committed by employees within or connected to certain entities, the oversight by the Commission of investigations of those allegations and the administration of the scheme by the Commission; and
- to establish the Child Link Register to improve child wellbeing and safety outcomes for, and to monitor and support the participation in government-funded programs and services by, children born or resident in Victoria |
|---|---|
| **Children with additional needs:** | Children whose development or physical condition requires specialist support, or children who may need additional support due to language, cultural or economic circumstances (refer to Inclusion and Diversity, and Equity Policies). |
| **Cleaning** | A process that removes visible contamination such as food waste, dirt and grease from a surface. This process is usually achieved using water and detergent. During this process, micro-organisms will be removed but not destroyed. |
| **Clothing for sun protection** | Clothing that is loose-fitting, made from cool, densely woven fabric and covers as much skin as possible: tops with elbow-length sleeves and, if possible, collars and knee-length or longer-style shorts, skirts and dresses. Singlet tops and shoestring tops/dresses do not provide adequate protection in the sun. |
| **Code of conduct** | A set of rules or practices that establish a standard of behaviour to be followed by individuals and organisations. A code of conduct defines how individuals should behave towards each other, and towards other organisations and individuals in the community (refer to Code of Conduct Policy). |
| **Communicable disease** | A disease capable of being transmitted from an infected person or species to a susceptible host, either directly or indirectly. |
| **Communities** | Social or cultural groups or networks that share a common purpose, heritage, rights and responsibilities and/or other bonds. ‘Communities’ is used variously to refer, for example, to the community within early childhood and school age care settings, extended kinships, the local geographic community and broader Australian society. |
| **Community participation** | Taking an active role in contributing to communities |
| **Communications plan** | A plan that forms part of the policy outlining how the service will communicate with parents and staff in relation to the policy. The communications plan also describes how parents and staff will be informed about risk minimisation plans and procedures to be followed when a child diagnosed as at risk of anaphylaxis is enrolled at a service (refer to Dealing with Medical Conditions Policy). |
| **Complaint/Feedback** | A complaint is defined as an issue of a minor nature that can be resolved promptly or within 24 hours, and does not require a detailed investigation. Complaints include an expression of concern, displeasure, dissatisfaction, unmet expectation or frustration, such as poor service, and any verbal or written complaint directly related to the service (including general and notifiable complaints) |
| **Computer virus** | Malicious software programs, a form of malware that can spread from one computer to another through the sharing of infected files, and that may harm a computer system’s data or performance. |
| **Compliment** | An expression of gratitude, satisfaction, or exceeding of expectations by or on behalf of a consumer regarding the quality of delivery of services policies, procedures or |
---
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| **POLICY GLOSSARY** |
|---|
| **Content Owner** | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| **Document Author** | EL – Practice Manager |
| **Date Published** | 01/10/2021 |
| **Revision Due Date** | 01/10/2022 |
Page 9 of 36
Policy No: 00
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled.
Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Conflict of interest | An interest that may affect, or may appear reasonably likely to affect, the judgement or conduct of an individual or member of a group, or may impair their independence or loyalty to the service. A conflict of interest can arise from avoiding personal losses as well as gaining personal advantage, whether financial or otherwise, and may not only involve the individual but also their relatives, friends or business associates. |
| Consumer | Refers to current and former consumers of Uniting, their family, support persons and advocates, as well as supported employees engaged in social enterprises. |
| Contractor | A person or company that undertakes a contract to provide materials or labour to perform a service or do a job. Examples include photographer, tradesperson, people contracted to provide an incursion. |
| Cough etiquette | The correct way to prevent the spread of infectious organisms that are carried in droplets of saliva is to cough or sneeze into the inner elbow or to use a tissue to cover the mouth and nose. Place all tissues in the rubbish bin immediately and clean hands with either, soap and water or a disinfectant hand rub. |
| Consumer | A person who is a current or potential user of Uniting’s services. Note: this term may vary across service streams for example client, customer, services user, etc. and extend to families and carers. |
| Country Fire Authority (CFA) | CFA respond to a variety of fire and emergency incidents. They are also involved in a range of other activities including:
- fire safety building inspections
- delivering community awareness, education and safety programs
- post-incident analysis and fire investigation
- fire prevention planning and land use planning at a municipal level. |
| Tasmania Fire Service (TFS): | TFS The Tasmania Fire Service is committed to creating, with your help, a community that is safe from fire.
- To improve your safety, you need to be well-informed about the dangers posed by fire in your own environment - at home, at work and at play.
- Understanding fire safety, taking steps to prevent fires occurring, and acting appropriately when fires break out, will help protect you, your loved ones and your valuable possessions. |
| Criminal history record check- Victoria | Victoria - A full-disclosure, Australia-wide criminal history record check issued by Victoria Police, or by a police force or other authority of a state or territory, or the Commonwealth. It may also be referred to as a National Police Certificate or Police Records Check.
Tasmania - Screening will include a national criminal history check and possibly other forms of checking to the extent allowable in Tasmania. ... These checks usually involve a National Police … |
| Critical reflection | Reflective, or thoughtful, practices that focus on implications for equity and social justice (Early Years Learning Framework, p 45.) |
| Cultural safety | An environment that is spiritually, socially and emotionally safe, as well as physically safe for people; ‘where there is no assault challenge or denial of their identity, of who they are and what they need. It is about shared respect, shared meaning, shared knowledge and experience of learning together. |
| Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD)| Refers to individuals and groups who are from diverse racial, religious, linguistic and/or ethnic backgrounds. |
| Culture | The values and traditions of groups of people that are passed from one generation to another. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**POLICY GLOSSARY**
| Page 10 of 36 | Policy No: 00 |
|---------------|---------------|
| V 13 | |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Curriculum | All interactions, experiences, activities, routines and events, planned and unplanned, that occur in an environment designed to foster children’s learning and development *(Early Years Learning Framework, p45).* |
| Defamation | To injure or harm another person’s reputation without good reason or justification. Defamation is often in the form of slander or libel. |
| Department of Education and Training (DET)-Victoria | The **Victorian** State Government department with primary responsibility for the approval, monitoring and quality assessment of services in Victoria in accordance with the national legislative framework and in relation to the *National Quality Standard*. |
| Department of Education-Education and care unit - Tasmania | The **Tasmanian** Government Education and Care Unit, of the Department of Education is responsible for the administration of the Education and Care Services National Law (Tasmania) 2011, as well as the Childcare Act 2001. |
| Department of Health and Human Services Victoria | The State Government department responsible for the health and wellbeing of Victorians, and with oversight of the administration of the *Food Act 1984*. |
| Department of Health Tasmania | Tasmanian - DHS improves, promotes, protects and maintains the health, safety and wellbeing of Tasmanians through service planning, managing, procuring and delivering high quality health and human services. This covers the range of essential public services delivered by operational Groups:
*Children and Youth Services (CYS)* provides a range of services and supports that contribute to ensuring that children, young people and their families are safe, nurtured and well.
*Ambulance Tasmania (AT)*
*Housing, Disability and Community Services (HDCS)*
*Public Health Services (PHS)* |
| Developmental delay | A delay in the development of a child under the age of 6 years that:
a) is attributable to a mental or physical impairment, or a combination of mental and physical impairments, and
b) is manifested before the child attains the age of 6 years, and
c) results in substantial functional limitations in one or more of the following areas of major life activity:
i) self-care
ii) receptive and expressive language
iii) cognitive development
iv) motor development, and
d) reflects the child’s need for a combination and sequence of special interdisciplinary or generic care, treatment or other services that are of extended duration and are individually planned and co-ordinated *(Disability Act 2006 (Vic)).* |
| Direct Manager | The manager to whom the Representative directly reports. |
| Disability | 1. In relation to a person, refers to:
2. a sensory, physical or neurological impairment or acquired brain injury, or any combination thereof, that:
a. is, or is likely to be, permanent, and
b. causes a substantially reduced capacity in at least one of the areas of self-care, self-management, mobility or communication, and
c. requires significant ongoing or long-term episodic support, and
d. is not related to ageing, or
3. an intellectual disability, or
4. a developmental delay *(Disability Act 2006 (Vic)).* |
| Disclaimer | Statement(s) that seeks to exclude or limit liability and is usually related to issues such as copyright, accuracy and privacy. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER** | **POLICY GLOSSARY**
---|---
**Content Owner** | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer
**Document Author** | EL – Practice Manager
**Date Published** | 01/10/2021
**Revision Due Date** | 01/10/2022
**Page** | Page 11 of 36
**Policy No:** | 00
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Disclosure | Refers to a statement that a child or young person makes to another person that describes or reveals abuse. |
| Dispute resolution procedure | The method used to resolve complaints, disputes or matters of concern through an agreed resolution process. |
| Diversity | Refers to all characteristics that make individuals different from one another, including race, religion, language, ethnicity, beliefs, age, gender, sexual orientation, level of ability, additional needs, socioeconomic status, educational attainment, personality, marital and/or parental status, family structure, lifestyle and general life/work experience. |
| Domestic/family violence | The repeated use of violent, threatening, coercive or controlling behaviour by an individual against a family member(s) or someone with who they have or have had an intimate relationship, including carers. |
| Drug | Refers to any substance taken to change the way the body and/or mind functions. |
| Duty of care | A common law concept that refers to the responsibilities of organisations and staff to provide people with an adequate level of protection against harm and all reasonable foreseeable risk of injury. In addition, organisations have a duty of care to take reasonable precautions to prevent the abuse of a child by an individual associated with the organisation while the child is under its care, supervision or authority. The duty will relate to individuals associated with an organisation, including but not limited to committee members, employees, volunteers and contractors of care refers to the responsibility of education and care services and their staff to provide children with an adequate level of care and protection against foreseeable harm and injury. |
| Each child | A phrase used in the *National Quality Standard* when an individualised approach is warranted, and educators are required to modify their response to meet the needs of an individual child. An example is ‘each child’s current knowledge, ideas, culture and interests provide the foundation for the program’. |
| Early Childhood Intervention Services (ECIS)-Victoria | These services support families and children experiencing a disability or developmental delay (refer to Definitions) from birth to school age. ECIS are funded through the Department of Education and Training (DET) and provided by Specialist Children’s Services teams and Early Childhood Intervention agencies. |
| Early Childhood Intervention Service - Tasmania | Early Childhood Intervention Services support children with a disability or developmental delay from birth to school entry, and their families. Service Eligibility Guidelines and Definitions (PDF, 86KB) are available online. The overall aim of these services is to provide parents and families with the knowledge, skills and support to meet the changing needs of their child and to optimise the child’s development and ability to be part of family and community life. |
| Early childhood teacher | A person with an approved early childhood teaching qualification. Approved qualifications are listed on the ACECQA website: [www.acecqa.gov.au](http://www.acecqa.gov.au) |
| Early Start Kindergarten (Vic) | A funding program that enables three-year-old Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children, and children known to Child Protection to attend a kindergarten program that is planned and delivered by an early childhood teacher for a specific number of hours. Details are available at: [https://www.education.vic.gov.au/parents/child-care-kindergarten/Pages/early-start-kindergarten.aspx](https://www.education.vic.gov.au/parents/child-care-kindergarten/Pages/early-start-kindergarten.aspx) |
| Educational Leader | The Approved Provider of an education and care service must designate, in writing, a suitably qualified and experienced educator, co-ordinator or other individual to lead the development and implementation of educational programs at the service. This person must have a thorough understanding of the *Early Years Learning Framework* (or other approved learning framework), be able to guide other educators in their |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Educator | An individual who provides education and care for children as part of an education and care service. |
| Educational program | A program that:
- Is based on an approved learning framework; and
- Is delivered in a manner that accords with the approved learning framework; and
- Is designed to take into account the individual differences of each child. |
| Electronic communications | Email, instant messaging, communication through social media and any other material or communication sent electronically. |
| Emergency | In relation to an education and care service, includes an incident, situation or event where there is an imminent or severe risk to the health, safety and wellbeing of a person at the education and care service premises e.g. flood, fire, a situation that requires the service to be shut down. |
| Emergency services | Includes Ambulance, fire brigade, police and state emergency services |
| Epilepsy medication | Medication that has been prescribed for the treatment of prolonged seizures or a cluster of seizures. The most common type of medication prescribed is buccal or nasal midazolam. Rectal Valium has been used in the past but is not often prescribed for use as an epilepsy medication. Medication information is included in a Child’s Medication Management Plan, and this must be kept up to date. Only staff who have received child-specific training in the administration of midazolam can administer this medication |
| Emergency Management Plan (EMP) | A written set of instructions to assist the Approved Provider, Nominated Supervisor, educators and staff to deal with incidents or situations that could pose a threat to life, health or property. *Emergency Management Plan Guidelines* and an *Emergency Management Plan* template are available on the DET website at: [https://www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/providers/regulation/Pages/emergencymanagementrequirements.aspx](https://www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/providers/regulation/Pages/emergencymanagementrequirements.aspx) |
| Medication Management Plan (MMP) | Completed by the prescribing doctor in consultation with the individual and/or their family/carer. This medication plan must be attached to the individual’s Epilepsy Management Plan which has been signed by the child’s treating doctor. |
| Emergency services | Includes ambulance, fire brigade, police and state emergency services |
| Encryption | The process of systematically encoding data before transmission so that an unauthorised party cannot decipher it. There are different levels of encryption available. |
| Endpoint data storage devices | Devices capable of storing information/data. New devices are continually being developed, and current devices include:
- laptops
- USB sticks, external or removable hard drives, thumb drives, pen drives and flash drives
- iPods or other similar devices
- cameras with USB drive connection
- iPhones/smartphones
- PCI/PC Card/PCMCIA storage cards
- PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants)
- other data-storage devices (CD-ROM and DVD) |
| Enrolment record: | Contains information on each child, as required under legislation, including contact details, names of authorised nominees names of persons authorised to consent to medical treatment or to authorise administration of medication, names of persons authorised to take the child outside the service, details of any court orders, personal and health information including specific healthcare needs, medical management plans and dietary restrictions etc. Most information will be gathered from parents via an Enrolment form. All information provided will be kept confidential by the service. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| **Content Owner** | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| **Document Author** | EL – Practice Manager |
| **Date Published** | 01/10/2021 |
| **Revision Due Date** | 01/10/2022 |
Page 13 of 36
Policy No: 00
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled.
Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Environmental sustainability| The responsible use and management of the planet’s resources to ensure that they remain available and uncompromised for future generations to use and enjoy. |
| Epidemic | Epidemic: is an outbreak of a contagious disease that spreads rapidly and extensively and affects many individuals simultaneously in an area or population. |
| Epilepsy | Recurrent seizures (abnormal burst of electrical activity in the brain that scrambles messages) that are unprovoked. |
| Epilepsy Management Plan | Designed to help people recognise when seizures are occurring, gives clear directions about appropriate first aid. The plan is developed by the person who has the most knowledge and experience of the individual’s epilepsy and seizures, should be less than 12 months old. The management of epilepsy requires a team approach and the plan should be reviewed and signed by the individual’s treating doctor. An Epilepsy Management Plan and Support Package has been designed by The Epilepsy Foundation of Victoria: [https://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/understanding-epilepsy/](https://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/understanding-epilepsy/) |
| EpiPen® | A type of adrenaline autoinjector containing a single dose of adrenaline which is delivered via a spring-activated needle that is concealed until administration is required. Two strengths are available: an EpiPen® and an EpiPen Jr®, and each is prescribed according to a child’s weight. The EpiPen Jr® is recommended for a child weighing 10–20kg. An EpiPen® is recommended for use when a child weigh more than 20kg. The child’s ASCIA action plan for anaphylaxis (refer to Glossary) must be specific for the brand of device they have been prescribed. |
| Equity | (In the context of human rights) is the behaviour of acting in a fair and just manner towards others. |
| E-safety | The safe and responsible use of technology including use of the internet, electronic media and social media in order to ensure information security and personal safety. There are three main areas of risk to safety: ‘Content: being exposed to illegal, inappropriate or harmful material Contact: being subjected to harmful online interactions with other users (including bullying) Conduct: personal online behaviour that increases the likelihood of, or causes, harm.’ |
| Ethical conduct | Always act in the best interests of children, their parents and families, and users of the service. |
| Ethical practice | A standard of behaviour that the service deems acceptable in providing their services. |
| Exclusion | Inability to attend or participate in the program at the service. |
| Excursion | An outing organised by the education and care service. The written permission of parents or a person named on the child’s enrolment record as having lawful authority must be obtained before educators/staff take children outside the service premises. Under the National Regulations, the definition of ‘excursion’ does not include an outing organised by services operating from a school site, where the child/ren leave the service premises with an educator/staff member, but do not leave the school site |
| Excursion/service event | An additional charge required to meet the cost of special events or excursions that occur in response to emerging children’s program needs. Events that are planned ahead and are included as an expenditure item in the service’s budget do not incur this additional charge (refer to Excursions, Regular Outings and Service Events Policy). |
| Family day care coordinator | A person employed or engaged by the approved provider of a family day care service to monitor and support the family day care educators who are part of the service |
| Family day care educator | An educator engaged by or registered with a family day care service to assist family day care educators. |
| Family day care residence | A residence at which a family day care educator educates and cares for children as part of family day care service. |
| Family day care service | An education and care service that is delivered through the use of two or more educators to provide education and care to children and operates from two or more residences. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**Revision Due Date**
| V 13 | 01/10/2022 |
**Page 14 of 36**
Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| NOTE: | A family day care service that is an approved family day care service may provide education and care to children from a family day care residence or an approved family day care venue. |
| Family day care venue | A place other than a residence approved as a family day care venue for an approved family day care service |
| Family member | in relation to a child, means:
a) a parent, grandparent, brother, sister, uncle, aunt or cousin of the child, whether of the whole blood or half-blood, and whether that relationship arises by marriage (including a de facto relationship), by adoption or otherwise, or
b) a relative of the child according to Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander tradition, or
c) a person with whom the child resides in a family-like relationship, or
d) a person who is recognised in the child's community as having a familiar role in respect of the child. |
| Family-centred practice | Children learn in the context of their families, and families are the primary influence on children’s learning and development. Professionals also play a role in advancing children’s learning and development and can engage in family-centred practice by respecting the pivotal role of families in children’s lives. Early childhood professionals should:
- use families’ understanding of their children to support shared decision-making about each child’s learning and development
- create a welcoming and culturally-inclusive environment, where all families are encouraged to participate in and contribute to children’s learning and development
- actively engage families and children in planning children’s learning and development
- provide feedback to families on each child’s learning, and provide information about how families can further advance children’s learning and development at home and in the community (*Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework*, p10). |
| Family Violence Information Sharing scheme| Part 5A of the Family Violence Protection Act 2008 (FVPA) establishes the Family Violence Information Sharing Scheme (the Scheme). The Scheme authorises the sharing of information to assess or manage risk of family violence. The Scheme aims to create a cultural shift in information sharing practice to support effective assessment and management of family violence risk. |
| Fees: | A charge for a place within a program at the service. |
| Firewall | The primary method of keeping a computer/network secure. A firewall controls (by permitting or restricting) traffic into and out of a computer/network and, as a result, can protect these from damage by unauthorised users. |
| First aid | The provision of initial care in response to an illness or injury. It generally consists of a series of techniques to preserve life, protect a person (particularly if unconscious), prevent a condition worsening and promote recovery. First aid training should be delivered by approved first aid providers, and a list is published on the ACECQA website: [https://www.acecqa.gov.au/qualifications/requirements/first-aid-qualifications-training](https://www.acecqa.gov.au/qualifications/requirements/first-aid-qualifications-training) |
| First aid kit | The Compliance Code *First aid in the workplace*, developed by WorkSafe Victoria, lists the minimum requirements for a first aid kit. *First aid in the workplace* is available at [www.worksafe.vic.gov.au](http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au) |
| First aid management of anaphylaxis course| Accredited training in first aid management of anaphylaxis including competency in the use of an adrenaline autoinjector. |
| Fit and proper | In determining whether an applicant is fit and proper, the Regulatory Authority must take into account the applicant’s history of involvement in education and care services, their compliance with current and prior law, criminal history record check, |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**POLICY GLOSSARY**
| Page 15 of 36 | Policy No: 00 |
|---------------|---------------|
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled. Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
and any bankruptcy or insolvency issues. The Regulatory Authority may reassess fitness and propriety at any time. Applicants are required to complete the Declaration of Fitness and Propriety form on the ACECQA website and have this approved by the Regulatory Authority. This form must be completed by an individual provider applicant or, in the case of an entity provider applicant, each person with management or control of a service. The form is available at: https://www.acecqa.gov.au/resources/applications
(Note: Under the Education and Care Services National Law Act 2010, Section 5, Definitions: “person with management or control, in relation to an education and care service, means – (b) if the provider of the service is an eligible association, each member of the executive committee of the association who has the responsibility, alone or with others, for managing the delivery of the education and care service”.)
Flash drive A small data-storage device that uses flash memory, has a built-in USB connection. Flash drives have many names, including jump drives, thumb drives, pen drives and USB keychain drives.
Focal (previously called simple or complex partial) seizures Focal seizures (previously called partial seizures) start in one part of the brain and affect the area of the body controlled by that part of the brain. The symptoms experienced will depend on the function that the focal point controls (or is associated with). Focal seizures may or may not cause an alteration of awareness. Symptoms are highly variable and may include lip smacking, wandering behaviour, fiddling with clothes and feeling sick, ‘edgy’ or strange. Focal seizures where a person has full awareness were previously called simple partial seizures. Focal seizures where a person has an altered sense of awareness were previously called complex partial seizures. Focal seizures can progress into a generalised seizure.
Food allergies Some foods and food ingredients, or their components, can cause severe allergic reactions including anaphylaxis (refer to Anaphylaxis appendix Policy). Less common symptoms of food allergy include infantile colic, reflux of stomach contents, eczema, chronic diarrhoea and failure to thrive in infants. Food allergies are often caused by peanuts, tree nuts, milk, eggs, sesame seeds, fish and shellfish, soy and wheat. For more information on food allergies, visit www.allergyfacts.org.au
Food & Drink (Everyday)/Healthy Eating Eating a wide variety of foods from the five food groups each day. These are:
- Fruit
- Vegetables and legumes/beans
- Grain (cereal) foods, mostly wholegrain
- Milk, yoghurt, cheese, and alternatives
- Lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds and legumes/beans
- Healthy eating means eating in a way that is socially and culturally appropriate, having regular meals and snacks and eating food to satisfy hunger, appetite and energy needs.
Food & Drink (Discretionary/Sometime) Discretionary/sometimes food and drink is high in fat, sugar and salt or a combination of these.\(^1\) They typically have very little nutritional value and are often processed and packaged. Examples of discretionary food and drink include:
- chocolate, confectionery, jelly
- sweet biscuits, high fat/salt savoury biscuits, chips
- high sugar/high fat cakes and slices
- cream, ice cream
- deep fried foods (e.g. hot chips) and pastry-based foods (e.g. pies, sausage rolls and pasties)
- most fast food and takeaway foods
\(^1\) Refer to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating for further information.
| Term | Definition |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Food - High-risk foods | Bacteria that has the potential to cause food-poisoning can grow and multiply on some foods more easily than others. High-risk foods include meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, small goods, cooked rice/pasta and prepared salads (such as coleslaw, pasta salads, rice salads and fruit salads). Food that is contained in packages, cans or jars can become high-risk once opened, and should be handled and stored appropriately. |
| Food safety | (In relation to this policy) ensuring food provided by the service is fit for human consumption. |
| Food safety program | A written plan that details what an individual business does to ensure that the food it sells or handles is safe for human consumption. A food safety program is an important tool for businesses that handle, process or sell potentially hazardous foods, as it helps to maintain safe food handling practices and protect public health. It should identify potential hazards in all aspects of food handling, describe how such hazards can be controlled/monitored, and define appropriate corrective action to be taken when a hazard is found to be under-managed. A food safety program must also include the requirements for appropriate record keeping. Class 4 services are not required to have a food safety program (refer to Background). |
| Food safety supervisor | A person who:
- can recognise, prevent and alleviate food handling hazards at a premises
- has a Statement of Attainment from a Registered Training Organisation (RTO) that confirms competency in the required food safety standards
- has the ability and authority to supervise other individuals who handle food at the premises to ensure safe food handling at all times.
Class 4 food premises do not need a food safety supervisor (refer to Background). However, they must ensure that staff members have the skills and knowledge needed to safely handle food in their work roles. |
| Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) | A bi-national Government agency with the responsibility to develop and administer the *Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code* (the Code), which details standards and requirements in areas such as food additives, food safety, labelling and genetically modified (GM) foods. Enforcement and interpretation of the Code is the responsibility of State/Territory departments and food agencies within Australia and New Zealand. View at: [http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Pages/default.aspx](http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Pages/default.aspx) |
| Freedom of Information Act 1982: | Legislation regarding access and correction of information requests. |
| Funded kindergarten program – 3 and 4 year old children - (Vic only)|
- Funded kindergarten program refers to a kindergarten program for children in the year before school for which per capita funding is received from the Department
- Must provide a kindergarten program that is planned and delivered by a qualified teacher and offers at least:
- 15 hours per week for 40 weeks of the year
- 600 hours per year |
| General complaint | A general complaint may address any aspect of the service e.g. a lost clothing item or the service’s fees. Services do not have to notify the Regulatory Authority, but the complaint must be dealt with as soon as is practicable to avoid escalation of the issue. |
| Generalised seizure | Both sides of the brain are involved and the person will lose consciousness. A Tonic Clonic seizure is one type of generalised seizure. |
| Governance | The process, by which organisations are directed, controlled and held to account. It encompasses authority, accountability, stewardship, leadership, directions and control exercised in the organisation (Australian National Audit Office, 1999). |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**Revision Due Date**
| V 13 | Policy No: 00 |
|------|---------------|
| 01/10/2022 |
| Term | Definition |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Grievance | A **grievance** is a formal statement (written or verbal) that cannot be addressed immediately and involves matters of a more serious nature, e.g. the service is in breach of a policy/regulation or child protection issues. |
| Harassment | When someone is demeaning, derogatory or intimidating towards another person. Harassment includes:
- racial taunts
- taunts about sexual orientation or gender identity
- sexual harassment: unwelcome physical, verbal or written behaviour of a sexual nature
- repeatedly insulting remarks. |
| Harm | Includes death, or injury, illness (physical or psychological) or disease that may be suffered by a person because of exposure to a hazard. |
| Hat for sun protection| Hats should provide good shade to the face, back of the neck, eyes and ears.
- legionnaire hats, with a flap at the back to protect the neck – the flap and front peak should overlap
- bucket hats with a deep crown and angled brim that sit easily on the child’s head
- broad-brim hats.
Baseball caps and visors do not offer enough protection for the cheeks, ears and neck and are not recommended |
| Hazard | A source or situation with a potential for harm in terms of human injury or ill health, damage to property, damage to the environment or a combination of these. |
| Hazard identification | A process that involves identifying all foreseeable hazards in the workplace and understanding the possible harm that each hazard may cause. |
| Hazard management | A structured process of hazard identification, risk assessment and control, aimed at providing safe and healthy conditions for employees, contractors and visitors while on the service premises or while engaged in activities endorsed by the service. |
| Health Care Card: | A Commonwealth Government entitlement providing concessions for low-income earners and other eligible people. Details are available at: [www.humanservices.gov.au/customer/services/centrelink/health-care-card](http://www.humanservices.gov.au/customer/services/centrelink/health-care-card) |
| Health information | Any information or an opinion about the physical, mental or psychological health or ability (at any time) of an individual. |
| Health Records Act 2001 | State legislation that regulates the management and privacy of health information handled by public and private sector bodies in Victoria. |
| Hot drink | Any container holding a liquid that has been heated or boiled, and that remains above room temperature (25°C) for any period of time. Hot drinks may only be consumed away from access by children, e.g. in the kitchen. Hot drinks must not be carried through the areas accessible by children during a session. |
| Hygiene | The principle of maintaining health and the practices put in place to achieve this. |
| Hyperglycaemia (high blood glucose) | Hyperglycaemia occurs when the blood glucose level rises above 15 mmol/L. Hyperglycaemia symptoms can include increased thirst, tiredness, irritability and urinating more frequently. High blood glucose levels can also affect thinking, concentration, memory, problem-solving and reasoning. Common causes include but are not limited to:
- taking insufficient insulin
- consuming too much food
- common illnesses such as a cold
- stress |
| Hypoglycaemia or hypo (low blood glucose) | Hypoglycaemia refers to having a blood glucose level that is lower than normal i.e. below 4 mmol/L, even if there are no symptoms. Neurological symptoms can occur at blood glucose levels below 4 mmol/L and can include sweating, tremors, headache, pallor, poor co-ordination and mood changes. Hypoglycaemia can also impair concentration, behaviour and attention, and symptoms can include a vague manner and slurred speech. |
| DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER | POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-------------------------|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Hypoglycaemia | Hypoglycaemia is often referred to as a ‘hypo’. Common causes include but are not limited to:
- taking too much insulin
- delaying a meal
- consuming an insufficient quantity of food
- undertaking unplanned or unusual exercise.
It is important to treat hypoglycaemia promptly and appropriately to prevent the blood glucose level from falling even lower, as very low levels can lead to loss of consciousness and convulsions. The child’s diabetes action and management plan will provide specific guidance for services in preventing and treating a hypo. |
| Illness | Any sickness and/or associated symptoms that affect the child’s normal participation in the activities or program at the service. |
| Immunisation History Statement (from the Australian Immunisation Register)( AIR) | The ‘No Jab, No Play’ Legislation requires early childhood education and care services which are regulated under the Education and Care Service National Law Act 2010 and have legislative responsibilities under the Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008 to only offer a confirmed place in their programs to children with acceptable immunisation documentation. |
| No Jab No Play, No Jab No Pay | The law applies to childcare (long day care, 3 and 4 year old kindergarten, family day care and occasional care, parents/carers must provide the service with:
- a current Immunisation History Statement from the Australian Immunisation Register (AIR); and
- the statement must show that the child is up to date with all vaccinations that are due for their age, or that they are able to receive; OR
- is eligible to enrol under the 16 week grace period while the service works with the family to obtain the necessary immunisations / documentation.
Families who do not hold a Medicare card must call the AIR to request an Immunisation History Statement
- phone AIR 1800 653 809
- visit a Medicare or Centrelink office
**No Jab No Pay**
In April 2015, the Government announced that it would close off some exemptions from the immunisation requirements for eligibility for the CCS. Your child must meet immunisation requirements if you get Child Care subsidy
The [National Immunisation Program Schedule](#) provides a list of the vaccines currently recommended. Some exemptions apply, but vaccination objection is not a valid exemption. |
| Inappropriate person | A person who may pose a risk to the health, safety or wellbeing of any child attending the education and care service, or whose behaviour or state of mind make it inappropriate for him/her to be on the premises e.g. a person under the influence of drugs or alcohol |
| Incident | An event or circumstance that causes or has potential to cause harm to consumer, employee, contractor, volunteer or visitor.
Any unplanned event resulting in or having potential for injury, ill health, damage or other loss.
Uniting defines Near Miss/hazard as: • An event or circumstance that has the potential to cause injury or illness. • A hazard can include damage to equipment or premises, can be related to a physical state or to a work practice or procedure. A near miss or a hazard is an accident/incident waiting to happen. |
| Incident, Injury, Trauma and Illness Record| Contains details of any incident, injury, trauma or illness that occurs while the child is being educated and cared for by the service. Any incident, injury, trauma or illness must be recorded as soon as is practicable but not later than 12 hours after the occurrence. These records need to be kept for the period of time specified in |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Inclusion | The incorporation of children and families into the service to ensure that all individuals have an equal opportunity to achieve their maximum potential. |
| Inclusion support agencies | Funded by the Commonwealth Government to work at a local level with early childhood education and care services. ISAs provide practical advice on inclusive practices and support childcare services to build their capacity and to access training. The ISA may also recommend that services access resources, bi-cultural support and specialist equipment, administered by the Professional Support Coordinators (PSCs), to better facilitate a child’s inclusion in a service. Further information and eligibility requirements are available at: https://www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/professionals/needs/Pages/kinderinclusion.aspx |
| Inclusion support subsidy (ISS) | Assists eligible childcare services to improve their capacity to include children with ongoing high support needs, including those with disability, so they can be cared for appropriately within a service. Further details are available at: https://www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/professionals/needs/Pages/kinderinclusion.aspx |
| Inclusive practice | The provision of a flexible, innovative and responsive program that supports the learning needs and meaningful participation of all children attending the service. |
| Incursion | A special activity, event, visitor or entertainment organised by the education and care service that may be conducted as part of a regular session at the service premises. |
| Indigenous Professional Support Unit (IPSU)| Funded by the Commonwealth to provide professional development and support to services with a high proportion of indigenous children. The Victorian Aboriginal Education Association Inc. (VAEAI) is the IPSU in Victoria. VAEAI can also provide support to mainstream education and care services to raise their cultural competency. More information is available at: www.vaeai.org.au |
| Infection | The invasion and multiplication of micro-organisms in bodily tissue. |
| Infectious disease | A disease that can be spread, for example, by air, water or interpersonal contact. An infectious disease is designated by a health authority (however described) as a disease that would require the infected person to be excluded from an education and care service. |
| Infectious Diseases - minimum period of exclusion | The period advised by the Department of Health for excluding any person from attending a children’s service to prevent the spread of infectious diseases through interpersonal contact. The exclusion table (Schedule 7) published by the Department of Health can be accessed at https://www2.health.vic.gov.au/public-health/infectious-diseases/school-exclusion Tasmanian exclusions https://www.education.tas.gov.au/parents-carers/school-colleges/workplace-learning/ |
| Infestation | The lodgement, development and reproduction of arthropods (such as head lice), either on the surface of the body of humans or animals, or in clothing. |
| Information Sharing Act 2018 Children Legislation Amendment | This legislation received Royal Assent on 10 April 2018 and establishes a Child Information Sharing (CIS) Scheme that authorises prescribed professionals and service providers to share information to promote the wellbeing and safety of children. The scheme commenced on 3 September 2018 and is modelled on recommendations made by the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse. It will be phased in over the next few years with Early Childhood Service providers expected to be part of the third phase of the rollout in 2020/2021 |
| Informed consent | A written agreement to do something or to allow something to happen, only after all the relevant facts, including the alternatives and the possible consequences of the action/s, are known |
| Injury | Any physical damage to the body caused by violence or an incident |
| Term | Definition |
|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Inclusivity | A policy of including people who might otherwise be excluded or marginalised. |
| Inclusiveness | The act of including many different types of people and treating them fairly and equally. |
| Insulin | Medication prescribed and administered by injection or continuously by a pump device to lower the blood glucose level. In the body, insulin allows glucose from food (carbohydrates) to be used as energy, and is essential for life. |
| Insulin pump | A small, computerised device to deliver insulin constantly, connected to an individual via an infusion line inserted under the skin. |
| Integrity | (In relation to this policy) refers to the accuracy of data. Loss of data integrity maybe either, gross and evident (e.g. a computer disk failing) or subtle (e.g. the alteration of information in an electronic file). |
| Interest | Anything that can have an impact on an individual or a group. |
| Intolerance | Often confused with allergy, intolerance is an adverse reaction to ingested foods or chemicals experienced by the body but not involving the immune system. |
| Ketogenic diet | A high fat, low carbohydrate, restricted-calorie diet that may be prescribed as additional therapy. This is an effective therapy for some children, although its mechanisms are not well understood. When introducing this diet, a child is usually hospitalised, as such radical dietary changes have the potential to cause serious problems for the child. Once the child is stabilised on a ketogenic diet, they can return home, with the diet managed by the parents or carers. |
| Ketones | Occur when there is insufficient insulin in the body. High levels of ketones can make children very sick. Extra insulin is required (given to children by parents) when ketone levels are >0.6 mmol/L if insulin is delivered via a pump, or >1.0 mmol/L if on injected insulin. |
| Kindergarten Fee Subsidy – Fees Policy (Vic only) | Provides operational guidelines for services administering the Kindergarten Fee Subsidy and can be found in *The Kindergarten Guide*. |
| Kindergarten Fee Subsidy (Vic only) | A state government subsidy paid directly to the funded service to enable eligible families to attend a funded 3 & 4 year old kindergarten program or funded Early start program at no cost (or minimal cost) to promote participation. Details are available at: [Click here](#). |
| Kindergarten Inclusion Support Services (Vic only) | A program offering supplementary assistance to early childhood services to support the inclusion of children who have been diagnosed with developmental concerns, a disability or complex medical needs, into a funded kindergarten program. Services include the Preschool Field Officer Program and Kindergarten Inclusion Support Packages. Details are available in *The Kindergarten Guide*. |
| Kindergarten program (Vic only) | A service that provides an early childhood education program for a three/four year old, delivered by a qualified teacher, often but not necessarily on a sessional basis in a dedicated service. |
| Koorie Early Childhood Education Program (Vic only) | Supports Aboriginal children and their families to access and participate in kindergarten programs. The program consists of three components:
- a statewide co-ordinator who provides support, information and assistance to regional Koorie Engagement Support Officers – Early Childhood Development
- Koorie Engagement Support Officers – Early Childhood Development.
- the Koorie Preschool Assistants program. |
| Koorie Engagement Support Officers (KESOs) (Vic only) | Employed by the Department of Education and Training (DET) to assist families in accessing the broad range of services and support needed to ensure the best start in life for Aboriginal children from birth through to completion of school. KESOs provide advice and practical support to services that offer funded kindergarten places to ensure the delivery of programs that are respectful of the cultural beliefs and practices of Aboriginal children. |
| Koorie Preschool Assistants (KPSAs) program (Vic only) | Implemented by the Department of Education and Training (DET) in partnership with local Aboriginal communities employing KPSAs and administer the program. KPSAs work in kindergartens to assist teachers to develop and deliver culturally| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Inclusive education | inclusive and responsive programs for Aboriginal children. Details are available in *The Kindergarten Guide* |
| Late collection charge | A charge that may be imposed by the service when parents are late to collect their child/children from the program (refer to Attachment 2 *Fee policy – Fee information for families*). |
| Learning | A natural process of exploration that children engage in from birth, as they expand their intellectual, physical, social, emotional and creative capacities. Early learning is closely linked to early development. |
| Learning frameworks | Under the National Quality Framework (NQF), education and care services are required to ensure that the program delivered to all children being cared for and educated by the service is based on and delivered in a manner that accords with an approved learning framework. In Victoria, the approved frameworks are:
- *Early Years Learning Framework* (EYLF)
- *Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework* (VEYLDF)
- *My Time, Our Place: Framework for School Age Care in Australia.* |
| Learning outcome | Children have a strong sense of identity. Children are connected with and contribute to their world. Children have a strong sense of wellbeing. Children are confident and involved learners. Children are effective communicators |
| Learning relationships | Relationships that further children’s learning and development. Both adult and child have intent to learn from one another. |
| Maltreatment | Refers to physical and/or emotional mistreatment, and/or lack of care of the child. Examples include sexual abuse, the witnessing of family violence and any non-accidental injury to a child. |
| Malware | Short for ‘malicious software’. Malware is intended to damage or disable computers or computer systems. |
| Mandatory closure (Vic only) | When services identified as being at high bushfire risk (BURR) are directed by DET to close on days declared a Code Red Fire Danger Rating day. |
| Mandatory reporting-Victoria | There are certain classes of professionals, who are classified as “mandatory reporters”. Which includes all educators working in early childhood. All mandatory reporters **must** make a report to Victoria Police and/or DFFH Child Protection as soon as practicable if, during the course of carrying out their professional roles and responsibilities, they form a belief on reasonable grounds that:
- a child has suffered, or is likely to suffer, significant harm as a result of physical injury and/or sexual abuse, **and**
- the child’s parents have not protected, or are unlikely to protect, the child from harm of that type.
It is a criminal offence not to report in these circumstances. Mandatory reporters must also follow Four Critical Actions For Early Childhood Services (see attachment 10) to ensure they fulfil all of their legal obligations. |
| Mandatory reporting Tasmania | Mandatory reporting in Tasmania includes the following:
- Principals and teachers in an educational institution (including a kindergarten)
- A person who provides childcare, or a childcare service, for fee or reward
- A person concerned in the management of a licensed childcare service
Section 14 of the Act provides that if a mandatory reporter in carrying out official duties or in the course of his or her work (whether paid or voluntary), believes, or suspects, on reasonable grounds, or knows
- that a child has been or is being abused or neglected or is an affected child within the means of the Family Violence Act 2004
- that there is a reasonable likelihood of a child being killed or abused or neglected by a person with whom the child is likely to reside |
| Marginalisation | The treatment of a person or group of people as insignificant or peripheral |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Material safety data sheet | Provides employees and emergency personnel with safety procedures for working with toxic or dangerous materials. The data sheet includes all relevant information about the material such as physical properties (e.g. melting/boiling point, toxicity and reactivity), health effects, first aid requirements and safe handling procedures (e.g. personal protective equipment, safe storage/disposal and management of spills). |
| Mediation | An attempt to bring about a peaceful settlement or compromise between disputants through the objective intervention of a neutral party. |
| Mediator | A person (neutral party) who attempts to reconcile differences between disputants. |
| Medical attention | Includes a visit to a registered medical practitioner or attendance at a hospital. |
| Medical condition | The term medical condition includes asthma, epilepsy, diabetes or a diagnosis that a child is at risk of anaphylaxis, and the management of such conditions. May be described as a condition that has been diagnosed by a registered medical practitioner. |
| Medical emergency | An injury or illness that is acute and poses an immediate risk to a person’s life or long-term health. |
| Medical management plan | A document that has been prepared and signed by a doctor that describes symptoms, causes, clear instructions on action and treatment for the child’s specific medical condition, and includes the child’s name and a photograph of the child. An example of this is the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA) Action Plan for anaphylaxis. |
| Medical practitioner | A person registered under the Health Practitioner National Law to practice in the medical profession. |
| Medication | Any substance, as defined in the *Therapeutic Goods Act 1989* (Cth), that is administered for the treatment of an illness or medical condition. |
| Medication (non-prescribed) | Over-the-counter medication, including vitamins and cultural herbs or homeopathic medications that may have been recommended by an alternative health care professional such as a naturopath. |
| Medication (prescribed) | - Medicine, as defined in the *Therapeutic Goods Act 1989* (Cth), that is:
- authorised by a health care professional
- dispensed by a health care professional with a printed label that includes the name of the child being prescribed the medication, the medication dosage and expiry date. |
| Medication record | Contains details for each child to whom medication is to be administered by the service. This includes the child’s name, signed authorisation to administer medication and a record of the medication administered, including time, date, dosage, manner of administration, name and signature of person administering the medication and of the person checking the medication, if required (Regulation 92). A sample medication record is available on the ACECQA website. |
| Mental health | Early childhood can be understood as a young child’s ability to ‘experience, regulate and express emotions; form close and secure interpersonal relationships; and explore the environment and learn – all in the context of family, community and cultural expectations for young children. Infant mental health is synonymous with healthy social and emotional development |
| Mental health and wellbeing | For the Healthy Early Childhood Services Achievement Program, the ‘Mental Health and Wellbeing’ health priority area focuses on social and emotional wellbeing and resilience. |
| Metered dose inhaler (puffer) | A common device used to administer reliever medication. |
| Metropolitan Fire Brigade (MFB) – Victoria | Provide a fire and rescue service and are the first to respond to specific medical emergencies. The MFB aims to reduce the incidence and impact of fire and other emergencies on the community. This is achieved through the delivery of educational strategies that assist the community to become more self-reliant, including:
- fire safety building inspections, and checking fire-fighting equipment |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Document Version | V 13 |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
| Term | Definition |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Midazolam | Midazolam: Also known as Hypnovel, midazolam belongs to a group of pharmaceuticals called benzodiazepines. Its main purpose is as a sedative or hypnotic, and it is used for medical and surgical procedures. In epilepsy, midazolam is used for management of seizures, as it has the ability to stop the seizures quickly. Once absorbed into the blood, midazolam travels to the brain, attaching to brain receptors that control electrical impulses that are firing at an unusually rapid rate. Midazolam also works by relaxing muscles, which is particularly beneficial in many types of seizures. The effect of midazolam should occur rapidly. |
| Midazolam kit: | An insulated container with an unused, in-date midazolam ampoule/s, a copy of the child’s Medication Management Plan and Epilepsy Management Plan (which includes a picture of the child), and telephone contact details for the child’s parents/guardians, doctor/medical personnel and the person to be notified in the event of a seizure requiring administration of midazolam if parents/guardians cannot be contacted. Midazolam must be stored away from light (cover with aluminium foil) and in temperatures of less than 25°C. EFV Administration flyer – e.g. buccal, gloves, tissues, pen and paper, +/- stopwatch. |
| Minor incident | An incident that results in an injury that is small and does not require medical attention. |
| National Immunisation Program (Childhood) Schedule | The National Immunisation Program (NIP) Schedule is a series of immunisations given at specific times throughout your life. The immunisations range from birth through to adulthood. |
| National Law | Refers to the *Education and Care Services National Law Act 2010*: the national law regulating education and care services for children. |
| National Quality Framework (NQF) | • This framework for the early childhood education and care sector helps providers to improve the quality of services in areas that impact on a child’s development. The framework includes:
• a National Law – the *Education and Care Services National Law Act 2010*
• National Regulations – the *Education and Care Services National Regulations 2011*
• the *National Quality Standard*
• an assessment and rating system
• a Regulatory Authority in each state and territory with primary responsibility for the approval, monitoring and quality assessment of services in their jurisdiction in accordance with the national legislative framework and in relation to the *National Quality Standard*
• the Australian Childrens Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA). The national body responsible for providing oversight of the system and ensuring consistency of approach. |
| National Quality Standard (NQS) | The NQS sets a National benchmark for the quality of children’s education and care services. The *National Quality Standard* is comprised of guiding principles, Quality Areas, standards and elements. There are seven Quality Areas which capture aspects critical to the provision of quality education and care.
Quality Area 1: Educational program and practice
Quality Area 2: Childrens health and safety
Quality Area 3: Physical environment
Quality Area 4: Staffing arrangements
Quality Area 5: Relationships with children
Quality Area 6: Collaborative partnerships with families and communities |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| National Regulations | The Education and Care National Regulations. The National Regulations support the National Law by providing detail on a range of operational requirements for an education and care service. |
| Neglect | See Child abuse definition above. |
| Negligence | Doing, or failing to do something that a reasonable person would, or would not do in a certain situation, and which causes another person damage, injury or loss as a result. |
| Neutral detergent | A cleaning agent available commercially and labelled as ‘neutral’ or ‘neutral pH’. |
| No food sharing | A rule/practice in which a child at risk of anaphylaxis only eats food that is supplied/permitted by their parents and does not share food with, or accept food from, any other person. |
| No Jab, No Play Legislations | See immunisation |
| Nominated Supervisor | A person who has been nominated by the Approved Provider of the service and who has consented to that nomination in writing can be the Nominated Supervisor. All services must have a Nominated Supervisor with responsibility for the service in accordance with the National Regulations. The Approved Provider must take reasonable steps to ensure the Nominated Supervisor is a fit and proper person), with suitable skills, qualifications and experience. The Regulatory Authority must be notified if the Nominated Supervisor for the service changes or is no longer employed at the service. |
| Notifiable complaint | A **notifiable complaint** is a complaint that alleges:
- the safety, health or wellbeing of a child or children was or is being compromised while being educated and cared for by the approved education and care service; or
- the contravention of an Act or Regulation has occurred.
Notifiable complaints must be investigated and reported to the Approved Provider. Some notifiable complaints will be reported to the regulatory authority, by the Approved Provider in writing within 12 hours of the complaint. |
| Notifiable incident | See Serious incident |
| Nutrition | The process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health and growth. |
| Offender | A person who mistreats and/or harms a child or young person. |
| OHS committee | A committee that facilitates co-operation between an employer and employees in instigating, developing and carrying out measures designed to ensure the health and safety of employees in the workplace. |
| Oral Health | A standard of health of the oral and related tissues that enables an individual to eat, speak and socialise without active disease, discomfort or embarrassment and that contributes to general wellbeing. |
| Out-of-Home Care | Is the term used in Victoria when a child or young person is placed in care away from their parents. It includes placement in kinship care, home-based care such as foster care and residential care. For these children, the State of Victoria is legal their parent, and with this comes the responsibilities of a parent to care for and protect them, and to ensure that they have access to all the services they need for their immediate and longer term benefit. |
| Pandemic | Pandemic: is an epidemic (refer to Definitions) occurring worldwide, or over a wide geographic area and affecting a large proportion of the population. |
| Parent/s | In relation to a child, includes:
- a guardian of the child
- a person who has parental responsibility for the child under a decision or order of a court. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**POLICY GLOSSARY**
| Page 25 of 36 | Policy No: 00 |
|---------------|---------------|
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled. Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Parenting Order | A parenting order within the meaning of section 64B(1) of the Family Law Act 1975 (Commonwealth). |
| PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) | A handheld computer for managing contacts, appointments and tasks. PDAs typically include a name and address database, calendar, to-do list and note taker. Wireless PDAs may also offer email and web browsing, and data can be synchronised between a PDA and a desktop computer via a USB or wireless connection. |
| Pedagogy | Early childhood educators’ professional practice, especially those aspects that involve building and nurturing relationships, curriculum decision-making, teaching and learning. |
| Pediculosis | Infestation of head lice that is transmitted by having head-to-head contact with another person who has head lice. Pediculosis does not contribute to the spread of any infectious diseases, and outbreaks of this condition are common in schools and childcare facilities. |
| Perceived conflict of interest | Arises where a third party could form the view that an individual’s private interests could improperly influence the performance of their duties, now or in the future. |
| Perpetrator | A person who mistreats and/or harms a child or young person. |
| Personal information | Recorded information (including images) or opinion, whether true or not, about a living individual whose identity can reasonably be ascertained. |
| Person in day-to-day Charge | A person who is placed in day-to-day charge of an education and care service by an Approved Provider or a Nominated Supervisor; and who has consented to the placement in writing (Regulation 117A). |
| Person with Management or Control: | Where the Approved Provider of a service is an eligible association, each member of the association’s executive committee is a Person with Management or Control and has the responsibility, alone or with others, for managing the delivery of the education and care service (National Law: Definitions (b)). |
| Physical activity, safety movement and travel | Physical activity includes sport, incidental exercise and many forms of recreation and Physical safety is Protection from harm and hazards that can cause injury. Identified risks are managed and minimized The ‘Physical Activity and Movement’ health priority area focuses on physical activity participation, fundamental movement skills and reducing sedentary behaviour. Active travel includes walking, cycling, scootering or any similar transport where physical activity is used to travel. |
| Planned closure | Services identified as being at high fire risk and on the DET’s Bushfire at-Risk Register will close on days determined to have a fire danger rating of Code Red by the Emergency Management Commissioner. Where possible, four to seven days notice of a planned closure will be provided. Services not on the Department’s Bushfire at-Risk Register will remain open, unless directly threatened by fire or another emergency. |
| Play-based learning | Context for learning through which children organise and make sense of their social world as they engage actively with people, objects and representations. |
| Policy | A formal statement of principles which provides a framework for decision-making and indicates the course of action to be taken in specific circumstances. Policies provide services with an approved way of operating in relation to particular matters and improve the management of risk. They reflect the values and beliefs of a service, current thinking, national standards and community expectations, and are relevant in terms of current laws and regulations. |
| Portable storage device (PSD) or removable storage device (RSD) | Small, lightweight, portable easy-to-use device that is capable of storing and transferring large volumes of data. These devices are either exclusively used for data storage (for example, USB keys) or are capable of multiple other functions (such as iPods and PDAs). |
| Potential conflict of interest | Arises where an individual’s private interests could conflict with their responsibilities. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Document Version | V 13 |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled.
Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Preschool Field Officers (PSFOs): (Vic only) | An early intervention, outreach service that is universally available within state-funded preschools for any child with developmental concerns. The primary role of the Preschool Field Officer Program is to assist children with additional needs to access and participate in funded kindergarten programs. Employed by Uniting in some regional locations, local government authorities and/or other agencies to assist children with additional needs to access and participate in funded kindergarten programs. The PSFO service is part of the Kindergarten Inclusion Support Services program. |
| Priority of Access | Priority of access criteria, managing enrolments
Service providers must notify all families of the priority of access policy that applies when they enrol their child.
In instances where more eligible children apply for a place at a kindergarten service than there are places available, services must:
- prioritise children based on the criteria listed below
- work with other local kindergarten services and the regional Department office to ensure all eligible children have access to a kindergarten place. |
| Privacy Act 1988 | Commonwealth legislation that operates alongside state or territory Acts and makes provision for the collection, holding, use, correction, disclosure or transfer of personal information. The Privacy Amendment (Enhancing Privacy Protection) Act 2012 (Cth) introduced from 12 March 2014 has made extensive amendments to the Privacy Act 1988. Organisations with a turnover of $3 million per annum or more must comply with these regulations. |
| Privacy and Data Protection Act 2014 | State legislation that provides for responsible collection and handling of personal information in the Victorian public sector, including some organisations, such as early childhood services contracted to provide services for government. It provides remedies for interferences with the information privacy of an individual and establishes the Commissioner for Privacy and Data Protection. |
| Privacy breach | An act or practice that interferes with the privacy of an individual by being contrary to, or inconsistent with, one or more of the information Privacy Principles or any relevant code of practice. |
| Private interests | Includes an individual’s own personal, professional or business interests, but also those of their relatives, friends or business associates. |
| Procedures | The steps required to implement and comply with a policy. Procedures specify how to achieve the necessary result by outlining who does what and when. Procedures are succinct, factual and to the point, and are generally expressed as a list. |
| Program | The group/activity in which a child is enrolled and which has specific hours of attendance. |
| Public Records Act 1973 (Vic) | Legislation regarding the management of public sector documents. |
| Puffer | The common name for a metered dose inhaler. |
| Reconciliation Action Plan | Reconciliation Action Plan?
Embeds culturally safe practice. It creates new opportunities for every employee and volunteer (First Nations and non-Indigenous) to realise our potential to be a provider of inclusive and culturally safe support. It ensures every employee and volunteer understands our personal responsibility. It is committed to co-designing operational goals with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander service users, employees and organisations. |
| Reasonable belief/reasonable grounds | A person may form a belief on reasonable grounds that a child or young person is in need of protection after becoming aware that the child or young person’s health, safety or well-being is at risk and the child’s parents are unwilling or unable to protect them. There may be reasonable grounds for forming such a belief if:
- a child or young person states that they have been physically or sexually abused |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Red Nose | Infant death syndrome. Previously known as SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) Red Nose is a national not-for-profit organisation providing Safe Sleeping and child safety education to new and expectant mothers, health care professionals and carers. |
| Red Nose and kids | Previously known as SIDS and Kids |
| Reflective practice | A form of ongoing learning that involves engaging with questions of philosophy, ethics and practice. Its intention is to gather information and gain insights that support, informs and enrich decision-making about children’s learning. As professionals, early childhood educator examines what happens in their settings and reflect on what they might change (Early Years learning Framework, p13) |
| Regular checks | A term used in the context of meeting the supervision requirements of sleeping children and referring to a minimal amount of time up to a maximum of 10 minutes that an educator physically checks sleeping children having considered the variables listed in this glossary to ensure adequate supervision. |
| Regular Outing | Means a walk, drive or trip to/from a location that the service visits regularly as part of its educational program, and where the circumstances covered by the risk assessment are the same on each trip. If the excursion is a regular outing, an authorisation from parents is only required to be obtained once every 12 months. A new authorisation is required if there is any change to the circumstances of the regular outing. |
| Regulatory Authority | The Department of Education and Training (DET) is the Regulatory Authority in Victoria, and the Education and Care Unit is the Regulatory Authority in Tasmania with primary responsibility for the approval, monitoring and quality assessment of services in accordance with the national legislative framework and in relation to the National Quality Standard. |
| Relaxation/rest | A period of inactivity, solitude, calmness or tranquillity. |
| Reliever medication | This comes in a blue/grey metered dose inhaler containing salbutamol, a chemical used to relax the muscles around the airways to relieve asthma symptoms. This medication is always used in an asthma emergency. Reliever medication is commonly sold by pharmacies as Airomir, Asmol or Ventolin. |
| Reportable allegation: | A ‘reportable allegation’ means any information that leads a person to form a reasonable belief that a person has committed reportable conduct. The Act sets out five types of reportable conduct, which are:
- sexual offences (against, with or in the presence of, a child)
- sexual misconduct (against, with or in the presence of, a child)
- physical violence (against, with or in the presence of, a child)
- behaviour that is likely to cause significant emotional or psychological harm
- significant neglect. |
| Reportable Conduct Scheme (Vic only) | The reportable conduct scheme seeks to improve how organisations respond to allegations of child abuse and child related misconduct. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**POLICY GLOSSARY**
| Page 28 of 36 | Policy No: 00 |
|---------------|---------------|
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled. Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
Concerns about the safety and wellbeing of children can range from an uncomfortable feeling through to a direct observation of abuse. Staff, volunteers, children and families are encouraged to speak to someone if they have concerns and to be proactive. Staff and volunteers in an organisation need to be aware of their duty of care to children and of their other legal responsibilities.
Some examples of child safety concerns include:
- Inappropriate or special relationships developing between staff or volunteers and children
- Inadequate staff-child supervision ratios
- Breaches of the Code of Conduct, particularly if they are persistent
- Feelings of discomfort about interactions between a staff member or volunteer and a child
- Suspicions or beliefs that children are at risk of harm
- Observation of concerning changes in behaviour
- Concerns about a physical environment that may pose a risk to children (including health and hygiene issues)
- Children’s disclosures of abuse or harm, which must be reported to the Police, DFFH the Commission and, where appropriate any other regulator.
**Respect**
Value the rights, religious beliefs and practices of individuals. Refrain from actions and behaviour that constitute harassment or discrimination.
**Resuscitation flowchart**
Outlines the six steps involved in resuscitation: danger, response, airways, breathing, compression and defibrillation. The Australian Resuscitation Council provides flowcharts for the resuscitation of adults and children free of charge at [https://resus.org.au/guidelines/flowcharts-3/](https://resus.org.au/guidelines/flowcharts-3/)
**Responsible Person**
The Approved Provider (if that person is an individual, and in any other case the person with management or control of the service operated by the Approved Provider) or a Nominated Supervisor or a Responsible Person who has been placed in day-to-day charge of the service in accordance with the National Regulations.
**Risk**
The chance (likelihood) that a hazard will cause harm to individuals.
**Risk assessment**
A process for developing knowledge/understanding about hazards and risks so that sound decisions can be made about the control of hazards. Risk assessments assist in determining:
- what levels of harm can occur
- how harm can occur
- the likelihood that harm will occur
**Risk control**
A measure, work process or system that eliminates an OHS hazard or risk, or if this is not possible, reduces the risk so far as is reasonably practicable.
**RiskMan**
RiskMan is the name of the system used by all employees at Uniting to report incidents and complaints/feedback and record responses. Even where there are other external reporting requirements, RiskMan is where the incident must first be logged. This allows each step of the incident /complaint/feedback management process to be recorded and accessible so we can use it to make decisions, keep people safe, and improve the way we work.
**Risk management**
A risk assessment must identify and assess any hazard that poses a risk to a child’s health, safety and/or wellbeing while on an excursion, and specify how these risks will be managed and/or minimised (Regulation 101). Risk assessments must consider:
- the proposed route and location of the excursion
- any water hazards (refer to *Water Safety Policy*)
- any risks associated with water-based activities (refer to *Water Safety Policy*)
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Transport plan | A written plan that outlines how children will be transported to and from the excursion, including: |
| | - transport to and from the proposed location of the excursion (refer to *Occupational Health and Safety Policy*) |
| | - the number of adults and children participating in the excursion |
| | - the number of educators or other responsible adults who will be providing supervision given the level of risk, and whether or not specialised skills are required (e.g. lifesaving skills) |
| | - the proposed activities, and the impact of this on children with varying levels of ability, additional needs or medical conditions |
| | - the proposed duration of the excursion, and the impact of this on children with varying levels of ability, additional needs or medical conditions |
| | - any items/information that should be taken on the excursion e.g. first aid kit, emergency contact details for children, medication for children with known medical conditions (such as asthma, anaphylaxis and diabetes) and a mobile phone. |
| Risk minimisation | The practice of developing and implementing a range of strategies to reduce hazards for a child at risk of anaphylaxis, by removing, as far as is practicable, major allergen sources from the service. |
| Risk minimisation plan | A service-specific plan that details each child’s medical condition, and identifies the risks of the medical condition and practical strategies to minimise those risks, and who is responsible for implementing the strategies. The risk minimisation plan should be developed by families of children with specific medical conditions that require medical management plans, in consultation with staff at the service upon enrolment or diagnosis of the condition (refer to the *Anaphylaxis appendix Policy* for a sample risk minimisation plan). |
| Safe environments | Safe Environments’ health priority area focuses on supporting physical safety, cultural safety and cyber safety |
| Sanitising | A process that destroys micro-organisms. Sanitising a surface can reduce the number of micro-organisms present. The process of sanitisation usually involves ensuring a surface is thoroughly cleaned with both heat and water, followed by the use of chemicals. |
| Scalds | Burns by hot fluids, steam and other hot vapours. |
| Security | (In relation to this policy) refers to the protection of data against unauthorised access, ensuring confidentiality of information, integrity of data and the appropriate use of computer systems and other resources. |
| Seizure record | An accurate record of seizure activity, which is important for identifying any seizure patterns and changes in response to treatment. Forms are available on the Epilepsy Foundation website at: [http://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/](http://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/) |
| Seizure triggers | Seizures may occur for no apparent reason, but common triggers include: forgetting to take medication, lack of sleep, other illness, heat, stress/boredom, missing meals and dehydration. Flashing or flickering lights can trigger seizures in about 5% of people living with epilepsy. |
| Sensitive information | Information or an opinion about an individual’s racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, membership of a political association, religious beliefs or affiliations, philosophical beliefs, membership of a professional or trade association, membership of a trade union, sexual preference or practices, or criminal record. This is also considered to be personal information. |
| Serious incident | An incident involving workplace health and safety that is required by law to be reported to WorkSafe Victoria or WorkSafe Tasmania. Notification is required for incidents that result in death or serious injury/illness, or dangerous occurrences. For a complete list of incidents that must be reported to WorkSafe Victoria or Tasmania website: [www.worksafe.vic.gov.au](http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au) - [https://www.worksafe.tas.gov.au](https://www.worksafe.tas.gov.au) |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| **Content Owner** | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| **Document Author** | EL – Practice Manager |
| **Document Version** | V 13 |
| **Date Published** | 01/10/2021 |
| **Revision Due Date** | 01/10/2022 |
| **Policy No:** | 00 |
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled. Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| be recorded include qualifications, training and the Working with Children Check (Vic) Working with Vulnerable person check (Tas) (Regulations 146–149). A sample staff record is available on the ACECQA website: https://www.acecqa.gov.au/resources/applications/sample-forms-and-templates | |
| Stakeholders | Persons with an interest or concern in uniting including but not limited to governments, suppliers, other agencies and the general public. |
| State Emergency Service (SES)-Victoria | Volunteer-based organisation responding to emergencies and working to ensure the safety of communities around Victoria. |
| State Emergency Service (SES)-Tasmania | SES Tasmania |
| State of emergency | A situation in which the government is granted special powers, by constitutional or legal provision, to deal with a perceived threat to law and order, or public safety. |
| Subpoena | Is a writ issued by a government agency, most often a court, to compel testimony by a witness or production of evidence under a penalty for failure. |
| Student | A person undertaking a practicum placement as part of a recognised early childhood qualification. This student will be supported by an educational institution in the completion of their placement. |
| Sunglasses: | Sunglasses are optional. If worn, it is recommended that glasses are a close fitting, wrap-around style that meet the Australian Standard 1067 (Sunglasses: Category 2, 3 or 4) and cover as much of the eye area as possible. Wearing a hat with a brim that shades the eyes can also reduce UV radiation to the eyes by 50%. |
| Sun Protective clothing and Hat | See ‘Clothing for sun protection’
See ‘Hat for sun protection’. |
| Sunscreen | SPF 30+ or higher, broad-spectrum, water-resistant sunscreen. Sunscreen should be applied 20 minutes before going outside and reapplied every two (2) hours, even when labelled 4 hours water resistance. Monitor the expiry date and store in a supervised, cool, dry place. |
| SunSmart | The name of the skin cancer prevention program conducted by Cancer Council which promotes sun protection: www.sunsmart.com.au (Vic) and https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety/be-sunsmart/sunsmart-in-schools/tas (TAS) |
| Supervision | See adequate supervision above. |
| Support | Work in a co-operative and positive manner. |
| Tasmanian Fire Services | TFS Kids is a website created by the Tasmania Fire Service specifically for Tasmanian children. The website is designed to provide free fire safety information and educational resources that school-aged children can use in a friendly and engaging online environment. They will be able to learn with informative activities how to react in case of a fire related emergency and how they can help keep themselves, their family and friends safe. https://www.tfseducation.com.au/parents/tfs-kids |
| The Kindergarten Guide (Vic only) | Provides detailed information from the Department of Education and Training (DET) about: the types of kindergarten funding available, eligibility criteria, how to apply for funding and how to comply with operational requirements once funding has been granted. |
| Tobacco, alcohol and other drugs: | For the Healthy in Early Childhood Services Achievement Program, the ‘Tobacco, Alcohol and Other Drugs’ health priority area focuses on creating smoke-free and drug-free environments and responsible alcohol consumption. |
| Tobacco prevention | Involves guided age-appropriate, sensitive discussions about health issues related to tobacco as opportunities arise. |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**Revision Due Date**
| V 13 |
|------|
**Policy No:**
| 00 |
|----|
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled.
Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Tonic Clonic seizure | A convulsive seizure with loss of consciousness, muscle stiffening, falling, followed by jerking movements. These types of seizures are no longer called ‘grand mal’. |
| Transition time | Transitions are times when children move between and adapt to different spaces or places and with different people, experiences, expectations and routines. The term encompasses regular transitions across a day. |
| Transport - Regular | Regular transportation, in relation to an education and care service, means the transportation by the service or arranged by the service (other than as part of an excursion) of a child being educated and cared for by the service, where the circumstances relevant to a risk assessment are substantially the same for each occasion on which the child is transported. [An example of a change in circumstances that are substantially different might be when the means of transport or the transportation route or destination(s) have altered or the provider of the transportation service has changed]. Authorisation for a child to be transported must be given by a parent or other person named in the child’s enrolment record as having authority to authorise transportation of a child. |
| Transport - Excursions | If an excursion involves transporting children, the risk assessment must now also consider: • the means of transport • any requirements for seatbelts or safety restraints under a law of each jurisdiction in which the children are being transported • the process for entering and exiting the education and care service premises and the pick-up location or destination (as required) • procedures for embarking and disembarking the means of transport, including how each child is to be accounted for. |
| Trauma | An emotional wound or shock that often has long-lasting effects or any physical damage to the body caused by violence or an incident. |
| Type 1 diabetes | An autoimmune condition that occurs when the immune system damages the insulin producing cells in the pancreas. Type 1 diabetes is treated with insulin replacement via injections or a continuous infusion of insulin via a pump. *Without insulin treatment, type 1 diabetes is life threatening.* |
| Type 2 diabetes | Occurs when either insulin is not working effectively (insulin resistance) or the pancreas does not produce sufficient insulin (or a combination of both). Type 2 diabetes accounts for 85 to 90 per cent of all cases of diabetes and usually develops in adults over the age of 45 years, but is increasingly occurring in individuals at a younger age. *Type 2 diabetes is unlikely to be seen in children under the age of 4 years.* |
| Unauthorised person | (in relation to this policy) is a person who is **not** a parent, family member, authorised nominee (refer to *Glossary*), emergency services or medical personnel, or a person who holds a current Working with Children Check (Vic) Working with Vulnerable person check (Tas) card. |
| Unique identifier | A symbol or code (usually a number) assigned by an organisation to an individual to distinctively identify that individual while reducing privacy concerns by avoiding use of the person’s name. |
| Uniting Early Learning | The Approved Provider appointed Nominated Supervisor or a person who has been placed in day-to-day charge of the service. |
| Responsible Person | |
| USB interface | Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a widely used interface for attaching devices to a host computer. PCs and laptops have multiple USB ports that enable many devices to be connected without rebooting the computer or turning off the USB device. |
| USB key | Also known as sticks, drives, memory keys and flash drives, a USB key is a device that plugs into the computer’s USB port and is small enough to hook onto a key ring. A USB key allows data to be easily downloaded and transported/ transferred. |
| UV Radiation | Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a type of energy produced by the sun and some artificial sources, such as solariums. Too much UV radiation can cause skin and eye damage, sunburn, tanning and skin cancer. No tan is safe. It is a sign of UV damage. You cannot see or feel UV. UV can be damaging on cool, cloudy days. Whatever the weather, it’s |
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| POLICY GLOSSARY |
|-----------------|
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
**Revision Due Date**
| V 13 | 01/10/2022 |
Page 33 of 36
Policy No: 00
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled.
Please refer to the Uniting Intranet/Document Management System for the latest version.
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Vitamin D | Important to use sun protection whenever UV levels are three (3) and above. Check the daily sun protection times via the SunSmart app or website. Some UV exposure is recommended for vitamin D. Sensible sun protection should not compromise vitamin D levels. |
| Victorian Children’s Services Act & Regulations | The Act and Regulations were recently amended, and the information on this page has been updated to include these changes. The services regulated under the Victorian Children’s Services Act 1996 include:
- limited hours services (where children attend for short period of time)
- former Budget Based Funded services not funded for Childcare Subsidy
- occasional care services
- early childhood intervention services
- mobile services
- school holiday care programs that operate for up to 28 days a year.
Services providing education and care on a regular basis (family day care services, long day care services, outside school hours care services, preschools (kindergartens), and school holiday care programs that operate for 28 or more days a year) are regulated under a scheme known as the National Quality Framework, not under the state law. |
| Victorian Institute of Teaching (VIT) | The statutory authority for the regulation and promotion of the teaching profession in Victoria, established as part of the Victorian Institute of Teaching Act 2001. All teachers in Victorian government schools, Catholic schools and independent schools are required to be registered with the VIT in order to practise in their profession. An amendment to the Education and Training Reform Act 2006 introduced in 2014 requires early childhood teachers to be registered with the Victorian Institute of Teaching from 30 September 2015. |
| Virus | A program or programming code that multiplies by being copied to another program, computer or document. Viruses can be sent in attachments to an email or file, or be present on a disk or CD. While some viruses are benign or playful in intent, others can be quite harmful: erasing data or requiring the reformatting of hard drives. |
| Visitors | Visitors to Uniting include; work experience students, consumers, members of the public in work places, community sector agency representatives, representatives of funding bodies and any other individual encountered as part of the delivery of services. |
| Voluntary (non-mandated) notification | A notification to the Child Protection Service by a person who believes that a child is in need of protection. Section 183 of the *Children, Youth and Families Act 2005* states that any person who believes, on reasonable grounds, that a child is in need of protection, may notify a protective intervener of that belief and of the reasonable grounds that the belief is based on. Under this part of the Act, notifications are made out of moral obligation, rather than legislative obligation. The person making the notification is not expected to prove the abuse, and the law protects the anonymity of the person making the notification. |
| Voluntary parent contribution | A voluntary payment for items not directly related to the provision of the children’s program. Attendance at the service is not conditional on this payment. |
| Volunteer Regular | A person who willingly undertakes defined activities to support the education and care program on a occasional / regular basis in an unpaid or honorary capacity. Volunteers may not be counted in the child/qualified staff ratios or the minimum number of staff on duty and must be supervised at all times. This person must be a current volunteer Working with Children Check. (Vic) Working with Vulnerable person check (Tas) |
| Water hazard | (in relation to this policy) can lead to drowning or non-fatal drowning incidences. Drowning hazards include large bodies of water such as swimming pools, rivers, creeks, dams and ponds. Smaller bodies of water, including nappy buckets, water containers, pet water bowls and poor drainage which allows water to collect can also present drowning hazards for young children. |
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Working directly with children | For the purposes of the National Regulations, working directly with children is defined as being physically present with children and directly engaged in providing them with education and/or care. |
| Working with Children (WWC) Check (Victoria)| Working with Children (WWC) Check: The check is a legal requirement for those undertaking paid or voluntary child-related work (refer to Definitions) in Victoria and is a measure to help protect children from harm arising as a result of physical or sexual abuse. The Department of Justice assesses a person’s suitability to work with children by examining relevant serious sexual, physical and drug offences in a person’s national criminal history and, where appropriate, their professional history. All educators, teachers, students and staff over the age of 18 years, require a current working with children check. “Volunteers require a current “volunteer working with children check” |
| Working with Vulnerable person check (Tasmania) | Working with Vulnerable person check (Tasmania)(WWVP) is required if you: are 16 years of age or over; work or volunteer with children (that is, anyone under 18 years of age); would be expected to have more than incidental contact with children as a normal part of your duties. “Volunteers require a current “volunteer working with children check” |
| Workplace | The place of employment and includes any place where a person attends for the purpose of carrying out any function in relation to his or her employment with uniting, e.g. consumer’s home, work function, business trip. |
| WorkSafe Victoria | The manager of Victoria’s workplace safety system. WorkSafe Victoria’s responsibilities are to: • strives to prevent workplace injuries, illness and fatalities • provides benefits to injured workers and helps them to return to work • enforces Victoria’s occupational health and safety laws • provides reasonably priced workplace injury insurance for employers • provides an emergency response service 24 hours per day. |
| WorkSafe Tasmania | Work Health, Safety and Wellbeing Advisors help you make your workplace safer by: • providing you with practical tools to help you identify hazards in your workplace • helping you implement solutions that are relevant, practical and affordable • checking that the safety plans and policies you have in place are on track. • providing you with ongoing support https://www.worksafe.tas.gov.au/ |
| Young person | In Victoria, under the *Children, Youth and Families Act 2005*, a child or young person is a person under 18 years of age. |
## Revision Record
| Version | Date | Document Writer | Revision Description |
|---------|------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| V7.0 | 01/02/19 | Paula Silveira | Additional - Reportable conduct scheme, mandatory reporting updates |
| V8.0 | 18/03/2019 | Sue Killeen | Addition – AA’s, Transition time, Regular checks |
| V9.0 | 3/4/19 | Sue Killeen | Oral Health |
| V10 | 15/5/19 | Georga Simmons | Family Day Care Educator |
| V11 | 21/8/19 | Georga Simmons | 3 year old funded kindergarten rollout |
| V12 | 12/5/20 | | Update of Children’s Services ACT, Mental health, tobacco, e-safety |
| V13 | 30/9/21 | Georga Simmons | Update Road Safety & Save travel other additional information |
---
**DOCUMENT TITLE & NUMBER**
| Content Owner | Uniting Early Learning-Executive Officer |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Document Author | EL – Practice Manager |
| Document Version | V 13 |
| Date Published | 01/10/2021 |
| Revision Due Date | 01/10/2022 |
Page 36 of 36
Printed hard copies of this document are considered uncontrolled.
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Reading Magazine 2011
Year 7
© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2011.
Read books – and change lives!
Read books for Book Aid International.
Every $4 you raise will help send one brand new book to a library in Sub-Saharan Africa, where books really can change lives.
How can you help?
1. Register on the Internet.
2. Find sponsors. Ask friends and family to give you money for every book you read.
3. Read as many books as you can in one month.
4. Collect the money from your sponsors.
5. Send the money you raise to Book Aid International.
Register now at www.bookaid.org
Why should you help?
Many adults and children in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot read very well. Families often do not have money to pay for books of their own. Book Aid International helps to provide books and libraries. Without this help, many African children might not see or read a book during their childhood.
“I am a Maasai boy and one day our school was invited to a reading tent in Vigwaza. We walked for almost three hours to reach the main road. From there we boarded a bus to Vigwaza. There were many other children from other schools there. I chose a book called *Mgabga Pazi*. The story was very, very nice and I enjoyed it. In our school there were no such books. When we arrived home everybody was exhausted, but we were very excited to tell our parents what we had seen. The reading tent made me see these books for the first time in my life, so I will always remember it.”
The diver
I put on my aqua-lung and plunge,
Exploring, like a ship with a glass keel,
The secrets of the deep. Along my lazy road
On and on I steal –
Over waving bushes which at a touch explode
Into shrimps, then closing, rock to the tune of the tide;
Over crabs that vanish in puffs of sand.
Look, a string of pearls bubbling at my side
Breaks in my hand –
Those pearls were my breath! ... Does that hollow hide
Some old Armada wreck in seaweed furled,
Crusted with barnacles, her cannon rusted,
The great San Philip? What bullion in her hold?
Pieces of eight, silver crowns, and bars of solid gold?
I shall never know. Too soon the clasping cold
Fastens on flesh and limb
And pulls me to the surface. Shivering, back I swim
To the beach, the noisy crowds, the ordinary world.
Ian Serraillier
Blackberries were a popular plant in Australia 200 years ago, and not just for their delicious fruit. People also thought it was a good idea to plant blackberries along the sides of streams to stop the soil from being washed away. Within 20 years, wild blackberries had become a serious weed.
Weeds are plants that take over an area so that few other plants can live there. Blackberries are one of Australia’s most damaging weeds because they spread quickly and in many different ways.
Blackberries sprout lots of canes from a central crown. New canes grow every year. They grow rapidly (half a centimetre a day) and can grow up to seven metres long. The canes grow over the top of many other plants and block out the light so these other plants die. Each year some old blackberry canes die, making a thorny thicket in the middle of the blackberry patch. Hardly anything else can live there.
Blackberries are also spread by seeds. One berry can contain as many as 80 seeds which are spread by birds, animals, people and water.
However, blackberries do not rely only on seeds to make new plants. The diagram shows other ways that blackberries spread. Suckers grow up from the roots and start new plants. Even a tiny piece of root that has been chopped off can grow into a new plant. Where a cane tip touches the ground, it will grow a new daughter plant. In its first year a cane does not flower or produce fruit. It uses all its energy to grow and spread.
Council workers often spray wild blackberries with poison to try to get rid of them – so never eat wild blackberries.
**How blackberries make new plants**
- **central crown**
- **sucker**
- **daughter plant**
- **first year cane**
- **second year cane**
The outsider
On an Arctic island long ago, a stranger is approaching a village.
“Papa,” I yell. “Someone is coming.”
Papa gathers Uncle and the other men. They come to stand beside Finn, Tuaq and me in a show of communal strength.
“He must be from one of the groups that have already arrived at the coast,” Uncle suggests.
Papa nods. He doesn’t take his eyes off the approaching figure.
“Get Nana,” he tells Miki.
If the man wants to stay, Nana will decide. She’s already walking towards us, wearing her priestess cape trimmed with raven feathers and arctic fox fur.
“Hullo-o-o,” the man calls into the wind.
Papa waits until he can see the stranger’s eyes. The man is not from any villages we join with on the coast.
“Good morning,” Papa says cautiously.
“I am Hulag,” the man responds.
Papa doesn’t say his name. Instead he nods in Nana’s direction. “This is Ananaksaq.” Nana is famous throughout the icelands and Papa is reminding Hulag how powerful our village is.
“It’s an honour to meet you.” Hulag’s eyes measure Nana up and down. He doesn’t look impressed. His grin says he thinks it will be easy to charm this old woman with an oil-stained parka and dirty face.
Papa leads, but Nana decides, and she has made her first decision. This man must wait out in the cold.
‘I’m Michael. I’m new here.’ I gave her my best shallow smile and hoped she’d take the offer. She had to have better things to be doing with her time.
‘I know who you are, Michael, and I know why you’re here.’ In other words shut up and let me do the talking. Fair enough too. I took the advice. She didn’t look all that angry though. If anything she almost seemed amused by me and her tone was friendly. I tried to remind myself who she was, in case it was some sort of trap. She took a deep breath, like I was a small part in a big battle she’d long since stopped trying to win, and smiled at me.
‘You’re hardly the first person to change schools, Michael, and you’re certainly not the first to try to make an impression. And just between you and me, you’re not the first to be sent here by Mr Jensen.’ She stopped, so I gave a little nod and mumbled my agreement, which seemed to please her. ‘Quite. So what do you think we should do about this?’
‘Maybe we could just chalk it up to experience,’ I tried, heartened by her apparent good humour. She acted as if she hadn’t heard me.
‘Were you pleased your family decided to move here, Michael?’
‘Um, not pleased exactly,’ I admitted.
‘And how have you found us?’ It was bizarre. She was beginning to sound like some old auntie stuck for conversation during a Christmas visit.
‘All right, I suppose.’
‘Yes, we are.’ She smiled at something I couldn’t even guess at. ‘And you think we should just leave this here do you?’ It had to be a trap. I nodded, not trusting myself to say anything useful.
‘Let me just tell you this then. You don’t want to cross me, Michael. You’ll find me a very loyal person to my staff. Do you understand that?’ Again I nodded. ‘Of course I’ll have to ring home, to let them know things haven’t started too well for you, but apart from that I think you should just get back to class and concentrate on keeping a low profile, don’t you?’
It didn’t feel right. She was being reasonable, no doubt about that, but I couldn’t quite trust her. There was something about the way she looked at me when she spoke, like she had some private joke going I would never understand. And she was an adult. There had to be something in it for her.
Comets are made from debris left over when our Solar System was formed. The solid part of a comet, the nucleus, is a chunk of ice typically measuring a few kilometres across. The ice in a comet is mainly made up of frozen ammonia, methane and water. Harvard University astronomer Fred L. Whipple, a pioneer in comet research, described the nucleus as a ‘dirty iceberg’ to reflect the fact that bits and pieces of dust and rocky material are mixed in with the ice.
There are over 3000 known comets. They travel in various orbits around the Sun, usually going deep into the far reaches of our Solar System. The orbits of some comets bring them close to the Sun after many years in darkness. When they come near the Sun, comets reflect the Sun’s light and can therefore be seen in our sky. Some comets take between two and three hundred years to orbit the Sun.
The Sun’s heat and light cause comets to shed material, which normally forms into the characteristic long tail. As a comet approaches the Sun, the heat makes it expand, evaporating gas and releasing dust. The gas and dust form a fuzzy head and a long tail. Comet tails always point away from the Sun, regardless of the direction of the comet’s motion.
One of the most famous comets is Halley’s Comet, which appears in our skies approximately every 75 years. When it last came close to the Sun, in 1986, it was not as bright as expected. Recently, a much more spectacular comet was Hale-Bopp. It shone brightly in the night skies in 1996 and 1997, and had an impressive double tail that was easy to see with the naked eye for several months.
Salinity is one of Australia’s greatest environmental problems. It occurs when too much salt rises from under the ground to the surface and ruins the soil. In 2000, there were 2.5 million hectares of salt-affected land in Australia. This may increase to 17 million hectares by 2050.
**Rising watertable**
Land clearing is the major cause of Australia’s dryland salinity problem. Trees act as pumps, removing water from the soil and keeping the water level in the ground well below the surface. This level is called the watertable. Water absorbed by the roots travels through the trunk and out through the leaves into the air. In a day, over 700 litres of water may pass through the leaves of a fully grown river red gum.
Beneath the ground across much of Australia there are large deposits of salt laid down by ancient seas. The salt is harmless underground, but when it comes to the surface it does damage. When trees are removed the watertable rises, bringing the salt with it.
**Costs**
The cost of salinity to Australia’s farming production is over $250 million a year, and the cost is increasing. The CSIRO estimates that salinity will cause the extinction of 1000 species of Australian plants and animals. Salinity also damages water pipes, roads, houses and parks. In the city of Wagga Wagga, this type of damage costs over $3 million each year. The level of salt in the Murray River is also increasing, and by 2020 the water in Adelaide piped from the Murray may be too salty to drink.
**Halting the salt**
Replanting native trees is a very effective method of lowering the watertable. Native grasses have long roots that prevent water from rising to the surface, unlike many introduced grasses that have shallow roots.
**Slow change**
For many years, the practices that led to today’s salinity problems went on without anyone knowing the consequences. This was because the effects of land clearing on watertables were not immediately obvious. Similarly, the effects of changing these practices will not become noticeable for decades, because it will take that long for seedlings planted now to become trees and restore watertables to their natural levels.
*Figure 1 Uncleared landscape*
*Figure 2 Cleared landscape*
Below are two reviews of the science-fiction film, *Avatar*, written and directed by James Cameron and starring Sam Worthington.
**Review 1**
There’s no argument that, as a showcase for the immersive potential of 3D visual effects technology, James Cameron’s long-awaited $300 million sci-fi epic *Avatar* is an unqualified triumph.
But as a story designed to engage, enthrall and entertain adult audiences for almost three hours, it is a major disappointment, strewn with weak characters, environmental platitudes and anti-progress clichés.
Set on the distant, forest-covered moon of Pandora, the story tells of Jake Sully (Sam Worthington), a paraplegic former marine recruited by the heavily-militarised security division of an interplanetary mining corporation that is having trouble with the natives, an aggressive blue-skinned race known as the Na’vi, who look like they have spent too long at the gym.
The lush alien world Cameron creates is a magnificent, photo-realistic landscape of multicoloured dinosaurs, waterfalls and floating mountains. But with its patronising, predictable images of noble savages, evil technology and gigantic bulldozers crunching their way through precious rainforests, the film often feels like a megalithic piece of green propaganda.
A compulsive envelope-pusher, Cameron invented ground-breaking visual processing techniques for the film, but perhaps he should have spent a little less time obsessing over the technology and a tad more developing the story beyond the compendium of clichés it regrettably is.
**Review 2**
The good news is that the most costly film ever made is one of the best films of the year; not because the plotting is original, but because of the sheer film-making skills, soaring imagination and technical expertise that James Cameron brings to a timeless story of good and evil.
Much in the film may not be very new (though the film is spectacularly three-dimensional, the plotting constantly threatens to lapse into two dimensions), but somehow it all works wonderfully well, thanks mainly to Cameron’s storytelling skills and to the movie’s fantastically detailed vision, including six-legged horses and futuristic war machines.
Sam Worthington acquits himself extremely well as the hero, even though he’s transformed and unrecognisable as the avatar Jake for much of the time. Stephen Lang and Giovanni Ribisi are wonderfully hissable villains. However, *Avatar* succeeds not so much because of its cast and narrative, but for the amazing world created by Cameron and his designers and special effects wizards.
END OF READING MAGAZINE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Cover
Cover image © Densi, 2011. Used under licence from Shutterstock.com
Read books – and change lives!
Selected text and image (top) reproduced with permission of Book Aid International. Image (bottom) © Lucian Coman, 2011. Used under licence from Shutterstock.com
The diver
Poem ‘The Diver’ by Ian Serraillier © Estate of Ian Serraillier. (Originally published in Happily Ever After, Oxford University Press, in 1963). Reproduced with permission of the Estate of Ian Serraillier. Adapted illustration © Jupiterimages Corporation, 2011.
Blackberries: tasty terror
Illustration of two blackberries © Tatsiana Yafimava, 2011. Used under licence from Shutterstock.com Illustration showing how blackberries make new plants by Yuko Fujita.
The outsider
Extract from Polar Boy by Sandy Fussell. Text © 2008 Sandy Fussell. Reproduced with permission of Walker Books Australia. Image © Albert Lozano, 2011. Used under licence from Shutterstock.com
The first day
Extract from Lester by Bernard Beckett, Longacre Press, 1999. Reproduced with permission of Random House New Zealand.
Comets
Image of a comet from Investigate Astronomy by Tim Furniss, Parragon UK, 1999. Illustration of a comet’s path around the Sun from Discovering the Universe 2nd Edition by William J. Kaufmann, W.H. Freeman Company, USA, 1990.
Salinity – an environmental emergency
Adapted extract and illustrations from Australia’s Environment: how people have changed the environment by Greg Pyers, Echidna Books, 2002. Reproduced with permission of Pearson Education Australia. Illustrations re-drawn by Yuko Fujita.
Avatar
Review 1: Adapted extract from review of ‘Avatar’ by Jim Schembri, The Age, 12 December 2009. Reproduced with permission of Jim Schembri, courtesy of The Age.
Review 2: Adapted extract from review of ‘Avatar’ by David Stratton, The Australian, 15 December 2009. Reproduced with permission of David Stratton.
Snowboarding in Australia
Image © Samot, 2011. Used under licence from Shutterstock.com
Snowboarding is fast becoming one of the most popular winter sports in Australia. Australian athletes have been amongst the world’s top snowboarders since Zeke Steggall represented Australia in the first Olympic snowboarding event in Japan in 1998. Nathan Johnstone was number two in the world in 2008 and 2009, and Torah Bright won a gold medal in snowboarding at the 2010 Winter Olympics.
NATIONAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
LITERACY AND NUMERACY
READING
YEAR 7
2011
0:65 Time available for students to complete test: 65 minutes
Use 2B or HB pencil only
© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2011
Do not write on this page.
Read the poster for *Book Aid International* on page 2 of the magazine and answer questions 1 to 6.
1. The poster encourages people to join *Book Aid International* by
- offering them a reward for their hard work.
- showing them how much fun reading books can be.
- telling them they will make friends in other countries.
- showing they can make a difference to other people’s lives.
2. Read as many books as you can in one month.
Why does the poster say this?
- to show you books are fun
- so you will learn to read well
- so you can raise a lot of money
- to show you there are many books to read
3. At [www.bookaid.org](http://www.bookaid.org) people register to
- help raise money.
- buy books online.
- learn how to read.
- make friends with some children in Africa.
4. How does *Book Aid International* help people in Sub-Saharan Africa?
- by selling books and giving them the money
- by teaching them to write their own books
- by helping them to set up their own bookshops
- by giving them more books to read
5 In the last section of the poster, a Maasai boy tells his story. Why has the Maasai boy’s story been included in this poster?
6 This poster is aimed at people who
- do not have access to books.
- live in Sub-Saharan Africa.
- like to help others.
- cannot read.
Read *The diver* on page 3 of the magazine and answer questions 7 to 11.
7 In the first stanza (verse), the diver mainly feels
- scared by possible dangers.
- wonder at the marine environment.
- proud of knowing so much about the sea.
- confused about the objects found underwater.
8 The description of the bushes is made more vivid by
- relating them to the deep ocean.
- the description of nearby jewels.
- suggesting the sounds they make.
- the sudden contrast of movement.
9 What bullion in her hold?
In this line, *her* refers to
- a ship.
- a cannon.
- the diver.
- a sea animal.
10 How does the diver feel about going back to the beach?
- curious
- nervous
- relieved
- reluctant
11 What does the sea most strongly represent for the diver?
- an escape from everyday life
- the possibility of danger
- childhood memories
- the hope of wealth
Read *Blackberries: tasty terror* on page 4 of the magazine and answer questions 12 to 17.
12 According to this text, a plant is a weed if it
- grows many canes.
- has poisonous fruit.
- produces lots of seeds.
- crowds out other plants.
13 People now think that planting blackberries along streams was
- a disaster.
- a success.
- a challenge.
- a surprise.
14 ... spread by birds, animals, people and water.
The purpose of this list is to
- explain which way of spreading seeds works best.
- name different ways of spreading seeds.
- name different stages of spreading seeds.
- explain how seed spreading works.
15 What is the main difference between suckers and daughter plants?
- how long they live
- how they start growing
- what fruit they produce
- what plant they become
16 What is one way that the last paragraph is different from the rest of the text?
- It relies on the reader’s background knowledge.
- It challenges the assumptions made earlier.
- It addresses the reader directly.
- It gives a summary of the text.
Which fact is not illustrated in the diagram?
- A cut-off piece of root grows into a new plant.
- Suckers shoot from the roots and start new plants.
- In its first year, a cane does not flower or produce fruit.
- A daughter plant grows where a cane tip touches the ground.
Read *The outsider* on page 5 of the magazine and answer questions 18 to 22.
18 Papa’s attitude towards Hulag is
- timid but kind.
- wary but polite.
- confused and fearful.
- aggressive and disrespectful.
19 Hulag’s behaviour when he arrives can best be described as
- quiet.
- confident.
- unfriendly.
- aggressive.
20 He doesn’t take his eyes off the approaching figure.
“Get Nana,” he tells Miki.
These sentences help to
- create tension.
- provide clarity.
- indicate surprise.
- resolve a conflict.
21 Hulag thinks that Nana
- is unfriendly.
- can be argued with.
- can be manipulated.
- is strong and decisive.
22 In the last sentence, Hulag is referred to as *This man*.
The main purpose of this is to show that
- he is different from Papa.
- the villagers have not heard his name.
- he has gained the respect of the villagers.
- he is being kept at a distance by the villagers.
Read *The first day* on page 6 of the magazine and answer questions 23 to 28.
23 Why is Michael in the Principal’s office?
- He is meeting the Principal because it is his first day.
- He has something to deliver to the Principal.
- A teacher is not happy with his behaviour.
- His parents have left a message for him.
24 ‘Maybe we could just chalk it up to experience,’ (paragraph 4)
In this sentence, *chalk it up to experience* means to
- learn from a negative experience.
- keep a record of recent experiences.
- encourage more positive experiences.
- refuse to acknowledge a recent experience.
25 ‘Were you pleased your family decided to move here, Michael?’ (paragraph 5)
Why does the Principal ask this question?
- to encourage Michael to feel more at ease
- to acknowledge Michael is new to the school
- to show Michael how much he has embarrassed his family
- to suggest that Michael’s feelings may be influencing his behaviour
26 The conversation ends with Michael feeling
- defeated.
- uncertain.
- miserable.
- disappointed.
27 Michael’s approach to the Principal suggests that he is trying to
- annoy her.
- charm her.
- challenge her.
- get to know her.
28 Readers mainly learn about Michael’s character through
- his facial expressions.
- what he thinks to himself.
- what he says to the Principal.
- what the Principal says about him.
Read *Comets* on page 7 of the magazine and answer questions 29 to 35.
29 What are comets made from?
- material from the formation of our Solar System
- rocks broken away from the Sun
- pieces of other solar systems
- gases emitted by Earth
30 ‘dirty iceberg’
This phrase is in quotation marks (‘ ’) because it is
- a non-scientific description.
- an old-fashioned expression.
- a popular saying.
- a foreign phrase.
31 In our Solar System, there are over 3000 known comets. It is possible that there are unknown comets.
Use evidence from the text to explain why such unknown comets have not been seen.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
32 A comet’s tail is formed when
- a large icicle grows from the nucleus.
- the comet passes through a cloud of dust.
- the comet travels faster than the speed of light.
- parts of the nucleus are changed by the Sun’s heat.
Figure 1 shows a comet’s path around the Sun. It also shows
- the speed of a comet in orbit.
- the direction of a comet’s tail in orbit.
- the number of comets orbiting the Sun.
- the distance of a comet’s tail from the Sun.
The main purpose of the last paragraph is to provide
- expert opinions on comets.
- a description of a comet’s tail.
- examples of well-known comets.
- an explanation of how comets are formed.
In this text, it is assumed that the reader already knows
- what Hale-Bopp is.
- who Fred L. Whipple is.
- what is in a comet’s tail.
- what the Solar System is.
Read *Salinity* on page 8 of the magazine and answer questions 36 to 43.
The text suggests that Australia’s salinity problem
- is a process that cannot be reversed.
- would have occurred regardless of human influence.
- was deliberately caused by farmers and land developers.
- may have been averted had the right knowledge been available.
37 In a day, over 700 litres of water may pass through the leaves of a fully-grown river red gum. (paragraph 2)
This information in the text shows that trees
- are the only things preventing underground salt rising to the surface.
- play a vital role in preventing the watertable from rising.
- are able to access and utilise water in order to grow.
- contribute to the salinity problem.
38 In the section called *Costs*, it is implied that salinity affects
- mainly the city of Wagga Wagga and the Murray River.
- an unimportant part of society and the environment.
- numerous aspects of society and the environment.
- mainly farmers and their equipment.
39 In the section called *Costs*, the city of Wagga Wagga is mentioned to
- describe how rural towns are responding to the salinity crisis.
- give a real-world example of the high costs associated with salinity.
- show that the costs of salinity are trivial when distributed across the country.
- show that the costs of salinity are restricted to rural areas and country towns.
40 The section called *Slow change* suggests that Australian society
- is as ignorant about salinity as it has always been.
- may be about to cause another environmental emergency.
- needs to act now if salinity is to be prevented in the future.
- will be unable to predict the consequences of preventing salinity.
41 Figure 1 shows
- a rising watertable.
- a stable environment.
- a damaged environment.
- the early stages of salinity.
42 Figure 2 shows that, besides rain, the watertable is affected by
- stormwater.
- irrigation.
- soil.
- salt.
43 The intended audience of this text is people who
- are experts in salinity.
- do not know much about salinity.
- are replanting salt-damaged land.
- are measuring the financial costs of salinity.
Read *Avatar* on page 9 of the magazine and answer questions 44 to 48.
44 a magnificent, photo-realistic landscape of multi-coloured dinosaurs, waterfalls and floating mountains. (Review 1)
Review 1 uses this description to
- ridicule the visual spectacle of the film.
- draw attention to the perceived weaknesses of the film.
- emphasise the complex visual spectacle of the film.
- establish a basis for his criticisms of the film.
The phrase *wonderfully hissable villains* (Review 2) describes characters who are
- sinister but appealing.
- energetic and amusing.
- hilarious and awkward.
- ineffective but admirable.
Review 2 suggests that the quality of the acting in *Avatar*
- is central to the worth of the film.
- is secondary to the narrative structure of the film.
- is overshadowed by the technical qualities of the film.
- is a powerful feature of the imaginary world created in the film.
Which pair of quotations best captures the fundamental difference in the opinions expressed by the two reviewers?
**Review 1**
- compendium of clichés
- evil technology
- an unqualified triumph
- magnificent, photo-realistic
**Review 2**
- a timeless story of good and evil
- wonderfully hissable villains
- the amazing world created
- the sheer film-making skills
Which quotation from Review 2 reflects the positions of both reviewers?
- technical expertise
- soaring imagination
- one of the best films of the year
- somehow it all works wonderfully well
STOP – END OF TEST
Do not write on this page.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Read Snowboarding in Australia on page 12 of the magazine and answer questions P1 and P2.
P1 The first Olympic snowboarding event was held in
- 1998.
- 2008.
- 2009.
- 2010.
P2 Where were the 1998 Winter Olympics held?
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Financial Literacy
Financial literacy is
Your knowledge and skills on all financial activities including,
- Identify revenue streams
- Spend prudently
- Save securely
- Obtain loans that suit your needs
- Invest wisely
Financial literacy is a tool that can help you and your family secure a better future.
Session content
- What is financial literacy?
- Identifying income, expenditure and their management
- How to save safely
- Introduction to different types of loans
- Calculation of loan interest
- Protecting yourself during financial transactions
Let's improve our financial management
Income
- Identifying sources of income
- Correctly calculating income earned
- Identifying alternative income streams
- Continuously review
Expenditure
- Identify your expenses
- Distinguish between essential and non-essential expenditure
- Be prudent when planning your expenses
- Manage your expenses accordingly
- Cut down unnecessary expenses
- Continuously review
| Date | Activity | Income | Expense | End of the day total savings |
|--------|--------------|---------|----------|-----------------------------|
| Day 1 | Income | | | 65,000 - 24,000 |
| | Salary | 65,000 | | |
| | Business | - | | |
| | Expenditure | | | |
| | Food | | 19,000 | |
| | School van | | 5,000 | |
| | Total | 65,000 | 24,000 | 41,000 |
| Day 2 | | | | 41,000 - 12,200 |
| | Expenditure | | | |
| | Leasing instalment | | 12,000 | |
| | Sweets for kids | | 200 | |
| | Total | | 12,200 | 28,800 |
Benefits of investing wisely
- Ability to achieve financial targets
- Improve your financial strength
- Develop your businesses
- Make your dreams a reality
- Become financially independent
- Help others
- Plan your retirement
Where can you Save?
Different types of savings institutions
- Licensed commercial banks and specialized banks registered with the Central Bank of Sri Lanka
- Licensed non-banking financial institutions registered with the Central Bank of Sri Lanka
- Rural banks
- Cooperative Societies
- Samurdhi/Divineguma Banks
- Farming societies
- Licensed microfinance companies
- Licensed non-government microfinance institutions
What should be considered when selecting an institution for your savings?
When choosing the institution to save at, keep in mind to select one that
- Has a high level of trust
- Is of low risk
- Gives better return
Regulated institutions are the most suitable and safest as they are governed by stricter rules and regulations.
Are the organization you save and your money safe?
If you save at an institution that is regulated by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, your savings are safer.
Why? Because the Central Bank of Sri Lanka regulates and monitors the institutions licensed by them.
If you save with banks or financial institutions regulated by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, your deposit is protected by an insurance amounting up to a maximum of Rs. 1,100,000 on your savings.
Are you looking for a place to save?
Things to consider before deciding to save
- Stability of the place you choose to save at
- Annual Effective Interest Rate
- Match the savings duration with your objectives
- Don’t be fooled by attractive marketing
Think before you waste your money..
Withdraw instantly from me. It costs only Rs. 5.
That’s true. It costs Rs. 20 rupees at the counter.
By using an ATM card you can
- Withdraw money at any time
- Avoid queues at the bank counter
- Transact from anywhere in the country
- Check your account balance easily
- Avoid filling in forms
- Easily carry it around
- In an emergency withdraw money from an ATM of another bank. It may cost less than visiting your own bank branch.
When using an ATM card
- You must ensure your PIN is kept private. Do not share it with anyone else.
- You should not keep the card and the PIN in the same place.
- You should inform the bank immediately if you lose the card.
- You should activate SMS notifications for security where possible.
Think before you leap!
What are the terms and conditions behind all the marketing jargon?
How can you obtain the rewards promised in reality?
Loans
Types of loans
Educational loans
Business loans
Emergency loans
Housing loans
Vehicle loans
Cultivation loans
Mortgage loans
Personal loans
Matters to be considered when guaranteeing for a loan
- Ability of the borrower to repay the loan
- Relationship with the borrower
For attention: The guarantor too has a responsibility similar to the borrower until the loan is fully repaid.
Interest rate for a personal loan may be higher than for a housing loan
A personal loan may not meet the full amount required for a house repair
Personal loans require guarantors
Interest Rates
Flat interest rate
Interest rate is fixed and the interest is calculated on the original loan amount.
Declining balance Interest rate
Interest is calculated on the remaining loan balance each period.
Rule of thumb:
Reducing balance interest rate = Twice the flat interest rate – 2
Calculating the effective interest rate
\[
\text{Effective Interest rate} = \frac{\text{Total expenses incurred for the loan (Interest and other chargers)}}{\text{Average principal outstanding}} \times 100
\]
\[
\text{Average principal outstanding} = \frac{\text{Sum of principal amount outstanding}}{\text{Number of instalments}}
\]
Interest Rate
Nominal interest rate
Advertised or stated interest rate on a loan
Effective interest rate
Actual interest rate you pay for a loan
Think before you leap
What you see is different from what you perceive.
Do you pay only the interest advertised?
Are there hidden charges? If yes, does it impact the actual amount you must pay?
Do the terms and conditions affect the actual amount you must pay?
Do you know what is the effective interest rate?
Do you know the importance of comparing interest rates now?
Borrowings shouldn't lead to headaches
Obtain
- only for investment
- the correct amount at the correct time
- at a bearable interest rate
- only from a formal financial institution
Don’t
- take loans for consumption
- delay repayment
- misuse loan money
- fall prey to marketing gimmicks
The CRB knows about you....
Do you know about the CRB?
Credit Information Bureau of Sri Lanka
- Maintains credit and financial information on borrowers of lending institutions.
- Provides credit reports on request to shareholder lending institutions and borrowers to whom such information relates.
If you have obtained any credit facilities or is a guarantor for a loan, you have a record in CRIB.
Building a healthy credit record in the will make it easy for you get new loan facilities.
Your credit score
CRIB issues a credit score based on your credit information which is a reflection of your credit behaviour.
How is a credit score built?
The Credit Score is a three-digit number ranging from 250 to 900.
Example: for on-time, regular repayment of loans the score is 900
Higher Credit Score = lower Credit Risk
Have you seen your credit report?
You can obtain it by making a payment
- Directly at the CRIB customer care centre
- Requesting it through your bank.
- Online
It allows you to get better credit terms
Protects you from signing as a guarantor for those who have excessive debt or have defaulted
Credit Information Bureau of Sri Lanka
No. 25, Whitewest Building
Sir Baron Jayatilaka Mawatha
Colombo 01
📞 0112 131 131
Why SMS?
Saves your valuable time
You can get real time updates on your account transactions
It notifies you about your upcoming loan instalment payments
You get regular updates from your financial institution on services and promotions
If you withdraw cash
Cash withdraw Acc no *******89
location: Ragama Railway ATM.LKA
19500.00. AV Bal LKR 10031.98.
Date ;28.11.2019. time 17.56 hot line 0712345678
If you deposit cash
A Transaction for LKR 15000.00 has been credited to Acc no *******89 on 20/11/2019 14:37. AV Bal LKR 27565.98. Date hot line 0712345678
If you purchase goods
Purchase Debit account no *******89 location: Ragama cargills .LKR 1955.00. AV Bal LKR 12565.98. Date; 26.11.2019. Time 17.56 hot line 0712345678
You need to be cautious when signing.
Look before you leap!
Make sure you know exactly what you’re signing up for.
What should you check for?
Do you understand the language?
What are the organization’s terms and conditions?
What are the consequences if you violate any of the conditions?
Once you sign, there is no going back. It’s etched in stone!
If you have any issue regarding your savings
- Financial Consumer Relations Department of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka
If you have an issue about your loan
- Meet the Manager
- Solution
- No solution
- Debt Relief Board Borella
- Solutions
- Financial Consumer Relations Department of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka
- Financial Ombudsman
Financial Consumer Relations Department - Central Bank of Sri Lanka
- 94 11 247 7966
- 94 11 247 7744
- No 30, Janadhipathi Mawatha, Colombo 01
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STUDENT WELLBEING AND ENGAGEMENT POLICY
PURPOSE
The purpose of this policy is to ensure that all students and members of our school community understand:
(a) our commitment to providing a safe and supportive learning environment for students
(b) expectations for positive student behaviour
(c) support available to students and families
(d) our school’s policies and procedures for responding to inappropriate student behaviour.
St. Kilda Park Primary school is committed to providing a safe, secure and stimulating learning environment for all students. We understand that students reach their full potential only when they are happy, healthy and safe, and that a positive school culture helps to engage students and support them in their learning. Our school acknowledges that student wellbeing and student learning outcomes are closely linked.
The objective of this policy is to support our school to create and maintain a safe, supportive and inclusive school environment consistent with our school’s values.
SCOPE
This policy applies to all school activities, including camps and excursions.
CONTENTS
1. School profile
2. School values, philosophy and vision
3. Engagement strategies
4. Identifying students in need of support
5. Student rights and responsibilities
6. Student behavioural expectations
7. Engaging with families
8. Evaluation
POLICY
1. School profile
St Kilda Park Primary School, founded in 1881, is an inner suburban bayside school. St Kilda is a diverse neighbourhood with the highest population density of any Victorian Municipality; extensive parkland with highly developed sporting facilities and active sports clubs; a busy commercial/retail/entertainment strip; and a number of welfare agencies. The proximity to Albert Park has enabled the school to encourage high levels of participation in sport/physical activity both within and outside school hours.
The current enrolment is 342 students. Our Foundation students are drawn from approximately 15 preschools. Our classes are organised to link with the Victorian Curriculum:
- Level 1 - Foundation
- Level 2 - Year 1 and Year 2
- Level 3 - Year 3 and Year 4
- Level 4 - Year 5 and Year 6
All staff members operate with a strong emphasis on collaborative planning to maximise consistency. The school’s staffing profile consists of an aggregate of 20 equivalent full time positions of which 15 are classroom-teaching positions, 3 specialist teachers. There are also three Principal Class Officers, a Business Manager, and Administration Officer and five part-time Integration Aides.
2. **School values, philosophy and vision**
*Our vision is to create a challenging learning community where students strive to be curious and creative thinkers. We build a progressive and nurturing culture underpinned by kindness, collaboration and inclusion.*
There are four core values guide community life, teaching, and learning at St Kilda Park Primary School. These values are reflected in all aspects of school life and contribute to a sense of common purpose within the school community.
**Resilience**
Our school value of Resilience means persistence, courage, a growth mindset, staying positive, an understanding that struggle and mistakes are an important part of the learning process, and flexibility.
We demonstrate this value when we seek out challenges, try new things, demonstrate a growth mindset, have a sense of humour, collaborate, step out of our comfort zones, solve minor problems independently and seek alternatives.
**Kindness**
Our school value of Kindness means respect, caring, empathy, support for others, honesty, and celebrating diversity.
We demonstrate kindness when we accept and include others, take turns & share, apologise, show empathy & good manners, care for our environment & belongings, are welcoming & encouraging, and value difference. We communicate openly.
**Creativity**
Our school value of Creativity means individuality, imagination, originality, demonstrating initiative, persistence, problem-solving and thinking ‘Outside of the Box’.
We demonstrate creativity when we express ourselves through arts and creative activities, struggle and make mistakes in our learning, when we find imaginative solutions to problems and when we collaborate and engage in meaningful discussion and dialogue.
**Curiosity**
Our school value of Curiosity means questioning, higher-order and critical thinking, hard work, seeking and providing feedback and student agency and voice.
We demonstrate curiosity when we ask questions and challenge each other, collaborate, explain & reflect, when we are exploring and taking risks, seeking out challenges and by pursuing passions and interests.
3. **Engagement strategies**
St. Kilda Park Primary School has developed a range of strategies to promote engagement, positive behaviour and respectful relationships for all students in our school. We acknowledge that some students may need extra social, emotional or educational support at school, and that the needs of students will change over time as they grow and learn.
A key component of St Kilda Park’s approach to building a positive culture is teaching positive behaviours, the use of Restorative Justice Practices and the use of logical consequences to address appropriate and inappropriate behaviour.
**Prevention Programs (Building Resilience)**
Helping students to learn effectively and to develop positive attitudes and behaviours are goals that have long been shared by teachers, student support services staff and parent/carers. Working together as a whole school community we support a preventative school culture by providing programs and practices including the Creating A Positive School Environment (CAPSE) Program, RAMP (Risk Assessment Management Program)/Student Well-Being Team, Buddy Program, Year 6 Transition Program, Foundation Transition
Program, Across-Level Transition program, Reading Recovery, Learning Support, Year 6 Leadership Program, Tutoring Program, Anit Bullying Programs and the DET-Respectful Relationships Program.
**Child Safe Standards**
St Kilda Park PS meets the standard for the care, safety and welfare of students as set out in Ministerial Order No. 870. These include an embedded organisational culture of child safety at the school, a child safety policy and a child safety code of conduct.
**Regular Attendance**
St Kilda Park Primary School is continuing to build an understanding in the community that full, and punctual, attendance is a key to engagement and maximises every student’s ability to learn and our teachers’ ability to teach effectively.
An approach to improving attendance and reducing lateness is addressed through school initiatives including:
- Sending an automated SMS text to parents/carers if their child is market absent without notification via Compass
- Tracking attendance, punctuality and following up with parent/carers
- The Beat the Bell incentive and our mantra to all that ‘Learning Starts at 9.00am’.
**RAMP**
St Kilda Park Primary School has a RAMP team consisting of teachers across all year levels. The team analyses data from various sources pertaining to Student Engagement including individual student risk assessments conducted on all students at the start of each year and makes recommendations to support students in need.
**Inclusion, Wellbeing & Transitions**
At St Kilda Park Primary School, the Leadership Team implement a school wide Transition and Class Placement Program to make recommendations for improvement of transitions and student wellbeing in every year level.
The Student Buddy Program, between Foundation and Year 5 students, has been operating effectively for a number of years and supports our belief in the importance of student mentors.
A close relationship has been established with a number of support agencies including the Port Phillip Council and Student Support Service Officers (SSSO) staff who actively contribute as members of the school community.
**Restorative Justice Practices Procedures**
St Kilda Park Primary School has introduced ‘Restorative Justice Practices’ to encourage engagement, personal responsibility, independence, pride and respect in each individual student. In the classroom and in the yard, this is the basis for respectful communication and relationships. Restorative Justice also supports responding pro-actively to behavioural issues. Restorative Practice is based on an underlying need in all of us to be connected. Wrongdoing is therefore damage to the connection, and restorative justice seeks to understand, make amends and put things right.
In encouraging and building this cooperative approach, it is acknowledged that there will be behaviours and events that occur that compromise this ideal. When this occurs, St Kilda Park Primary School will use a Restorative Justice approach to repair damaged relationships between individuals and groups. This sits alongside the Traffic Light system for classroom management (see Appendices A and B). Where appropriate St Kilda Park Primary School will inform and involve parents in these processes through a Student Support Group.
A restorative practice question approach is built upon the following key questions:
| When things go wrong | When someone has been hurt |
|----------------------|----------------------------|
| ● What happened? | ● What did you think when you realised what had happened? |
| ● What were you thinking at the time? | |
| ● What have you thought about since? | |
4. Identifying students in need of support
St. Kilda Park Primary School is committed to providing the necessary support to ensure our students are supported intellectually, emotionally, and socially. The Student Wellbeing team plays a significant role in developing and implementing strategies to help identify students in need of support and to enhance student wellbeing. St. Kilda Park Primary will utilise the following information and tools to identify students in need of extra emotional, social, or educational support:
- personal, health and learning information gathered upon enrolment and while the student is enrolled
- attendance records
- academic performance
- observations by school staff including: external experts teachers, Integration Aids and Principals including such as changes in engagement, behaviour, self-care, social connectedness and motivation
- engagement with families
St. Kilda Park Primary School implements a range of strategies that support and promote individual engagement. These can include:
- building constructive relationships with students at risk or students who are vulnerable due to complex individual circumstances
- meeting with student and their parent/carer to discuss how best to help their child engage with school
- developing an Individual Education Plan/Behaviour Support Plan
- considering any environmental changes needed, for example changing the classroom set up
- referring the student to:
- school-based wellbeing supports
- student Support Services
- appropriate external supports such as council-based youth and family services, other allied health professionals, Headspace, child and adolescent mental health services or Child FIRST
- re-engagement programs such as Navigator
When necessary the school will support the student’s family to engage by:
- being responsive and sensitive to changes in the student’s circumstances and health and wellbeing
- collaborating, where appropriate and with the support of the student and their family, with any external allied health professionals, services or agencies that are supporting the student
- monitoring individual student attendance and developing an Attendance Improvement Plan in collaboration with the student and their family
- running regular Student Support Group meetings for all students:
- with a disability
- in Out of Home Care
- in addition, students with other complex needs that require ongoing support and monitoring
5. Rights and responsibilities
The Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act (2006) outlines a vision of human rights for all Victorians. The Charter affirms that all people are born free and equal in dignity and rights. The Charter requires public authorities, including government schools and their employees to act compatibly with human rights and to consider them when making decisions and delivering services. St Kilda Park Primary School’s Bullying Prevention Policy has developed Rights and Responsibilities in consultation with the community and is reviewed and ratified by School Council as part of the Policy Development Cycle.
All members of our school community have a right to experience a safe and supportive school environment. We expect that all students, staff, parents and carers treat each other with respect and dignity. Our school’s Statement of Values highlights the rights and responsibilities of members of our community.
| All students have the right to | All staff have the right to | All parents have the right to |
|-------------------------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|
| ● participate fully in their education
● be treated with respect and acceptance
● feel safe, secure and happy at school
● express ideas opinions and be listened to respectfully
● learn in an environment free from bullying, harassment, violence, discrimination or intimidation
● learn, work and play without interference from others
● have equitable access to teacher time, school facilities and resources
● have the opportunity to develop talents, interests and ambitions and to be able to share these and participate in community activities | ● expect to be able to work in an atmosphere of order and cooperation
● use discretion in the application of rules and consequences
● receive respect and support from the school community | ● know that their children are in a safe, happy learning environment where they are treated fairly and with respect
● expect a positive and supportive approach to their child’s learning
● expect communication and participation in their child’s education |
| All students have a responsibility to | All staff have a responsibility to | All parents have a responsibility to |
|--------------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| ● respect the rights and opinions of others and display good manners
● act in a safe and responsible manner and move and play safely
● be cooperative and considerate
● participate and work to the best of their ability and allow others to do the same
● follow classroom rules
● care for themselves, other people, property and belongings
● resolve problems in a calm, sensible and fair manner
● be alert and responsive to the problems of others | ● build positive relationships with students as basis for engagement and learning
● use and manage the resources of the school to create stimulating, safe and meaningful learning
● treat all members of the School community with respect, fairness and dignity | ● build positive relationships with members of the school community
● ensure students attend school and have the appropriate learning materials
● promote respectful relationships |
Students who may have a complaint or concern about something that has happened at school are encouraged to speak to their parents or carers and approach a trusted teacher or a member of the school leadership team.
**Bullying**
**What is Bullying?**
Bullying is persistent repeated physical or psychological actions by a group or an individual which are intended to hurt another person. It can be planned and organised. It can include:
- teasing, name calling, put-downs or belittling of others’ abilities/achievements
- writing offensive notes or graffiti
- demands for money or possessions
- damaging, removing or hiding belongings
- leaving someone out of activities on purpose
- physical violence e.g. hitting, pushing
- gestures
- coercive behaviour
- cyberbullying
Bullying affects the welfare of the whole school. It makes children feel unsafe at school, either because they are being bullied, or are witnessing bullying or are concerned about the threat of bullying. It affects their ability to learn and to enjoy the companionship of others. Children and adults who bully need to be confronted and taught how to develop more positive relations with others.
The school acknowledges that within any school community there is the potential for bullying and instances of bullying will occur at times. Recognising the potential for bullying at school is the necessary basis for preventing bullying and responding to it effectively. Teachers, students and parents need to be equipped to recognise and respond to bullying and to be aware of the school’s procedures for dealing with this and other forms of unacceptable behaviour.
This ensures that when bullying occurs, students will feel they can approach teachers if they have been bullied or have observed bullying. It also helps students and parents to have confidence that their concerns and complaints will be treated seriously and responded to.
At St Kilda Park Primary School, we have a strong commitment to prevent and minimise bullying and putdowns in the school. Some approaches we use are:
- building general awareness of the issue of bullying
- professional development for staff
- responding promptly to individual problems
- taking action to foster tolerance and a positive community culture
- provide programs to develop resilience
- structured activities available to students at lunchtimes including Play Leaders Program
- quiet play area, friendship tree
- three teachers on yard duty at all times
- lunchtime social club
We believe there is no one simple strategy to achieve a safe and harmonious environment.
Refer to logical consequences for inappropriate behaviour under section 7.
**Cyber Bullying**
The widespread availability of the internet provides unprecedented opportunities to communicate and learn. Whilst most people use the internet as a powerful tool for communication and education, some individuals use the power of the internet for purposes such as posting for bullying and harassment. We can minimise the harm that such individuals do by teaching students how to use the internet safely and responsibly. The term *cyber ethics* refers to a code of safe and responsible behaviour for the internet community. Practising good *cyber ethics* involves understanding the risks of harmful and illegal behaviour.
online and learning how to protect internet users from such behaviour. It also involves teaching young people, who may not realise the potential for harm to themselves and others, how to use the internet safely and responsibly. Students who may have a complaint or concern about something that has happened at school are encouraged to speak to their parents or carers and approach a trusted teacher or a member of the school leadership team. Addressing Cyberbullying is clearly detailed in the ICT Policy.
6. **Student behavioural expectations**
St Kilda Park Primary School has developed shared expectations to ensure that the learning, safety, and rights of all are respected. The expectations are intended to be positive and set out the appropriate behaviours for our School community. Our shared expectations are intended to support individual students and families from a diverse range of backgrounds, communities, and experiences.
**Expectations - Staff Engagement**
| The School will: | The Teachers will: | All School Staff will: |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| • uphold the right of every child to receive an education up to the compulsory age of schooling. | • develop flexible pedagogical styles to engage different learners | • in compliance with Departmental procedures School staff will: |
| • ensure the school complies with its duty of care obligations to each student as well as its obligations under the Equal Opportunity and Human Rights legislation | • deliver curriculum and assessment that challenges and extends students learning | • promote regular attendance by all students |
| • collaborate with the St Kilda Park Primary School community to develop policies and procedures consistent with its values, aspirations and DET Guidelines | • develop positive and meaningful relationships with students that promote engagement, wellbeing and learning | • promote punctuality by all students |
| • identify the diversity of the school community and deliver teaching and learning, educational and extra-curricular activities, facilities, student services and community programs, which are inclusive and responsive to student needs | • provide opportunities for student voice to develop a positive school culture in and outside the classroom | • monitor and follow up on absences |
**Behaviour**
St Kilda Park Primary School will support and promote positive behaviours by developing and implementing shared behavioural expectations with the school community and by delivering whole-school responses to behavioural issues. All members of the school community are encouraged to participate in the educational environment with curiosity, enthusiasm and mutual respect. St Kilda Park Primary School is committed to engaging all students, school suspension of students is a last resort in very extreme circumstances and will follow the DET procedures on Student Suspension.
| The School will: | The Teachers will: |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
• work to provide an appropriate and engaging curriculum for all students
• lead and promote preventative approaches to behavioural issues by incorporating student wellbeing at the centre of school business
• monitor the profile of behaviour issues at the school and the effectiveness of implemented strategies
• provide appropriate professional learning opportunities for all staff to build their capacity to promote positive behaviours
• use the Student Engagement policy as a basis for negotiating a class-based set of norms and shared behavioural expectations with students
• teach students social competencies through curriculum content and pedagogical approach
• employ behaviour management strategies that reflect the behaviours expected from students and which focus on supporting positive behaviours
• build a collegiate atmosphere with other school staff to share strategies and support each other in developing a consistent behaviour management approach
• involve appropriate specialist expertise where necessary
**Expectations – Student**
All students are expected to:
| School Attendance | School Behaviour |
|-------------------|------------------|
| • come to school every day that the school is open to students. If students are not able to attend, they must provide a written explanation from their parents/carers to their teacher
• arrive at each class on time and be ready to learn.
• ensure their parent/carer signs them in at the front office on the Compass portal if they arrive after 9.00am and give their late slip/ or early dismissal slip to their classroom or specialist teacher | • support each other’s learning by behaving in a way that is curious and respectful according to the school values and behavioural expectations
• be considerate and supportive of others
• reflect on and learn from differences
• adhere to the agreed classroom behaviours and school values
• demonstrate behaviour and attitudes that support the wellbeing and learning for all and contributes to a positive School environment that is safe, inclusive and happy
• understand that bullying, including cyber-bullying, violence, property damage, inappropriate language and disrupting the learning of other students is unacceptable
• comply with the School Anti-bullying policy |
**Expectations – Parents/Carers**
Parents/Carers are expected to:
| Engagement | Attendance | Behaviour |
|------------|------------|-----------|
| • support the school’s efforts to educate young people to live in a diverse world by promoting an understanding and appreciation of diversity in the home
• provide all relevant information about their child to the school
• actively participate in supporting their child’s learning by building a positive relationship with the School through | • ensure that enrolment details for their children are correct
• ensure their children attend school every day and be on time
• advise the school in writing, as soon as possible, when a child is absent from school | • understand the School’s behavioural expectations and support these to promote a consistent approach that supports their child’s learning, engagement and endeavour both in and out of school |
attendance at student-parent-teacher meetings, student activities, School celebrations, Student Support Groups and responding to communications
- support the school’s policies
Suspension, expulsion and restrictive interventions are measures of last resort and may only be used in situations consistent with Department policy, available at:
- [https://www2.education.vic.gov.au/pal/suspensions/policy](https://www2.education.vic.gov.au/pal/suspensions/policy)
- [https://www2.education.vic.gov.au/pal/expulsions/policy](https://www2.education.vic.gov.au/pal/expulsions/policy)
- [https://www2.education.vic.gov.au/pal/restraint-seclusion/policy](https://www2.education.vic.gov.au/pal/restraint-seclusion/policy)
In line with Ministerial Order 1125, no student aged 8 or younger will be expelled without the approval of the Secretary of the Department of Education and Training.
The Principal of St. Kilda Park Primary school is responsible for ensuring all suspensions and expulsions are recorded on CASES21.
Corporal punishment is prohibited in our school and will not be used in any circumstance.
7. **Engaging with families**
St. Kilda Park Primary values the input of parents and carers, and we will strive to support families to engage in their child’s learning and build their capacity as active learners. We aim to be partners in learning with parents and carers in our school community.
**How we support positive behaviour and relationships**
St Kilda Park Primary School encourages the active involvement of parents in the learning, development and support of positive behaviour of each student. It seeks to foster this cooperative approach with parents through pastoral care interviews, parent helper training, reports, newsletters, website information, educational forums, parent-teacher interviews, phone calls and meetings.
We work hard to create successful partnerships with parents and carers by:
- ensuring that all parent/carers have access to our school policies and procedures, available on our school website
- maintaining an open, respectful line of communication between parent/carers and staff, supported by our Communicating with School Staff policy
- providing parent/carers volunteer opportunities so that families can contribute to school activities
- involving families with home learning and other curriculum-related activities
- involving families in school decision making through School Council Committees
- coordinating resources and services from the community for families through SKIPPA- St. Kilda Park Parents Association
- including families in Student Support Groups and developing individual plans for students.
**Appropriate Behaviour**
St Kilda Park Primary School will acknowledge students who meet the shared expectations outlined in this policy through recognition and encouragement as shown in the logical consequences provided below.
**Inappropriate Behaviour**
When students do not meet these expectations, a staged response is implemented, consistent with the logical consequences outlined below using the restorative justice approach.
The restorative approach addresses student behaviour in various settings and levels to:
- re-establish significant relationships
- ensure consequences for misbehaviour are relevant and meaningful
- foster and develop individual responsibility and empathy
LOGICAL CONSEQUENCES
| For Appropriate Behaviour | For Inappropriate Behaviour |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| ● Celebration at assemblies with a focus on music, sport and academic pursuits | ● Talking to the student and referring them to the shared expectations |
| ● Celebration in classrooms | ● Use of *Traffic Light System* to help students understand and manage their behaviour |
| ● Reports | ● Contact with parents- via discipline notice and/or phone call |
| ● References- scholarships, Arts entries | ● Making changes to the student’s learning program to better equip him/her to behave positively |
| ● Newsletters: class and fortnightly | ● Implement Restorative Practices |
| ● Leadership opportunities across all levels | ● Counselling |
| ● Community leadership for Grade 6 | ● Withdraw privileges/ Payment for damage sought |
| ● Positive feedback | ● Hold Student Support Group meetings |
| ● Negotiated rewards within their Learning Space | ● Create Behaviour Management Plans in consultation with parents, student and teachers |
| ● The right to represent the school at leadership events, a wide range of sports events, musical events, art events | ● Negotiate alternative pathways or settings for the student, or as a matter of last resort, suspension or expulsion |
| ● Parent/teacher meetings, both formal and informal | ● When appropriate staff will follow mandatory and child safety procedures |
| ● Discussion of Personal Learning Goals | |
8. **Evaluation**
St. Kilda Park Primary will collect data each year to understand the frequency and types of wellbeing issues that are experienced by our students so that we can measure the success or otherwise of our school-based strategies and identify emerging trends or needs.
Sources of data that will be assessed on an annual basis include:
● Student Attitudes to School Survey data
● behaviour incident reports- green forms
● school reports
● parent opinion survey
● case management
● COMPASS- attendance data
● City of Port Phillip Resilient Youth Survey- Year 5&6
**COMMUNICATION**
This policy will be communicated to our school community in the following:
● available publicly on our school’s website
● included in enrolment packs
● included as annual reference in school newsletter
● made available in hard copy from school administration upon request
● [Suspension process](#)
● [Expulsions - Decision](#)
**FURTHER INFORMATION AND RESOURCES**
[2021 Statement of Values and School Philosophy Policy](#).
[2021 Bullying Prevention Policy](#).
## POLICY REVIEW AND APPROVAL
| Policy last reviewed | February 2020 |
|----------------------|--------------|
| Consultation | Education and Policy Sub Committee School Council Members 27/04/2022 Staff 2/05/2022 via email with policy attached & discussed at staff meeting |
| Approved by | School Council June 1st 2022 |
| Next scheduled review date | February 2024. |
## REVIEW CYCLE
This policy was last updated in February 2020 and is scheduled for review in February 2022.
APPENDIX A
The Traffic Light System
The Traffic Light System is a classroom behaviour management system in every class at our school.
It is a consistent approach and informs parents immediately if a student has been exited from the classroom.
Here’s how it works.
- Each class has a board on display in the classroom with every student’s name on wooden pegs
- The board has a green, amber and red area - imagine traffic lights
- If a student behaves inappropriately the teacher will ask the student to move off the green area into the amber zone
- If the student acts inappropriately a second time he/she will move into the red zone
- If a student acts inappropriately a second time during a Specialist session, they will be removed from the classroom to a ‘buddy’ classroom for the remainder of the session. A letter will be sent home. (see Appendix B)
- If the student misbehaves for a third time, they will be removed from the classroom to a designated classroom for the remainder of the session
- After the session the student returns to the classroom teacher and a Restorative session takes place before the student comes back to the classroom
- A letter will be sent home to parents (see Appendix B)
- Teachers will keep a copy of the letter. When the slip is returned the following day, it will be stapled onto the copy and kept in the student’s Buff-coloured school file
- If the letter is not returned the following day the student will be asked for the reason and a follow up call to parents will take place
- If a student is removed from class three times a Parent Meeting will be called; however, parents are encouraged to contact their child’s teacher if they wish to at any stage.
This classroom discipline system gives students clearly defined boundaries which engender a strong sense of fairness and safety across the school.
There is a visual emphasis on doing the wrong thing. How can there be a way of showing a strong visual indication a child is doing the right thing?
Teachers constantly praise students and share their work with others. Some of the ideas teachers use are:
- ‘Minutes’ for a game, or special activity, are placed on the board for positive behaviours such as sharing, supportive comments, good work, working together, getting along, persistence, trying their best, tolerance of others… and the list goes on
- ‘Post it’ notes which have positive comments written on them from other students and teachers are stuck next to a child’s portraits
- Comment pockets are made for each child so teachers and students can write notes to each other
- Have a ‘traffic light’ or ‘sun’ or the like go in the opposite direction to recognised good behaviour and/or effort.
DISCIPLINE NOTICE
Date: ___/ ___ / ____
Notice Home 1 2 3
St Kilda Park Primary School
Dear..........................................................
............................................................... was withdrawn from class today for misbehaving during a lesson that was in progress and for conducting himself / herself in such a manner as to interfere with the educational opportunities of other children.
Should your child receive a third discipline note you will be asked to come to school to discuss your child’s behaviour and the possibility of placing your child on an Individual Behaviour Plan.
The following three warnings were given prior to withdrawal from class –
Warning 1:...........................................................................................................................................
Warning 2:...........................................................................................................................................
Warning 3:...........................................................................................................................................
Please discuss this matter with your child to support our school and prevent this behaviour from re-occurring. Please sign the slip below and return to school the following day.
Kind Regards,
Teacher: ______________________________________, St Kilda Park Primary School Staff
RETURN SLIP - DISCIPLINE NOTICE
Name of Child:..................................................................
Any comments regarding this matter:
...........................................................................................................................................
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Assistant Principal Reports
Mother’s Day Breakfast
I would like to thank those who attended the joint Mother’s Day breakfast. It was a great morning with lots of great connections being made. Both Echuca Twin Rivers Primary and Echuca Twin Rivers Specialist School staff planned and provided a beautiful breakfast. Thanks to the Echuca Moama Kiwanis club for cooking the barbecue.
Watering system
Over the last week we have had some major works completed at school. We have had a drain installed in the yard play area and have had the shade sail pole reset. In addition to this we have had irrigation installed into the front yard of the school. We are looking forward to this becoming a functional and usable space.
Emma McCarthy
On Monday the whole staff participated in a professional learning day. The focus of the day was trauma informed practice and behaviour support. The staff enjoyed listening to some fantastic information and gained some strategies that will be used to support the students within the school. Emma will return to school later in the year to complete some coaching sessions with groups of staff.
Understanding Poverty Framework
On Tuesday 18th of May several staff members will participate in the 2nd session of the Understanding Poverty framework training. The staff will gain some valuable information regarding how to support students within our setting.
Our Vision
To provide inclusive and engaging learning that empowers all students for life
Eco Garden
Over the course of this term the students in the Eco Garden VCAL program. The staff and students have designed and built garden beds and planted a range of vegetables including lettuce, broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage. We look forward to supporting the café with our produce.
PBS Targeted Behaviour
Knowledge when Moving
I go directly to my destination
I wait until my name is called to go through the gate
| Room 3 | Frank Noah | Following directions from staff
Having pride in his classroom and keeping it clean |
| Room 4 | Dane Archie | Great work in maths
25 nights of home reading |
| Room 6 | Ella Archer | Following directions from staff
Showing pride in our school |
| Room 8 | Conrad, Zane & Daniel William | Following directions from staff
Taking pride in our school |
| Room 9 | Lincoln Zane | Following directions from staff
Taking pride in our school |
### SECONDARY
| Room 12 | | | | | |
| Room 13 | Sayge & Britney Ebony | Being good friends to others
Settling back into school | Andrew Tamlye | Following directions
Showing pride in her school |
| Room 14 | Hunter & Tyler Raiden | Having an overall great week and settling well into his new classroom
Settling well into his new school and classroom | Riley Bailey, Hunter, Riley, Jade & Ben | Following directions from staff
Showing pride in our school when out & about |
| VCAL 1 | Claudia Jye | Showing great confidence when working with the goats at the farm
Following instructions and joining in with the group | Caitlin Noah & Michael | Communicating how she is feeling to staff
Showing pride in his school |
| VCAL 2 | Will Ian | Filming and editing a movie on the progress of the Eco garden
Work diligently, erecting the new part of the fence for the Eco garden | John & Jye Ben P | Following directions from staff
Showing Pride in his school |
| CAFÉ | Stephanie Kirsty | Excellent day in the Café on Thursday; Listened well to staff completed theory and cleaned up
Great day in the Café on Monday. Used her initiative and completed set tasks independently | | |
Room 12 students are participating in a program "Uncaged Spirit" with the Circus & Gymnastic club in Moama. Looks so much fun.
Rooms 8 and 9 students had an excursion to The Echuca Police Station. Our inquiry topic this Term is people in the community who help us and today we learnt how the police are there to help us and keep us safe.
Allied Health Information
Types of Sensory Behaviours
Difficulties in sensory processing may lead to maladaptive behaviours frequently seen in class. Children can be:
- **Sensory defensive** – children who experience sensory stimulation such as light, touch, loud noises, bright lights, and rough textures as distressing.
- **Sensory seeking** – children who crave and seek sensory stimulation.
- **Sensory underresponsive** – children who require high-intensity sensory input before they are able to respond.
Types of Behaviours seen
**Sensory defensive behaviours**
- Responds negatively or emotionally to light touch sensations.
- Avoids messy play such as sand, fingerpaint, paste, glue, mud and clay.
- Withdrawn from classroom participation and avoid group movement activities.
**Sensory seeking behaviours**
- Uncoordinated, distractible, impulsive, or a safety risk.
- Needs to touch and feel everything in sight.
- Enjoys movement that provides strong sensory feedback.
**Sensory underresponsive behaviours**
- Unaware of messiness on his face.
- Shows little or no response to pain from scrapes, bruises, or cuts.
- Hurts other children during play.
- Appear clumsy, uncoordinated or do a lot of crashing and banging into or on objects.
Sensory Processing: Is it Sensory or Behaviour?
Understanding sensory processing and using the sensory system to solve common behaviour/attention problems in the classroom.
What is Sensory Processing?
Sensory processing is the ability to organise and interpret information received through the senses and use it for learning. The sensory information can include touch, sight, sound, taste, smell, sensation of movement in space (vestibular), and awareness of the position of one's limbs in space (proprioception).
Useful Resources
Miller, Lucy J. and Doris A. Fuller. (2006). *Sensational Kids: Hope and Help for Children with Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)*. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons.
Kranowitz, C. S. (2006). *The out-of-sync child has fun: activities for kids with sensory processing disorder*, Rev. ed. New York, N.Y.: Perigee Books.
Useful Websites
http://therapystreetforkids.com/Sensory.html
https://www.sensorysmarts.com/sensory_diet_activities.html
https://childdevelopment.com.au/areas-of-concern/sensory-processing/
Things That Can Help
- Sensory Diet - prescribed by an OT
- Heavy work and deep pressure activities
- Breathing - taking in 3 deep breaths
- Rhythm - tapping, music, dance
- Relationships - making kids feel safe, routine, allow time to process information.
Prepared by Anna Nunan, Occupational Therapist
9 WAYS CHILDREN CAN BE BRAVE AND LOOK AFTER THEIR MENTAL HEALTH
- If you are struggling don't be afraid to talk to someone
- Try not to keep things bottled up. Talk to someone about your feelings
- Work each day on building your mental fitness (E.g breathing techniques)
- Embrace challenges which you have coming up
- Look after yourself and make sure to apply lots of self care (Mindfulness)
- Express how you are feeling or thinking to a friend, family member or teacher
- Know when to stop. If things become too much give yourself a break
- Don't be afraid to ask for help
- It's okay to not feel okay. Try not to fight the feelings and talk to someone
Echuca Twin Rivers Specialist School is participating in the great program. We are collecting bread bags—any bread bags. The more bags, the greater chance we will have to be in the draw to win exercise equipment.
Your support will be greatly appreciated.
Help Wonder turn BREAD BAGS into SCHOOL PLAY EQUIPMENT
It’s simple...
1. Collect your empty bread bags and tags
2. Recycle them at school in Wonder’s pink Collection Bin (There is a separate box for bread tags).
3. We’ll earn reward points to redeem new sports equipment for every 5kg bin filled!
Our school is in the draw to WIN 1 of 5 exercise circuits made from recycled plastic we collect!
LET’S GET RECYCLING!
Tag Wonder on social #wonderrecycling to share all your recycling champion stories!
CULTURAL dancing
WITH SISSY COOPER
NARJIC DAY BURNS
AUNTY NEVA TAKELE
Members will also create their own Emu feathered dance wear
4PM - 5:30PM
14TH MAY - 9TH JULY
RUNS EVERY FRIDAY
APEX HALL ECHUCA
Contact Sissy for more information 0457 009 269
Echuca Library Afterschool Club
Term 2 Travel Bugs
Lets travel the world and have some fun in different countries. Each session will focus on a different country to explore.
Recommended for primary school aged participants.
Where: Echuca Library
When: 3.30 – 4.30pm
Every second Thursday
27 April, 6 & 20 May, 3 & 17 June
Cost: Free
Bookings essential
Like us on Facebook
Vic - Pathways to Post School Life
A session for young people in Years 10-12 and their families
The session is for young people with a disability who are receiving an Other Education Target (OET). Victoria would like parents/carers of young Victorians with a disability in Years 10-12 to attend this session.
This is a session for parents/carers of young people with a disability on building skills in pacing a pathway towards post-school life. The session will be delivered via Microsoft Teams. The pathway pathways forum, NDIS-funded supports and other assistance to help young people to build skills to prepare for post-school life. The session will be delivered by a panel of experts who will share their own goals, post-school aspirations and experiences.
Session dates are being offered multiple dates to allow flexibility for attendees, and will be delivered via Microsoft Teams. Please register your interest in attending the session by completing the form below. If you would like to attend, please register via Eventbrite. Ten business days prior to the event, you will receive an email from Eventbrite with a link to join the session. You will be sent further instructions via email to the email address you provide at registration.
For any questions about the session, please contact email@example.com. Please include the session name in the subject line.
Where: Virtual Information Sessions via Microsoft Teams
Dates:
Tuesday 11 May 2021 7.00pm – 8.30pm (ACST)
Wednesday 12 May 2021 10.30am – 12.00pm (ACST)
Tuesday 18 May 2021 10.30am – 12.00pm (ACST)
Thursday 20 May 2021 2.00pm – 3.30pm (ACST)
RSVP: Please register via Eventbrite at https://www.eventbrite.com.au/e/vic-pathways-to-post-school-life-tickets-156084000007
Additional Information: Accessibility is important to us. If you have any accessibility requirements please let us know when you register for the session. Please note - we need a minimum of five (5) business days’ notice to book Auslan interpreters and any supporting services.
ndis.gov.au
Warma Turtles AUSKICK IS BACK!
JOIN IN THE FUN!
And have the chance to be part of DREAMTIME Round at the ‘G’!
WE’RE BACK!
8-Week Program
EVERY Monday
Dates To Be Confirmed
More information:
Phone Ella 0416 623 644
5480 6252
www.njernda.com.au
Echuca Twin Rivers Specialist School
66 Wilkinson Drive
ECHUCA VIC 3564
Phone: (03) 5410 7700
firstname.lastname@example.org
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Technical Inquiry
The development of Antique and other glasses used in 19th- and 20th-century stained glass
Glass painting at the beginning of the nineteenth century consisted of applying enamels to the surface of glass which was so thin and lacking in body that if any area was left unpainted it would appear to be a hole in the glazing.
One of the most influential glass painters of this time was Charles Muss¹ (1779–1824), enamel painter, etcher and stained glass artist, who worked in London and trained James Henry Nixon,² who later entered into a partnership with the London glazier Thomas Ward.³ John Pike Hedgeland⁴ managed the studio of Mary Muss after the death of her husband, Charles. Employed in the same workshop at that time was Benjamin Baillie, who together with Nixon worked on the restoration of the medieval glass in St Neot’s Church, Cornwall, and on making new windows to complement the existing glazing. The other dominant London glazier at the beginning of the nineteenth century was Thomas Willement who made his first window in 1812. He also trained a generation of glaziers and glass painters, including William Warrington and Michael O’Connor.
Muss and Willement in their endeavours to restore medieval glass and make new stained glass windows had only three types of glass available to them: thinly spun crown glass that was made with kelp ash rather than wood ash; imported Continental cylinder sheet famed for its transparency and thinness; and flint glass⁵ – which had a little more body and richness of colour than the former. Transmitted light was controlled with enamel matts or applications of couverte on the exterior surface in an attempt to stop the thin glass glaring and to make it glow in the manner of medieval glass.
Kelp ash gave British crown glass unique properties because it reacted to silver stain by darkening from yellow to a ruby colour through repeated firing (fig. 1).⁶ The three studios of Willement, Warrington and William Wailes⁷ (who had been making stained glass from 1838), all employed glass painters trained in the Georgian era. Many of them became practised in painting to match medieval glass by applying antiquing techniques such as splattering to simulate the effect of pitting and corrosion, and using matts to reproduce the patina of time.
In 1845, the restriction that only allowed glass houses to make either flint or crown glass – but not both – was lifted,⁸ as were many of the constraining excise duties and taxes which coincided with the neo-gothic building boom and an increase in stained glass commissions. A. W. N. Pugin, attempting to design stained glass with the qualities of medieval glass, believed that he could not achieve the results he wished for by employing the services of Willement, Warrington or Wailes and their glass-painting techniques. He also considered their work to be too expensive. In 1845 he persuaded John Hardman of Birmingham to establish a stained glass workshop and encouraged him to source new glass, in particular, a streaky ruby that emulated medieval glass from the glass manufacturer James Hartley of Sunderland.⁹
The quest for a medieval-type glass: Antiques and Rubies
A new type of glass was also required for the general restoration of medieval glazing schemes which were widespread at this time. In 1847, the Bristol-based
glass painter Joseph Bell was instructed by the Bristol and West of England Architectural Society (BWEAS) to buy ‘Ancient Glass for Painting on’ from the lead and glass merchants ‘Messrs Stock & Sharpe of Cannon Street, Birmingham’ for the restoration of the medieval glass in Bristol Cathedral. In the same year Pugin wrote ‘I found that flint glass was indispensable for richness of colour. Crown glass was cut with a diamond and had to be ground with a tool. This added at least 20 percent on the labour but I did not hesitate a moment in adopting it’. Undoubtedly this last reference was to a small crown (not the large thin spun sheet) that varied in thickness with an irregular surface and would have been difficult and therefore more expensive to cut into the intricate shapes found in mosaic stained glass designs. Harry Powell referred to it as ‘Much used crown glass – spun small not large’.
Messrs Stock & Sharpe, lead and glass merchants, would have acted as agents to James Hartley, amongst others, who was regarded as the expert maker of crown glass and had moved from Chance of Birmingham in 1836 to start his own manufacturing works in Sunderland.
The Order Books of James Powell & Sons (Powell’s) reveal that ‘Antique’ glass first appeared in 1858 in a reference to a ‘Flashed blue circle on Hartley’s Antique Ruby’, sold by the firm to Hale church near Salisbury. Over the next few years the Order Books record more references to Hartley’s ruby or ruby sheet. Not long afterwards Chance Brothers advertised ‘Antique Sheet’ in the catalogue for the International Exhibition of 1862, and in 1885 Fred Miller in his book *The Training of a Craftsman* described the manufacturing of ‘Antique’ glass as being the same as crown glass, concluding that ‘Sheets of Antique are in the round’. The term ‘Antique’ was originally applied to these small spun crowns which possessed qualities that provided glazing with an antique appearance – just as glass painting techniques such as splattering were described as ‘antiquing’ processes.
Pugin had not been alone in wanting a new glass to reproduce the qualities of medieval glass. His quest ran almost parallel to that of the barrister and stained glass enthusiast Charles Winston, who had been an advisor to the BWEAS and Joseph Bell in 1847, and who knew all about Hartley’s antique crowns. In 1850 Winston was shown samples of ruby glass that Thomas Ward had received from James Hartley. Winston may have approached Hartley to manufacture his glass, but in fact it was Powell’s (who before 1845 had been manufacturing only flint glass) who agreed to make muff glass to the recipes of Winston’s collaborator, Mr Medlock. These recipes were the result of chemical analysis of medieval glass. In the light of Winston’s interest in medieval material, it is ironic that he championed the work of
---
**FIG. 1:** Early 19th-century Cylinder Sheet glass with stained kelp glass centre. The origin of this glazed panel (discovered at the Fulham Glass House) is unknown.
FIG. 2: Chance ‘Antique’ sheet c.1930s, from the glass stock of the Fulham Glass House. A rare Gold Pink that survived only because it was so well concealed in the glass racks by its owner that he or she forgot all about it.
FIG. 3: Prior’s ‘Early English’ Glass, showing slab side and bottom; manufactured in either the late 19th or early 20th century.
FIG. 4: Left, Prior’s ‘Early English’ slab c.1900; right, Kilner bottle slab c.1930s, used by Lowndes & Drury. Evidently it was cheaper to cut up old or even new oblong Kilner bottles (when the tints were suitable) than it was to buy slabs.
FIG. 5: Left, Prior’s ‘Early English’ slab c.1900; right, Hartley Wood slab c.1930s.
George Hedgeland, who was not an exponent of mosaic stained glass. In 1852, the year of Pugin’s death, the first window to include Winston’s glass was designed and made by the firm of Ward & Hughes and installed at the Temple Church, London.\textsuperscript{19}
1855 marked the founding of three important Victorian stained glass firms: Clayton & Bell; Heaton & Butler (later with Bayne); and Lavers & Barraud (later with Westlake) – all initially employing a 13th-century style of linear glass painting supported with half tones and with some areas of glass left unpainted. However, there is no evidence that any of these studios used Winston’s streaky glass – although they did use some variegated pot metals that must have been manufactured as a result of Powell’s experimental glass-making.
Sales of ‘Winston’s’ glass appeared in the Powell’s Order Books until 1862, when they stopped abruptly. The fact may be explained by William Burges who wrote:
... the former has been made from receipts furnished by Mr Winston, who has devoted a great deal of time and care to the analysis of the old glass. Unfortunately Messrs Powell will persist in blending the colour too much with the metal, and the consequence is that the sheets for the most part come out all of a tint, instead of being streaky and clouded. What little does happen to possess the latter qualities, the firm naturally keeps for its own work, and thus the stained glass manufacturer cannot obtain what he wants most... \textsuperscript{20}
References to Winston’s glass do not appear in the Order Books from 1862 until 1866, when a single reference was made to ‘Winston’s Antique’ being sold and in the same year \textit{The Builder} referred to the new ‘Ward & Hughes’ window at Lincoln Cathedral containing ‘Winston’s Antique Glass’.\textsuperscript{21} Harry Powell later confided in a letter to Christopher Whall that Winston’s recipes had been lost by the time he began working at Powell’s Glass House in 1875.\textsuperscript{22}
\textbf{FIG. 7:} Venetian glass first manufactured in the 1860s for secular decoration. The West window of Lecropt Church, Bridge of Allan (visited during BSMGP 2005 Conference in Scotland), designed and made by Alf Webster in the early 1900s, includes an exquisite range of Venetian glass in an extensive palette. Although he used the glass for drapery effects in this window, it was more usually included to highlight specific areas of the glazing.
GLASS IN THE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURY
Streaky muff glass, however, was manufactured during this same period by smaller independent manufacturers including Jesse Rust\textsuperscript{23} whose glass was used by the architects John Pollard Seddon and William Burges, amongst others.
Prior to making Winston’s glass, Powell’s had begun to manufacture their own muff glass\textsuperscript{24} soon after 1845 – apparently to be used in restoration as well as for new work; for example, in 1849 an order appeared in the Books for ‘2 Angels painted by J. T. Howell on Powell’s Muff glass’ for Cranoe Church in Leicestershire. Other orders included one in 1853 for ‘Our own Muff Glass’ and ‘50 sheets of Spread Tinted Green Muff’ in 1857 for Joseph Bell.\textsuperscript{25} The evidence suggests that Powell’s muff glass and Winston’s glass were two separate products and that Powell’s appears to have been the main producers of both types of glass – until W. E. Chance of Birmingham\textsuperscript{26} began manufacturing his own muff glass.
W. E. Chance has been credited with making an antique glass as early as 1862,\textsuperscript{27} when he would have been only eighteen, but there is no evidence to support this claim. He was certainly manufacturing glass after 1869 and dominated the market by 1879, when James Hetley of Soho\textsuperscript{28} became his agent for London and the South East of England. He was able to do this by supplying the large studios with the glass they specifically requested. His glass at this time had a soft appearance and included many of the secondary and tertiary colours that formed the palette of the ‘aesthetic’ designer (FIG. 2).
In 1934 John Thomas Hardley, a glass blower who worked with Chance, recalled that from ‘the very first pot of Antique made’ it was a standing joke that Chance had ‘only one customer and that was Hardman’s’.\textsuperscript{29} But the Hardman
---
**FIG. 8:**
Powell’s ‘Pressed Slab’, first manufactured in the late 19th century. Usually well annealed and easily cut, although they undulate to a depth of approx. 1cm in places. They lack the clearness of colour that mouth-blown slabs possess, but their diffusing quality allows them to be used unpainted (although they can be re-fired). Primarily glazed with the undulating surface on the exterior of windows to exploit the ever-shifting positions of the sun. White pressed slabs were often included by Arts & Crafts designers like Paul Woodroffe in areas of glazing requiring the purest radiating light.
firm’s early windows show no evidence of a glass that has the qualities of Jesse Rust’s or Winston’s glass, and by the time of Hardley’s recollections all British mouth-blown pot metals used for stained glass windows were called ‘Antique’, and ‘Streaky Antiques’ and ‘Flashed Antiques’ were variations of this range. They would have fulfilled Winston’s demand that:
... if the glass, held at arms length from the eye and at the distance of more than a yard from an object does not permit of the object being distinctly seen through it, the glass will be sufficiently opaque: and when held at the same distance from the eye, and at a distance of not more than a yard from the object, it permits the latter being distinctly seen through the glass, it will be sufficiently clear and transparent.\(^{30}\)
George Wood (b. 1823) assisted Chance from 1870-1880 in ‘the initial years when the difficulties of furnace construction and the making of special colours and rubies was largely overcome.’\(^{31}\) An experienced colour mixer, he had previously worked for Lloyd & Summerfield of Birmingham. His son, Alfred Wood, also worked with Chance as a colour mixer until he departed with his recipes in 1893 to become a partner in Hartley Wood & Co. of Sunderland by 1895. On his arrival they made an Antique muff glass for the first time.
Importantly, the quest of Pugin and Winston to find a glass that possessed similar qualities to medieval glass had focussed on discovering a good ‘Streaky Ruby’. In 1849 Pugin had used John Hardman to mediate with James Hartley, who sent him a variety of samples including a ruby sheet with a stain applied that needed to be fired in the kiln to ‘bring the colour out’.\(^{32}\) Winston was aware of Hartley’s endeavours because Thomas Ward had also been encouraging Hartley to produce a streaky ruby for restoring medieval glazing and had shown the resulting samples to Winston. In 1850:
Charles Winston called attention to a piece of modern ruby glass, made by blowing, in express imitation of some ancient glass of the thirteenth century and early part of the fourteenth century, in March last year by Mr Hartley of Newcastle [sic], at the instigation of Mr Ward, the glass painter. This was Mr Winston believed, the first instance of such an imitation; and although the glass produced was not identical with the original model, yet it certainly came nearer to it than any other substitute.\(^{33}\)
Thus, the ruby glass\(^{34}\) sold by Powell’s could be the same as that found in windows by Clayton & Bell or Morris & Company. However, although it may have been bought from Powell’s, this glass could have well been made by James Hartley. The problem of copper ruby was resolved by George Bontemps\(^{35}\) on behalf of Chance Brothers in 1857, by making one ‘that did not darken when fired in the kiln’.\(^{36}\) Bontemps was also the first manufacturer in the nineteenth century of a flashed ruby – made in 1826 while he was at the Choisy-le-Roi factory in Paris.\(^{37}\)
**A new era**
1889 marked the beginning of a new era of glass-making, just as 1845 had done. Britten & Gilson, of Southwark, London, drew up a contract with the architect E. S. Prior to produce a glass under his name called Prior’s ‘Early English’ (figs. 3, 4).\(^{38}\) This was a bottle glass made by blowing a ball of glass into an oblong metal mould, leaving a bottle that could be cut into four flat rectangular sides and a base, which became known as slabs. One of the men involved with the manufacture of this glass seems to have been William J. Blenko, an experienced bottle blower who later emigrated to America and founded a glass-making dynasty there.
Prior’s ‘Early English’ had all the inherent bumps, variety of thicknesses, streaks, colour variegation and foreign bodies that Arts & Crafts designers needed for their windows, and led to a greater freedom in glass-painting techniques. The diffusive qualities of the glass allowed James Hogan in the 1930s to develop a linear style of glass painting that had no half tones – only supportive lines that strongly echoed the techniques of 13th-century painters.
The favourable response to Prior’s ‘Early English’ gave an opportunity to other manufacturers to imitate it. Chance marketed their so-called ‘Norman Slabs’\(^{39}\) and Powell’s and Hartley Wood produced
their own slabs as well as antique muff sheets that possessed many slab qualities (FIGS. 5, 6). The introduction of these slab glasses reduced the need for the small spun crowns described earlier, which declined in popularity, and the term ‘Antique’ after 1889 was applied to the new muff sheet glass, which was widely used by Arts & Crafts designers. It first appears in the Powell’s Order Books in 1891, ordered for Charles Spooner to be used in the glazing of a church in Ipswich. The second order was for Louis Davis.
Arts & Crafts designers were also stimulated to work with heavy decorative glass such as ‘Venetian’ and ‘Venetian Ripple’ that had been made by Powell’s as early as 1869, but had thus far only been used for domestic or secular schemes (the National Portrait Gallery in London has examples of Venetian in the entry hall, immediately on the right-hand side after entering the building.)
The end of the nineteenth century saw stained glass designers working with a variety of slabs, some thinner than antique sheet and just as easy to cut, and fancy glasses such as: ‘Venetian Ripple’, made by blowing a glass ball into a cone shaped metal mould with an internal screw pattern; ‘Venetian’ (FIG. 7), made by initially blowing a glass ball into the same mould as Venetian Ripple and afterwards into a similar shaped mould that had a reverse corkscrew pattern; and ‘Pressed Slabs’ (FIG. 8), made by pouring molten glass into a square wooden mould and then lowering a lid which impressed a softly undulating pattern into glass. Pressed Slabs were used by Henry Holiday (SEE PLATE 4, p. 183) and William Blake Richmond and others from the early 1890s, and designers such as Leonard Walker continued to have Powell’s make bespoke pressed slabs for them well into the 1950s.
Plating was frequently used by Arts & Crafts designers, including Henry Holiday, Henry Payne and particularly Sylvester Sparrow, to achieve darker passages of colour instead of using applications of matts. When tone was applied it was often done so with a dry stipple allowing light to seep through. Black paint gave line work a dramatic impact when applied to silvery white slabs and the variety of rubies and gold pinks on offer created an intense and pyrotechnically vibrant palette that reached a peak in the work of Veronica Whall, Karl Parsons and Harry Clarke in the 1920s and 1930s. The acquisition of more interesting but expensive glass, and a more thoughtful treatment of it, always came at a price. For example, the Christopher Whall window of 1904 in Ashbourne Church, Derbyshire, was proportionately four times more expensive than the contemporary East window of C. E. Kempe’s firm.
Conclusion
Winston is quite rightly regarded as a major figure in the development of 19th-century mouth-blown glass but, rather like Pugin, he was a compulsive writer and tended to exaggerate his own importance. James Hartley and his thoughts, ideas and achievements are not on record and thus his legacy is more difficult to establish and his importance more difficult to define. However, Winston’s glass as made by Powell’s was commercially available for no more than a decade before it mutated into a muff glass different from the one manufactured by Powell’s prior to about 1860. It is
FIG. 10: (opposite)
A sheet of ‘Sanded Ruby’ c.1930s. One of the sides retains the indentations of the rough sand or grit on which the glass was laid while still soft. The resulting texture distorted and diffused transmitted light in a manner that reduced glare. Studios also fired individual pieces of cut glass that were placed on a bed of sand in the kiln, a technique which produced similar results to ‘Sanded Ruby’. An example of this technique used on an unpainted white muff glass can be found in the Lavers & Barraud clerestory scheme (early 1860s) at Kingston Parish Church.
apparent that Winston’s glass proved unacceptable to the majority of commercial stained glass firms\textsuperscript{44} – indeed Winston blamed Richard Clayton for not buying his glass, and, as noted above, the rubies used initially by Clayton & Bell in the late 1850s and early 1860s may well have been made by James Hartley. However, the variegated pot metal blues which were often used unpainted must have been made by Powell’s and today we would certainly describe these as being ‘English Antique’.
Clayton & Bell were always a commercially successful company and Chance Brothers are reputed to have closed their window making department in 1865 because they could not compete with their prices. Cost might have made Winston’s glass unpopular with some makers who may well have been paying more per square foot for the smaller, thicker sheets than for other larger, thinner sheets. J. R. Clayton supported the glass-making endeavours of W. E. Chance – not only because of his wish for a certain type of glass and a more extensive palette – but also because it came at a price he was willing to pay. It is perhaps no coincidence that William Burges’s stained glass maker, W. Gualbert Saunders, who sourced a more expensive streaky glass almost certainly made by Jesse Rust, was forced to flee to the continent to avoid his debts.
Evidence does exist to show that the quality of glass improved and a wider palette became available to glass painters in the early 1860s.\textsuperscript{45} The new glass had an impact on the appearance of contemporary stained glass, whose style was further altered by the availability of Barff’s ready-made glass paint.\textsuperscript{46}
A decline in stained glass commissions began at the start of the First World War and naturally led to a steady decline in glass manufacturing. Chance ceased production in the 1940s, followed by Powell’s in the 1970s. Hartley Wood dwindled slowly and inevitably towards liquidation in the 1990s. The truly golden period of glass-making extended only from 1889 to c.1914.
In the post-war years, the closure of many stained glass studios established in the nineteenth and early twentieth century meant that much information about the raw material of glass was destroyed. Although documentary archives were removed and preserved along with the remaining cartoons and sketches, glass samples were usually ignored. Fortunately, surviving glass stock from the Fulham Glass House revealed that Prior’s ‘Early English’ slab bases had been stamped with the product name, enabling other slabs to be identified. Many extant smaller samples of Antique sheet had been collected over decades. Long since unattainable, these included Hartley Wood, Chance and Powell’s, as well as the firm of May & Baker (figs. 9, 10). The latter produced trade samples of slabs and streaky Antiques which can be identified by initials scratched into the surface of the glass. In future, the glass samples and remaining glass stock of a studio facing closure should be treated with as much respect as its sketches and cartoons. Too much information has already been lost.
The development of 19th- and 20th-century mouth-blown glass played a major part in the evolution of stained glass design, with each continually reacting to the advancements of the other. The firm identification of glass from samples and other archival information is now essential for both historians, restorers and conservators, who continually handle material they are unable to identify. And, significantly, contemporary designers who complain about the price of today’s glass should remember that an age never existed when the best glass was cheaper. In 1903, Sylvester Sparrow wrote ‘Gold-ruby is confined almost entirely to “Early English”, in which it reaches a price calculated to freeze your young blood, and make each particular hair stand on end’.
This paper is an edited version of an illustrated lecture presented at the BSMGP’s conference Glass Painting 1800–1900: Aesthetics, History, Conservation held 28 February – 1 March 2005.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Dr Michael Kerney for his work on the James Powell & Sons Order Books and the information he has made available to me, also to Martin Harrison FSA and his book *Victorian Stained Glass*, Peter Cormack FSA, Neil Moat, and Keith Hill.
All photographs are by the author and show samples from the glass stock of the Fulham Glass House, with the exception of the pressed slab shown in fig. 8, which is from the glass stock of Edward Woore.
NOTES
1 Charles Muss was the son of Boniface Muss, an Italian artist who moved to Newcastle where Charles was born, and then to London. Charles worked with William Collins in London and trained many glass painters, including Joseph Backler, William and Alfred Essex, George Hoadley, John Martin and a Mr Jones who ran the glass painting department at Choisy-le-Roi (See ‘Report of Meeting of Royal Institute of British Architects (18 May 1840) when Mr George Godwin read a paper on the present state of glass painting in England).
2 James Henry Nixon became a partner of Thomas Ward until he was replaced by his assistant Henry Hughes in about 1850.
3 Thomas Ward’s father established a business in Frith Street, London from 1822, when he advertised as ‘Draughtsman, Decorative Painter, Paper-hanger and Gilder’. Thomas junior first worked on stained glass from 1825-1828 restoring medieval glass at Wragby Church on the Nostell Priory estate. Sophie Rakes, ‘A Cultivated Eye for the Antique’, *Apollo Magazine* (April 2003).
4 The proceedings of the Old Bailey, Ref: T18250407-239: ‘William Hannell, theft, simple grand larceny, 07 April 1825. Indicted for stealing, on the 17th of March, 100 Lbs. weight of coloured glass, value 20L, the goods of Mary Muss, widow.’ Giving evidence, John Pike Hedgeland stated ‘I am in the employ of Mary Muss. I did not know the prisoner, and never saw him about the premises.’ Benjamin Baillie, also a witness, stated ‘I have seen the prisoner about our premises occasionally, but not often; our stock was taken, and we missed a quantity of glass.’
5 Flint glass also called ‘Crystal’, or ‘Lead Crystal’, is a heavy and durable glass characterised by its brilliance, clarity, and highly refractive quality. Developed by George Ravenscroft in 1675, it ushered in a new style in glassmaking and eventually made England the leading glass producer of the world. Flint glass can be so much denser than crown glass because it contains lead, a very dense element.
6 Kelp glass was manufactured from the 1620s when regulations stopped the use of wood ash during the glass-making process as a component part or for firing the kiln. The charcoal makers were damaging the woodlands and had to be controlled. Powell’s had stocks of kelp glass specifically manufactured for them at the end of the nineteenth century by Britten & Gilson to use for restoration. A ‘Staining Sheet’ was available in the early twentieth century; this was a white Antique sheet flashed on one side with Kelp glass.
7 William Wailes employed china painters in 1848 after the closure of the Derby Porcelain Works. Edwin Prince remained with the firm as a glass painter for over twenty years.
8 In 1834 Robert Lucas Chance introduced an ‘Improved Cylinder Sheet’ with the assistance of George Bontemps and French glass blowers using a German process to produce finer quality and larger panes (the 1861 Census lists a number of French glass blowers working in Hartley’s Sunderland works who had moved with him from Chance, including Louis Andre). This glass was used to glaze the Crystal Palace. The process was used extensively until early in the twentieth century to make window glass. From that period onwards machines were developed to automate the production of obscured glass and later, window glass. The repeal of the glass excise duty in 1845, by removing the financial advantages bestowed upon crown glass manufacturers, placed Chance of Birmingham, Hartley of Sunderland, Cookson of Newcastle
and Pilkington, all of whom had started to produce sheet glass by the cylinder process, in a stronger competitive position than those firms which continued to make only crown glass.
9 John Hartley married Margaret Stevenson in 1802 at St Peter’s Church, Monkwearmouth, Durham (Margaret was related to a William Stevenson who married James Kyall’s eldest daughter, Margaret, on the Isle of Man in 1766. James Kyall’s grandson John James Kyall later became a partner in Hartley Wood). John Hartley and Margaret moved to Dumbarton, Scotland, where their son James Hartley (1811-1886) was born, and in 1812 the family moved to Nailsea, near Bristol, where John Hartley worked for Robert Lucas Chance who had recently bought the glass works. John Hartley was headhunted by Robert L. Chance for his expertise in manufacturing crown glass, and in 1827 he transferred to the Chance glassworks in Oldbury. In 1832 his son James Hartley and Robert Chance toured Germany, France and Belgium studying new methods in manufacturing cylinder sheet. With the assistance of George Bontemps and some French glass-blowers they began to manufacture a ‘New improved cylinder sheet’ alongside crown, plate and broad or spread glass. John Hartley died in 1833 and his sons James and John Hartley were made partners in Chance Brothers, but in 1836 they moved to Sunderland and by 1837 had founded the Wear Glass-Works. *The Illustrated News of The World* (6 December 1862), 357 described the immense size of the works and the range of products they were producing: ‘The coloured glass, for which Messrs Hartley have obtained such a great popularity, is blown as in ordinary sheet glass, or rolled as in case of patent rough plate, the colouring material being placed in the pots during the melting or founding process.’ In the 1861 Census James Hartley is listed as a ‘Glass Manufacturer Employing 450 Men & 240 Boys’.
10 Jim Cheshire, ‘Joseph Bell and the Revival of Glass-Painting in the Nineteenth Century’, *The Journal of Stained Glass* XXII (1998): 31.
11 Harry J. Powell: *Glass-making in England* ([Cambridge: The University Press], 1923).
12 West’s 1830 Directory of Warwickshire, the Birmingham Index, reveals that Chance Bros was called ‘The British, Crown Glass Company, Smethwick’ with Hartley as Manager.
13 Robert Lucas Chance managed the Nailsea factory in 1810, but in 1815 sold his share in the glass house and went to London where he worked as a glass merchant. In 1822 he acquired the Thomas Shutt glass works in Spon Lane, Birmingham, and built the firm up over the next thirty years. ‘Chance Brothers & Co’s extensive Glass Works, in Spon Lane, are the largest crown and sheet glass works in England, and employ about 1200 hands. Here was made nearly all the glass for the Crystal Palace, erected in London in 1851’. See William White, *History, Gazetteer and Directory of Staffordshire* (Sheffield: Printed for the author, 1851).
14 I am grateful to Dr Michael Kerney, who has searched the James Powell & Sons Order Books for this information.
15 Powell’s Order Books reveal how they acted as agents for James Hartley from the 1850s, selling their tints and glass already stained and painted.
16 Sylvester Sparrow refers to spun sheets: ‘Powell’s also make their glass into circles of about 12 inches to 14 inches in diameter. These are richer than flat sheets, of which they seem to be a concentrated form.’ See ‘The Stained Glass of the Future Part 1’, *The Art Workers Quarterly* 3, 7 (July 1903). By 1903 spun sheets were no longer called ‘Antique’, which had become a term only applied to muff sheet.
17 At this time Powell’s already manufactured pressed flint glass quarries that were sold already painted and stained. The rough and obscure white glass was thought to have some of the qualities of medieval glass.
18 The Wolverhampton Chronicle (30 November 1853) contains a description of the restoration of Bushbury Church: ‘The windows were all painted and restored by Messrs. Ward and Hughes of Frith Street London. An unusual degree of interest attaches to these windows in consequence of their having been composed of, or restored with, glass made by Messrs. Powell of Whitefriars from analyses of ancient glass, furnished them by Charles Winston Esq. and C. H. Clarke Esq. and made either by these gentlemen or Mr. Medlock, late principal assistant at the Royal College of Chemistry. The repeated experiments and untiring exertion of Mr. Winston are most praiseworthy, in as much as he has been mainly instrumental in producing a glass of entirely different kind from any used within the last five centuries; and the best proof of its identity with glass of that period is the fact that in the restored windows it is absolutely impossible to distinguish the new material from the old: the present is the first instance wherein the glass of two dates have been so strikingly and successfully used together.’
19 *The Ecclesiologist* (February 1853): 178. One of the windows of this scheme still exists (furthest west in the round of the church) and the quality of the unpainted background blue glass is clearly visible.
20 A letter to *The Builder* (3 August 1861): 529.
21 I am grateful to Dr Michael Kerney for this information from the Powell’s Order Books.
22 I am grateful to Peter Cormack for this information.
23 Jesse Rust was born in 1816. In 1861 he was a ‘Glass maker employing 10 men & 7 boys’ and was still manufacturing glass for windows and for mosaics in 1881. A report of the Ecclesiological Society meeting (5 April 1865) stated: ‘among items laid before the society… [were Jesse Rust’s] mosaics and glass for stained glass.’ I am grateful to Peter Cormack for the information that Jesse Rust’s glass continued to be manufactured by the firm of May & Baker after he ceased his involvement with glass-making.
24 Muff refers to a cylinder blown to half the size of what is blown to make cylinder sheet. (The term muff presumably derived from the name for an article of women’s clothing – a type of tubular glove that hands could push into from opposite ends.) Examples of old muff sheets measuring 12 by 14\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches were shown at the BSMGP’s conference *Glass Painting 1800-1900: Aesthetics, History, Conservation* held in London 28 February - 1 March 2005. The height of the sheets matched the distance from the inside of the elbow to the fingertips. The samples came from the studios of Joseph Bell of Bristol and the Fulham Glass House, London, and were smaller than standard Antique sheets which measured 23\(\frac{1}{2}\) by 15\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches.
25 I am grateful to Dr Michael Kerney who has thoroughly researched the Powell’s Order Books for this information.
26 The 1861 Census records that William Edward Chance was an 18-year-old ‘Glass Manufacturer Clerk’ living at home with his American mother, Cordelia Chance, and his father, George Chance an ‘Annuitant’, who was the brother of Robert Lucas Chance.
27 In *English Stained and Painted Glass* (London: Oxford University Press, 1954), 61, Christopher Woodforde gives the date for W. E. Chance making ‘Antique glass’ as 1863, but this date is taken from Stokes’s article of 1934 (see note 29), and he appears muddled over the quotes of Alfred Wood in the same article.
28 James Hetley continued to be the agents for Chance until the firm ceased glass making, after which they became the agent for Hartley Wood & Co. who had previously been represented in the South East of England by the London glass merchants Miller, Beale & Hider (previously Miller & Beale). Harry J. Hider (described in the 1901 Census as a Lead Glass Merchant, b.1867) joined the firm some time before 1902. See Harold T. Broad, ‘Reminiscences of Miller Beale & Hider LTD’, *The Journal of Stained Glass* XVII, 2 (1978-1979): 73.
29 Thomas Stokes, ‘W. E. Chance and the Revived Manufacture of Coloured Glass’, *The Journal of the British Society of Master Glass Painters* V, No 4 (October 1934): 170. John Hardman quoted the glass blower John Thomas Hardley (aged 82 in 1934) who worked for W. E. Chance from 1869, as saying that Hardman had been the only client of W. E. Chance ‘at the beginning’. A James T. Hardley is listed in the 1881 and 1901 Census as born in 1842 in Smethwick, Staffordshire, and working as a glass blower.
30 Letter from James Hartley to John Hardman, quoted in *The Journal of Stained Glass* XXI (1997): 7.
31 Stokes, ‘W. E. Chance And The Revived Manufacture’, 170.
32 *Ibid.*
33 Stanley Shepherd, ‘A.W.N. Pugin and the Making of Medieval-Type Glass’, *The Journal of Stained Glass* XXI (1997): 5. Shepherd refers to *Proceedings at a Meeting of the Archaeological Institute* on 3 May 1850 which contains this quote. His article is essential reading for those interested in this subject.
34 The Powell’s Order Books show half a sheet of ‘Hartley’s Ruby’ sold by them in 1849 and in the same year ‘Hartley’s Tinted, Stained & Painted’. It would seem they were willing to sell whatever they couldn’t make better or cheaper themselves. Keith Hill has recorded the use of ruby glass, treated with acid to provide an Antique streaky appearance, in an 1860 Henry Hughes window in Rusthall Church, Kent, and in other locations, suggesting that sheets of flashed ruby were sold pre-acided, mainly to be included in borders.
Georges Bontemps (1799-1884) was the director of the Choisy-le-Roi glass factory from 1823-1848. Here in 1827 he began the production of opal glass and later opened a stained glass workshop directed by ‘Edouard Jones’, an Englishman, who returned with Bontemps to Birmingham in 1848 to work for Chance (see 1851 Census).
Powell, *Glass-making in England*.
M. Grimbold founded the Choisy-le-Roi glass manufacturing factory in Paris in 1821; it closed down in 1851.
Sylvester Sparrow refers to Prior’s ‘Early English’ in ‘The Stained Glass of the Future Part 1’ *The Art Workers Quarterly* 3, 7 (July 1903). ‘In flukes and accidents... it is particularly rich. When the heavier chemicals sink to the bottom of the pot, the last few bottles that are made from it of it are streaked and varied in colour in a most wonderful and beautiful way... . The moment “streakies” appear, up goes the price fifty percent’.
*Ibid*. Sparrow notes: ‘The retailers of ‘Norman’ boast that although many architects specify ‘Early English’ they do not get it. When I mention that you can get ‘Norman’ for 3½d. per slab, and the lowest price of ‘Early English’ is 6d. per slab, the reason of the substitution is obvious.’
*Ibid*. Sparrow claimed that Powell’s made the very finest Antique glass: ‘Although it has not the brilliance and body of “Early English”, it has those qualities in a much higher degree than other makers of Antique... . “Early English” has more light, Powell’s “Antique” more tone; so that one would use “Early English” for effects of light and brilliant objects, and Powell’s “Antique” for the parts requiring tone.’
I am grateful to Dr Michael Kerney for this information from the Powell’s Order Books which refers to Powell’s own manufactured glass being ordered in house – to be used in windows manufactured in their own workshops.
‘Plating’ is the technique of inserting layers of different pieces of glass into a single lead. A blue piece of glass, for example, could be doubled up with a ruby to produce a dark purple. Henry Holiday began using this technique in the early 1890s after meeting La Farge, in New York, who freely plated layers of glass. The liberty Holiday experienced after leaving James Powell & Sons and establishing his own workshops meant he could use these more expensive techniques. They were relevant, for example, to Rose windows, allowing the glass to achieve darkness without excessive applications of mattes. Harry Clarke plated flashed glass that had been etched with hydrofluoric acid almost compulsively for decorative effects, while Leonard Walker achieved notoriety by plating as many as three slabs in a single lead.
I am grateful to Dr Michael Kerney for this information.
*Ibid*. Sparrow refers to William Morris as a ‘...tradesman who buys in the cheapest market, and sells in the dearest’ and admonishes him for only using Powell’s Antique at the beginning of his career and abandoning it ‘...In favour of inferior and cheaper sorts of Antique...’. However, for a more objective discussion of Morris’s interest in glass manufacturing, see Peter Cormack, ‘Le Nouveau à la recherche de l’Ancien: le Style et les Matériaux dans les vitraux Arts & Crafts de 1880 à 1930’ in *Dossier de la commission royale des Monuments, Sites et Fouilles*, 7. *Art, Technique et Science: la Création du Vitrail de 1830 à 1930* (Liège: Commission royale des Monuments, Sites et Fouilles de la Région wallonne, 2000), 57-64.
See comments on the 1863 glass in the West window of Kingston Parish Church included in Dr Michael Kerney’s article in this issue (p. 78).
Christopher Whall in his *Stained Glass Work* (London: John Hogg, 1905), 226, states: ‘... red-lead-coloured pigments, started by Barff’s formula... could not be used on pure white glass, and therefore pure white glass was discarded and greenish white used instead.’ Frederick Settle Barff (1823-1887) was from 1871-1879 professor at the Royal Academy (Chemistry) and a Fellow of the Chemical Society of London. | 8b238d2e-a0da-4056-b506-2b485fb34b54 | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://www.bsmgp.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Tony-Benyon-Journal-of-Stained-Glass-2005.pdf | 2021-01-28T02:42:18+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610704835583.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20210128005448-20210128035448-00220.warc.gz | 691,513,279 | 9,406 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995627 | eng_Latn | 0.997562 | [
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UNIT 18: CREATING YOUR GOOGLE ACCOUNT
LESSON 2: STAY ORGANIZED
LESSON OVERVIEW
Your Google account allows you to have your own personal calendar. You can use a Google Calendar to manage your time, create appointments and organize tasks. You can change, edit and rearrange your schedule whenever you want.
Time: ~30 minutes
OBJECTIVE
Students will be able to identify the main components of the Gmail Calendar.
PRINT PREPARATION
1. Print this lesson’s Dollar Tracker
2. Review sequence of activities in lesson.
3. Learn which supplements you will use.
4. Print/Copy/Laminate materials that fit your student’s needs.
5. Refer to your Level 2 Guide to read about effective practices
ONLINE REVIEW
1. Sign into Digitability
2. Click LESSONS tab
3. Select Level 2 - Digital Citizen
4. Select Unit 18
5. Select Lesson 2 - Stay Organized
WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR FOCUS FOR THIS UNIT
Using the Dollar Tracker, select two additional behaviors that you will target throughout the course of this unit. Always include participation/contribution in addition to the two new behaviors.
WARM UP
ACCESSING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
1. “For a participation dollar, who can recall what the Google Calendar helps you do?”
Possible Answers: The Google Calendar helps you stay organized.
Use positive narration to reinforce students following directions.
“I see Marcus is following directions and already has two contacts listed. I see Vincent has one contact and included their name, email and phone. Nice work following directions and staying on task.”
Take answers from at least 4 students. Award at least four participation dollars.
2. Distribute 18.IEC.Y/N to students. See DIFFERENTIATION for this activity to identify supplements needed for your students.
DIFFERENTIATION
T1 On-topic verbal response shared response
T2 Uses Yes or No Image Exchange Card [18.IEC.Y/N] for rephrased question.
T3 Points to Yes or No Image Exchange Card [18.IEC.Y/N] for rephrased question.
3. Give immediate feedback to each student (see below). Record Workplace Behavior earnings and/or spending on the Dollar Earnings Tracker. [18.DollarTracker]
[NAME] + [BEHAVIOR] + [CONSEQUENCE] + [REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR/REINFORCEMENT]
**+$ PARTICIPATION**
Yes, Marcus. [Student gives answer; Teacher repeats answer] “A contact is someone you may reach out to. Nice job participating and earning a dollar. Anyone else want to share one of their answers for a participation dollar?”
**-$ OFF TASK**
[Student is called on, but responds with a problematic behavior, such as perseveration/obsession of a different topic that does not relate content]. Marcus, that is off-topic. Off-topic comments cost a $1. “We’re talking about what we think a contact is. Raise your hand to share what you think a contact for a participation dollar.”
**GUIDED WATCHING**
Call out earnings to the class, “[Student] has earned x dollars… for participating. [Student] has earned x dollars for participating and sharing. [Student] has earned x dollars…”
1. “For a participation dollar, who can tell me the name of our next badge?”
2. Distribute 18.BADGE to students. See DIFFERENTIATION for this activity to identify supplements needed for your students.
**DIFFERENTIATION**
- **T1** Verbal Response
- **T2** Writes down badge
- **T3** Uses Badge Board [18.BADGE] for this Unit.
3. Bring attention to screen, “Let’s watch this lesson. I know that [student’s name] is actively watching because he has his eyes on the screen and he is actively listening by giving a thumbs up when he hears the words organized”
4. Ask students to give a thumbs up every time they hear and/or see the Organized in the video
5. Play video.
6. Distribute 18.IEC.THUMB to students. See DIFFERENTIATION for this activity to identify supplements needed for your students.
DIFFERENTIATION
T1 Puts thumbs up
T2 Uses Thumbs Image Exchange Card [18.IEC.THUMB]
T3 Holds up or points to Thumbs Image Exchange Card [18.IEC.THUMB]
7. Give immediate feedback to each student (see below). Record Workplace Behavior earnings and/or spending on the Dollar Earnings Tracker. [18.DollarTracker]
[NAME] + [BEHAVIOR] + [CONSEQUENCE] + [REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR/REINFORCEMENT]
+$ PARTICIPATION
Yes, Marcus. [Student gives answer; Teacher repeats answer] “A contact is someone you may reach out to. Nice job participating and earning a dollar. Anyone else want to share one of their answers for a participation dollar?”
-$ OFF TASK
[Student is called on, but responds with a problematic behavior, such as perseveration/obsession of a different topic that does not relate content]. Marcus, that is off-topic. Off-topic comments cost a $1. “We’re talking about what we think a contact is. Raise your hand to share what you think a contact for a participation dollar.”
Pro tip Remember Rule #3: Avoid a power struggle to stay focused on instruction. We are helping students learn to self-regulate. Therefore it is important to give students time to opt, or identify their replacement behavior. If a student is not following directions, you have given them one minute (60 seconds) before taking additional dollars.
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT
1. “For a participation dollar, who can tell me what your Google account allows you to have?”
Answer: It allows you to have your own personal calendar.
2. “For a participation dollar, who can tell me what are some things you can use Google Calendar to do?”
Answer: Manage your time, create appointments, organize tasks.
3. “For a participation dollar, who can tell me if you can change, edit or rearrange your schedule once you input information?”
Answer: Yes, you can change, edit and rearrange your schedule whenever you want.
4. Distribute 18.IEC.Y/N to students. See DIFFERENTIATION for this activity to identify supplements needed for your students.
DIFFERENTIATION
T1 On-topic verbal response shared response
T2 Uses Yes or No Image Exchange Card [18.IEC.Y/N] for rephrased question.
T3 Points to Yes or No Image Exchange Card [18.IEC.Y/N] for rephrased question.
5. Give immediate feedback to each student (see below). Record Workplace Behavior earnings and/or spending on the Dollar Earnings Tracker. [18.DollarTracker]
[NAME] + [BEHAVIOR] + [CONSEQUENCE] + [REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR/REINFORCEMENT]
**+$ PARTICIPATION**
Yes, Marcus. [Student gives answer; Teacher repeats answer] “A contact is someone you may reach out to. Nice job participating and earning a dollar. Anyone else want to share one of their answers for a participation dollar?”
**-$ OFF-TOPIC**
[Student is called on, but responds with a problematic behavior, such as perseveration/obsession of a different topic that does not relate content]. “Marcus, that is off-topic. Off-topic comments cost a $1. We’re talking about what we think a contact is. Raise your hand to share what you think a contact for a participation dollar.”
Call out earnings to the class, “[Student] has earned x dollars... for participating. [Student] has earned x dollars for participating and sharing. [Student] has earned x dollars...”
**PLAY ACTIVITY VIDEO**
1. Ask the class, “Who would like to unlock the Stay Organized Badge for $1?”
Click Activity Button to Play Activity Video
2. Student discusses with class to choose the correct answer.
a. If student chooses correct answer, have student or whole class dance.
b. If student chooses incorrect answer, repeat Step 2 until student unlocks the badge.
3. Distribute lesson badge cut out 18.2.5. Students that unlocked the badge will place the Stay Organized print out on the classroom’s word wall. See DIFFERENTIATION for this activity to identify supplements needed for your students.
DIFFERENTIATION
T1 Student will use verbal prompting to unlock the badge with the class.
T2 Student will use verbal prompting and hand signals to unlock the badge with the class.
T3 Student will use hand signals, pointing, prompting levels or adult/Tier 1 partner support to unlock the badge with the class.
4. Give immediate feedback to each student (see below). Record Workplace Behavior earnings and/or spending on the Dollar Earnings Tracker. [18.DollarTracker]
[NAME] + [BEHAVIOR] + [CONSEQUENCE] + [REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR/REINFORCEMENT]
+$ PARTICIPATION
“Marcus + you answered correctly! You earned a dollar! Nice job!”
-$ INTERRUPTIONS
“Marcus + you interrupted. Interruptions cost $1. Next time, raise your hand and wait to be called on to earn a $1.”
ASSESSMENT/EXIT TICKET
1. Distribute 18.2.6 Stay Organized Exit Ticket to students. See DIFFERENTIATION for this activity to identify supplements needed for your students.
DIFFERENTIATION
T1 Using Tier 1 Stay Organized Exit Ticket [126.96.36.199], Students Look at the Google Calendar, answer the questions about your schedule.
T2 Using Tier 2 Stay Organized Exit Ticket [188.8.131.52], students complete Vocab block about using email, or Trace ‘n’ Learn card [184.108.40.206].
T3 Using Tier 3 Stay Organized Exit Ticket [220.127.116.11], students complete Trace and Learn.
2. Give immediate feedback to each student (see below). Record Workplace Behavior earnings and/or spending on the Dollar Earnings Tracker. [18.DollarTracker]
[NAME] + [BEHAVIOR] + [CONSEQUENCE] + [REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR/REINFORCEMENT]
+$ PARTICIPATION
“Nice job, participating, Marcus. You earned a participation dollar. Let’s hear more about your work.”
-$ OFF TASK
“Marcus, you’re off-task. Being off-task cost a dollar. Look at the screen and listen carefully to earn dollars for following direction/participating. Marcus, you’re off-task. For every minute that you are not participating, it will cost a $1. Look at the screen and listen carefully to earn dollars for following direction/participating.”
IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK/NEXT STEPS
1. Read off Dollar Earnings Tracker and announce how many dollars each student earned during the lesson.
2. Students will fill in their dollar earnings from the lesson using their My Digitability Earnings sheet. Have students staple this sheet into their notebooks so they can use it for the entire unit.
3. If time permits, you can either have students log into their student accounts for independent practice or continue on to the next lesson plan.
4. Ask students what they will do with their money. Spend it or save it?
DIFFERENTIATION
T1 Login independently using password cards.
T2 Login independently using password card with the help from a Tier 1 partner for any required troubleshooting.
T3 Teacher or Tier 1 assistance to help student login using their password card.
| Behaviors | Name |
|---------------------------|------|
| **Successful** | |
| Participation/Contributing | EX: |
| Sharing/Helping/Collaborating | Sam |
| Greeting a Guest | |
| Following Directions/Staying on Task | |
| Encouraging/Complementing | |
| **Problematic** | |
| Off Task | |
| Off-Topic/Inappropriate Comment | |
| Disrespect/Teasing | |
| Complaining/Whining | |
| Arguing | |
| Interrupting | |
| UMAPA | |
YES OR NO IMAGE EXCHANGE CARD
18.IEC.Y/N
THUMBS IMAGE EXCHANGE CARD
18.IEC.THUMB
LVL 2 UNIT 18: LESSON 2 STAY ORGANIZED
BADGE BOARD
18.BADGE
Gmail Calendar
Stay Organized
Events
Event Reminder
View Calendar
Multiple Calendars
Share Calendars
Gmail Calendar
You can use a Google Calendar to manage your time, create appointments and organize tasks.
Directions: Look at the Google Calendar, answer the questions about your schedule.
How many meetings do you have this month?
How many parties do you have this month?
How many doctors appointments do you have this week?
STAY ORGANIZED
EXIT TICKET VOCAB BLOCKS
18.104.22.168
Name: ________________________________
Date: ________________________________
Define
Examples
Stay Organized
Sentence
Draw
Stay Organized
You can use a Google Calendar to manage your time, create appointments and organize tasks.
Directions: Look at the Sample Google Calendar and answer the following question.
Your co-worker wants you to go shopping with her on the 4th at 12:00 in the afternoon. Can you go? Yes or no and explain.
Directions: Look at the Sample Google Calendar and answer the following question.
Your co-worker wants you to go shopping with her on the 4th at 12:00 in the afternoon. Can you go? Yes or no. Why?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Directions: Look at the Sample Google Calendar and answer the following question.
Your co-worker wants you to go shopping with her on the 4th at 12:00 in the afternoon, however, you are already busy. Circle what you will be doing that day and time.
Directions: Look at the Sample Google Calendar and answer the following question.
Your co-worker wants you to go shopping with her on the 4th at 12:00 in the afternoon. Can you go? Yes or no.
Yes
No
Directions: Write in or circle the best answer to complete the sentence.
Your Google Account allows you to have your own ________________ (personal, public) calendar. You can use a Google Calendar to manage your ____________, (time, photos) create appointments and _______________ tasks. You can change, (disorganize, organize) edit and rearrange your schedule whenever you want. You can access your Google Calendar from any ________________ with internet access. (computer, television) | d1bd6e20-280e-4abd-b32a-9e044bd2f3ce | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://digitability.com/wp-content/uploads/STAGE-2-Unit-18-Lesson-2.pdf | 2021-03-05T16:33:13+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178373095.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20210305152710-20210305182710-00544.warc.gz | 286,948,668 | 3,092 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.925317 | eng_Latn | 0.997 | [
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SCIENCE 4 FUN PROJECT
The Science4Fun project aims to find an attractive and effective way to teach science. By developing resources that are easy to understand and use, the project partners aim to present natural sciences such as physics, biology, chemistry, geology, environment and astronomy in an interesting way so that students can discover and develop their STEM skills.
The project tries to overcome the reluctance of young people, especially young girls, to follow an educational and professional path in the sciences. The tools developed during the project will equip the teachers with tools that will help them increase student motivation and show them that science can be fun and understandable.
THE PARTNERSHIP:
Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union
www.science4fun.eu
RESULTS SO FAR:
The project team managed to:
• Make a repository of scientific resources
• Create the eLearning platform with student testing and teacher training
• Test the e-Learning platform
• A guide to implementing the platform (which will be made available on the project website)
• Guidelines for teachers (to be made available on the project website)
EXECUTION OF THE TESTS
In this final phase of the project, various pilot tests have taken place in all partner countries. Primary to secondary schools in Belgium, Bulgaria, Portugal, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, Poland and the Czech Republic are testing the Science4Fun Moodle platform. Nearly 2000 students have participated so far. These pilots already support some 63 teachers in more than 30 organizations.
Testimonial of the pilots in Bulgaria
“The Science4Fun test in Bulgaria was conducted in two phases. Both were held online through the project's Moodle platform. The first phase took place in January 2021 and served as a baseline test to determine the initial level of the students. Second test took place at the end of May/beginning of June 2021 with subsequent tests of the respective EQF levels. Three teachers were involved in these two test phases of the project in Bulgaria. The students were divided into 4 groups according to their educational level. A total of 91 students participated in the assessment. The age and number of students per group was as follows: age group 9-10 (25 students) age group 12-14 (43 students - divided into two groups) age group 16-17 (23 students). A total of 178 tests were completed during the two testing phases. The statistics in the Moodle platform show an improvement in the students' grades after the second test.”
Testimonial of the pilots in Spain
“In Spain, several educational institutions have been contacted that have agreed to participate in the pilot of the project. To be precise, four secondary schools and two primary schools have participated in the pilot so far. Unfortunately, due to the pandemic situation, it was not possible to do an in-person session, so the staff of the organization held an online meeting with the participating teachers, to explain to them how to access the platform and to take the associated tests. In addition, students in primary education and the Early Childhood Education University of the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid also participated in the pilot phase. These future teachers in primary and early education completed a number of questionnaires that were created during the project. This pilot at universities will be extended to other Spanish universities, such as the University of Málaga and the University of Granada, as it is useful to have a detailed picture of the knowledge of future teachers in the field of science at the national level and to ensure the sustainability of the project, as some of these future teachers could use the project’s resources in their future teaching practice.”
EXECUTION OF THE TESTS
Testimonial of the pilots in The Netherlands
"In the Netherlands, we have implemented the project from December 2020 in collaboration with a local Education Foundation, which includes many schools, and a youth organization affiliated with the local football association, where many young people come together. The Christian Radar Education Foundation has 5 schools and the pilot started at the Jan Wouter van den Doel school in groups 7 and 8 under the leadership of director Esther van der Schee. In addition, the idea is also to conduct a pilot via the high IQ/giftedness department of the UNIQ foundation. In the new school year, the intention is that a number of other locations will also participate in the pilot. In the Youth Organization of the Westhoek (called SOOS), young people, led by supervisor Sabina Jansen, did the tests in the weeks that science was on the agenda. These tests were made by them and now they are looking in the final repository for fun assignments that they can do themselves on Fridays in July and August. A great result from two different organizations that are very happy with the project, in which the subject of science is back on the agenda in a different and fun way."
Testimonial of the pilots in Portugal
In Portugal, the pilot started later due to the constraints of the pandemic and the resulting change in the school calendar. Several schools from the north to the south of the country were invited, but so far only 4 schools have started testing the platform, involving students from primary and secondary schools. However, schools have shown great interest in testing and using this platform as a support tool and will resume use in September at the start of the new school year.
Testimonial of the pilots in Czech Republic
The pilot took place in 4 schools - 2 primary schools, 1 secondary school and 1 education centre, with a total of more than 200 students. The students were between the ages of 13 and 17. We started the pilot in July 2020 and then it continued continuously throughout the school year.
ONLINE PARTNER MEETING, JUNE 23, 2021
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the last project meeting took place online. The partners discussed the status of the project and future activities for the final months of the project.
WHAT'S NEXT?
The project partners will promote a multiplier event in each of the countries, where the activities and results of the project will be presented. More information will be made available soon on the project website.
Visit our website for more info!
Disclaimer: The European Commission's support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the content, which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained in this publication. | e97e5fb7-577a-4edc-8f94-ec4e05f6df5d | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://36ecf6b1-fb49-4e4a-99bd-96ca84e3c21a.filesusr.com/ugd/7b5476_f36670f5127e4d06ab4288b9797324f1.pdf | 2021-11-28T13:56:52+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358560.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20211128134516-20211128164516-00632.warc.gz | 148,059,936 | 1,314 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998018 | eng_Latn | 0.998695 | [
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UC Cooperative Extension works with fire safe councils to reduce wildfires
by Glenn A. Nader and Michael De Lasaux
In Plumas, Butte and Yuba counties, UC Cooperative Extension advisors have collaborated with fire safe councils to mitigate the risk of wildfire in local communities. They have determined the educational needs within the communities, obtained grant funding and worked collaboratively with the councils to deliver education and applied research programs that have helped homeowners and landowners take action to reduce their vulnerability to the risk of wildfires. Home structures have been modified to improve their fire resistance, fuel reduction programs have been adopted by local communities and maintained, communities have been mapped for evacuation plans and fuel breaks have been constructed on private and public forestland. Several wildfires, including the Marysville fire in 2006 and the Yuba fire in 2009, were slowed or stopped because of measures taken, showing the value of investment in pre-fire planning and actions.
Fire safe councils are community-based organizations that share the objective of making California’s communities less vulnerable to wildfire. They are comprised of a collaborative group of local stakeholders, including federal land managers, state and local fire agency representatives, private forest landowners and community members. They generally meet monthly and work to reduce wildfire hazard through community education programs and fuel reduction projects. Fire safe councils have formed throughout California since the early 1990s and now number more than 100. In Plumas, Butte and Yuba counties, UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) advisors have worked with local fire safe councils for many years. They have helped to identify needs for science-based information on topics critical to fire risk reduction and delivered the information to the communities in a variety of formats to engage homeowners and landowners in effective pre-fire actions.
Statewide programs
Many homeowners do not know which components of their home are at risk to fire. Deck, roof and siding materials perform differently when exposed to embers and flames. UCCE Advisor Steve Quarles developed research on this topic and educational information for homeowners (Quarles and Beall 2002). In 2005, Quarles and other UCCE advisors and specialists, as members of the UCCE Fire Workgroup, developed a Renewable Resources Extension Act proposal and obtained funding to demonstrate how various structural elements can cause a home to be susceptible to fire and how appropriate modification can improve its resilience. Workgroup members developed model wall and deck units for use in demonstration burns to illustrate common construction assembly weaknesses and possible modifications. In collaboration with local fire safe councils, UCCE used the model in a demonstration burn at several community workshops. In 2006, after being trained by Quarles, UCCE Advisor Glenn Nader (one of the authors of this article) conducted a building burning demonstration for the Yuba County
In 2006, a fire in Marysville (Yuba County) was stopped at the Oregon Ridge fuel break, which was constructed by private timber landowners as part of the Slapjack fuel reduction project.
board of supervisors, which assisted in the creation of the Yuba County fire planner position.
UCCE advisors also developed the UC Agriculture and Natural Resources electronic publication *Home Survival in Wildfire-Prone Areas* (Quarles et al. 2010), which is used by fire safe councils in their community educational programs with homeowners. Some fire prevention actions are as simple as placing wire screens over vents to keep embers from coming into the house and starting it on fire. Others, such as replacing wood shingle roofing with noncombustible composite or metal roofing, can be expensive.
In 2006, in a collaborative effort with UC Berkeley Professor Scott Stephens, advisors obtained funds from multiple sources, including the Sierra Nevada Conservancy, the California Fire Safe Council Grants Clearinghouse and the Renewable Resources Extension Act for field research into the long-term efficacy of past forest fuel treatments. The fuel treatment study used a chronosequence of 52 treated fuel reduction sites and 12 nontreated sites in Plumas, Nevada, Sierra, Lassen and Tehama counties (fig. 1). Previously, the lifespan of fuel reduction treatment effects in mixed-conifer and yellow pine forests was estimated to be roughly 10 years. Figure 2 shows that 8 years and more after fuel reduction, the treatments are still projected by fire models to greatly reduce the chance of a crown fire compared to untreated forest. The study findings (Chiono et al. 2012) “suggest that in the forest types characteristic of the northern Sierra Nevada and southern Cascades, treatments for wildfire hazard reduction retain their effectiveness for more than 10–15 years and possibly beyond a quarter century.”
The data was used in UCCE-led fire safe council education programs in all five counties, and council members used it to set realistic timelines for monitoring fuel breaks and considering re-treating fuels. UCCE advisors also incorporated the data into an eight-page electronic publication, *Home Landscaping for Fire* (Nader et al. 2007), that describes what homeowners can do with vegetation within 100 feet of their home to decrease the risk of home loss during a wildfire. Fire safe councils have used the publication in their educational outreach to homeowners.
**Plumas County**
In 2001, in collaboration with the Plumas County fire warden, UCCE Natural Resources Advisor Michael De Lasaux (one of the authors of this article) developed the county fire safe council’s first grant-funded project. The $100,000 grant from the USDA Forest Service Economic Action Program provided community pre-fire planning and educational firewise consultations and laid a foundation for the council’s continuing firewise planning, education and community fuel reduction program.
**Firewise planning.** Among the earliest accomplishments of the Plumas County Fire Safe Council, which formed in 1998, were efforts to help volunteer fire departments prepare for a wildfire that may threaten their community and require evacuation. Volunteer fire departments are prevalent in rural America, but they are typically challenged to recruit, train and equip their volunteers and rarely are able to conduct fire prevention education programs.
UCCE coordinated several projects in association with the county fire service agencies, including (1) mapping all driveways in the county using global positioning system and geographic information system technology (fig. 3) and (2) planning and developing a map for community evacuation, which involved close collaboration with volunteer fire department chiefs and Plumas County emergency services personnel and also a countywide assessment of the fire hazard for each of the defined communities at risk. The driveway coordinates were used to create map books, which were placed...
in the fire engines of the participating communities. The community fire hazard assessment information has been used in subsequent grant proposals to justify forest fuel reduction treatments in communities at risk.
**Firewise education.** In 2003, UCCE led the coordination of a series of firewise workshops that focused on community-specific fire safe planning using the format and resources developed by the National Fire Protection Association workshops. More than 50 community members, including county supervisors, volunteer fire department chiefs, realtors and concerned residents participated in these workshops.
**Consultations.** As part of the 2001 USDA Forest Service Economic Action grant project, De Lasaux coordinated with local fire departments to conduct firewise educational consultations for the public. Volunteer fire departments in six Plumas County communities signed up, and a consultation invitation was sent to nearly 1,700 homeowners, 20% of whom requested a consultation. A version of the National Fire Protection Association Form 299 (NFPA 1997), which provides criteria for fire safe development in areas that may be threatened by wildfire, was modified to suit local conditions and used to guide consultations. About 20% of the properties that were assessed during the homeowner consultations were determined to be a high fire hazard.
**Newspaper tabloids.** The county fire safe council determined that they would like to provide educational information to the widest audience possible, so a tabloid was developed collaboratively with Feather Publishing, the local newspaper publisher. UCCE led the effort to create the first two editions in 1999 and 2000, using the *Living With Fire: A Guide for the Homeowner* educational materials developed by the University of Nevada Cooperative Extension (Smith 1999). Since 2000, there have been additional tabloids developed with reduced UCCE involvement, demonstrating the long-term impact of UCCE’s early work on this project.
**Community fuel reduction.** The Plumas County Fire Safe Council began development of a community fuel reduction program in 2002 with a demonstration project that treated approximately 63 acres on five parcels. The program was developed by council members in collaboration with De Lasaux, who wrote a detailed description of the processes and policies for landowners contemplating participation in a community fuel reduction program. De Lasaux also drafted a white paper that resulted in the California Board of Forestry developing a timber harvest plan exemption for fuel reduction. Since 2002, more than 4,200 acres have been treated in 25 Plumas County communities with the participation of more than 200 property owners (fig. 4). Grant funds from multiple
---
**Fig. 2** Fire modeling of fire types on studied fuel reduction treatments. The fire weather index, which is used to predict the risk of weather events causing catastrophic fires, is shown for the 80th and 97th percentiles; the latter is when there is a severe wind event and low moisture levels in the fuels.
**Fig. 3.** UCCE coordinated a project to map all driveways in Plumas County using global positioning system and geographic information system technology. Each fire engine in the county has a copy of the map book.
**Fig. 4.** UCCE advisors developed an eight-page electronic publication that helps homeowners manage vegetation within 100 feet of their home and reduce the risk of home loss.
state and federal sources have totaled more than $4.4 million.
De Lasaux monitored more than 70 plots in seven communities to develop information to share with property owners who were considering participation. The plots were assessed before and shortly after fuel reduction treatment. Information collected at each plot included forest stand structure and species composition, canopy cover, surface fuel load, canopy base height, ladder fuel condition and project economics; pre- and post-treatment photographs were also taken.
**Butte and Yuba counties**
*Fuel reduction maintenance.* Advisor Nader obtained a grant to conduct a survey of what motivated homeowners to maintain fuel reduction around their home after they had participated in community fuel reduction projects funded by Yuba Watershed Protection and Fire Safe Council grants. Homeowners who were actively maintaining the fuel reduction were given a list of potential influences to indicate which had an impact on their decision to maintain their property in a fire-safe condition. The results (table 1) helped the Yuba and Butte fire safe councils design their fire safe education to obtain higher participation in fuel reduction.
*Sixth-grade wildfire education.* Educational efforts that aim to change behavior patterns in society often focus on youth. This approach can also contribute to additive education of parents (Ballard and Evans 2012). Nader used materials from a primary and secondary education course he took called Fire Works at the Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana, to form the framework of the Butte Fire Safe Council’s sixth-grade program, Wildfire in the Foothills.
A grant from the Renewable Resources Extension Act allowed Nader to hire retired teachers to develop a course that addressed state curriculum requirements. It provides teachers with in-service credits and is a complete package that requires no extra preparation work for teachers. The curriculum uses a teaching method called the three R’s (relationships, relevance and rigor) to teach lasting knowledge about wildland fire in five lessons, each of which has a distinct learning concept (table 2).
The 2004 pilot program was very successful, with outreach to 90 sixth-grade students in the Paradise Unified School District, which includes Paradise and Upper Ridge. In 2005, the school district taught the program to 490 sixth-grade
More than 70 plots were monitored in seven Plumas County communities before, *left*, and after, *right*, fuel reduction treatments.
students. The program is also being offered to 95 students in the Golden Feather School District.
Wildfire in the Foothills attracted the attention of the U.S. Forest Service, which chose it as one of eight programs in their National Fire Plan study “promoting fire-adapted human communities through youth wildfire education programs” (Ballard and Evans 2012). One of the findings noted in their study was “interactions between parents and students were encouraged by requiring parents to sign exercises brought home and by parents knowing that they would be asked to evaluate the program. All teachers agreed that suggesting students talk with their parents about wildfire would garner little response, so requiring parent acknowledgment of take-home assignments was critical. One teacher . . . told students that he would be talking to their parents about [the program] at teacher-parent conferences, and felt that this was an additional motivation for students to talk with their families. Having multiple checks on accountability were cited as crucial to promoting interaction between students and their family.”
**Doom the Broom campaign.** Scotch, Spanish and French broom, introduced from the Mediterranean for erosion control and ornamental use, have spread to an estimated 600,000 acres in California (McClintock 1985), which is not only a problem that affects plant habitats but a very serious problem in terms of the intensity of wildfires (Downey 2000). As the plant grows, the inner stems die back, providing a highly flammable fuel.
Control efforts were being made by community groups and individuals with little knowledge of the biology of broom plants, which resulted in a high number of projects with limited success. Nader used research information to develop an education program that was integrated into the Butte Fire Safe Council’s Doom the Broom campaign. The information was extended through postings on the Web, community meetings and hands-on field training sessions. The key to success is using the right tools at the right time — that is, cutting broom plants when they are under water stress in August, which can cause up to 80% mortality, instead of in the spring, when the plants are not impacted. Since broom seeds can germinate many years after the plants are removed, a list of fire-safe native plants was developed that could be planted to compete with germinating broom plants. After the education, homeowners understood the critical control points of broom control and their efforts were more effective.
**Coordinated fire mitigation**
After the 1997 Williams fire burned more than 100 homes in Yuba County, the local supervisor called a meeting and said that a fire safe council needed to be formed to make sure this would never happen again. Nader took the lead in forming and managing the council. In 1998, concerns over wildfires in Butte County brought a group of interested parties together and Nader was named chair of the new council there. Both councils were interested in bringing agencies together to plan fire mitigation across the landscape by consensus, rather than according to each agency’s jurisdiction, as had been done in the past.
Nader worked with the Forest Service to form the Slapjack Project in Yuba and Butte counties, which coordinated strategic fuel reduction on 4,419 acres of National Forest, Bureau of Land Management, county and private lands (fig. 5). The Forest Service used Herger Feinstein Quincy Library group funding to implement their portion of the project. De Lasaux provided considerable assistance to the Quincy Library Group as it sought to influence national forest fuel reduction programs. Nader worked with the Yuba Fire Safe Council to obtain $2.8 million in grants to implement the private and county portions of the project. The Slapjack Project played a key role in preventing two fires from becoming catastrophic.
**Marysville fire.** One part of Slapjack was the construction of the Oregon Ridge fuel break in Yuba County, which was funded by State Water Resources Board Proposition 204 and featured cooperation among private timber landowners CHY, Soper-Wheeler and Siller Brothers. The Marysville fire, which spread over 442 acres in August 2006 (fig. 6), burned to that fuel break and was stopped there. The fuel break provided a relatively safe place for the firefighters to work; and many trees in the break appear to have survived. In this case, coordinated fire prevention activities helped to limit, or prevent, fire damage to homes, trees and watersheds. It was a testament to science-based pre-fire planning with funding for implementation.
**The fuel break provided time to marshal firefighting resources. Quick access to the fire was also gained through the new road.**
**Yuba fire.** A California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection Proposition 40 grant to the Yuba Watershed Protection and Fire Safe Council was used by landowner John Middlebrook to construct a fuel break 300 feet wide for 0.75 mile on his property along Marysville Road and 1.1 miles on the eastern boundary of his property. Brush and small trees were masticated with equipment or hand-cut, piled and burned. A maintenance and access road was also constructed. The project was started in 2007 and completed early in 2008.
In August 2009, the Yuba fire consumed 3,891 acres (fig. 7). The fire was slowed down by the south end of the Middlebrook fuel break. If the fire had extended another 500 to 1,000 feet to the north, it would have entered young timber stands, causing considerable economic damage, and spread toward the major county arterial highway, Marysville Road. The fuel break provided time to marshal firefighting resources. Quick access to the fire was also gained through the new road. The $52,500 grant proved to be an investment that paid off many times over in helping to stop the fire.
Fire safe councils and UCCE
The education and applied research activities that have occurred in these wildfire-prone counties illustrate the synergistic relationship between fire safe councils and UCCE. The fire safe councils play a vital role in the communities, alongside federal and state agencies and citizens concerned about forest health and safety. UCCE provides science-based forestry and wildfire information to help the councils fulfill their educational mission and, because of its extensive history in training and collaboration, UCCE presents the information in formats that raise awareness and enable effective pre-fire action. The partnership between the councils and UCCE optimizes the impact that both can have on wildfires in California.
G.A. Nader is UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) Livestock and Natural Resources Advisor in Sutter, Yuba and Butte counties; and M. De Lasaux is UCCE Natural Resources Advisor in Plumas and Sierra counties.
Fig. 7. Map of the Yuba fire.
The Yuba fire stopped at the Middlebrook fuel break and access road.
References
Ballard HL, Evans ER. 2012. Wildfire in the Foothills: Youth Working with Communities to Adapt to Wildfire. Res. Note NFS-160. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 14 p. www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/rn/rn_nrs160.pdf.
Chiono LA, O’Hara KL, De Lasaux MJ, et al. 2012. Development of vegetation and surface fuels following fire hazard reduction treatment. Forests 3(3):209–22.
Downey PO. 2000. Broom and fire: Management implications. Plant Protect Q 15:178–83.
McClintock E. 1985. Brooms. Fremontia 12:(4)11–5.
Nader G, Nakamura G, De Lasaux M. 2007. Home Landscaping for Fire. UC ANR Pub 8228. Oakland, CA. http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8228.pdf.
[NFPA] Nation Fire Protection Association. 1997. Standard for Protection of Life and Property From Wildfire. NFPA Pub 299. 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA. 17 p.
Quarles SL, Beall FC. 2002. Testing protocols and fire tests in support of the performance-based codes. In: Proc Cal Wildfire Conf, Oct 10–12, 2001. Oakland, CA. Tech Report 35:01462, UC Forest Products Laboratory, Richmond, CA. p 64–73.
Quarles SL, Valachovic Y, Nakamura GM, et al. 2010. Home Survival in Wildfire-Prone Areas: Building Materials and Design Considerations. UC ANR Pub 8393. Oakland, CA. http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8393.pdf.
Smith E. 1999. Living with Fire: A Guide for the Homeowner. University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Reno, NV. | <urn:uuid:6c904ddd-56da-4568-a8a3-2c858f8a2818> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://ucanr.edu/sites/postfire/files/255098.pdf | 2019-01-17T05:16:48Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583658702.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20190117041621-20190117063621-00431.warc.gz | 693,812,639 | 4,296 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.991128 | eng_Latn | 0.997981 | [
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Ahmed* is in Primary 2 at Blackfriars Primary School, in the heart of South Glasgow. Approximately 64% of the school population live in the two lowest areas of the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD). Over half of the children in this school have English as an Additional Language.
Ahmed is paired with Gayle Ogilvie, an online reading volunteer from Sodexo. He, and his family, do not have English as a first language and, according to Ahmed’s Primary 2 teacher, Jessica Cox, this means that Ahmed gets his only reading practice at school. Ms Cox therefore decided to put Ahmed forward for the Chapter One Online Reading Volunteers Programme to provide him with a little extra support and because he was lacking in confidence in reading.
When Chapter One interviewed his teacher and Sodexo volunteer, Ahmed had been participating in Chapter One’s online reading volunteer programme since October/November 2023, so for approximately four months.
*Ahmed is not the child’s real name.
AHMED’S EXPERIENCE WITH CHAPTER ONE
At the start of Primary 2, according to Ms Cox and Gayle, Ahmed struggled with reading fluency. Gayle noted that he read a story hesitantly, word by word. His teacher noted that he had difficulty in recognising tricky words which meant that he would often read at a slow pace.
However, since his participation in Chapter One, both his teacher and volunteer have seen changes in his reading fluency. Ahmed has now become more confident in recognising tricky words and his reading pace is discernibly quicker.
Gayle says: “There’s definitely more fluidity …, it’s not just a group of words, he’s actually putting the sentence together, and reading it as one.” She also believes that, with her prompting, Ahmed now seems to understand the importance of re-reading the whole of the sentence once he has mastered all the words in it, a technique that helps him to make sense of the text.
Ms Cox also pointed out an increased expression in Ahmed’s reading. The monotone voice he used in the past has gone, and he is now changing his tone.
Ahmed is building reading comprehension too. Whereas before, he was unable to answer questions in relation to a story, he is now able to both answer and ask questions.
Gayle has also seen this, and puts it down to his increased reading confidence and willingness to give things a go. “As his confidence is growing, he’s making comments as to what might be happening in the scenario around the stories. So that comprehension is there as well.”
MOTIVATION AND READING ENJOYMENT
At the start of the Chapter One programme, Ms Cox noted that Ahmed was not really excited to start his reading calls, which she attributed to his overall lack of engagement with reading. Similarly, Gayle saw Ahmed as initially quite nervous in Chapter One sessions.
However, both Ms Cox and Gayle have noted a real increase in motivation and engagement. According to Ms Cox: “It’s almost like he’s kind of counting down, [before his reading session, he is] quite excited for it!”
According to Gayle, Ahmed now shows up ready and very willing to begin his sessions: “Now he is ready to get started – he knows what he is there for. There’s no reluctance. As soon as we’re in the session, he’s ready, which is really good.”
Gayle mentioned that Ahmed was becoming more engaged in reading activities in Chapter One sessions: “I would say that his enjoyment of the activity of reading feels as if it’s definitely growing...he seems to be more engaged as time has gone on.”
This increased engagement in Chapter One sessions is mirrored in school too. Ms Cox noted that, at the start of the year, when Ahmed was involved in group reading in school, he was very quiet and did not really engage with the text. Now he is much more engaged, reading, answering and asking questions about the texts.
Gayle also commented on an increased engagement within their interactions. She attributed this to some extent to the ‘Meet and Greet’ session, whereby both Gayle and Ahmed saw each other online for the first time. She described this opportunity as a ‘turning moment in our interactions’.
At the start of Primary 2, according to Ms Cox, Ahmed was a quiet member of the class. She believes his participation in the Chapter One reading programme has improved his communication and listening skills: “I’ve certainly recognised recently that he’s a lot more inclined to answer in class than he was before, so I think [Chapter One reading practice has] spilled over into his talking and listening and he’s able to form sentences a lot better as well.”
**Literacy and poverty rates in Glasgow and Scotland**
Glasgow is the Scottish city with the highest numbers of people living in deprived communities. A report in 2023 found that approximately one quarter of children in Glasgow are living in poverty. Data from the Scottish government (2022-23) showed that approximately 27% of children do not reach the expected levels of attainment in Scottish primary schools. The gap in attainment between richer and more deprived areas of Scotland remains at 20.5%.
A study in 2023 by the National Literacy Trust in collaboration with Scottish Book Trust showed that only 2 in 5 (41.5%) children and young people in Scotland enjoyed reading in their free time, meaning that nearly 3 in 5 (58.5%) did not enjoy reading. In addition, only approximately 1 in 4 (27.1%) reported reading daily (or almost daily) in their free time, meaning that 3 in 4 do not. | 4b829b78-9c3f-496a-a994-7d4fcf126847 | CC-MAIN-2025-08 | https://cdn2.assets-servd.host/ifl-site/production/assets/downloads/UK/Sodexo-Case-Study-Glasgow-1-Ahmed-Mar-24-1-1.pdf?dm=1714056272 | 2025-02-07T14:48:38+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951495.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20250207132436-20250207162436-00595.warc.gz | 140,235,580 | 1,161 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99921 | eng_Latn | 0.999397 | [
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COVID Conscious Artist Directory 2020/21
Welcome to ArtStarts’ COVID Conscious Artist Directory!
What is it?
The ArtStarts COVID Conscious Directory was created in response to the social gathering limitations and overall health restrictions due to the current global climate. Our hope with this directory is to make arts experiences still accessible for students in the province, especially during such a challenging and uncertain time.
Here you will find a collection of our Artist on Tour Directory artists who are offering online programming as well as tailored in school performances and workshops that are safer and adhere to the provincial health guidelines.
This includes socially distant workshops, smaller performance sizes, and limiting travel to within the region the Artist is based.
We will be using this specific directory for schools and districts to book from until the province deems it safe for programming to return to normal. If that happens throughout the 2020-2021 school year we will support schools and artists to decide if they want to shift their COVID Conscious booking to the artist listing on the general AOTD.
How do I book?
If you are interested in booking any of the artists on our COVID Conscious Directory, please email firstname.lastname@example.org with the following information:
• Name of artist/group
• Your school name
• Number of participants and grade range
• Preferred dates (if any)
We will reach out once we have tentative dates for you.
Additional Notes
We are encouraging all Artists to self assess if they or any of their group members will be entering schools for risk of COVID-19. Any performances that need to be cancelled due to an outbreak in a school or artist(s) being ill, we will support to reschedule as soon as possible. We encourage booking contacts and artists to be in regular communication leading up to any in person bookings.
3 Crows Productions
Indigenous storyteller Dallas Yellowfly’s ancestry is from the Siksika Nation (Blackfoot First Nation). Having been born and raised on Coast Salish, Sto:lo, territory he has been taught both coastal culture and plains culture from Elders. Sharing stories and culture in the classrooms, Yellowfly has been working in Indigenous Education for over 18 years. Using his experience in stand-up comedy, film production, multimedia and interactive storytelling Yellowfly is presenting across the province focused on increasing awareness of Indigenous perspectives in education.
Indigenous storyteller Alysha Collie’s ancestry is from the Soowahlie First Nation. She recently completed her Bachelor of Science degree with a Biology Major and Visual Arts Minor. While at university, Alysha spent her time as an Indigenous Peer Mentor where she helped her peers with their culturally sensitive needs and provided academic support. During her university career she helped plan a Reconciliation Shakespeare Garden for the campus by providing Indigenous perspective and scientific knowledge. Alysha now focuses on reclaiming her ancestral roots through public speaking, storytelling, performing and film making.
Online Storytelling Workshop
In this online storytelling workshop, Dallas Yellowfly and Alysha Collie discuss fundamental elements of Indigenous storytelling. They will share their experience as professional Indigenous storytellers performing across BC. Both Yellowfly and Collie will introduce the traditional territories they come from and unique oral stories from those locations. They will discuss how some Indigenous stories require permissions while others are shared. Students will have the opportunity to learn about elements that accompany Indigenous storytelling such as masks and drums. Everyone will participate in an interactive story and learn to use plot diagrams. All this is followed by a Q&A period.
Details
| Grade suitability | 4 to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| Format | Online Programming (Livestreamed) |
| Audience Capacity | 30 |
| Tech setup | Any online conferencing app (Zoom, Webex, Google Meets, Microsoft teams, etc). |
| Price | $300 |
| Runtime | 60 minutes |
Residential Schools the Intergenerational Impact
The purpose of this presentation is to create awareness on the intergenerational impact of Indian Residential Schools. By blending Oral Tradition, multimedia and a bit of humour, Yellowfly hopes to promote an understanding of the Indian Act and show how youth of all cultural backgrounds can relate to the important messages he shares.
Details
| Grade suitability | 5 to 12 |
|-------------------|--------|
| Format | Online Programming (Livestreamed) |
| Audience Capacity | Unlimited |
| Tech setup | Any online conferencing app (Zoom, Webex, Google Meets, Microsoft teams, etc). |
| Price | $300 |
| Runtime | 60 minutes |
Andy the Musical Scientist
Andy has performed for hundreds of schools as well as the Vancouver Children’s Festival, Surrey Childrens Festival, Vancouver Folkfest, and a Raffi album. His amazing musical inventions have been featured in 2 CBC documentaries.
With over 35 year’s experience studying music from various cultures (including a sitar scholarship to India), he has also toured with numerous African and Indian ensembles. He even performed with the Children’s Landfill Harmonic Recycled Orchestra of Paraguay. With Delhi 2 Dublin, he toured the world, performing for the prime minister, British royal couple, BBC, and MTV India. In China, he performed in the Forbidden City.
Performance
Music can generate interest in science, just as science can inspire new approaches to music. Andy (formerly of Delhi2Dublin) combines both to inspire children to “think outside the box”. He enthralls the audience with his amazing homemade inventions made from random reusable household items! Inspired by instruments he witnessed children making when he travelling in Africa, they invoke a sense of wonder and curiosity in other cultures. Using hilarious personas he demonstrates technology, scientific principles, and recycling through music.
A testament to creative thinking, through which breakthroughs can be made in music, science, environmental stewardship, and all aspects of life!
Details
Grade suitability K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes Audience sizes will be tailored to suit safety requirements at the discretion of each school (Up to max group size 100). Any other specific requirements can be sorted out with each school prior to the performance date. Some of the sections requiring volunteers have been temporarily cut from the show. Outdoor performances are also available.
Format In person programming (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity Small group size is at the discretion of each school (up to max 100)
Tech setup One large rectangular table, 2 chairs, electricity. 60 min setup, 30 min packup
Price Single performance $300
2 shows in a day $525
3 shows in a day $700
Runtime 50 minutes
Bohemia Dance Productions
Bohemia Dance Productions is a multi-disciplinary dance company performing pieces from classical to B-boy, contemporary and dance theatre. Founded in 2015 by choreographer and dancer Ivana Ho, the company collaborates with Vancouver Island Symphony and Vancouver Island University creating original new works and using dance to educate, entertain and inspire. In performance Bohemia Dance Productions hooks audiences by presenting many styles of dance to help them understand that movement is an important form of personal expression.
From Ballet to B-Boy
Bohemia Dance Productions takes the audience through several influential dance genres including Ballet, Jazz, Street and Modern. Each style is introduced with a brief overview of its historical and cultural roots and the showcased by our dynamic dancers. Throughout the presentation we stress the multifaceted nature of dance and the many ways in which it connects us to ourselves and to the world around us.
Details
Grade suitability: K to 10
COVID-Conscious Notes: Our group will be downsized to 4 performers to ensure safe touring. Audience size will be tailored to suit requirements at the discretion of each school. Any other specific requests can be addressed with each school prior to the performance date. Volunteer participation replaced by socially distanced content. Performers will have a regular health check and each role will be internally understudied to ensure a complete show is always available.
Format: In person programming (Vancouver Island Lower Only)
Audience Capacity: Total participant numbers must meet BC Health and Safety Guidelines.
Tech setup: Clean gym floor or stage, microphone, AUX cord, speakers
Price: Single performance $700
Additional shows $500
Up to 3 shows a day
Runtime: 40 minutes including Q&A and learning of a short dance routine
Candy Bones Theatre specializes in original immersive theatrical productions and creativity education. Artistic director Candice Roberts brings her passion for interweaving artistic disciplines such as physical theatre, music, mask, puppetry, clown and dance to create stories that explore the heartbreak and humour of being human. Her artistic research which encompasses creativity, the brain, and the connections between self expression, mental health and community lead her to a Mayor's Arts Award in 2014. She’s toured all over North America including New York and New Orleans with her award winning solo shows.
Oopsie!
Please welcome to the classroom, Mz. Prefect who attempts to perfectly perform her presentation on brain health! When more than a few foibles cause her to fail, together, with help from the students, they uncover how mistakes can help us learn and make new discoveries. Award winning inter-arts aficionado Candice Roberts shares this clever story about growth mindset and the creative process through a seamless weaving of shadow puppetry, original music, tap dance and physical comedy in this fun and interactive 30 minute theatrical experience.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 7 |
|-------------------|-------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | Up to 5 performances spread throughout the day. The performer will need 6 feet spacing from the audience. |
| Format | In person programming (Lower Mainland only) |
| Audience Capacity | Classroom size |
| Tech setup | Able to turn down the lights, 6ft between performer and students |
| Price | $700 |
| Runtime | 20min plus 10min Q&A |
Gord Grdina
Juno award winner Gordon Grdina has lead many bands and toured throughout the world most notably in the Dan Mangan band, Haram, and the Gordon Grdina Trio. He is an Oud/Guitarist whose sound is a combination of his interests in rock, mainstream jazz, free-form improvisation and Arabic classical music. He has been performing in schools for over 15 years as a member of the Blues Berries and performed over 1,000 school concerts in BC, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario. His educational performances have introduced hundreds of thousands of students to established genres of popular music through carefully designed programs including The History of the Blues, Jazz in the Gym, A History of Rock and Roll, Jazz, Jive, and Wail, and Blues Rocks!
Gord's Guitars
One person, seven guitars and an oud. Guitar virtuoso Gord Grdina takes students on an exciting musical, social and geographic journey through the history of guitar music from Arabic, Classical, Country, Blues, Jazz, Rock and Pop styles. Through looping technology, percussion and projections Gord will accompany himself on several instruments at once while engaging students through listening games and physical activity. Musically you’ll hear everything from Stevie Ray Vaughn to Johnny Cash, and Muddy Waters to AC/DC. The show is based on the development of music through the lens of the guitar from ancient Egypt to modern day Rock’n Roll. We will cover the themes of musical migration and geography from Northern Africa throughout Western Europe. Students will hear the development of music from single-voice melodies through to classical harmony and modern day Rock. We hope that students will take away an understanding of cultural exchange across vast geographic areas while seeing the interconnectedness of music through the ages.
Details
Grade suitability: K to 9
COVID-Conscious Notes: Students will be spaced to limit contact; Dances and student participation will be modified to insure social distancing. Live stream performances are also available.
Format: In person programming (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity: Projector and Screen, one chair, power outlet
Tech setup: Performance Space: A large flat surface of about 20’ wide 12’ deep, 1 power outlet near performance space. Set up will take 45 minutes prior to the audience arriving for the show, preferred not to have students in the gym during set up and take down. Tear down takes 30 minutes following the audience leaving.
Price: $650
Runtime: 50 to 60 minutes
Jacky's Village
Travel to the depths of Africa with professional dancer Jacky Essombe in this day-long workshop. Accompanied by a live drummer, Jacky celebrates the richness and community spirit of African culture using easy-to-follow African dance steps, traditional songs and storytelling. This shared social, stimulating and bonding experience allows students to interact in a playful and focused way, building important developmental skills and a love for creativity.
Details
Grade suitability: K to 9
COVID-Conscious Notes: Each session will be limited to whatever number the school deems to be safe, and won't exceed 60 in any case. Maximum five sessions per day, 30-45 minutes in length. Dancing will be touch-free.
Format: In person programming (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity: Max 60 students per session, five sessions per day
Tech setup: N/A
Price: $970
Runtime: 30 to 45 minutes
The Jellyfish Project (JFP)
The Jellyfish Project (JFP) provides students with a unique experience to learn about ocean health and the climate crisis, motivating them to become active environmental stewards. The presentation features musical performances by a JFP band interspersed with a TED Talk-style presentation and Q&A. Our message of hope helps to mitigate the fear and helplessness students may feel by empowering them with the knowledge that they can become instruments of change. The Jellyfish Project's primary presenters are Laura Mina Mitic and Pat Ferguson from the band "Carmanah." Since 2014 they have delivered the JFP presentation to over 100 schools from Vancouver Island to Windsor, ON. On their travels and consistent with their values, Carmanah lessens their ecological footprint by fuelling their tour vehicle with used vegetable oil procured from restaurants along the way.
Details
Grade suitability: 6 to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes: Presenters will: wear masks before & after the presentation, wash/sanitize their hands frequently, maintain a 2-metre distance from all students & staff, sanitize their presentation gear. We ask that presenters are escorted to and from performance space, to help ensure that we are not in close contact with students and staff while on the school premises.
Format: Online (Live streamed) or in person (Vancouver Island Lower only)
Audience Capacity: Virtual presentations: unlimited capacity. Live, in-school presentations: total participant numbers must meet BC Health and Safety Guidelines.
Tech setup: Virtual presentations: WIFI, laptop/s, screen, portable mic / laptop mic, speakers, a school tech person for technical support. Live, in-school presentations: large screen and projector, outlet.
Price: Virtual presentations: $650 / presentation. Live, in-school presentations: $1300 for two and $1800 for three.
Runtime: 45 to 60 minutes includes Q&A
Jess Dance
Jess Dance is a group of passionate dance educators experienced in empowering Kindergarten to Grade 12 students. We are committed to working in all schools regardless of financial ability (just ask,) and reaching the most remote communities. We provide a safe space to have fun, try your best, & be who you truly are all while building confidence, self expression, & connection. Jess Dexter, the Creative Director, has taught for 23 years and holds a B.Sc degree in Kinesiology with a secondary physical education focus. Jess Dance has provided 110 dance programs in the last two years for 16,000 students.
School-Wide, Multiple-Day Dance Program
We have 20 styles of dance for you to choose from, each age-appropriate for all students. Our programs can range from a half day to an entire week. Often we can offer more than one style within the same program.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| Format | Online or In person programming (Lower Mainland only) |
| Audience Capacity | 50 students per lesson |
| Tech setup | For in person programming: Sound system details including auxiliary cord and set-up for wireless microphone to be worked out prior to workshop. Jess will provide the wireless microphone and has access to a small speaker if none is available. |
| Price | $600 for 100 students, and $1 per student above 100 |
| Runtime | Up to 8 30-minute or 7 35-45 minute workshops/day |
Gumboot Kids Virtual Performance
Schools will receive a download for Jessie Farrell’s Winter Concert – “Campfire Sing-along” featuring songs from the hit CBC Series, the Gumboot Kids, along with her friends, Scout & Daisy. This will be followed by a live Zoom book reading, of “Case of the Story Rock” by the book’s authors and creators of the Gumboot Kids’ series, Tara Hungerford and Eric Hogan, followed by a question and answer session. The show also includes a curriculum pack for each school, designed for grades K to 3. The curriculum pack includes a set of Gumboot Kids hard cover story books (six books total), Jessie’s CDs (4 total), as well as a series of classroom activities, links to videos online, sheet music and craft ideas (over $160 value).
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 3 |
|-------------------|-------|
| Format | Online programming (pre recorded) |
| Audience Capacity | Audience capacity at the schools’ discretion. |
| Tech setup | The concert is completely virtual, as is the Zoom session. Students can attend in separate cohorts or classrooms, and connect in as separate ‘callers’ to the Zoom conference call. Zoom session length will be limited to a maximum of 30 minutes. School requires a screen linked to a computer and internet in order to conduct the Zoom session, and play the concert for students. |
| Price | $400 |
| Runtime | 30 minutes |
Jessie and the Gumboot Kids
Join Scout, Daisy and the Gumboot Kids for a playful, fun and educational musical that celebrates the joy and wonder of nature and friendship. Based on the CBC Kids series, Gumboot Kids is proudly made in BC.
Songs by Juno award winner Jessie Farrell.
www.gumbootkids.com
Gumboot Kids - The Musical
Join Scout, Daisy and the Gumboot Kids as they embark on a journey to solve a nature mysteries! The Gumboot Kids’ Musical is a multi-media experience featuring audio-visual displays and choreographed dance routines with the show’s characters, Scout and Daisy, and the Gumboot Kids. The heart-centered show draws on the themes of nature connection, friendship, play and mindfulness.
Included is a curriculum pack for each school, designed for grades K to 3, with a set of story books, CDs, a series of classroom activities, links to videos online, sheet music, and nature craft ideas, to further extend learning into the classroom.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 3 |
|-------------------|-------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | The Gumboot Kids Musical is temporarily offering two back-to-back shows for the price of one, to allow schools to maintain social distancing, as well as an alternative, outdoor version of the show. All performers will have understudies, in the event an artist is displaying any COVID-like symptoms, and not be permitted to perform. The stage area should also be at least 5 metres away from the students. |
| Format | In person programming (Lower Mainland only) |
| Audience Capacity | Audience capacity is up to each school and their social distancing requirements. We are able to perform up to two shows for each single booking to increase social distancing opportunities. Outdoor versions of the show are also a possibility, without the accompanying audio-visual component, provided performers can be in a covered area. |
| Tech setup | Requires access to electrical outlets. Private change area for mascots, close to the stage |
| Price | $1,000 |
| Runtime | 45 minutes |
Karima Essa
A three-time Canadian National Dance champion, Karima Essa is Vancouver’s very own Bollywood star. A charismatic performer, choreographer and instructor, she has used her one-of-a-kind Bollywood talent to entertain audiences at festivals, theatres and schools across Canada. In 2014, her love for Bollywood took her to the screens in Mumbai as a two-time finalist on Omni TV’s reality show, Bollywood Star. Karima showcased at ArtStarts in 2018 and has performed 100+ shows and dance residencies in B.C. schools. Karima is currently completing her Education Assistance certification and interested in exploring how dance can help improve socio-emotional skills in children with autism.
Bollywood Star Virtual Dance Workshops
Karima is offering schools pre-recorded Bollywood dance modules for both elementary and high schools for beginner, intermediate and advanced levels. There are a total of 3 elementary school dance modules and 3 high school dance modules that can be licensed as a bundle or individually to schools. In each module, Karima will choose one Bollywood song and teach original Bollywood choreography, including the key elements of Bollywood dance: neck and head movements, facial expressions and foot movements, while also using props such as scarves and Dandiya sticks (additional charge for a set of sticks for each student). The music selection and level of dance choreography will match the energy and technical ability for the grade level of the students. Students learning more intricate choreography.
Details
Grade suitability K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes
Each dance module will include 45-minutes of pre-recorded content and includes: a 2-min performance of a dance in full Bollywood attire, a 10-minute interactive warm up, 3 x 10-min dance choreography videos, and a 5-minute cool down. Karima will also include a 1 x 30-minute Zoom or Teams workshop session to help students polish their dance so that it is performance ready for parents and their peers.
Format Online programming (prerecorded)
Price Fee for one module for 1-year license/school: $350 + GST
Fee for 3 modules for 1-year license/school: $1,000 + GST
Fee for 6 modules for 1-year license/school: $1,500 + GST
Runtime Each dance module includes 30-minutes of pre-recorded content and includes: an interactive warm up; dance choreography and technique with a performance; and a cool down. Karima will also include 1 x 30-minute Zoom or Teams workshop session to help students polish their dance so that it is performance ready for parents and their peers.
Kellie Haines
Kellie Haines has a BA in Drama and is a multi-talented entertainer who has mastered the art of storytelling through puppetry, song and ventriloquism. Kellie was invited to work with The Museum of Anthropology to deliver hands-on puppetry workshops during their exhibition Shadows, Strings and Other Things in 2019. She has performed in schools, theatres and festivals across Canada for over thirty years. From performing on stage for the first time at her school talent show to working professionally for stage and screen, Kellie never forgot what she wanted to do when she grew up!
In Person Performance
School is different this year and Kellie Haines and friends want to entertain with the messages: ‘never give up’ and ‘celebrate our talents!’ This hilarious Covid-conscious show blends musical numbers with fast-paced ventriloquism comedy bits! Magrau the bird is confused as to why things are different these days and he quickly realizes that it’s his time to shine with Kamilla the frog in this heartwarming and funny show.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 7 |
|-------------------|-------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | Presenter will wear mask before and after the presentation and remain 6 feet apart from all staff and students. Up to 5 performances spread throughout the day. |
| Format | In person (Lower Mainland only) |
| Audience Capacity | 60 students per session with 5 sessions per day. |
| Tech setup | Require small table with one chair and electrical outlet. 60 minutes of set up is required. |
| Price | $800 |
| Runtime | 20 minutes plus 10 minute Q&A |
Virtual Field Trip
We are also excited to offer one-hour Virtual Field Trips into the exciting world of puppetry and ventriloquism with expert Kellie Haines. These virtual workshops are tailored to optimize the BIG IDEAS and BC curricular competencies for each grade. Using an online platform, Kellie engages students through storytelling, character development, movement, voice and lots of humour.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 7 |
|-------------------|-------|
| Format | Online Programming (Livestreamed) |
| Audience Capacity | 1 class |
| Tech setup | Zoom, or Google |
| Price | $175 |
| Runtime | 1 hour |
Kiérah
Kiérah is a multi-award winning violinist and Celtic fiddler who completed her A.R.C.T. in classical violin with First Class Honours with Distinction. However, Kiérah's passion is composing, teaching and performing Celtic fiddle music. As an entertainer, she is an inspiration to young people that with hard work and determination you can accomplish anything! By age 17, Kiérah had her classical teaching certification with the Royal Conservatory of Music, three fiddle albums, a Canadian Folk Music Award and a published book of original fiddle tunes.
Celtic Traditions Across Canada
Celtic Traditions Across Canada is an interactive and educational performance of traditional and contemporary Celtic music found across Canada. Throughout the performance Kiérah plays 8 diverse styles of Celtic fiddle music and explains the history behind each of them. Along with telling the students about the importance of setting goals and hard work, Kiérah demonstrates by her own example the results of setting goals as a young person and working hard in order to achieve them.
Details
Grade suitability K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes
IN PERSON PERFORMANCE: I do not require a lot of space to move around so I will be safely distant from students at all times. Typically I invite 2 volunteers to the stage to play the spoons during one song. Either I could omit this, or I could stay well over 2 m away from the students at all times and disinfect the spoons.
ONLINE LIVE PERFORMANCE: I am set up to perform with beautiful audio/video quality over Zoom. I could do my exact same performance/program, minus the volunteers. As my performance is very interractive, I would perhaps send in my audience questions ahead of time, and have teachers select students in advance that would provide the answers when prompted.
Format Online (livestream or prerecorded) or In person (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity Unlimited (up to the discretion of the school/government requirements)
Tech setup In Person: 1 vocal mic, 2 chairs. Online: School requires access to Zoom
Price IN PERSON: $555 for one performance. OR $285 each if multiple performances are needed to limit gathering sizes (3 a day) ONLINE: $455
Runtime 45 minutes includes Q&A
Krystle Dos Santos
Krystle Dos Santos is a WCMA-award winning blues, jazz and soul singer based in Vancouver with Guyanese roots. She has been performing for more than a decade across Canada and is known for her powerful voice and infectious warmth, pairing original soul music with beloved Motown classics. Her popular Motown school show premiered in 2019 and has been booked into 100+ schools across BC this past year. She continues to receive rave reviews from both students and teachers.
A History of Motown
WCMA award-winning soul singer-songwriter extraordinaire, Krystle Dos Santos and her band will take students back in time to the peak of Motown Music from the late 1950s to 1980s. Krystle's powerful and interactive medleys of hits by The Supremes, Stevie Wonder, the Temptations and the Jackson 5 will have students and teachers singing and dancing in their seats! Students will learn interesting facts about these key artists and about the historical and significant impact that Motown music has had on contemporary soul music today.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| Format | Online Programming (Livestreamed or prerecorded) |
| Audience Capacity | N/A |
| Tech setup | N/A |
| Price | $500 |
| Runtime | 60 minutes |
Kung Jaadee
Kung Jaadee is a professional storyteller, educator, author, singer, drummer and dancer belonging to the X̱aayda (Haida), xʷməθkʷəy̓əm (Musqueam) and Sḵwx̱wú7mesh (Squamish) First Nations. For nearly 30 years, she has performed traditional Haida legends teaching universal messages about loving ourselves and others, while also sharing personal stories about her clan’s survival of the smallpox epidemic and the history and hardships of her people. She has performed at hundreds of events, schools and festivals across Canada and is a published author of several essays, short stories, textbooks and children’s books, including her popular books Raven's Feast and Gifts from Raven.
Haida Stories and Squamish Stories
Kung Jaadee is offering pre-recorded videos of her oral storytelling of some Haida legends (Raven’s Feast, Moon Woman, Salmon Woman) and Squamish legends (How the Squamish People Came to Be, Twin Sister (The Lions mountains), Capilano River). Schools can choose to license one or both modules. Each 30-minute video includes 2-3 stories, a song with drumming and a discussion about Haida or culture and regalia. She will also offer a 15-minute virtual Q&A through Zoom, Teams or another online platform to discuss the meanings of these legends and discuss her culture. Students are asked to email questions in advance.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| Format | Online Programming (Livestreamed or prerecorded) |
| Audience Capacity | N/A |
| Tech setup | N/A |
| Price | Fee for Haida Stories for a 1-yr license: $500 + GST |
| Runtime | 45 minutes |
Michael Mitchell
One of the most in-demand performers in Canadian elementary schools. Michael’s CANADA IS FOR KIDS show is a performance of songs and stories that help students and adults alike appreciate some of the many things that make this country the best place on earth to live. Michael has given more than 5,000 of these shows across the country. He has composed and recorded songs for SESAME STREET and PBS/NOVA and is the former co-host of the CTV Children’s program STORYTIME.
Canada is for Kids (Live stream version)
What makes Canada the best place on earth to live? Michael weaves a lively tapestry of songs and stories that illustrate what makes this country and its people so special: history; geography; ‘quirky’ characters; and amazing facts. No two shows are completely alike because the song selections are chosen in advance in collaboration with the teacher who is hosting the Livestream broadcast into their classroom. Every song is augmented with a video component that further enhances the performance.
The complimentary Teaching Kit sent in advance of the show is packed with resources that you can use not only to prepare for the Livestream performance but also to augment your other music and social studies units throughout the year. These resources include 25 x mp3 song files, music and colouring books, and other useful and fun tools. A YouTube video will soon be available that will demonstrate how the show unfolds and how to easily integrate it into your classrooms. Thanks to livestreaming, you can choose to book your show(s) months in advance or, in some cases, the very next day! Michael can do a morning show in Surrey, BC and an afternoon show in Ottawa, Ontario. Ahh, the wonders of technology!
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 8, but each show will be individually crafted to suit the ages of the students in attendance at each session |
|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Format | Online Programming (Livestreamed) |
| Audience Capacity | No limit. Depending on your school equipment, you can have multiple classes log in to the show. However, we recommend that you consider separate presentations for K-2, 3-5, or combinations that limits the attendee age spread to two or three years |
| Tech setup | Zoom; you can project the concert onto a SmartBoard, AV projector, or any other system you have on hand. Simply use your internet connection to receive a real-time concert into one or more classrooms |
| Price | First show on any day - $400 plus GST; each subsequent show that same day - $300 plus GST |
| Runtime | 45 minutes is recommended. Almost any variation can be accommodated depending on the needs of the school |
The Myrtle Sisters
They sing! They tap-dance! They joke! In this live, upfront 20 minute classroom performance, the Myrtle sister’s present the “best of” their historic and original three part harmony song and dance numbers. With a baritone ukulele, banana shakers, kazoos, tin cans and slide whistle the Myrtle Sister’s will have you tappin’ your toes from the start. “Their acrobatic dance moves reminded me of a real-life version of the Triplets of Belleville. Nothing less than inspired insanity!” - Orlando Weekly
Details
Grade suitability: K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes: Up to 5 classroom mini-performances with the audience 6 feet away
Format: In school programming (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity: Classroom size
Tech setup: N/A
Price: $1,000
Runtime: 20 minutes per performance
PIQSIQ
With a style perpetually galvanized by darkness and haunting northern beauty, sisters, Tiffany Kuliktana Ayalik and Kayley Inuksuk Mackay, come together to create Inuit style throat singing duo, PIQSIQ. With roots in Nunavut, the two grew up in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories. After years of forging hard won skill, they developed their own form blended with haunting melodies and otherworldly sounds. Approaching adulthood, they realized throat singing was not only a musical expression, but a radical act of cultural revitalization.
Inuit Throat Singing Performance
PIQSIQ sisters, Kayley Inuksuk Mackay and Tiffany Kuliktana Ayalik, perform improvisational looping live to create a dynamic, one of a kind audience experience that blends ancient songs with modern technology to not only explore Inuit life, past and present, but also to explain the significance, history and reclamation of the Inuit cultural practice of katajjaq (throat singing).
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| Format | Online programming (livestreamed or prerecorded) |
| Audience Capacity | School discretion |
| Tech setup | PIQSIQ to provide all technical requirements needed to produce show, school to provide screen and sound to view show. |
| Price | $800 |
| Runtime | 45 minutes + Q&A |
Rhythm Resource
Daniel Duggan from Rhythm Resource is an expert percussionist with a BMus Honors Degree in Jazz Music, a successful session musician; on TV, Radio, on stage in Theatres and other venues. The author of Percussion Handbooks and online training material, an experienced workshop facilitator and a performer with years of professional success. The original holder of the Official Guinness Worlds Record for the Largest Djembe Drumming Ensemble, with 100's of elementary aged students playing one of his original compositions. His performance overflows with his passion for percussion and people making it a vibrant success.
@rhythmresource
Release the Rhythm, 'Covid Safe' Drumming Workshops
Hands on, interactive Afro-Peruvian drumming workshops for all ages and stages. Students will have fun learning how to play percussion instruments from around the world in a physical fun way together. Afro-Peruvian Drumming with Cajon drums is energetic and engaging, informative and educational. Students will be immersed in a creative cultural experience, while learning new skills and building community with their class mates. These workshops can also be booked as a residency that leads up to a performance by the students.
Details
Grade suitability K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes Students to wash hands before & after workshop. Every participant has their own drum. Each drum is set 2 metres apart. Every instrument is sanitized before & after each workshop. Smaller groups to allow for physical distancing. Artist remains a minimum of 2 metres from students at all times. There’s no sharing of instruments and each student is the only person to handle their instruments. Workshops can take place indoors or outside in an undercover area. Sharing events & performances can be privately streamed online for parents/carers to enjoy. Online option available.
Format In person programming (Lower Mainalnd Only)
Audience Capacity 35 students per workshop, to allow for physical distancing. Approx 9 workshops per day.
Tech setup Gym Hall or Covered area outside (weather permitting), power outlet
Price $995
Runtime 1 day
Virtual Body Percussion Workshop
Body Percussion program that doesn't require any instruments and is delivered remotely directly into the school. While going on a rhythmic journey around the world, students discover how other countries and cultures come together and create music without any instruments; Spanish Flamenco Palmas, North American Hambone and African Body Percussion. Students learn new skills to create rhythms together just using their bodies, in these physical fun creative workshops. Every student will be Stomping, Clapping, Tapping & Smiling! These sessions can take place in the classroom on a smart board or in the gym with a laptop and projector - anywhere in a school that has a laptop & WiFi connection."
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|--------|
| Format | Online programming (Livestreamed) |
| Audience Capacity | 35 students per workshop, up to 9 workshops per day |
| Tech setup | Internet access & Laptop connected to projector & speakers (or similar) |
| Price | $995 |
| Runtime | One Day |
Shayna Jones
Shayna Jones is a professional Performance Storyteller and dedicates her artistic work to fostering the art of Oral Storytelling through African and African-American folklore, true narrative, and song. As a trained actor, singer, and dancer, Shayna brings the art of traditional Oral Storytelling to vibrant life. Audience Participation is lovingly required! Learn more about her work at her website: www.wearestoryfolk.com.
FugitiveFolk: Tales of African Slaves in North America
FugitiveFolk is a sweeping 35 - 45 minute expedition into the real life experiences of African Slaves in North America. Gritty, yet full of heart, warmth, and soulful songs, these tales will leave students with a deeper awareness of African Canadians, African Americans, and of their own unique yearning for freedom, regardless of cultural affiliation.
Details
| Grade suitability | 8 to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | Physical interaction is not required for this live performance. The solo artist requires no physical contact with students. Students may sit as far apart from one another as the performance space allows. |
| Format | In person programming (Kootenays only) |
| Audience Capacity | 500 |
| Tech setup | A fully-functional cordless microphone, a fully-functional PA System (if it is built into the gymnasium/performance space, that is fine), and a fully-functional mic stand. |
| Price | $700 |
| Runtime | 35 to 45 minutes |
Stephanie Morin-Robert
Stephanie Morin-Robert is a one-eyed multi-award winning multidisciplinary artist (and mother) who tours to festivals, theatres and schools across the globe. Her solo work "BLINDSIDE" has captivated and delighted students, audiences, critics, and producers with its beautiful vulnerability and humour. Her upcoming Canadian, European and American tours underline her sought-out creativity and professionalism, as well as her dedication to presenting Canadian work on the international stage. Stephanie is known throughout the Canadian arts-community for her vibrant spirit and talent to inspire. When she was 2 years-old she lost her left eye to Cancer and has had a glass eye ever since. Thought her performance of "BLINDSIDE", she establishes a trusting and safe environment by sharing her very own experiences with bullying and how she managed to work through her insecurities and come to terms with her disability.
BLINDSIDE
An eye-opening and highly recommended comedy about resilience, empathy, and self-acceptance. In a feat of riveting comedy, one-eyed cancer survivor Stephanie Morin-Robert recounts her life as a feisty 7-year-old who wields her glass-eye as a weapon. With the help of her cat, a pair of sunglasses, and an undesirable superpower, she soon discovers that she has what it takes to face her tormenting bullies at her new school and come to terms with her disability. This powerful show combines comedy, storytelling, puppetry, multimedia, and audience participation.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 (This show is available for all ages. However, different versions of the show are performed for different age groups.) |
|-------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Format | Online programming (livestreamed or prerecorded) |
| Audience Capacity | 600 (up to the discretion of the school/government requirements) |
| Tech setup | Power outlet, projection screen, PA sound system. The artist can also be completely self sufficient and bring her own equipment. |
| Price | $1,000 |
| Runtime | 45 includes Q&A |
The Blues Berries
The Blues Berries have performed before thousands of young audiences in schools, festivals and community venues across North America for nearly 20 years with carefully designed programs that excite and inspire students to the joys of modern music! They have three recordings that have each been nominated for West Coast Music Awards.
The History of the Blues Feat. Dawn Pemberton
The History of the Blues is a power-packed show from one of Canada’s best-known groups for introducing popular music to young audiences. The performance traces the history of blues with an emphasis on how it has influenced popular music. The performance tells the social and musical history of the Blues from Washtub band to Hip Hop. Audiences can expect to hear everything from traditional field hollers to the White Stripes, Big Momma Thornton to Koko Taylor and Muddy Waters to the Sugar Hill Gang. Audiences will laugh, clap and sing while learning about vital social history. They will dance along with the queen of Rock ‘n Roll and even do the hokey pokey.
Blues Berries Christmas
The Blues Berries presents a holiday sing-along featuring familiar seasonal songs that have been jazzed-up, blues-up and rock-and-rolled-up! Available to your school this December!
Details
Grade suitability: K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes:
The band will be placed farther back from the audience and social distanced on stage. Students will be spaced to limit contact, dances, and student participation will be modified to insure social distancing. Projector and chairs will be cleaned and sanitized after the performance, performers will hand sanitize before entering, and before and after the performance. All performers will wear masks during time on school grounds until needing to sing. All performers will have COVID-19 tests before performances and health monitored. All equipment used and brought into schools will be sanitized before entry to school and after leaving.
Format: In person programming (Lower Mainland only) Live stream performances also available.
Audience Capacity: As many as can be safely socially distant in the gym size
Tech setup: Projector and screen, two chairs, power outlet
Price: $895
Runtime: 50 to 60 minutes
$895
45 minutes
Tribal Vision Dance
Tribal Vision Dance is a First Nations dance group based on the Six Nations of the Grand River Reserve in Ontario. Dance is very important to North American Indigenous people, it is a way to celebrate life and give thanks for all things. The members of Tribal Vision enjoy sharing our culture through songs and dances with audiences from around the world. Over the years we have had the opportunity to perform across Canada, Germany, Turkey, Austria and Norway. We have performed with Nelly Furtado at WE Day, Aboriginal Pavilion for the Pan Am Games and The Olympic Torch relay.
Visions of Turtle Island
A fully streamed presentation that showcases the dances and songs that one would experience if they attended a modern powwow. The dances and their evolution from their origins to the current form is discussed and performed all in an age appropriate format. The show concludes with our message of unity in the hoop dance.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| Format | Online programming (prerecorded) |
| Audience Capacity | 500 |
| Tech setup | Zoom or Google Meets |
| Price | $350 |
| Runtime | 30min plus 10min Q&A |
Twin Kennedy
Their musical bond is as strong as their small town roots. Twin Kennedy, comprised of West Coast sisters Carli and Julie Kennedy, have been making music since they could talk. Born and raised in the small town of Powell River, BC, Twin Kennedy grew up perfecting their sibling harmonies and dynamic live performances, while making their name known throughout their small community as a family band.
Classical to Country
This Canadian country duo takes audiences on a tour from classical to country, with a mix of popular songs, instrumental fiddle tunes, and a taste of classical music. Twin sisters Carli and Julie have been making music together since they could talk and their musical bond is as strong as their small-town roots. Students will be inspired by their high-energy performance that showcases their virtuosity on guitar, fiddle, banjo, electric bass, and vocals.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | Up to five mini-performances spaced throughout out the day for smaller audiences. |
| Format | In person programming (Victoria Only) |
| Audience Capacity | Each mini-performance can play to whatever the school's limit may be; audiences of 50 maximum are anticipated |
| Tech setup | N/A |
| Price | $1,270 |
| Runtime | 50 mins |
The Well Worn Trail
Rob and Lillian are lifelong musicians, songwriters and performers with a deep passion for environmental stewardship. They combine their talents into unique and uplifting performances which have been seen by tens of thousands from Vancouver to Newfoundland. They have also led song writing workshops in three BC elementary schools. As ecological caretakers, they encourage connection, protection and respect (CPR) for biodiversity and our great outdoors through homegrown music, puppetry, natural instruments and more! In their inspiring performances, they will take you on a musical, fact-based journey to kindle the amazing wonders of the natural world around us!
Our multi-sensory performance focuses on our connection to nature, land and place. We blend science, music, language and visual arts to give students insight into Canadian wildlife, their habits and lifestyles. Recorded animal voices, realistic-looking puppetry, natural props and instruments provide students and staff with a deeper understanding of Canada’s biodiversity in our backyards and the wider world. The performances are filled with unusual and fascinating facts, inspiring songs and stories ranging from dragonflies to humpback whales. Our uplifting presentations appeal to all, yet we tailor them according to the ages and grades of the students.
Details
Grade suitability K to 7
COVID-Conscious Notes As performers, we will adhere to BC’s continually updated protocol and to the COVID health-safety regulations for each school and each district according to developing provincial standards. This includes proper distancing. We will maintain this ourselves and ensure students follow this as well. We will also have a no-touch policy regarding our puppets, props, instruments and equipment. Online options available.
Format In person programming (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity To be determined by each school/district. We’ve worked with and have performed for individual classes (under 25 students) as well as full-school audiences (~800).
Tech setup Two 8’ tables for prop placement, two chairs and a PA system
Price $700
Runtime 60 mins includes Q&A
V'ni Dansi
V'ni Dansi is a Vancouver-based traditional Métis and contemporary dance company dedicated to sharing the dances, stories and culture of the Métis. Led by Artistic Director, Yvonne Chartrand, V'ni Dansi holds the distinction of being the only company in Canada dedicated to both Métis and contemporary dance. Meaning "come and dance" in Michif, V'ni Dansi is thrilled to share the Métis people's joyful culture with audiences of all nations. V'ni Dansi's Louis Riel Métis Dancers specialize in traditional Métis dance and are dedicated to preserving traditional Métis dances.
Métis Dance Workshop
Our workshops are appropriate for audiences of all ages and include an introduction to Métis history and culture and a participatory tutorial on traditional Métis jigging and dancing. Accompanied by a fiddle player, our instructors have extensive experience teaching children of all ages and skill levels. Workshops are led by 1 dance facilitator & 1 fiddle player.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | To support a safe environment for students, staff, and artists, these workshops can be adapted to allow for physical distancing. Limiting the size of groups to approximately 30 students and conducting the workshops in the gymnasium will allow for the students to spread out during the instruction and participation. |
| Format | In person programming (Lower Mainland only) |
| Audience Capacity | Approx 30 students |
| Tech setup | Sufficient floor space to accommodate physical distancing for 30 students, school staff, and 2 artists. No concrete or carpet. Wood or stage flooring. |
| Price | $800 |
| Runtime | 1 day (up to 5, 50 min workshops) |
Vancouver TheatreSports League
Vancouver TheatreSports® League (VTSL) began in 1980 and is now a local institution and a worldwide phenomenon, producing and staging some of the most daring and innovative improv in the world.
Inclusive Impov
What is inclusion and why does it matter? What better way for students to find out than through improv, where all voices and ideas are included? Vancouver TheatreSports' Inclusive Improv takes the familiar format of improv comedy and reinvents it by placing it in an inclusive world. Students of all ages won't just be learning about inclusivity, they'll be putting it into hilarious action in this dynamic and collaborative performance.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | Up to five mini-performances spaced throughout out the day for smaller audiences. |
| Format | In person programming (Lower Mainland only) |
| Audience Capacity | Each mini-performance can play to whatever the school's limit may be; audiences of 50 maximum are anticipated |
| Tech setup | N/A |
| Price | $1,520 |
| Runtime | 45 mins |
Jazzology / Funkonomics
There's no more exciting way to introduce kids to a variety of musical instruments than through the upbeat, can't-sit-still jazz of the 1920s and '30s. Jazzology engages kids of all ages with irresistible tunes by jazz greats like Louis Armstrong, Cab Calloway and Fats Waller.
For a more contemporary sound, Tiny Islands presents Funkonomics. Featuring funk essentials like James Brown, Parliament, and even that classic 1970s disco hit "Do the Hustle," this program will get everyone moving and grooving to the driving rhythms of funk music. Be ready for energetic audience participation, from clapping to call-and-response, and getting your funk on.
Details
Grade suitability: K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes: The group will present up to five or six 'mini-shows', each lasting about 30 minutes, spread throughout the day.
Format: In person programming (Lower Mainland only)
Audience Capacity: We assume that the limit will be 50 per session unless otherwise advised.
Tech setup: N/A
Price: $1,520
Runtime: 1 day
Uzume Taiko celebrates the rhythm of life itself with shows that wow audiences through a uniquely theatrical blend of music and dance. They have hand crafted a unique brand of West Coast Canadian taiko drumming that offers a visual, sonic and dynamic experience to their audience. Awarded “ArtStarts Champions” for their commitment to touring, Uzume Taiko has performed taiko drumming in schools, festivals and community venues across BC since 1992. The group has toured their evening concerts, festival and youth shows across North America, the United Kingdom and Europe. Uzume Taiko brings a vibrant, contemporary sensibility to an ancient art.
Virtual Taiko Drum Workshop
This Workshop has four components:
1. A Virtual Uzume Taiko Drum Performance.
2. DIY Drum Objects and Drumsticks.
3. Participation in a live ZOOM Taiko Basic Drills Drum Lesson.
4. Practice Taiko Drumming with online videos.
The Program is suitable for K to 12 students in schools and at-home learning environments. Students experience the artform through the Virtual Performance. They see examples of DIY Drums and Drumsticks from home objects. Students also receive “Taiko Basic Drills” video tutorials with corresponding Study Guide to practice with.
Details
Grade suitability: K to 12
COVID-Conscious Notes: Students participate using a desktop or DIY Drum from home and a pair of DIY drumsticks. DIY Drum from home can be a plastic tub, garbage can, tote bin, laundry basket, cardboard box, mixing bowl, cookie tin, or pot. DIY drumsticks can be wooden spoons, chopsticks, spatulas, paint brushes, or pencils. Alternately a drum pad can be placed on a desktop to soften the impact and sound. Drum pads can be a folded blanket, towel, mouse pad, cushion, or mat.
Format: Online programming (Livestreamed or prerecorded)
Audience Capacity: One Learning Group per ZOOM Session (30 – 60 Students), at-home students may attend the ZOOM Session along with their in-school Learning Group.
Tech setup: Participants require internet access, technical device (computer, laptop, tablet, or cell phone), a desktop or DIY Drum from home, and a pair of DIY drumsticks to practice with.
Price: $775
Runtime: 1 day (up to 8, 50 min sessions)
West My Friend
Steeped in the visual styles of western Canada, West My Friend are veterans of the Victoria music scene. After 10 years as a band, they've recently released their fourth album, *In Constellation*, in September. On this, their latest effort, West My Friend continues to refine the art of creating achingly poignant folk music, only this time, they're backed by a full symphony orchestra, heavily layered while remaining lighthearted. Intricate yet accessible.
Canadian Folk Rumours
West My Friend introduces students to Canada's rich folk-music history from the voyageurs to the present. Weaving together rousing renditions of classic songs from "Big Yellow Taxi" to "Great Big Sea", West My Friend points students to the soul of the music whether it a celebratory, social commentary, or just plain silly. Students will come away from this performance with a knowledge of some of Canada's greatest folk music by such luminaries as Gordon Lightfoot, Joni Mitchell, Stan Rogers, Stompin' Tom Connors, Barenaked Ladies, and Great Big Sea. West My Friend takes students on a rollicking ride through Canada's proud folk music history.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 12 |
|-------------------|---------|
| COVID-Conscious Notes | Up to five mini-performances spaced throughout out the day for smaller audiences. |
| Format | In person programming (Victoria only) |
| Audience Capacity | Each mini-performance can play to whatever the school's limit may be; audiences of 50 maximum are anticipated |
| Tech setup | N/A |
| Price | $1,520 |
| Runtime | 45 mins |
Will Stroet
JUNO-nominated bilingual singer-songwriter and CBC Kids star, Will Stroet of Will's Jams shares his passion for music, languages and education with children across the country. Since transitioning from teaching to music full time, Will has performed over 2,000 shows in schools, theatres and festivals in Canada and China. In addition to his popular English, French and bilingual school shows of original music, Will leads songwriting workshops and has also created a new live show called "Hootenanny: A Folk Song Sing-Along" with singer-songwriter Jessica Mai.
Just Imagine / Imagine livestream concerts
Will is now offering schools a prerecorded concert in English or French. Over the past decade touring schools, Will has developed a top-notch school show with audience participation, witty wordplay and catchy sing-along choruses. Will’s original music explores the themes of literacy, imagination and creativity, and living a healthy and active lifestyle, which ties into BC’s school curriculum.
The concert also includes a 15-minute Q & A session on Teams or Zoom where students can ask Will questions about his music, songwriting process or tips for how to write your own songs.
Details
| Grade suitability | K to 7 |
|-------------------|-------|
| Format | Performance is virtual, pre-recorded with live-streamed Q&A |
| Audience Capacity | N/A |
| Tech setup | N/A |
| Price | $500 |
| Runtime | 50 mins | | 4d6eddb8-7b04-4b9f-bd0e-729753895e30 | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | https://artstarts.com/assets/uploads/COVID_Directory_November_2020.pdf | 2020-11-28T04:39:20+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141195069.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20201128040731-20201128070731-00592.warc.gz | 200,343,862 | 12,224 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995969 | eng_Latn | 0.997694 | [
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The Design of Educational Board Game “Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain” for Developing Academic Achievement on Ecosystem
Trai Unyapot, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Suwicha Wansudon, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Witchayada Nawanidbumrung, Independent Scholar, Thailand
Theerawut Sreemungkla, Ban Nong Khu (Nong Khu Wittayakan) School, Thailand
Thanida Sujarittham, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2024
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This research has two primary objectives: 1) to develop an educational board game focused on food chains “Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain” with the purpose of enhancing ecoliteracy, and 2) to investigate the effects of utilizing a food chain educational board game to enhance students' ecoliteracy and learning skills. The research instruments in this study consisted of 1) the educational board game “Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain”. 2) an assessment of academic achievement 3) a rating scale satisfaction survey. The research outcomes indicate that 1) students' knowledge levels post-engagement with the game were significantly higher than pre-engagement levels, with statistical significance at the 0.05 level, and 2) overall satisfaction reflected that a high level of satisfaction.
Keywords: Educational Board Game, Game-Based Learning, Food Chain, Ecoliteracy
Introduction
In the modern educational landscape, fostering ecoliteracy—the understanding of ecological systems and the interrelationships among living organisms—is paramount (Orr, 2004). As environmental issues become increasingly complex and pressing, it is crucial to equip students with the knowledge and skills necessary to comprehend and address these challenges (Sterling, 2001). One innovative approach to enhancing ecoliteracy is through the use of educational board games, which can provide an engaging and interactive learning experience (Gee, 2003). This research aims to contribute to this endeavor by achieving two primary objectives: developing an educational board game focused on food chains, "Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain," aimed at enhancing ecoliteracy; and investigating the effects of utilizing this board game on students' ecoliteracy and learning skills.
The study employed a multi-faceted research methodology, incorporating the development and implementation of the board game, assessment of academic achievement, and measurement of student satisfaction (Brown, 2010). The findings from this research provided valuable insights into the effectiveness of educational board games as a pedagogical tool, revealing significant improvements in students' knowledge and high levels of satisfaction with the learning experience. Specifically, the results indicated that students' knowledge levels post-engagement with the game were significantly higher than pre-engagement levels, with statistical significance at the 0.05 level, and overall satisfaction levels were high. These outcomes underscored the potential of interactive learning tools in enhancing educational outcomes and fostering a deeper understanding of ecological concepts among students (Prensky, 2001).
Research Objectives
This study aims to achieve two primary objectives:
1. To develop an Educational Board Game: Designing and creating an educational board game titled “Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain” with the primary purpose of enhancing ecoliteracy among students. This objective focuses on the creation of a game that effectively teaches the concepts of food chains and ecological relationships in an engaging and interactive manner.
2. To investigate the Educational Board Game's Effectiveness: Assessing the effects of utilizing the food chain educational board game on students' ecoliteracy and learning skills. This involves assessing the impact of the game on students' knowledge levels, measuring academic achievement before and after the game intervention, and evaluating students' satisfaction with the learning experience.
Methodology
Sample
The sample group of this study consists of one classroom of 17 elementary school students in Thailand.
The Research Tools
The research instruments in this study consisted of:
1) The educational board game “Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain” to enhance ecoliteracy,
2) An assessment of academic achievement, and
3) A rating scale satisfaction survey.
The research methodology consisted of three main components.
1. Development of the Board Game
The board game "Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain" was designed to teach students about food chains and ecological relationships through an engaging and interactive format. The game includes various elements such as predator-prey interactions, energy flow, and the balance of ecosystems.
Scenario: Players take on the role of predators in a food chain, both on land and in the sea. The player who can hunt the most food will be the winner of this game.
Playing time: 20-30 minutes
Age: 7 years and up
Number of players: 2-8
Subject: Science
Content: Food chain
Figure 1. Example Land ecosystem cards
Figure 2. Example Marine Ecosystem cards
Figure 3. Examples of boards: (a) Land food chain board; (b) Marine food chain board
2. Assessment of Academic Achievement
Students' understanding of food chains was assessed through pre-test and post-test evaluations. The tests measured the students' knowledge before and after engaging with the board game to determine any significant improvements.
3. Satisfaction Survey
A survey was administered to assess students' satisfaction with the board game as a learning tool. The survey measured various aspects of the learning experience, including engagement, enjoyment, and perceived educational value.
Results and Discussion
Academic Achievement in Understanding Food Chains
The study evaluated students' understanding of food chains before and after engaging with the "Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain" board game. The results are detailed in Table 1.
| Test | N | Mean | S.D. | t | Sig |
|----------|-----|------|------|------|-------|
| Pre-Test | 17 | 7.00 | 1.84 | 20.969 | .000** |
Note: ** indicates significance at the .05 level
From Table 1, comparing the pre-test and post-test achievement on understanding the food chain, it was found that the learning achievement after the instructional activity using the Food Chain board game was significantly higher than before the instruction at the 0.05 level of statistical significance.
Characteristics of Learning Enthusiasm
The study also assessed students' learning enthusiasm using observation metrics, as shown in Table 2.
| Learning Characteristic | Mean | S.D. | Interpretation |
|------------------------------------------------|------|------|----------------|
| Attention in class | 2.49 | 0.22 | High |
| Diligence and effort in learning | 2.53 | 0.19 | High |
| Interest in participating in learning activities| 2.62 | 0.19 | High |
| Appropriately researching additional knowledge | 2.48 | 0.27 | High |
| Recording, analyzing, and summarizing knowledge | 2.46 | 0.27 | High |
| Sharing and applying knowledge in daily life | 2.54 | 0.28 | High |
| Overall | 2.52 | 0.24 | High |
According to Table 2, overall learning enthusiasm was high (mean = 2.52, S.D. = 0.24). Students showed the highest interest in participating in class activities (mean = 2.62, S.D. = 0.19), followed by sharing and applying knowledge in daily life (mean = 2.54, S.D. = 0.28), and diligence and effort in learning (mean = 2.53, S.D. = 0.19).
The findings indicated that the educational board game "Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain" significantly enhanced students' understanding of food chains. The improvement in post-test scores compared to pre-test scores demonstrates the effectiveness of the board game as a learning tool. The statistical significance of these results ($p < .05$) further supported this conclusion.
Moreover, the assessment of learning enthusiasm revealed that the board game positively influenced students' engagement and interest in learning. The high levels of attention, diligence, and participation suggested that the interactive nature of the game fosters a conducive learning environment. This aligned with previous research indicating that game-based learning can increase student motivation and engagement (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001).
**Conclusion**
In conclusion, the study highlights the potential of educational board games to enhance both academic achievement and learning enthusiasm. The "Food Chain: Predator of the Food Chain" board game proved to be an effective tool in improving students' ecoliteracy and overall engagement in learning. Future research could explore the long-term effects of such educational tools and their applicability in other subject areas.
**Acknowledgments**
This research was substantially supported by Faculty of Education, Srinakharinwirot University.
References
Brown, P. C. (2010). *Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning*. Harvard University Press.
Gee, J. P. (2003). *What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy*. Palgrave Macmillan.
Orr, D. W. (2004). *Earth in Mind: On Education, Environment, and the Human Prospect*. Island Press.
Prensky, M. (2001). *Digital Game-Based Learning*. McGraw-Hill.
Sterling, S. (2001). *Sustainable Education: Re-visioning Learning and Change*. Green Books.
Contact email: email@example.com | cc6e1176-7591-4d3a-b95f-9ca494fe1376 | CC-MAIN-2024-38 | https://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/acss2024/ACSS2024_79373.pdf | 2024-09-10T17:27:45+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-38/segments/1725700651303.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20240910161250-20240910191250-00093.warc.gz | 418,180,975 | 2,005 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.904164 | eng_Latn | 0.990398 | [
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Hoyland Springwood
The Hub prospectus
Every Child Matters Academy Trust
Children at the heart
THE HUB
Ofsted Good rating
Both Every Child Matters Trust (ECM) and The Hub Specialist Provision here at Springwood Primary School believe that these children are often confused and may not understand why they see the world differently to others.
Here, their behaviours are not viewed as avoidance, attention seeking or naughty. Their behaviour is an indicator to find the root of their issues and slowly, gently and with care, nurture that child to be the best that they can be.
The Hub at Hoyland Springwood Primary School has the philosophy that all children should be helped and supported to feel positive about themselves. Only in raising self-esteem will we be able to make fundamental changes in behaviour, reactions and eventually an attitude to learning. Only then will any progress in education be possible.
We ensure that the children and young people who attend Hoyland Springwood Primary School are given a holistic education; we will provide them with learning opportunities which target their specific individual education needs. We will help them identify and focus on their social, academic and personal successes and importantly, we will teach them how to conduct themselves in a positive manner, so that they may relate to others in a socially acceptable way.
Our key aims
Holistic approach to education and learning skills to become independent.
Unique pupils supported by unique curriculum tailored to individual needs.
Broadening horizons for all children regardless of barriers they may face.
Our ethos
We believe that by the end of their time at The Hub, each child will have experienced—support, nurture, kindness, understanding, independence, next experiences and inspiration for bright future.
We will support young people to learn in their own individual way, to have their own place in society and equip them with the academic skills and most importantly the life skills to be as independent as possible, in their live to come.
Who are we
Hoyland Springwood Hub is a 12 place specialist provision which caters for pupils who’s primary needs is Communication and interaction difficulties with Autism. Each child may have varied, associated learning difficulties and complex communication issues resulting in challenging behaviour posing initial barriers to learning. The Hub is a uniquely designed learning space for children who require a more
What we do
Our Hub children have their own classrooms which are situated across the Playground from the Mainstream Resource Provision and the Mainstream School. Specialist staff work to reduce learning pace, breaking down learning into small manageable chunks and tailoring activities to the needs of each individual. This provides a more structured and accessible educational placement so that they can develop their true potential. The learning pathway for each child will be unique as no two
A nurturing and inclusive school community. Pupils behave well, feel safe and are valued as individuals.
Ofsted September 2018
Learning in the Hub
The learning pathway for each child will be unique as no two children in the Hub are the same. Learning is taught in small manageable parts, supported with physical application and underpinned with lifeskills. These three vital components allow the skills which are learned to become embedded and then become foundations for further learning.
We access the outdoor spaces as much as possible, along with local leisure facilities to build water confidence, accessing local transport and community facilities, with further plans to explore animal care.
‘The school are determined to provide an inclusive learning environment and to raise pupils’ aspirations for their future’ Ofsted September 2019
Learning in the Hub
Staffing within the hub is on a 1:1 ratio to provide the high level of support children require. Each member of staff will work with each child, to develop a wide range of relationships.
We love to be outside whenever we can to help the children learn in the natural environment, to experience the outside classroom and embed all the skills that have been learnt indoors. The Hub has its own dedicated outdoor space as well as access to the wider school.
Centre of Excellence IQM report May 2023
The wellbeing of each child is paramount, and they work in partnership with outside agencies and the school community to remove barriers to learning and ensure each child has the opportunity to meet their potential.
The Curriculum
We believe in a broad and balanced ‘No Boundaries’ curriculum that develops and nurtures life-long learning, builds interests, is meaningful and imaginative and promotes togetherness in school and the wider community. It is designed to support the building of confidence, positive relationships and coping skills. By fostering achievement and success in these areas, we create a “Happy and centered” approach to learning.
We work hard to develop and adapt a curriculum that is personalized for all of our pupils so that there are meaningful outcomes for all. We provide daily reading and precision teaching. This is individual teaching of children in small chunks alongside group work to develop cohesive relationships and tolerance of others.
We deliver the curriculum that is specific to the level they are working at rather than age related expectations. Concepts to be taught can be found on the website curriculum overviews.
Guided by the National curriculum, staff plan according to the need of the pupils who attend. When teaching a wide variety of subjects, links to wider outcomes including that of EHCP targets are made to provide the individual tailored curriculum.
How we assess our progress
Our assessment tracker that we use to both assess and inform future planning is B Squared. Each child has their own individual portfolio which staff update every lesson to ensure all progress is documented and evidenced. This is underpinned by Evisense which collates pictures and visual examples of children’s learning experiences, producing a portfolio to share with parents and care givers.
Our curriculum subjects:
Art and design IT Educational visits Literacy
Read Write Ink Food Technology Geography
RE History Life Skills and Social skills Maths
Music PE PSHE Religious Education Science
Sensory Play Outdoor and Environmental exploration
What is life skills and Social skills?
We aim to offer our pupils a rounded curriculum so they can achieve high levels of success, irrespective of academic ability. We encourage a wide-variety of practical learning in our life skills and social skills lessons. Alternative curriculum activities enable pupils to develop new physical skills, often in a practical and hands-on way. They will develop trust in themselves and others, form positive relationships with their peers and adults, whilst building resilience when dealing with new situations. These activities will be customized to the needs of individual children but may include trying new and different foods, road safety, communication skills and experiences within the local community.
Social skills sessions focus on our children being able to accept when they don’t win, not being first, being able to wait to take turns and when things change when they don’t go as planned.
Sensory Room
The children who attend The Hub can require a high level of sensory input due to the demands that everyday life can put on them. The sensory room is purpose built to provide a calm and tranquil setting. There are soothing lights and calming music which encourages calm from when their daily routines become too much. A bubble tube allows children to focus on the world of water and colour. A heated water bed with built in speaker to allow children to feel the beat of music through the water. They are also able to lean against the interactive touch wall to provide proprioceptive feedback.
Contact Information
((01226) 743815
Hoyland Springwood Primary School,
Cloughfields Road
Hoyland
Barnsley
S74 0ER
Senco – email@example.com
School Email—firstname.lastname@example.org
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Maintaining Diversity With Keystone Species
Content Standards: C.3: develop an understanding that all organisms are linked to each other and their physical environments through the transfer and transformation of matter and energy
Cultural Standard: E. 1. encourages students to consider the inter-relationship between their local circumstances and the global community
Purpose/Objectives/Outcomes:
Students will understand the indirect impact certain species have on maintaining the diversity of ecosystems. Students will also understand that these impacts can have an effect on a broader scale.
The Student will be able to:
Students will be able to identify sea otters as a local keystone species and how their existence in the area maintains biodiversity, effects local fisheries and even climate change.
Begin class with biodiversity game:
Each group of 3-4 students needs:
• 20 red, green, and yellow, M&Ms,
• 4-5 drinking straws,
• record keeping tables.
• 1 paper plate
Assign each student in a group the role of Urchin, Otter or Fish (if groups of 4 assign 2 students as fish). Students will remove certain color M&Ms based on which predator they are. Otters may remove urchins and fish (yellow and red M&Ms), Urchins may only remove kelp (green M&Ms), Fish may remove both kelp and other fish (green and red M&Ms). Create a mini ‘ecosystem’ with 5 of each color M&M on the paper plate. Using only a straw, students will have 30 seconds to attempt to remove their designated prey from the ‘ecosystem’.
After each round students will record the current numbers of each prey in the system then allow for reproduction (double the remaining numbers of each species), record the new numbers for the beginning of the next round, repeat 4 times. Notice any patterns? In game 2, reassign the predators as only fish or urchins, with same rules.
## Game with Sea Otters
| Round | Fish | Kelp | Urchins |
|-------|------|------|---------|
| Initial Numbers | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| 1 | | | |
| 2 | | | |
| 3 | | | |
| 4 | | | |
| 5 | | | |
## Game Without Sea Otters
| Round | Fish | Kelp | Urchins |
|-------|------|------|---------|
| Initial Numbers | 5 | 5 | 5 |
| 1 | | | |
| 2 | | | |
| 3 | | | |
| 4 | | | |
| 5 | | | |
Assessment of student outcomes:
Class or group discussion at the conclusion of the games.
Explore questions:
• What patterns did you notice when playing the games?
• What was different between the first and second game?
• How does a sea otter effect the system as a whole?
• A single species that maintains the diversity of ecosystem is called a “keystone species”. What does “keystone” mean?
• Sea otters indirectly maintain kelp forests by controlling urchin populations. The Russians forced the Alaskan Natives to hunt the sea otters and by the 1900s less than 2000 otters. Can you think of any implications that would have happened if sea otters had been hunted to extinction? (climate and fisheries?)
• Can you think of any other keystone species?
• How can humans still affect the system?
Homework or Expansion Activity:
Have students watch the provided video to learn more about keystone species. Then research another example of a keystone species and present its ecosystem and food web in a manner of their choosing (e.g through art, poetry, narrative, or model).
Assessment of student outcomes:
Class or group discussion at the conclusion of the games.
Explore questions:
• What patterns did you notice when playing the games?
• What was different between the first and second game?
• How does a sea otter effect the system as a whole?
• A single species that maintains the diversity of ecosystem is called a “keystone species”. What does “keystone” mean?
• Sea otters indirectly maintain kelp forests by controlling urchin populations. The Russians forced the Alaskan Natives to hunt the sea otters and by the 1900s less than 2000 otters. Can you think of
any implications that would have happened if sea otters had been hunted to extinction? (climate and fisheries?)
• Can you think of any other keystone species?
• How can humans still affect the system?
Homework or Expansion Activity:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hRGg5it5FMI
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THE ORGANIC PREPPER
NUCLEAR SURVIVAL
ANTHOLOGY
THE ORGANIC PREPPER
NUCLEAR SURVIVAL
ANTHOLOGY
A Printable Guide From the Archives
of the Organic Prepper Website
© COPYRIGHT 2022 BANNED BOOKS PUBLISHING
# CONTENTS
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| FOREWORD | 5 |
| PART 1 | PREPPING | |
| HOW TO PREPARE FOR A NUCLEAR ATTACK | 8 |
| WHY AND HOW EVERYONE SHOULD MAKE A SURVIVAL SHELTER PLAN | 15 |
| WHAT TO DO WHEN THE TOILET WON’T FLUSH | 20 |
| HERE’S WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT RADIATION SICKNESS | 23 |
| HOW TO USE POTASSIUM IODIDE AFTER SHTF | 28 |
| HOW TO GET ACCURATE INFORMATION AFTER SHTF | 33 |
| PART 2: WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT NUKES AND THE AFTERMATH | |
| THE CDC IS WARNING AMERICANS TO PREPARE FOR NUCLEAR WAR | 38 |
| THIS NUCLEAR BLAST SIMULATOR LETS YOU PUT IN ANY ADDRESS TO SEE WHAT | 40 |
| WOULD HAPPEN | |
| NORTH KOREA LAUNCHED ANOTHER ICBM AND HERE’S WHAT WE LEARNED | 46 |
| HERE’S WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF A NUCLEAR BOMB WAS DETONATED ON THE | 51 |
| GROUND IN NYC | |
| IS NUCLEAR WINTER A MYTH? | 55 |
| WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT NUCLEAR TORPEDOES | 58 |
| BONUS CONTENT | |
| The Organic Prepper’s Quickstart Guide to Evacuations | 64 |
| The Organic Prepper’s Quickstart Guide to What to Eat When the Power | |
| Goes Out | |
FOREWORD
The US has been hit hard over the past 2 years. We first dealt with a pandemic that some believed, and some did not. Regardless of your feelings on the pandemic itself, the economic disaster and supply chain disruptions left in its wake by governmental policies have been nothing less than staggering.
Now, while people are paying $10 for a tube of toothpaste in some parts of the country, we find ourselves on what could be the cusp of World War III. There’s no need to go over the facts of this, as it’s become more and more difficult to get information that is not propaganda. Suffice it to say, the worsening crisis between Russia and Ukraine appears that it may end up involving the rest of the world.
Threats have been issued, as often happens in times of war and hostility. One of the most terrifying of those threats is the prospect of nuclear war.
I want to be abundantly clear when I say that this guide is not assembled out of fear. We’ve gathered together all our content about nuclear survival so that we can put it in an easily printable format for you. You may find that some information is repetitive and also shared in other articles. We wanted to get this to you as quickly as possible.
**Don’t prep with fear. Prep with information.**
Preparedness that is fear-based will not lead you to a good place. You will overlook important things. You will be more prone to believe the hysteria on social media and the mainstream news. Preparedness that is knowledge-based will help you block out the noise and focus on the things that are the most important.
When you read over this guide, you will see that some of it is simply knowledge about different nuclear capabilities and what happens during a nuclear blast. It’s important to know these things so that you can assess your risk accurately.
The rest of it is to help you do the best you can to secure your home from fallout and radiation. Remember, we can only do what we can do. We can only do the best we can with our resources, our locations, and our limitations. Don’t waste time on things that are out of reach.
**You CAN survive.**
But we are survivors, and we can give ourselves a better chance to prevail.
We need to prepare to the best of our ability, understand the scenarios, and try not to lose our focus in a cloud of anxiety and stress.
If you’re like a lot of folks, you may be feeling pretty overwhelmed right now. Take control of the things you can and try to focus on the basics of survival. There are
many things going on that are completely beyond our control, and spending your time endlessly watching the horrors and speculation is not productive. Spend your time preparing or spend it doing things that bring you peace. Don’t let yourself get sucked in.
Here’s hoping we never need to use this information.
Daisy Luther
March 7, 2022
PART 1
PREPPING
Here’s How to Prepare for a Nuclear Attack
By Daisy Luther
Would you know what to do if you were warned of an imminent nuclear strike? Or would you be frozen in shock? Perhaps scurrying to search up the information you need to survive?
It’s obviously far better to understand events of this magnitude ahead of time. Here’s how to get prepared for that horrifying possibility.
First things first, it’s essential to keep abreast of the news. Sign up here for my daily newsletter - I’ll let you know what I know, the moment I know it.\(^1\)
Now, let’s take a look at the facts about nuclear strikes.
**Would a nuclear attack kill us all or cause a global nuclear winter?**
I got a message from a reader during the North Korea crisis\(^2\) that encompasses what a lot of us are thinking:
N. Korea now has a Nuke or Nuke capabilities. Do you beef up your preps, wait for the chips to fall, kiss your butt goodbye, or other? Should we be acting business as usual?
First, let me dispel two myths about a nuclear attack.
We won’t all die or wish we were dead if a nuclear strike occurs. The movies - as much as I love them - have done us a terrible disservice here. If you are at Ground Zero of an attack, there is absolutely nothing you can do. Everything will be vaporized and that’s that. However, if you are outside the immediate blast zone, it is completely survivable and I don’t mean survivable in the horrible, lingering death kind of way. I mean, unharmed. You just have to know exactly what to do immediately in order to protect yourself. More on that in a moment.
We won’t suffer a nuclear winter. Everything thinks it will be like the post-apocalyptic scenario in that horrible book/movie, *The Road*.\(^3\) People aren’t going to be trying to eat each other. In that particular plot, the nuclear war was so great that a huge cloud of ash covered the planet. In reality, it would take hundreds of nuclear strikes to cause something like that, which is unlikely to occur. This isn’t to downplay the horror and death of one strike, but to point out that the aftermath isn’t going to make the quality of life on Earth as terrible as what the movies portray.
Here is what would happen if a 10-kiloton nuclear strike occurred.
Contrary to popular belief, a nuke won’t kill everyone within hundreds of miles. If you aren’t in the immediate blast radius, a nuclear strike is absolutely survivable.
The one-mile radius around the blast will be virtually unsurvivable. Within two miles, people will suffer 3rd-degree burns from the intense wave of heat.
If you are within two miles of the blast, the winds will be coming at about 600 miles per hour. This will take down buildings and cause a tremendous amount of pressure. Some experts recommend that you keep your mouth open to try and reduce the pressure on your eardrums. Looking at the blast could cause permanent blindness.
According to the DHS, 10 kilotons is the approximate size of nuclear weapon we could expect.
- Nearly everyone within a half mile radius of the point of impact would die and most of the buildings would be demolished. This would be considered Ground Zero.
- The area within the next half mile would suffer extensive damage, fires, and serious injuries.
- Areas within three miles could see minor injuries to people and slight damage to their homes.
- The fallout would kill even more people. According to the DHS:
- Within 10 to 20 miles of the explosion, radioactive exposure would cause nausea and vomiting within hours and death without medical treatment.
- But for those near enough to the blast, experiencing more than 800R of radiation, not seeking shelter immediately would cause deaths with or without medical treatment, the study found.
- People would not be able to evacuate this area as fallout would arrive within just 10 minutes.
(source)
People upwind of the strike and outside the 20-mile radius would be unlikely to suffer any effects. People downwind would need to take shelter. Deaths from cancer that is related to the fallout could occur for many years after.
Here’s what I’m doing to prepare for a nuclear attack.
As cool as it would be to have a bunker, you don’t have to have one to survive if you take the time now to get prepped. You can survive by learning everything you can to prepare for a nuclear attack.
So, here’s what I’m doing.
Every time a new threat rolls around, I discover that while I have many of my bases covered, there are a few things I hadn’t accounted for. A nuclear threat is no different. There were some supplies I had to pick up myself, particularly a bigger supply of no-cook food.
Part of your preparations will depend on where you live, so this will be different for everyone. Are you near any places that are likely targets? Places like Washington DC, Hawaii, New York City, Los Angeles, and large military bases are more likely targets than say, a low population area in the midwest. Of course, this doesn’t mean it can’t happen. Just that it’s less likely.
Are you in a house or an apartment building? What is the best place in your home to seek shelter? Plan all of this ahead of time. If you know exactly what steps you are going to take, you will be able to better perform them under pressure.
Here are some key points to consider.
You won’t have a whole lot of notice.
For example, scientists say that residents of Hawaii would have only 8-12 minutes notice if an ICBM was headed their way from North Korea, and residents of New York City will have an hour. Clearly, there won’t be time to run to the store - and if you did, you’d be fighting it out with a bunch of terrified, panicked people - so get your supplies together now.
You could be in your car.
If you are in your car, make certain to turn the vent to recirculation so that you don’t bring any outside air into the vehicle. Your goal should be to immediately get to shelter.
Be prepared to go into lockdown.
In nearly every case, staying home is the best course of action. Imagine you are in New York City and this nuke is headed your way. If you try to evacuate, you are most
likely to get stuck on one of the bridges on the way out of Manhattan and that would be far more deadly than hunkering down in your apartment and hoping you are outside the half mile radius of Ground Zero. Experts say that you should plan to stay sheltered for a minimum of 9 days. Our personal plan is 14-21 days, depending on proximity and wind direction. I’d rather err on the side of caution, personally.
During a talk on surviving a nuclear attack, professor Iwrin Redlener, US specialist on disaster preparedness, said: “In that 10 to 15 minutes, all you have to do is go about a mile away from the blast.
“Within 20 minutes, it comes straight down. Within 24 hours, lethal radiation is going out with prevailing winds.”
Prof Redlener said you should feel for the wind and begin running perpendicular to it - not upwind or downwind
He said: “You’ve got to get out of there. If you don’t get out of there, you’re going to be exposed to lethal radiation in very short order.
“If you can’t get out of there, we want you to go into a shelter and stay there. Now, in a shelter in an urban area means you have to be either in a basement as deep as possible, or you have to be on a floor - on a high floor - if it’s a ground burst explosion, which it would be, higher than the ninth floor.
So you have to be tenth floor or higher, or in the basement. But basically, you’ve got to get out of town as quickly as possible. And if you do that, you actually can survive a nuclear blast.”
The most hazardous fallout particles are readily visible as fine sand-sized grains so you must keep away from them and not go outside if you see them. (source)⁵
While I’m not a professor, I would not be trying to run perpendicular. I’d be trying to get inside to shelter, ASAP.
Fortify your home against fallout.
• Your goal is to put as much mass as possible between you and the radioactive fallout. Sandbags are a good way to quickly create mass. Take shelter in a basement if possible and fortify the windows and doors with as much mass as possible.
• Use duct tape and tarps to seal off all windows, doors, and vents. Get a LOT of duct tape and tarps.
• Turn off any type of climate control that pulls the outside air into your home. Expect to survive without heat or air conditioning for the duration.
• Close off your chimney.
• If someone enters the home, make certain that there is a room set up that is separate from other family members so that they can decontaminate. All clothing they were wearing should be placed outside and they should immediately shower thoroughly.
• Make a breezeway for putting things outdoors (like pet or human waste.) Hang heavy tarps around the door and put on disposable coveralls, gloves, shoe covers, and masks if you have to actually go out.\(^6\) Disrobe, discard the disposable clothing by tossing it out the door, and shower immediately when you get back inside.
• If you don’t have a basement, go to the most central part of your house and erect as many barriers as possible. If there is no central area without windows and exterior walls, go to the room furthest away from prevailing winds.
Have enough supplies on hand to wait out the danger.
As with many emergencies, you need to be prepared to survive at home without help from anyone. It’s unknown whether water and electricity will be running, and if the water is running, whether it will be safe to drink. Prep as though you won’t have access to these utilities and if you do, then it’ll be a pleasant surprise.
• Stock up on emergency food. In our current home, all of my emergency cooking methods rely on me being able to go outdoors. Because of this, I have stocked a one month supply of no-cook foods that do not require refrigeration. Canned vegetables and fruits, canned beans, pouches of rice and quinoa, crackers, peanut butter, dried fruit. You get the idea. The eating may not be exciting, but we won’t starve to death. You can find a more thorough list of no-cook foods here.\(^7\)
• Have a supply of water for all family members and pets that will last throughout the 9-day waiting period that you need to remain indoors. (Or longer, which is what we’re planning.)
• Get paper plates and cutlery in the event that the water isn’t running so you don’t have to waste your precious supply washing dishes.
• Don’t forget a supply of pet food.
• Make certain you have a potassium iodide supplement on hand to protect your thyroid gland.
• Be prepared for the potential of a power outage.\(^8\)
• If you have pets, have supplies on hand for their sanitation - you can’t let them go outside because not only would they be exposed, they would bring radiation in with them. So, pee pads, cat litter, etc., are all necessary. Solid waste can probably be flushed.\(^9\)
• Have the supplies to create an emergency toilet.
• Make sure to have a supply of any necessary prescription medications that will last through the time that you hunker down.
• Have a well-stocked first aid kit. It’s entirely likely that medical assistance will not be available, and if it is, you’ll put yourself at risk by going out to seek it.
• Have a way to get the news from the outside world. An emergency radio is a must.\(^{10}\)
Learn everything you can.
This is an overview but there is much more to learn about a nuclear event and the more knowledge you have, the more likely you are to survive without any ill effects.
For some free additions to your nuclear library, you can print out a manual from the US government about surviving a nuclear emergency.\(^{11}\) It was written with first responders in mind, but much of the information would be applicable for us, too. It discusses:
• The effects of a detonation in an urban environment
• Shelter and evacuation recommendations
• Medical care
• Decontamination
• Preparedness steps you can take well before an emergency occurs
The book, *Nuclear War Survival Skills*, by Cresson Kearney, is also available for free online.\(^{12}\)
The more you know, the better your chances are of unscathed survival.
You CAN survive if you prepare for a nuclear attack.
The only part of your survival that is in the hands of fate is whether or not you are at Ground Zero. The rest is up to you. You can't expect the government to save you. You can only save yourself.
The false alarm in Hawaii yesterday should be an enormous wake-up call. It should inspire everyone, everywhere to make a survival shelter plan.
While people who panicked are busy pointing fingers at the person who allegedly “hit the wrong button” and sent out a message warning of an incoming missile and to seek immediate shelter, where should that finger really point?
**Hardly anyone had a plan for where they would take shelter**
For 38 minutes, hysteria reigned supreme across the island state after Hawaiians awoke to this message on their cell phones.
On the television, the following warning was issued:
WEA Text: BALLISTIC MISSILE THREAT INBOUND TO HAWAII. SEEK IMMEDIATE SHELTER. THIS IS NOT A DRILL.
Description: The U.S. Pacific Command has detected a missile threat to Hawaii. A missile may impact on land or sea within minutes. THIS IS NOT A DRILL.
Instruction: If you are indoors, stay indoors. If you are outdoors, seek immediate shelter in a building. Remain indoors well away from windows. If you are driving, pull safely to the side of the road and seek shelter in a building or lay on the floor.
We will announce when the threat has ended. Take immediate action measures. THIS IS NOT A DRILL. Take immediate action measures.
Urgency: Immediate
Severity: Extreme
Certainty: Observed
Can you imagine how it felt to think your life was about to end in 15 minutes?
In some places, sirens were blaring. People were screaming and crying. Stories across social media spoke of the terror.
Social media users posted videos, photos, and testimonials about residents hurriedly taking up shelter while thinking they were under attack.
“I was sitting in the bathtub with my children, saying our prayers,” Hawaii state representative Matt LoPresti told CNN in emotional interview after false missile alert.
One Twitter user wrote: “My family was hiding in the garage. My mom and sister were crying. It was a false alarm, but betting a lot of people are shaken.” (source)
Visitors were also left reeling.
California resident Elizabeth Fong is in Hawaii looking to buy a house and received the alert. She said she didn’t receive a correction alert stating it was a false alarm until 8:46 a.m., 39 minutes after the initial alert.
The aftermath of the false alert was “crazy,” she told NBC Bay Area, and prompted people to run around on the streets “crying and screaming,” wondering what to do.
“I prayed to God and asked for forgiveness of my sins and for Him to protect us,” she said, adding that people are still shaken up. (source)
There are videos of desperate parents putting their children into the storm drains to try and save them. There are first-person stories about the longest 38 minutes of people’s lives.
Why didn’t anyone have a survival plan?
The most important part of preparedness is planning ahead. Hawaii has been the state at greatest risk of an attack by North Korea. There were reports of an outright threat against Hawaii. There have been drills and meetings in which only a few people participated. Many people didn’t even notice the sirens being tested.
For months, the media has been full of stories about the risks of a ballistic missile attack on Hawaii and yet, many people had no idea where they would take shelter. And shelter is only the first concern - what about the weeks of fallout in which people would need to shelter in place? What about food? Water? Search and rescue?
What about a plan?
It isn’t all about fear to make a contingency plan. No one really knows why or how this alert was sounded, but the fact remains that there was wholesale panic. When
we are prepared, we don’t need to panic.
**Survival Shelter Checklist**
There are two things for which people would need to prepare: the blast and the fallout.
No one WANTS to think about this kind of thing, but it’s oh-so-important. Keep in mind that a survival shelter doesn’t have to be a “bunker” in the traditional sense. (Although how awesome would that be?) It could be your basement, an interior room in the house, a room with fewer windows and access points, or a room that you can harden if necessary. If there is absolutely no place in your home where you can shelter, find out if the town where you reside has a public fallout or blast shelter.
The goal is to put as much MASS between you and the outside air as possible. The ideal amount is 3 feet. Windows are not an acceptable barrier. But DO NOT let a situation that is less than ideal overwhelm you to the point that you don’t take the steps you can. Very few of us have a concrete underground bunker with no windows. Very few of us have an unlimited budget. Start with the basics and add the things you can, when you can.
**Answer the following questions:**
- Where would you take shelter for 14-21 days?
- Do you have the necessary supplies to fortify your shelter? (Duct tape, heavy plastic, boards, sandbags - seal off windows, doors, vents, and any other place where a draft can get through)
- Is the shelter stocked with enough food for you to wait for the radiation to dissipate?
- Do you have a way to safely cook it? Alternatively, do you have foods that don’t require cooking?
- Do you have blankets and comfort items?
- Do you have enough water for everyone?
- Do you have potassium iodide and do you know how to take it?
- How would you use the bathroom in your shelter?
- How would your pets do their business? (Puppy pads? Newspaper? Litter box?)
- Do you have enough pet food?
• Do you have supplies for special needs like diapers, formula, medications, comfort items?
• Do you have something for people to do while you shelter in place? (Games, crafts, books?)
You need to make this survival shelter plan now. Whether you live in Hawaii, a city, or out in the country, you absolutely must be ready. If that warning comes to your phone, you will be much calmer if you know what you are going to do.
Imagine the peace of mind you’ll have when this is done. Isn’t that much better than panic?
SHELTER CHECKLIST
Answer the following questions:
- Where would you take shelter for 14-21 days?
- Do you have the necessary supplies to fortify your shelter? (Duct tape, heavy plastic, boards)
- Is the shelter stocked with enough food for you to wait for the radiation to dissipate? What do you need to buy?
- Do you have a way to safely cook it? Alternatively, do you have foods that don’t require cooking?
- Do you have blankets and comfort items?
- Do you have enough water for everyone (including pets)? Plan for 1 gallon each per day.
- Do you have potassium iodide, and do you know how to take it?
- How would you use the bathroom in your shelter? Consider a kitty litter toilet.
- How would your pets do their business? (Puppy pads? Cat litter? Newspaper?)
- Do you have enough pet food?
- Do you have supplies for special needs like diapers, formula, medications, comfort items? Write down those special needs and pick up what your loved ones may require.
- Do you have something for people to do while you shelter in place?
Sanitation in the City: What to Do When the Toilet Won’t Flush
By Daisy Luther
Did you ever stop to put some thought into the flushing power of your toilet? It’s one of those things we in modern society take for granted. We use the restroom, then we flush, wash our hands, and forget it.
But during extreme scenarios, this isn’t always so easy. When researching my book, The Prepper’s Water Survival Guide, I spent a lot of time reading about water, sanitation, and waterborne illness. These issues are all closely linked, and it’s vital to find solutions.
If you’re on a septic system, you have a safe place for your waste to go during most types of disasters, assuming you have additional water on hand for flushing.
But, in the city, on a public sewer system, there exists the possibility that a situation could arise during which flushing is not an option. Do you remember during the aftermath of Superstorm Sandy when residents of high-rise apartment buildings couldn’t flush because the city water system was down? There were numerous reports that people were so desperate that they were defecating in the hallways. They quoted a resident of a senior apartment complex, Anna Hay, who said, “They can’t go upstairs to go to the bathrooms. Where are they going to go? They’re walking all around for a place to go. There’s nowhere to go in this area.”
With some very small and inexpensive preparations, it doesn’t have to come down to that. Just having a portable toilet is not enough for good hygiene and safety. If you live in an urban area, going outside to do your business may not be an option. You have to figure out a way to take care of this, indoors, while maintaining the health of your environment.
As a former city prepper, I’ve been through a few situations during which our toilets were inoperable due to a local disaster. Luckily, I had the supplies on hand to create a kitty litter box for people, so my children and I were able to stay in the safety of our home without risking illness due to poor sanitation.
How to Make a Kitty Litter Potty
Here’s all you need to make a litter box for people:
- Kitty Litter (For this purpose, get a scented one)
• Extremely heavy garbage bags (Get the kind that contractors use and do NOT skimp on the garbage bags, whatever you do)
• Your toilet or a “luggable loo” which is like a 5-gallon bucket with a toilet seat.
Hopefully, you realized you weren’t going to be able to flush before using your toilet. If there is waste sitting in your toilet, you’re going to need to get rid of it. Not fun, I know, but if it sits there for several days, it’s going to smell terrible, even with the lid down. To get rid of it, you’ll need to have a bag set up with a bit of kitty litter in it. Then, use a cheap dollar store utensil like a slotted spoon to fish out the poop. Try not to hurl, because that’s just something else you’ll have to dispose of. Get rid of the slotted spoon because you will NEVER want to stir beans with that one again. You’d have flashbacks.
Now that this is out of the way, you have two options. You can line your toilet and continue to use it following the directions below, or you can switch to the luggable loo, which is basically just a 5-gallon bucket equipped with a toilet seat and a lid. The process is the same for either one.
If you’re using your toilet, turn the water off to the tank. (The knob for this should be on the wall at the back of it.)
Line the toilet with a garbage bag. Let me repeat: DO NOT GO CHEAP ON THE GARBAGE BAGS! You want to use the best ones you can get your hands on. The ones for contractors are designed to carry very heavy loads. (There’s a horrible pun that I’m resisting making right now.) The last thing you want is for a bag full of human waste to break as you are carrying it out of your house. Put the bag in the bowl, then pull the top of the bag down over the edges of the toilet. Put the seat down to hold the bag into place.
If you’re using the Loo, line it with a garbage bag. Same as above, put the bag into the bucket, then pull the top edges down the side of the bucket. Put the seat down to hold the bag into place.
From here, the steps are the same.
Put a handful of kitty litter into the bottom of the bag to start off. Although I don’t usually like scented products, this is an extreme scenario. Trust me, you want scent. Put the bucket of kitty litter beside the toilet and put a scoop in it (about a 1 cup scoop)
Now you can use the bathroom. When someone has to go, they should do their business then toss a little bit of kitty litter on top of it. Don’t go crazy – just a cup of
litter should do the trick. Remember, it’s designed to cover the smell of poop. Put the lid down on the toilet or loo after you use it. Add a small scoop of litter when someone poops.
Don’t let it get too heavy before taking it outside. For the love of all things cute and fluffy, watch the weight of your human litter. It will soak up urine and become heavy clumps of clay. (Anyone who has ever changed a litter box knows how heavy it can get.) Remove the bag and discard it outside before it becomes a) too heavy to handle or b) heavy enough to cause the bag to break. If you’re using good quality garbage bags, “a” is more likely than “b”. Most likely, you’ll need to take the bag out once per day. It could be more if you have a large family or if someone is ill and making abundant use of the potty.
This is obviously not a solution for a very long-term situation, because you would have to dispose of the bags of poop. However, in a shorter-term scenario, you should be able to load the bags into a garbage can outside and deal with them when services are restored.
Be certain to wash your hands well after dealing with human waste. Although I’m not usually a fan of hand sanitizer, in these kinds of situations, I strongly suggest the use of it. Your family could become extremely ill if good hand hygiene and waste management techniques are not practiced.
Here’s What You Need to Know About Radiation Sickness
By Aden Tate
Radiation sickness is no laughing matter, and unless you understand exactly what you need to do in the event of a nuclear blast, you are likely to end up experiencing it firsthand. Thankfully, there are things we can do to avoid it. Here is what you need to know about radiation sickness:
Units you need to understand with radiation sickness
I’ll mainly be using the units of roentgen. If you see me say something like 5R, that means 5 roentgens. This is a unit of measurement for calculating the dose of radiation absorbed. The lower the roentgen, the safer you are.
An area that will expose you to 300R is going to be exponentially more dangerous than a place with 0.5R.
There are other radiation units as well, though. Grays, rads, and rems all deserve mention as well. For our purposes, consider 1 roentgen, 1 rad, and 1 rem to all mean the exact same thing. A gray is worth 100 Rads.
Don’t get too caught up in the numbers. Just know that the higher the number is with just about anything related to radiation, the worse off you are. The predominant exception to this would be in discussing the protection factor (PF) of a shelter. The higher the PF of a shelter, the safer a shelter it is from radiation.
What is radiation sickness?
There are different types of radiation, but you’re probably familiar with the concept already of the radiation from a nuclear weapon being of the lethal variety. Though you can’t see it – it’s invisible – after a nearby nuclear blast, this type of lethal radiation would be all around you.
Despite being a good distance away from the mushroom cloud, despite being unharmed by the blast, fireball, or heat wave, simply being unprotected could lead to your absorbing a lethal dose of radiation. This means that just going outside to check on your garden could prove to be a deadly activity.
According to the EPA, absorbing 75 Rad (the rough equivalent of 18,000 chest X-rays) within a matter of minutes to hours will give you acute radiation sickness. (source²²)
When you absorb too much of this radiation, you will come down with what is known as acute radiation sickness, aka radiation sickness. This leads to the impacted cells
in the body either being killed or becoming cancerous, with the amount of radiation absorbed largely determining what is going to happen.
But, more on that in just a moment.
**What are the signs and symptoms of radiation sickness?**
The chief sign of radiation sickness one needs to be aware of is vomiting. Doctors actually use the presence of vomiting as one of their chief indicators of just how much radiation was absorbed. The sooner somebody starts throwing up after being exposed to dangerous levels of radiation, the more radiation that individual absorbed. (source\(^{23}\))
Other signs and symptoms of radiation sickness include:
- Bloody poop
- Confusion
- Diarrhea
- Dizziness
- Fatigue
- Hair loss
- Headache
- Infections
- Low blood pressure
- Nausea
- Weakness
(source\(^{24}\))
**Will radiation sickness kill you?**
With a vengeance, it will. Death by radiation sickness is a miserable way to die. Your remaining hours will be spent vomiting, in severe pain, and fully cognizant of the fact that you are dying. You will suffer an excruciating life until your death.
This is not something to be taken lightly. One cannot just hope for the best, and yes, the odds are that you will survive a nuclear strike. It’s the nuclear fallout that is liable
to kill you. In the world of nuclear weapons, understanding that you are both fair game and that your family will suffer without your understanding of how to stay safe is vital.
You teach your family firearm preparedness, knowing that guns are everywhere, and they need to know how to handle themselves around them. Why not do the same with nuclear preparedness?
**How do you avoid getting radiation sickness?**
There are three main components to avoiding radiation sickness: time, distance, and shielding.\(^{25}\)
**Decrease the time of your exposure.**
The less time that you are exposed to dangerous radiation, the less your chances are of coming down with radiation sickness. For example, as Cresson Kearney points out in his fantastic book *Nuclear War Survival Skills*, two weeks after a nuclear blast, a family is likely going to be able to safely exit their shelter for the first time.
If they are in an area with high levels of fallout, though, they are going to have to limit the amount of time they spend out of their shelter. Why? Because though the radiation is decaying, it is still present in a sufficient amount to cause damage with extended exposure.
Kearney states that a person can be exposed to 6R each day for at least two months without becoming ill if they’ve not been exposed to a total dose of 100R during the two-week sheltering process. [page 13]
So, if the background radiation level is 1R, then, according to Kearney, one could spend six hours per day outside of shelter safely post-nuclear blast.
Limiting one’s self to decreased levels of time decreases the amount of radiation absorbed.
**Increase the distance from the radiation.**
The further you are from harmful radiation, the safer you will be. It stands to reason that the individual who lives a 45-minute drive from where a nuclear blast took place is going to be in greater danger than is the individual who lives a 15-hour drive from the blast site.
Of course, nuclear fallout can still be carried quite some distance by wind (which typically travels from west to east in the United States) and can make that 15-hour away location still dangerous as well, but distance does increase safety.
Shielding yourself from radiation is the most important thing you can do.
As Kearney has pointed out, within 12 hours of a massive nuclear attack on American soil, the bulk of the United States would be covered in radioactive fallout. [p25] So, it doesn’t matter where you are; you need to understand the importance of shielding yourself from fallout.
Ironically, at least in 1986, FEMA was recommending shelters to the American public that, in practice, would result in lethal doses of radiation being absorbed by 100% of occupants. [p49] For the best shielding from lethal radiation levels, it is recommended that one seek shelter in a fallout shelter. There are commercially produced options out there, but Cresson Kearny lays out some excellent field-expedient, shovel-ready designs in his book *Nuclear War Survival Skills* that you need to have a basic understanding of.
He actually points out that the shelters featured in his book give better protection against radiation than do virtually all basements within the United States. [p45] Seeing that his shelters are little more than trenches dug into the ground with a log roof covered in earth, this is well worth your looking into.
It should also be pointed out that if you are outside and have been exposed to radioactive fallout, you need to throw away all of your clothes and shower as quickly as possible. Radioactive particles will have coated your skin, and the sooner you rinse them off, the less risk you have of absorbing dangerous levels of radiation that can cause burns, be inhaled, or worse.
**What do doctors use to treat radiation sickness?**
According to the Mayo Clinic, there are a number of treatments that doctors in the United States will use to treat patients with acute radiation sickness. If the absorbed dose has been judged to be too large, the patient will be given pain killers and palliative care, as death is 100% certain. (source²⁶)
If the patient is deemed to stand a chance, hospitals in the USA will likely prescribe one of the following medications:
- **Prussian blue (Radiogardase)** – This drug is given to bind to cesium and thallium within the body. The radiation is then pooped out. By doing so, Prussian blue helps to get radioactive elements out of the body as quickly as possible.
- **Diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DPTA)** – DPTA binds to the radioactive metals americium, curium, and plutonium. Whereas Prussian blue eliminates radiation via pooping, DPTA causes you to pee out the radiation.*
*Note: I’m not a doctor, nor do I pretend to be. The above is not medical advice. If you’re looking for medical advice, find somebody licensed to give it.*
Radiation sickness is a serious threat of nuclear warfare that everyone should have a base level of understanding of.
The above knowledge will give you a fairly good understanding of just what one can expect with radiation sickness. This is not a game. This is a very real threat. The sooner you can get out of the way of dangerous radiation, the better off your chances are.
How to Use Potassium Iodide After a Nuclear Emergency
By Daisy Luther
Given the current concerns, you may be adding some emergency supplies that you are unfamiliar with to your pantry and medicine cabinet. This article explains how to use potassium iodide after a nuclear strike and addresses some frequently asked questions.
At the end, there’s a link to a downloadable format of this article that you can print out to keep with your emergency supplies. I’m not a doctor - this article is based on research done on the FDA and CDC websites. Sources are cited at the end.
(The abbreviation for potassium iodide is KI, which I’ll use for the rest of the article.)
Why you need potassium iodide after a nuclear emergency
Aside from the immediate threats of a nuclear blast, the thyroid gland is the most susceptible organ to damage from radiation. Potassium iodide is a stable form of iodine (stable meaning it isn’t radioactive.) If the thyroid gland is loaded with stable iodine, it can’t absorb radioactive iodine. Radioactive iodine can cause cancer. Here’s how the CDC explains it:
The thyroid gland cannot tell the difference between stable and radioactive iodine. It will absorb both. KI (potassium iodide) blocks radioactive iodine from entering the thyroid. When a person takes KI, the stable iodine in the medicine gets absorbed by the thyroid. Because KI contains so much stable iodine, the thyroid gland becomes “full” and cannot absorb any more iodine—either stable or radioactive—for the next 24 hours.
This doesn’t protect your body from any other type of radioactive isotopes - only radioactive iodine. It won’t undo the damage done by radioactive iodine, so you must begin taking it immediately for protection. If there is no radioactive threat, you should not take KI, as it can be harmful.
How do you take potassium iodide after a nuclear strike or other radiation emergency?
The sooner you begin taking KI after an emergency, the better. It works best if taken within 3-4 hours of an emergency. Here are the dosages recommended by the FDA.
Here are the dosages recommended by the FDA.
- Newborns from birth to 1 month of age should be given 16 mg (¼ of a 65
mg tablet or ¼ mL of solution). This dose is for both nursing and non-nursing newborn infants.
- Infants and children between 1 month and 3 years of age should take 32 mg (½ of a 65 mg tablet OR ½ mL of solution). This dose is for both nursing and non-nursing infants and children.
- Children between 3 and 18 years of age should take 65 mg (one 65 mg tablet OR 1 mL of solution).
- Children who are adult size (greater than or equal to 150 pounds) should take the full adult dose, regardless of their age.
- Adults should take 130 mg (one 130 mg tablet OR two 65 mg tablets OR two mL of solution).
- Women who are breastfeeding should take the adult dose of 130 mg.
Here’s a chart provided by the FDA.
| Predicted Thyroid gland exposure (cGy) | KI dose (mg) | Number or fraction of 130 mg tablets | Number or fraction of 65 mg tablets | Milliliters (mL) of oral solution, 65 mg/mL*** |
|---------------------------------------|--------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| Adults over 40 years | ≥ 500 | 130 | 1 | 2 | 2 mL |
| Adults over 18 through 40 years | ≥ 10 | 130 | 1 | 2 | 2 mL |
| Pregnant or Lactating Women | ≥ 5 | 130 | 1 | 2 | 2 mL |
| Adolescents, 12 through 18 years* | ≥ 5 | 65 | ½ | 1 | 1 mL |
| Children over 3 years through 12 years| ≥ 5 | 65 | ½ | 1 | 1 mL |
| Children 1 month through 3 years | ≥ 5 | 32 | Use KI oral solution** | ½ | 0.5 mL |
| Infants birth through 1 month | ≥ 5 | 16 | Use KI oral solution** | Use KI oral solution** | 0.25 mL |
One full dose protects the thyroid gland for 24 hours. Taking more does not add more protection and can cause illness or death. During times of extended exposure, take the dose once every 24 hours for the length of time recommended by emergency officials. (You’ve got your battery-operated or hand crank emergency radio, right?)
The following guidance is offered by the FDA:
- The FDA guidance prioritizes groups based on age, which is the primary factor for determining risk for radiiodine-induced thyroid cancer.
- Those at highest risk are infants and children, as well as pregnant and nursing females because of the potential for KI to suppress thyroid function in the developing fetus and the newborn.
- The recommendation is to treat them at the lowest threshold (with respect to predicted radioactive dose to the thyroid).
- Anyone over 18 years old and up to 40 years old should be treated at a slightly higher threshold.
- Anyone over 40 years old should be treated with KI only if the predicted exposure is high enough to destroy the thyroid and induce lifelong hypothyroidism (thyroid deficiency).
REMEMBER: DO NOT GIVE INFANTS, PREGNANT WOMEN, OR BREASTFEEDING WOMEN MORE THAN ONE DOSE OF KI.
Who should NOT take potassium iodide?
Some people should not take KI because the risks outweigh the benefits. According to the FDA, the following people should not take KI:
- Persons with known iodine sensitivity
- Persons with allergies to iodine, iodide, and shellfish
- Individuals with dermatitis herpetiformis and hypocomplementemic vasculitis
- People with nodular thyroid with heart disease should not take KI.
- Individuals with multinodular goiter, Graves’ disease, and autoimmune thyroiditis should be treated with caution -- especially if dosing extends beyond a few days. Speak to your doctor, because KI could be deadly for you.
A seafood or shellfish allergy does not necessarily mean that you are allergic or hypersensitive to iodine, but extreme caution should be used, and you should have
the supplies on hand to treat a life-threatening allergic reaction. Personally, I probably would not take KI if I had a seafood allergy. If you are not sure if you should take KI, consult your healthcare professional before a disaster ever occurs.
If your thyroid gland has been removed, you will not benefit from taking KI.
**What are the possible side effects of potassium iodide?**
If you take the correct dosage and are not allergic to iodine, you shouldn't have any negative side effects. The possible issues are:
- Skin rashes
- Swelling of the salivary glands
- “Iodism” (metallic taste, burning mouth and throat, sore teeth and gums, symptoms of a head cold, and sometimes upset stomach and diarrhea)
- An allergic reaction can have more serious symptoms. These include fever and joint pains; swelling of parts of the body (face, lips, tongue, throat, hands, or feet); trouble breathing, speaking, or swallowing; wheezing or shortness of breath. Severe shortness of breath requires immediate medical attention.
**What kind of potassium iodide should I use for my emergency supplies?**
Table salt, iodine-rich foods, and low-dose supplements do not contain enough iodine to be effective.
The FDA has approved these brands for use in a nuclear emergency. (I’ve included links to the products I could find.) The FDA recommends that you only take the following brands.
- iOSAT tablets, 130mg, from Anbex, Inc.
- ThyroSafe tablets, 65mg, from Recipharm AB
If you are unable to find the brands above, other products that have not been recommended by the FDA are:
- Pure Potassium Iodide Crystals (these are to be used to make a solution.)
- Iodoral (These are lower dosage, but high quality, so adjust your intake based on the recommendations above)
- Potassium Iodide tablets (Similar dosage to iOstat, but I’m unfamiliar with the
brand)
It’s essential to note that if you use a non-approved product, it may not be as effective as the approved products. I strongly urge you to get the recommended brands if possible.
You will have to calculate the appropriate doses with the recommendations above.
If you live near a nuclear plant, you may be able to acquire potassium iodide free of charge from the facility.
Sources:
- KI in Radiation Emergencies\(^{28}\)
- Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation Emergencies\(^{29}\)
- FDA\(^{30}\)
- CDC\(^{31}\)
This is a good thing to print out for your emergency binder. Also, keep a copy with your KI pills.
How to Get Accurate Information After SHTF
By Jose
If this mess of the past two years has taught me anything, it’s that gathering accurate information matters. There is no way to accurately predict the exact scope of a disaster months in advance. There is no means to accurately predict how quickly variables will change post-disaster. This is why the prepper needs accurate information. As the world changes around him, he needs to be aware of how it is doing so.
Information is what allows the prepper to adapt to his environment.
Our first priority after disaster is to make sure our loved ones are alright. For sanity’s sake, accurate information about the safety of loved ones is paramount. Even if we can’t communicate with our family immediately post-SHTF, there is a large degree of peace of mind which comes from knowing the extent, precise location, and nature of the chaos that has just taken place.
However, this is where we face something of a catch-22. We need accurate information more after the SHTF than we ever have before, but the very nature of a SHTF event means communication infrastructure has likely been damaged, shut down, or overwhelmed.
With Venezuela’s usual power grid cuts, even the local radios stations stop broadcasting. Should a disaster strike during one of these times, you’re in something of a news vacuum. Imagine what would happen in a long-term situation. It’s rather concerning, is it not?
The only grid means of communication for us during these times is the old, reliable landline telephone. (That’s why I find the old-school BBSs I previously mentioned so appealing if this should happen someday). The BBS system has a limited scope, though. However, there are other alternatives.
How to use the landline grid as a news source...
I’ve tinkered with computers ever since they first started finding their ways into private homes. (Yes, I’ve just revealed my age.) However, this long interest in computer science has helped me to grasp some interesting computer concepts which are of use to the prepper.
Did you know you could connect two PCs using just the telephone line? Do you
remember that old 80’s movie War Games? Within that movie, the main character is able to use his computer to gain access to another computer (coincidentally, the one that controls the US nuclear bomb arsenal) via a landline telephone.
Well, those old capabilities of landline computer connections remain intact. As long as phone landlines work, they can be used for transmitting updated information. Maybe not as instantly as the internet has us used to, but it’s better than nothing.
We have to understand that the only reason cellphones were so widely accepted was the combination of advantages they provided when compared with landlines. One of the lesser-known reasons cell phones flourished is because installing and maintaining a cellphone signal tower is way cheaper than maintaining thousands of kilometers of cable!
**Cellphone towers are incredibly vulnerable. They cannot be relied upon for news post-SHTF.**
Mind you, cellphone towers are very vulnerable to weather. When there is an entire staff available in charge of a tower’s maintenance, the tower will do its job. Once that staff disappears, it’s game over for wireless personal comms. The cellphone towers in my hometown were looted years ago, with the solar panels and batteries having long been stolen. So when the grid is down here in Venezuela, most of the cellphone operators are useless.
On the negative side, the connection using dial-up is going to be snail speed compared to our 50+Mbps days. You’re talking 4.5 kbps snail speeds. While this is a tolerable speed for instant PC-to-PC messaging and file copying, it’s not going to allow you to do things requiring fast transfer speeds.
The reasons this protocol\(^{32}\) of PC-to-PC over phone landlines (Warning: link is in Spanish. Activate your translators.) would work for our intended purpose, is that the news media will keep a record of the incoming number of people gaining access to their server, and that means accurate and reliable intel. If multiple people from an area are all reporting the same thing (e.g. there’s a fire at the factory), the news agency then knows that it’s not just a rumor. One person didn’t report the fire - 45 did. The news agency then knows they are transmitting accurate information.
This way, the readers/listeners will know the news is trustworthy as well. The other reason these PC-to-PC connections via landline are so important is that they permit reporters in the field to transmit via radio to the main station, and this information can then be uploaded to the information agency server in real-time.
Imagine a digital newspaper being available for free.
With subscribers connecting via landline and downloading the “news bulletin” in a matter of seconds, local information would be available every day. It could be even possible to program the news server fax the digital version of a “newspaper” to the subscribers. I don’t know about your area, but in Venezuela, landline services seem to be working without too much trouble, even though the Internet service often fails, or the wide band cost skyrockets. Even when the power is out here, PC-to-PC via landline still works here. I’ve checked.
(I’m not exactly a fan of anything wiki, but their information on “point-to-point protocol” could provide some clarity to the main issue here: connecting two PCs to exchange information over the phone landlines.)\(^{33}\)
**AM/FM radio broadcasting could still work.**
This sort of communication will rely on power supplies. Let’s suppose this isn’t an issue though, as the station has applied the principles of the business continuity after SHTF.\(^{34}\) The best approach to preparing for post-disaster life is to assume that people will keep running their business as best as they can.
AM/FM radio has survived all of the technological changes through history. It’s even stronger now with the benefit of the internet. Radio broadcasts over the internet serve as a great means for instantly updated information. FM works better in the local environment.
Radio broadcasting equipment is less complex than computers, and doesn’t need the limited lifespan components to work such as a computer requires. In my area, I’ve been inside a number of radio stations, and the newest of them still has equipment which has been running flawlessly since the late 80s. I asked and any small town electronics technician could repair it provided the parts can be found.
The main concern here is the necessary power level to broadcast. However, with intermittent broadcasting, I believe this could be easily managed. In the past, radio stations broadcasted for a limited time as well. I foresee radio stations behaving similarly in a post-disaster future.
**Will TV still work?**
Practically all of what applies for radio broadcasting is true for TV broadcasting as well. Any local station will still have its transmission equipment. Will you have the power supplies at your house to receive those broadcasts though? What about your TV, will you be able to turn it on? Will you be able to spare vital electricity - perhaps
connected to your well pump or deep freezer - to run a TV? Is the cost worth it?
**Are there other solutions for accurate information after SHTF?**
Yes, there are several solutions to spread information post-SHTF. I won’t get into more details because of space. The possibilities certainly are plentiful, but not all of them are flexible enough to be used for every case. Do your homework to discover what is out there.
I won’t mention HAM radio either. It’s obviously the most universal approach, and has been a preferred communication tool for survivalists and preppers since the beginning. In particular, I believe that packet radio to transmit small amounts of data could be a boon for disaster news gathering.
There is plenty of material out there about the off-grid connection topic, and I recommend starting with learning about how to use your phone without the grid.\(^{35}\) Mind you, I’m no specialist in this sort of thing and there are plenty of technical details to consider.
These are just two solutions that work at the local level here in Venezuela. I believe they’ll work in yours as well.
Post-disaster news gathering is a fascinating, extensive topic plagued with tons of interesting details. Those with more information could add a lot to the conversation and help a lot of people by adding to the comments section. Thanks for reading!
**Note from Daisy:** Don’t forget the value of a hand-crank, NOAA radio for getting news from official channels.
PART 2
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT NUKES AND THE AFTERMATH
The CDC is warning Americans to prepare for nuclear war.
If you've been watching the news for years the way many of us have, you probably know that by the time the government starts warning you about something, it's just about to happen.
For example, you may recall the Ebola scare back in 2014. First, the CDC released a warning on Sept. 15th,\(^{36}\) then just two weeks later, the first case in the US was confirmed in Texas.\(^{37}\) It wasn't by any great master planning that it didn't turn into a massive epidemic through a series of terrifying errors. It was sheer dumb luck.
The Center for Disease Control recently announced that they'd be giving a presentation on January 16th to help better prepare the public for nuclear war. The announcement reads:
While a nuclear detonation is unlikely, it would have devastating results and there would be limited time to take critical protection steps. Despite the fear surrounding such an event, planning and preparation can lessen deaths and illness. For instance, most people don't realize that sheltering in place for at least 24 hours is crucial to saving lives and reducing exposure to radiation. While federal, state, and local agencies will lead the immediate response efforts, public health will play a key role in responding.
Join us for this session of Grand Rounds to learn what public health programs have done on a federal, state, and local level to prepare for a nuclear detonation. Learn how planning and preparation efforts for a nuclear detonation are similar and different from other emergency response planning efforts. (source\(^{38}\))
Some of the presenters are Dan Sosin, CDC's deputy director and chief medical officer in the Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response; Robert Whitcomb, the chief of the radiation studies branch at the CDC's National Center for Environment Health; and Captain Michael Noska, the radiation safety officer and senior advisor for health physics at the FDA.
The event will be held at the Alexander D. Langmuir Auditorium Roybal Campus of the Georgia Institute of Technology. If you want to go, you have to get security clearance ahead of time.
Non-CDC staff must have prior security clearance. US citizens must submit a request to the Grand Rounds Team.\textsuperscript{39} A US state-issued photo ID (e.g., driver’s license, US passport) is required.
Non-US citizens must submit their requests 20 days prior to the session to the Grand Rounds Team, and additional information will be required. (source\textsuperscript{40})
Which means, basically, no non-US citizens are allowed since it’s happening 10 days from now and this was only quietly announced on December 27, 20 days before the event is to take place.
This Nuclear Blast Simulator Lets You Put In ANY Address to See What Would Happen (Plus a List of Potential Targets)
By Daisy Luther
Did you ever think about the places close to you that would be potential targets for a nuclear strike by an enemy? If you’re reading this website, chances are, the answer is yes. But how would a strike to that nearby target affect you?
In the event of a nuclear strike, there are four things to consider. The numbers below are in the event of a 300-kiloton bomb:
- **The Fireball:** Everything in this range would be disintegrated. It is nearly a one-mile radius and also called Ground Zero.
- **Radiation:** A wave of deadly radiation would affect everything within 5.5 miles. This will cause lung injuries, severe burns, deafness, blindness, and internal bleeding. Anyone in this range who survives the immediate danger is likely to suffer from radiation poisoning in the upcoming weeks.
- **The Shockwave:** A shockwave of incredible power would spread throughout a range of about 11.5 miles. Also called the blast wave, this highly compressed air will travel at high velocities (up to 470 mph), destroying nearly every building in its path.
- **The Heat:** Heat from a nuclear blast would travel almost 50 miles. This heat can ignite fires and cause first degree burns.
You can plug any address into several websites that simulate a nuke attack and see how far the effects of a nuclear strike would reach.\(^{41}\)
This is a link to the Blast Simulator.\(^{42}\)
Here’s what a 300 KT strike on the White House would look like, so that you can get an idea of the different danger zones.
You can check out my book, *How to Survive a Dozen Disasters*, for detailed information on how to prepare for the potential of a nearby nuclear strike and what to do if it happens.\(^{44}\)
**Where are nuclear strikes most likely to take place?**
It depends. There are all sorts of variables with regard to nuclear targets. While most of us would think that cities like New York, Washington DC, and Los Angeles would be more desirable because of high population density, the targets are more likely to be strategic militarily.
This article from Business Insider states that cities aren't the most likely targets anymore and that targeting has "shifted from cities to nuclear stockpiles and nuclear war-related infrastructure." The map below shows the theoretical targets of an attack by Russia.\(^{45}\)
However, if North Korea were to attack the United States, the goals would be different, at least based on a North Korean propaganda photo from 2013.
In Hawaii, one of the closest targets to North Korea, the US military bases Pacific Command, which is in charge of all US military units in the region. San Diego is PACOM’s home port, where many of the US Navy ships that would respond to a North Korean attack base when not deployed.
Barksdale Air Force Base in Louisiana holds the US Air Force’s Global Strike Command, the entity that would be responsible for firing back with the US’s Minuteman III intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Washington D.C., of course, is the home of the US’s commander-in-chief, who must approve of nuclear orders. (source47)
The North Korean target map looks like this:
What about radioactive fallout after a nuclear strike?
If a nuclear strike occurs and you are outside the range of the issues above, the next risk is the radioactive fallout.
The significant hazards come from particles scooped up from the ground and irradiated by the nuclear explosion. The radioactive particles that rise only a short distance (those in the “stem” of the familiar mushroom cloud) will fall back to earth within a matter of minutes, landing close to the center of the explosion. Such particles are unlikely to cause many deaths, because they will fall in areas where most people have already been killed. However, the radioactivity will complicate efforts at rescue or eventual reconstruction. The radioactive particles that rise higher will be carried some distance by the wind before returning to Earth, and hence the area and intensity of the fallout is strongly influenced by local weather conditions. Much of the material is simply blown downwind in a long plume.
Rainfall also can have a significant influence on the ways in which radiation from smaller weapons is deposited, since rain will carry contaminated particles to the ground. The areas receiving such contaminated rainfall would become “hot spots,” with greater radiation intensity than their surroundings. (source\textsuperscript{49})
Radioactive fallout can cause myriad health problems. You can also be exposed to these particles when you eat plants, milk, or meat that has been contaminated by fallout. The biggest risk is thyroid cancer, which is why those who live in a place where there is a risk of fallout should stock up Potassium Iodide pills. (We have a guide on how to take them to prevent cancer due to radioactive fallout.\textsuperscript{50}) A Stanford University study warns:
Nuclear fallout poses health dangers, particularly in the form of cancer, to humans in the form of radiation. When radioactive chemicals break down they release a certain amount of radiation. When humans are exposed to this radiation there is a risk that it causes chemical changes in cells which can kill or makes cells abnormal. In damaging the DNA contained in cells, radiation can cause cancer and can also lead to birth defects in children due to the tampering with a person’s genetic makeup. (source\textsuperscript{51})
**The other variable**
The last and scariest variable is this: how big is the bomb? On the map above, you can plug in different types of nuclear warheads for different results. If a Tsar bomb (the largest ever detonated in Russia) struck Washington, DC, it would demolish a substantially larger area and the death toll would reach 1,858,141 people, with injuries to nearly one and a half million more.
Here’s what that would look like.
*Photo Credit: Outrider*\textsuperscript{52}
As you can see, with a 50,000 KT bomb, the numbers are entirely different.
• The Fireball: Everything in this 31-mile range would be disintegrated.
• Radiation: A wave of deadly radiation would affect everything within 44 miles. This will cause lung injuries, severe burns, deafness, blindness, and internal bleeding. Anyone in this range who survives the immediate danger is likely to suffer from radiation poisoning in the upcoming weeks.
• The Shockwave: A shockwave of incredible power would spread throughout a range of about 345 miles. Also called the blast wave, this highly compressed air will travel at high velocities (up to 470 mph), destroying nearly every building in its path.
• The Heat: Heat from a nuclear blast would travel 3200 miles. This heat can ignite fires and cause first degree burns.
There is an enormous difference in the scale of nuclear weapons. This video gives you some idea of the scope.
**Do you live near any of the potential nuclear targets?**
When you look at the maps above, are you close to any of the likely targets? How will you prepare for the potential of attack? Without access to proper medical care, you may wish you'd have checked out our Herbal Skills Intensive.\(^{53}\) A massive power outage might make you wish you had some type of archive of prepping information to take with you as you evacuate.\(^{54}\)
Whatever you do, get prepared now. Aside from 10 years ago, it's the best time to do so.
North Korea Launched Another ICBM and Here’s What We Learned
By Daisy Luther
Despite warnings to from the international community to stop, North Korea tested the most powerful ICBM to date last night. The hermit kingdom launched yet another Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) which splashed down in the sea off the coast of Japan.
Kim Jong Un issued a handwritten order for the launch that said:
«I order a test launch. Carry out on Nov 29 at dawn. Fire it bravely for the Party and the motherland!»
photo credit
North Korea seems pleased as punch about the launch, stating that their nuclear state is “complete”:
Pyongyang said in a statement Wednesday local time that the missile flew for 53 minutes before landing in “targeted waters” in the East Sea of Korea and that the missile can be tipped with a “super-large heavy warhead.”
"[North Korean leader] Kim Jong Un declared with pride that now we have finally realized the great historic cause of completing the state nuclear force, the cause of building a rocket power," North Korea said. (source\textsuperscript{56})
What we learned can help us to be better prepared, should things escalate beyond tests.
They can definitely hit any part of the United States
There has been a lot of supposition with previous tests, like the one last July, when it was determined by some experts that they could strike into the US as far as Chicago.\textsuperscript{57} But last night, by the time the missile had splashed down in waters of the Japanese economic zone, General Mattis, the Secretary of Defense warned that they'd proven they «could threaten everywhere in the world.»
Zero Hedge reported:
This would make it the most powerful of the three ICBM’s North Korea has tested so far. Furthermore, the mobile night launch appeared aimed at testing new capabilities and demonstrating that Pyongyang would be able to strike back to any attempt at a preventative strike against the regime.
“The missile was launched from Sain Ni, North Korea, and traveled about 1,000 km before splashing down in the Sea of Japan, within Japan's economic exclusion zone. We are working with our interagency partners on a more detailed assessment of the launch,” Pentagon spokesman, Col Robert Manning said.
This is concerning for one big reason: according to General Mattis, the North Korean ICBM “went higher, frankly, than any previous” and “North Korea can basically threaten everywhere in the world.” This was confirmed by North Korea missile analyst, Shea Cotton, who cited Allthingsnuclear author David Wright, and who told the BBC that the initial estimates of the ICBM test mean that North Korea can now reach New York and Washington DC. (source\textsuperscript{58})
This was North Korea’s most powerful launch to date.
This most recent test was a different type of ICBM than North Korea has launched previously. Sky News said:
Early estimates put the range, if flattened out from the steeply-lofted trajectory at which it was fired, at around 13,000km (8,100 miles)...
...But this is, once again, progress, with the Kim regime proclaiming a new ICBM to
add to its arsenal, which they have named the Hwasong-15 (hwasong means Mars in Korean).
This was also a rare, if not unprecedented night launch (we saw a late night ICBM launch in July), from what appears to be a new site.
Improving their capability to fire from different locations, at different times of the day, increases their chances of being able to get a real missile fuelled and into the sky before it could be detected and attacked. (source\textsuperscript{59})
This image from CNN gives you an idea of the trajectory and path of the test.
The Guardian reported that this was “the most powerful of the three ICBMs North Korea has tested so far,” and that the trajectory was, more than ten times higher than the orbit of Nasa’s International Space Station.” That type of altitude, of course, should cause concern about the possibility of an EMP strike, which could be far more deadly in the long-term than a regional nuclear strike.\textsuperscript{62}
We may not get much warning.
The most worrisome thing to me was that no one seemed to know where the missile was headed when it was in the air - at least no one who was telling the rest of us. The
trajectory was so high that the destination was immediately not ascertainable - just that it was headed “east.”
This means that we might have very little notice should a strike be headed toward the United States. As soon as I heard about the launch, I contacted my friend in Hawaii, who had heard absolutely nothing about it. Wouldn’t you want to know that something was in the air, headed your way?
In the event of a strike, it is essential that you have a plan ahead of time. You should have potassium iodide pills on hand, as well as a place to take shelter. Family members should know what to do and the plan should be able to be enacted rapidly.)
The whole world is pretty unhappy about the test.
South Korea immediately responded with a show of force.
South Korea staged a missile exercise Tuesday aimed at potentially taking out North Korea’s most valuable military assets. It was in response to North Korea’s launch of an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) over the Sea of Japan.
South Korea’s Joint Chief of Staff said its military conducted what it called a “precision strike” missile exercise in immediate response to North Korea’s latest “provocation” in more than two months, according to South Korea’s official Yonhap News Agency. (source)
South Korea entered into discussions with Japan, in which they have made the decision to increase the intensity with which they deal with North Korea.
South Korea’s President Moon Jae In and Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe agreed on Wednesday that the two nations could “no longer tolerate” the nuclear and missile provocations from North Korea.
“President Moon Jae-in and Prime Minister Shinzo Abe agreed to further intensify their countries’ cooperation to put stronger pressure and sanctions against North Korea, noting they can no longer tolerate North Korea’s threats to security,” Moon’s chief press secretary said, according to Yonhap News.
The leaders expressed “concerns over North Korea’s claim that its nuclear and missile development programs are in their final stages,” and agreed to take steps on cracking down on the regime. (source)
Germany has “sharply condemned” the launch and an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council will be taking place today.
Even Russia, who has previously warned the US not to make the first strike against North Korea, condemned the test.
Russia joined the nations to decry the “provocative step” which “sparks a further rise in tensions.”
“We condemn this launch and hope that all the respective sides will manage to keep calm, which is very necessary to prevent the worst-case scenario on the Korean Peninsula,” said Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov. (source)
President Trump has been fairly vague in his response, stating, “I will only tell you that we will take care of it,” and that it was “a situation that we will handle.”
**Will we be able to avoid war with North Korea?**
At this point, it seems nearly impossible that this will be settled peacefully. While North Korea does have the right to defend itself against threats, they’ve taken an aggressive tone that cannot end well. It appears that this last test even antagonized their greatest allies, but it’s still difficult to imagine that Russia, for example, will stand idly by if the United States were to attack preemptively.
With any conflict, it’s important to note that even if there are no battles on American soil, there will be serious economic ramifications. The very best way that you can prepare is to learn to live more frugally, get rid of your debt, and become more self-reliant to provide for your family.
War with North Korea would be far uglier than people imagine.
Here’s What Would Happen If a Nuclear Bomb Was Detonated on the Ground in NYC
by Daisy Luther
After the meeting between North Korean leader Kim Jong Un and US President Donald Trump seemed to end on an optimistic note, one may have hoped that our fears of a nuclear attack would subside. Not so, according to New York Magazine, who published an article entitled, “This Is What a Nuclear Attack on New York Would Look Like.”
While the timing may seem odd, it’s important to note that feelings are mixed about the North Korea-US summit. Some are pleased and feel that a great deal was accomplished, while others are unhappy - even angry - that Trump made nice with a brutal dictator.
It’s tough for many folks to separate their feelings about Trump, whether those feelings are animosity or support, and it shows in their assessment of the conversation. And this isn’t unique. People had the same difficulties with President Obama. Supporters thought everything he did was great, while detractors thought he was the Anti-Christ. We’d all be wise to try to separate our feelings from our take on current events, as difficult as that might be. However, that isn’t what this article is about.
What would the nuclear threat look like?
The New Yorker piece is prefaced with the opinion that the potential nuke won’t be from the sources most of us have been worrying about. “If America is attacked, the strike probably won’t come from North Korea. And it will be even scarier than we imagine.”
The intro is a political diatribe with some legitimate facts that are overshadowed by a blatant bias. But Ferris Jabr is an experienced science journalist who is a contributing writer for Scientific American and has been published in Wired, Foreign Policy, Aeon, Hakai, New Scientist, and Quanta, to name just a few outlets. Don’t be too put off by the first couple of paragraphs to read the very credible information he provides in the rest of the article. The author discusses a distinct, chilling possibility that has quite a bit of merit.
...a nuclear attack on the United States could well come not from the skies but from the streets. Experts warn that it would be relatively easy for terrorists to build an
“improvised nuclear bomb” and smuggle it into America. Building a ten-kiloton bomb nearly as destructive as the one dropped on Hiroshima would require little more than some technical expertise and 46 kilograms of highly enriched uranium — a quantity about the size of a bowling ball.
This is absolutely not outside the realm of possibility.
Last month, some weapons-grade plutonium went missing from a university in Idaho.\(^{72}\) While the amount taken wasn’t enough to make a giant nuke, it was certainly enough to make a dirty bomb. I was unable to find any indication that the plutonium was ever recovered, and if any readers know, please post your links in the comments so I can update this article. This isn’t the first time that nuclear materials have gone missing - far from it. In 2013, the Washington Post published an unsettling map that showed dozens of thefts or losses of the ingredients required to cook up a dirty bomb or worse.\(^{73}\)
The New York Magazine article posits that the bomb would likely be assembled elsewhere and then smuggled into the United States but we can’t overlook the possibility that it could be just as easily assembled right here at home, should such an event occur. The article explains how a crude 10-kiloton bomb could be made and smuggled in (and it’s quite thorough to my untrained eye)
Once terrorists obtained the uranium, they would need only a small team of sympathetic engineers and physicists to build what is known as a gun-type nuclear bomb, like the one dropped on Hiroshima. A gun-type nuke uses traditional explosives to fire a slug of uranium through a tube directly into another chunk of uranium, fracturing huge numbers of atoms and unleashing a massive amount of energy...
...The last step in the process — smuggling the weapon into the United States — would be even easier. A ten-kiloton bomb, which would release as much energy as 10,000 tons of TNT, would be only seven feet long and weigh about 1,000 pounds. It would be simple to transport such a device to America aboard a container ship, just another unseen object in a giant metal box among millions of other metal boxes floating on the ocean. Even a moderate amount of shielding would be enough to hide its radioactive signature from most detectors at shipping hubs. Given all the naturally radioactive items that frequently trigger false alarms — bananas, ceramics, Brazil nuts, pet deodorizers — a terrorist group could even bury the bomb in bags of Fresh Step or Tidy Cats to fool inspectors if a security sensor was tripped.
Jabr then suggests that the shipment could reach port in Newark, New Jersey, after which a route through the Lincoln Tunnel into Times Square might be the likely course.
What would happen when the nuke detonated?
Keep in mind that this article is specific to New York City. Anyone who lives there or has traveled there will finish reading it with a clear picture in their minds of the landmarks mentioned. But even if you never set foot in the Big Apple, the information delivered in such a relatable way is priceless.
I’ve written a great deal about the survivability of a nuclear strike if one doesn’t happen to be at Ground Zero, and it seems that the author of this piece agrees. Here’s an excerpt:
A ten-kiloton nuclear bomb detonated on the ground in Times Square would explode with a white flash brighter than the sun. It would be seen for hundreds of miles, briefly blinding people as far away as Queens and Newark. In the same moment, a wave of searing heat would radiate outward from the explosion, followed by a massive fireball, the core of which would reach tens of millions of degrees, as hot as the center of the sun.
When such a bomb explodes, everyone within 100 feet of ground zero is instantaneously reduced to a spray of atoms...Near the center of the blast, the suffering and devastation most closely conform to the fictional apocalypse of our imaginations...Within a half-mile radius of the blast, there would be few survivors...
As the fireball travels outward from the blast, people, buildings, and trees within a one-mile radius would be severely burned or charred. Metal, fabric, plastic, and clay would ignite, melt, or blister. The intense heat would set gas lines, fuel tanks, and power lines on fire, and an electromagnetic pulse created by the explosion would knock out most computers, cell phones, and communication towers within several miles.
Traveling much farther than the fireball, a colossal pressure wave would hurtle forth faster than the speed of sound, generating winds up to 500 miles per hour. The shock wave would demolish the flimsiest buildings and strip the walls and roofs off stronger structures, leaving only their naked and warped scaffolding. It would snap utility poles like toothpicks and rip through trees, fling people through the air, and turn brick, glass, wood, and metal into deadly projectiles. A blast in Times Square, combined with the fireball, would carve a crater 50 feet deep at the center of the explosion. The shock wave would reach a diameter of nearly 3.2 miles, shattering windows as far as Gramercy Park and the American Museum of Natural History.
All this would happen within a few seconds.
As this pulse of radiation surges through the bodies of everyone who is outside, or in
weakly insulated buildings, it wreaks biological havoc at the molecular level... Within minutes to hours, most people exposed in these areas would begin to show signs of acute radiation syndrome...
The article is well worth reading to get a clear, horrifyingly detailed picture of the reality of a nuclear attack for those closest to Ground Zero.\textsuperscript{74} It continues to explain what would happen to those within a few miles in the hours and first days after the attack, and has some excellent advice on how to protect yourself should you find yourself in close proximity to a strike. The author concludes:
A terrorist-built nuclear bomb detonated in Times Square would injure 300,000 people and kill 250,000 — 20 times more deaths than in any natural disaster or act of terrorism in America's history. More than 500,000 would eventually be killed or injured by the radioactive fallout...
...Overall, a nuclear missile detonated in the air over New York City would be more destructive and deadlier than a ground explosion, because it would generate a larger blast wave and fireball. By contrast, a nuclear bomb detonated on the ground loses some of its destructive power, because the energy is absorbed by the ground itself, but kicks up more dirt and debris, producing a much larger amount of radioactive fallout and causing a higher proportion of deaths from radiation sickness and cancer.
Really, it seems to me that this scenario of a crude nuclear bomb detonated on the ground in a populated area is a whole lot more likely than a missile strike from across the ocean.
\textbf{You need to learn to protect yourself against all types of nuclear threats.}
By understanding exactly how this would affect Ground Zero and the area around it, we give ourselves a much greater opportunity for survival. Clearly, in a localized event, the entire country would not turn into a nuclear wasteland like the setting of \textit{The Road}, but this is a common misconception that leaves people paralyzed in fear.
It would be centered around the blast area, but the radiation and plume would travel. Being prepared for this possibility is far wiser than saying, "I'll just take my chances and die. Who would want to live after that?" The unfortunate thing for those who deliberately choose the option of remaining unprepared is that you probably won't just die in the blast. You will die a horrific, lingering death, in agony as your skin peels off, your organs shut down one by one, and your loved ones suffer beside you.
Learn how to create a survival shelter in your home. Even if you aren't at home when something terrible happens, that information could save your life. Knowledge is power.
Is Nuclear Winter a Myth?
By Aden Tate
We’ve covered nuclear war\(^{75}\) a bit in the past here at The Organic Prepper, but as I’ve pointed out before, I believe that it is high time that you buckle down and get serious about this genuine threat.\(^{76}\) People fear what they don’t understand, and a large part of the fear involved with nuclear weapons is that they are a mysterious topic to the average American.
Nuclear weaponry?\(^{77}\) Isn’t that something from The Cold War? Why do we have to worry about that now? Hollywood, Carl Sagan, and others have most certainly done their part to popularize a number of nuclear weaponry myths. But that’s what I’d like to take a look at today.
What are the most popular myths out there involving nuclear war? Perhaps, if we can help to dispel some of these, we can help people to realize that A) nuclear war is survivable, B) there are action steps we can take to protect ourselves, and C) in the event of a nuclear strike, we won’t find ourselves absolutely clueless.
Let’s look at one of the most common:
**Myth – A nuclear exchange will result in a nuclear winter where the sky will darken and temperatures will plummet.**
This theory began in 1982 when German environmentalist Paul Crutzen conceived the idea and gained a lot of momentum as time went on, largely thanks to Carl Sagan.\(^{78}\) Interestingly enough, throughout The Cold War, there was a massive push by the Soviets to change the common American’s perception of a wide range of issues. Disarmament was one of these issues Soviets discretely tried (and succeeded) in impact within the United States. (Read page 82 of John Stormer’s *None Dare Call It Treason*.\(^{79}\))
KGB defector Sergei Tretyakov actually stated in 2000 that the KGB was responsible for the entire nuclear winter hoax.\(^{80}\)
So, if Soviet scientists pushed the notion of a nuclear winter, the next question is this: Why?
Because it spread fear in America. Nobody wants to fight a war they can’t win, and terror gets people to quit thinking rationally. If you can spread the idea that a nuclear exchange will only hurt yourself because of an inescapable nuclear winter, then you can help people to begin to do the mental gymnastics necessary to think that laying
down their own rifles will cause their opponent (with a rifle) to magically become harmless.
Of course, in this case, we’re talking about nuclear weaponry, but the point remains: the nuclear disarmament movement was largely sponsored by the Soviets and was based on a disinformation campaign.
**Cresson Kearney’s thoughts**
According to Cresson Kearney’s excellent book *Nuclear War Survival Skills*[^81] (he actually received the Army’s Decoration for Distinguished Civilian Service in 1972 because of how many Americans he helped prepare for nuclear war), the idea of a nuclear winter is quite simply untrue.
A nuclear strike would cause a temperature reduction (perhaps of up to 20 degrees), but this would only last for a number of days. It wouldn’t result in a season-long time of frigid temperatures and the death of plant life.
What Kearney points out would be the real threat after a nuclear strike is the destruction of the supply chain[^82]. Farmers would not be growing food, vital supplies would not be getting shipped out to where they’re needed, and all imports would likely be halted as well.
The true threat isn’t death from freezing from a nuclear winter, nor is it death by starvation from crops not growing from nuclear winter. The true threat is radioactive fallout and then starvation from supply chain destruction.
**Is nuclear winter a myth?**
This is in contrast to the leftist media[^83] that seems to almost be hoping for a nuclear winter (to combat “climate change,” of course[^84]).
After Hiroshima and Nagasaki, we didn’t see a nuclear winter scene play out over the following years. Admittedly, however, these were air bursts rather than surface detonations.
And let’s not forget about the creation of the Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever created (that we know of). First tested by Russia in 1961, the Tsar Bomba was 1570x more powerful than Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined. Granted, the Tsar Bomba test was performed in the air (at 13,000 feet) and the shockwave reflecting from Earth kept the explosion from reaching the ground, so the amount of radioactive fallout wasn’t anywhere near what it would have been had the bomb been detonated on the ground, but it is something to think about. All brick and wooden buildings...
within 34 miles of ground zero were completely destroyed, however.
Also, to be consistent, let’s not forget that Bill Gates currently has a plan to block out the sun by spraying particulates into the air.\(^{85}\) Admittedly, none of the scientists involved in the program know whether or not their experiment will work or not, but it does stand to reason that if Gate’s particulates could result in cooler temperatures, a nuclear weapon could as well.
**For how long though, is the question.**
Kearney’s book was published in 1986, well over two decades after the Tsar Bomba was detonated. The whole earth knew when the Tsar Bomba was tested as well. It was no secret. I’m not even sure it would be possible to keep a Tsar Bomba explosion secret. Kearney most certainly had to have taken a Tsar Bomba-type ground explosion into his research when he came to the final conclusion that nuclear winter was a mythical component of a nuclear exchange.
“Yuri, do you think the HOA will notice?” - The Tsar Bomba test.
Personally, and I’m no physicist, I think that what Kearney says makes the most sense.
I honestly don’t think that a nuclear winter is something that people need to concern themselves with. I believe that nuclear fallout would be a much bigger concern, and, really, as long as you are preparing your family with food/water, off-grid heat, and warm clothing, you would be about as prepped as was possible for a nuclear winter perchance Kearney was wrong.
What You Need to Know About Nuclear Torpedoes
By Aden Tate
Throughout human history, mankind has recognized the importance of waterways. It is for this reason that cities and towns throughout the world are commonly found clustered along rivers, lakes, or by the shore. Water makes the transportation of large amounts of goods both efficient and economical.
Water also makes moving large amounts of soldiers, munitions, weaponry, food, or other wartime logistical goods both efficient and economical.
It’s because of this recognition that throughout history, nations have built as powerful of navies as they could manage. Not only did this help to protect their nation’s borders (enemies would have a more difficult time with logistics for an amphibious invasion), but it helped to protect a nation’s mercantile ships and gave nations the means to strike back at an overseas invader.
Pain as a deterrence works.
One doesn’t have to look far to see the military importance here. The birth of the US Marines as they fought the pirates of Tripoli would be a prime example. An American navy not only made it possible for us to rescue enslaved Americans in Africa, but it made it so that Tripoli was afraid to enslave Americans again in the future.
In World War II, the reason the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor was that they knew it was the site of the bulk of America’s Pacific fleet. With the US Navy on its knees, Japan would have fuller control over the Pacific Theater, able to invade nations as it pleased them.
World War II also caused the world to realize the importance of the aircraft carrier. Here was an invention that perfectly melded both air and sea capability. Without air superiority in modern conventional warfare, one stands a slim chance of victory. Aircraft carriers help to provide that air superiority.
What’s the point?
The point is this: what if there were a way to take out an entire fleet at the push of a button? If so, could it not render an opponent completely incapable of a military response in a geographic region? All troops on the ground would be left without any form of resupply other than that which was available via land or by air. Planes would have to utilize accommodating air strips. Bombardment by sea would no longer be a
possibility. How long would it take for resupply to take place? What would the cost be? How long would it take for an opponent’s remaining naval forces to rebuild and come back to the area?
The destruction of an entire fleet is to file down the firing pin of one’s military dominance, and should such an event take place, the aggressor would be at a mighty advantage.
But is there a weapon capable of this type of action?
Absolutely.
**Introducing, nuclear torpedoes.**
Russia’s navy has been working on nuclear torpedoes for years now, and finally operational with the creation of The Poseidon torpedo.
This weapon is both nuclear-armed and nuclear-powered, the size of a bus and 7’ in diameter. It’s largely theorized that these subs are primarily designed to target coastal ports, but what about enemy fleets? If there’s a large congregation of naval forces in one geographic region, the Poseidon could easily be used to obliterate the entire fleet. This would accomplish all of what we’ve just listed and more.
**And how would nuclear torpedoes find their way to the target?**
Via the new and massive Russian fleet of submarines that are being built. At the moment, the Russians have the Sarov, specifically built-in 2007, for use with this new devastating weapon. The Khabarovsk was another submarine capable of holding Poseidon torpedoes and was scheduled to be completed and released in the fall of 2021. It is likely operational at the time of this writing.
Each Poseidon-capable submarine is capable of holding six of these Poseidon missiles, and as of August 2021, it was believed that Russia was going to build a total of four of these Poseidon-capable submarines.
One of the chinks in the armor here, though, is that Russian submarines of this size are typically “loud” underwater and thus, easily found. But Russia has been working on a go-around for this problem with the creation of missiles being staged on the ocean floor in specialized containers that will hold the missile until they are programmed to be released.
If you’ll remember, The Organic Prepper recently wrote about strange Russian undersea activity off the coast of Ireland where the undersea cables connecting
Europe and America were located.\textsuperscript{90} While some sort of tampering is most likely taking place there, is it not possible that Poseidon torpedoes could be being staged here as well?
If that is indeed the case, nuclear torpedoes could give Russia quite the edge over Western Europe.
Bristol is one of the main ports in England, located in what is likely considered to be within range of where the Russian naval exercise took place. These torpedoes can travel at roughly 80mph and are believed to be capable of a trans-ocean range, making this is not outside the realm of possibility. The nuclear payload is believed to be two megatons as well. Early reports with this torpedo stated it was a 100-megaton payload, but this theory has since been revised.\textsuperscript{91}
For comparison, Hiroshima took a 15-kiloton payload.
So, if we use the fantastic nuclear war simulator Nuke Map, we can see how this might play out.\textsuperscript{92} If there was the detonation of a two-megaton warhead within the port of Bristol, England
Surprisingly, it doesn’t appear as if the blast proper would kill more than 1000 people. What I find even more concerning here, though, is you can see this would layer a huge cloud of radioactive fallout right through the center of England if this were to occur. One thousand rads/hour would cut through where the dark red oval is. 1000 rads is the equivalent of 1140 roentgen. A total of 450 roentgen kills 50% of those it hits.
France has a number of major ports that would be a straight shot, with Brest likely being the closest potential target. If we use Nuke Map to simulate a two-megaton explosion in the harbor of Brest, we again find that while relatively not that many people would apparently die in the blast, the nuclear fallout would reach as far as London.\textsuperscript{93}
Not only would Brest be taken out, but if one considers that you can receive six roentgen/day for two months without becoming ill, it would mean that Londoners would have to limit their time outside/day to six hours. This would severely hamper anyone involved with any form of outside activity (e.g., shipbuilders).
Whether it’s a coastal town or a naval fleet, nuclear torpedoes are not a weapon to be ignored.
Part of prepping is understanding the threats that are out there. If you know what the potential problems are, you can begin to better formulate a plan of action. You can
also have some idea of what to expect. As we continue to give you updates on the status of the current war, this may be a particular threat to keep in mind.
What are your thoughts? Do you think nuclear torpedoes are a likely threat to the US?
Endnotes
1 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/sign-daily-newsletter
2 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/north-korea-hydrogen-bomb-emp/
3 The Road by Cormac McCarthy, or the film starring Viggo Mortensen and Charlize Theron, both are available on amazon.
4 https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3194437/We-not-prepared-Scientist-reveals-terrifying-vision-happen-America-hit-nuclear-bomb.html
5 https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/world-war-3-how-you-6904856
6 These items are all available on Amazon.
7 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/power-outage-picnic/
8 The Blackout Book by Daisy Luther, available on Amazon.
9 You can find these items on Amazon.
10 We like the iOnoson Solar Emergency NOAA Weather Handcrank Radio. It is available on Amazon.
11 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/planning_guidance_for_response_to_a_nuclear_detonation_2nd_edition_final.pdf
12 http://www.osm.org/nwss/
13 https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/twitter/index.html
14 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5266571/How-Hawaii-gripped-panic-false-missile-warning.html
15 https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/national-international/hawaii-no-missile-threat-false-alarm-emergency-alert/2031183/
16 https://www.shftplan.com/conspiracy-fact-and-theory-shock-video-children-were-placed-in-storm-drains-during-false-hawaii-ballistic-missile-warning_01132018
17 https://www.newyorker.com/news/as_told_to/what-it-felt-like-in-hawaii-when-warning-of-an-in-bound-missile-arrived
18 https://www.hawaiinewstnow.com/story/21796982/north-korea-readies/
19 https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5138129/The-Latest-Faint-sirens-spur-checks-1st-Hawaii-test.html
20 https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/04/hawaiis-renewed-jitters-about-nukes/523530/
21 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/power-outage-picnic/
22 https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radiation-health-effects
https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radiation-health-effects
23 https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/radiation-sickness/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377061
24 https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/radiation-sickness/symptoms-causes/syc-20377058
25 https://www.epa.gov/radiation/protecting-yourself-radiation
26 https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/radiation-sickness/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377061
27 Potassium Iodide, High Purity Crystals/Granules, 100 Grams (3.5 oz.) from ChemCenter, available on Amazon.
28 https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/potassium-iodide-ki-radiation-emergencies-questions-and-answers
29 https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/potassium-iodide-thyroid-blocking-agent-radiation-emergencies
30 https://www.fda.gov/drugs/bioterrorism-and-drug-preparedness/frequently-asked-questions-potassium-iodide-ki
31 https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/cd.htm?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A//2F%2Femergency.cdc.gov%2Fradiation%2FkI.asp
32 https://noripc.com/articulos/redmodem.html
33 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol
34 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/continuity-business-disaster-economy/
35 https://gottenamesh.com/
36 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/when-the-cdc-tells-us-to-prepare-for-the-ebola-pandemic-things-are-about-to-get-real/
37 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/breaking-ebola-has-been-confirmed-in-texas/
38 https://www.cdc.gov/grand-rounds/
39 You can do this by emailing firstname.lastname@example.org
40 https://www.cdc.gov/grand-rounds/
41 https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/
42 https://outrider.org/ukraine
43 https://outrider.org/ukraine/airburst-false&bom=b=2&lat=38.897675&location=160%20Pennsylvania%20Avenue%20Northwest%2C%20Washington%2C%20District%20of%20Columbia%2020006%2C%20United%20States&long=-77.036547
44 https://www.businessinsider.com/likely-us-nuclear-targets-2017-5
46 https://www.businessinsider.com/likely-us-nuclear-targets-2017-4
47 https://www.businessinsider.com/north-korea-likely-nuclear-targets-us-icbm-2017-7
48 https://www.businessinsider.com/north-korea-likely-nuclear-targets-us-icbm-2017-7
49 https://www.atomicarchive.com/science/effects/basic-effects.html
50 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/how-to-use-potassium-iodide-after-a-nuclear-emergency/
51 http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/shimp1/bom=b=3&lat=38.897675&location=160%20Pennsylvania%20Avenue%20Northwest%2C%20Washington%2C%20District%20of%20Columbia%2020006%2C%20United%20States&long=-77.036547
53 https://selfreliancesurvival.com/product/herbal-skills-intensive/
54 https://selfreliancesurvival.com/product/the-organic-prepper-usb-archive/
55 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-missiles-letter-for-the-party-and-the-motherland-north-korea-kim-heraldss-missile-test-after-setbacks-idUSKBN1D7OYQ
56 https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/tag/donald-trump?source=%2Fnorth-korea-claims-successful-test-of-missile-capable-of-striking-entirety-of-us-mainland%2Farticle%2F2641961
57 https://www.theorganicprepper.com/bad-news-newest-north-korean-missile-can-launch-a-nuke-as-far-as-chicago/
58 https://www.zerohedge.com/news/2017-11-28/it-can-reach-washington-dc-latest-north-korean-icbm-can-hit-all-continental-us
59 https://news.sky.com/story/the-good-and-badnews-about-north-koreas-most-powerful-long-range-missile-launch-11148557
https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/29/asia/north-korea-missile-test/index.html
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/28/north-korea-has-fired-ballistic-missile-say-reports-in-south-korea
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/north-korean-emp-could-kill-90
https://en.yna.co.kr/
https://www.newweek.com/north-korea-starting-war-us-ally-south-korea-blasts-targets-kim-jong-un-724993
https://en.yna.co.kr/
https://www.businessinsider.com/south-korea-japans-no-longer-tolerate-north-koreas-threats-2017-11
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia-pacific/the-latest-scandinavians-condemn-north-korea-missile-launch/2017/11/29/95798a9c-4e43-11e7-9ad9-ca0619edfa05_story.html?utm_term=.c366a894fae
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/11/29/north-korea-ichm/904317001/
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/11/29/north-korea-ichm/904317001/
https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/06/what-a-nuclear-attack-in-new-york-would-look-like.html
https://ferrijsibr.wordpress.com/
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/weapons-grade-plutonium-lost-idaho-state-university-dirty-bomb-a8337901.html
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/12/06/this-alarming-map-shows-dozens-of-nuclear-materials-thefts-and-losses-every-year/?noredirect=on
https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/06/what-a-nuclear-attack-in-new-york-would-look-like.html
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/these-8-places-are-actively-preparing-for-nuclear-war/
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/russia-ukraine-war/
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/putin-in-nuclear-holocaust-we-will-be-martyrs-they-will-drop-dead/
https://appubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/90EO00036
None Dare Call It Treason by John A. Stormer, available on Amazon.
https://www.rationaloptimist.com/blog/nuclear-winter/
Nuclear War Survival Skills: Lifesaving Nuclear Facts and Self-Help Instructions by Cresson H. Kearny, available on Amazon.
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/perfect-storm-supply-chain/
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/nuclear-war-global-warming_n_828496
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/2030-agenda/
https://www.theorganicprepper.com/weather-modification-conspiracy-theory/
https://www.19fiftyfive.com/2021/09/why-russias-massive-poseidon-nuclear-torpedo-is-so-terrifying/
https://news.usni.org/2021/08/31/new-satellite-images-hint-how-russian-navy-could-use-massive-nuclear-torpedos
https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/04/russias-khabarovsk-submarine-to-be-launched-in-fall-2021/
BONUS CONTENT
The Organic Prepper’s QuickStart Guide to Emergency Evacuations
Whatever you choose to call it, thousands of Americans end up having to leave their homes due to emergencies every year.
According to FEMA:
*Evacuations are more common than many people realize. Hundreds of times each year, transportation and industrial accidents release harmful substances, forcing thousands of people to leave their homes. Fires and floods cause evacuations even more frequently. Almost every year, people along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts evacuate in the face of approaching hurricanes.* (source)
Despite this, many people seem to be taken utterly by surprise when they’re told to leave their homes due to a local disaster. The ensuing panic and confusion can slow down the process for everyone, making an already terrible situation far more desperate.
**A few years ago, my family came very close to having to evacuate**
By close, I mean, literally, 2 miles from disaster. The King Fire was a forest fire that nearly reached 100,000 acres. We got up on a sunny Saturday morning, never realizing that would be the day an angry man would punctuate a domestic dispute by setting fire to a tree in the other person’s yard. Certainly, no one expected that one act of anger to set off a fire that would exceed the size of the city of Atlanta.
However, he did set that fire, and it came as close as 2 miles to our home over the almost-two-weeks that we watched with bated breath.
In the forested mountains of California, wildfires are an annual threat, and we’ve learned a lot about emergency evacuations, including how to be ready to roll in mere minutes. The speed at which you can get ready to move is key, because, in some fast-moving disasters, seconds count.
**Human behavior changes dramatically during an emergency evacuation**
During the last nearby wildfire, I joined a number of local groups online so that I could get the most up-to-the-minute information, and during this time, I took lots of notes of my observations. The thing that was very clear is that those who were at least somewhat prepared handled the situation far better than those who simply couldn’t accept that this threat was actually happening to them.
As someone who has studied preparedness for many years, I witnessed firsthand the classic exemplar of human behavior during a disaster. As we watched the events unfold, we were shocked by the actions of people we thought we knew. During our own experience, here are the things I witnessed. They could apply to any type of disaster, natural or otherwise:
**Bug out bags are absolutely the first prep you should make.**
If you’re just getting started, do this one thing. You can do it without spending a penny, by just gathering up things you already own. You may not have a top-of-the-line, ready-for-the-apocalypse bag, but you’ll still be far ahead of most people.
When we first learned of the fire and realized that evacuating might become necessary, I had only two things to do: get documents from the safe (the documents were already in a plastic folder, so I only had to grab that) and pull the pet carriers out of the shed.
In less than 5 minutes, we were ready to roll. Had it been necessary, we could have left with only the photocopies of the documents, because those always remain in our bug-out bags. Having your bug-out bag ready means that you have accepted in advance that disaster could strike.
Here’s a trick I’ve learned since then for loading up your pets
After scrambling to catch uncooperative felines (and losing a little blood in the process) we began using our cat crates on a daily basis. They now sit on the dryer and that’s where the cats are fed. So, now, any time we walk near the dryer, they launch themselves right into the carrier.
When one disaster strikes, several more are sure to follow
This is highly probable. Some people in the fire zone not only stayed on the edge of evacuation for nearly two weeks, but they also lost power due to the fire. This greatly reduced their ability to get news and information, which is vital in a disaster situation. It leads to even more worry and stress, and while you’re dealing with the potential of your home burning down, you’re also living through a power outage lasting several days.
Also, when it finally began to rain, although it helped to quench the flames, firefighters were suddenly threatened by flash floods and mudslides. These were made worse because the areas no longer had the same natural obstructions to deter the flow of water.
Unprepared people panic
Some people panicked initially. When we got the first evacuation alert a woman who lived down the street was wailing and sobbing as her husband tried to pack up their vehicle. She was rendered absolutely useless by fear.
Meanwhile, my (at the time) 13-year-old calmly fulfilled her list while I fulfilled mine. We quickly made an orderly stack of important belongings, then turned on a movie to beat the stress.
Had our area actually been forced to evacuate, those who panicked would have either been the last to leave, or they would have forgotten important things as they left in a disorganized rush.
It’s important to decide ahead of time who packs what, and for each person to have a list. Sit down well before disaster strikes and make an evacuation plan with your family.
Get organized
All the lists in the world won’t help you pack quickly if you don’t know where things are.
One change we made is all the items we deemed precious enough to pack and take with us are now stored in one area so we won’t have to look for them when seconds count.
If you’re in a huge rash, load up hampers of dirty laundry. They’ll have clothing from the skin out for each family member, as well as pajamas and towels. For the price of a few bucks at the laundromat, you’ll be all set with a few days’ worth of apparel for everyone.
You can’t be prepared for everything
Disaster situations are always fluid and they don’t go by a script. It’s vital to be adaptable to the changing situation.
Keep your vehicle full of fuel
If you have to evacuate, lots of other people will be hitting the road too. When you’re stuck in traffic, you don’t want to be worried about your fuel gauge dropping to the empty mark, leaving you stranded in a dangerous situation. Nor do you want to be waiting in line at the gas station while a disaster is bearing down on you.
The criminals come out, like cockroaches
Within 24 hours of the first evacuations, we learned that the local scumbags had looted some of the homes that had been left unattended. Within 48 hours, we learned that the scourge had reached the outlying areas, with these people breaking into cars that had been loaded up with the things that families had determined to be most important to them.
Of course, if you’ve evacuated, there’s nothing you can do about what’s happening to your home. But before evacuation, or in the event of civil unrest, it’s vital to be prepared to defend your family and belongings. In these situations, the first responders are busy, and that’s what criminals rely on. You should consider yourself to be completely on your own, and be ready for trouble.
The longer the stress lasts, the worse some people behave
As continued stress is applied, the true nature of a person becomes evident. People who formerly seemed like perfectly nice individuals were on the local message forums saying terrible things to one another. They were verbally attacking others for imagined slights and taking offense at things that would normally never ruffle feathers.
Some folks were launching tirades against the very people who were performing the greatest service: the admins of the webpages who worked round the clock to keep us informed. If it was this bad in a potential emergency, can you imagine how bad things will get in a truly devastating long-term scenario?
But then...some people are wonderful
Alternatively, sometimes you see the very best of human nature. The generosity of many of my neighbors cannot be overstated. They housed livestock, pets, and families full of strangers during the evacuation. People showed up at the shelter with food and comfort items for those who had been evacuated. Firemen who came from near and far to fight the blaze were constantly being treated to meals at local restaurants, as other diners surreptitiously paid their tabs.
Watching the kindness and gratitude helped to restore some of my faith in human nature, after seeing the squabbling and crime. It was interesting to me that the people who gave the most generously were the ones who were the most prepared.
These folks were calm and could focus on other things besides “Oh my gosh, I don’t know what to do!” We definitely learned who the people were that we wanted to surround ourselves with when the S really HTF.
The difference between the people who crumbled, becoming easily offended, snarling, and hysterical, and the people who were generous, calm, and effective?
Their levels of preparedness, both mental and physical.
Think about any stressful situation that has ever happened to you
Once you accepted the fact that it had happened you were able to set a course of action. Once you had definitive steps to take, you probably felt much calmer. You took control of the things you could, and you executed your plan. Only by taking that first step - accepting that this mishap had indeed occurred - could you take the next two.
1. ACCEPT 2. PLAN 3. ACT
No matter what situation you find yourself in, these steps will nearly always see you through. (This article discusses the 3 steps to survival in much greater depth.)
Take steps now to be one of those calm people later
Today, I want you to think about disasters.
It’s certainly not a pleasant thought, but considering these things now - when there’s no fire bearing down on you, no hurricane heading your way, no chemical spill poisoning your water, no deadly outbreak in the next town over - allows you to think more clearly and make a definitive plan of action.
So:
- Check your bug out bags.
- Organize your most precious belongings.
- Discuss the plan with your family so that everyone knows what to expect.
Make these decisions now so that when - and it’s always “when” not “if” - disaster knocks at your door, you’re prepared to respond immediately. Learn about what to expect from others in order to keep your family safe and on-plan. Human nature isn’t as much of a variable when you can predict their behavior.
What to pack
Here are the things to pack for an emergency evacuation.
- Bug out bags
- Cell phone
- Address book with important contacts
- Money, credit cards
- Pet carriers: the hard-sided ones keep pets sheltered better in a crowded vehicle
- Pet food
- Comfortable clothing
- Extra shoes
- Personal hygiene items
- Documents (id, insurance, passports, etc.)
- A utility bill or other proof of residence
- Small portable safe for valuables
- Reading material
- Laptops
- Water
- A small fire extinguisher
- Extra fuel in a safe container
- Phone and laptop chargers
- Car charger
Your list might also include:
- Security items for children
- Items to entertain children
- Prescription medication
- Allergy medication
- Religious items for comfort
- Food (If you go to an evacuation shelter, you may end up having to purchase meals out or make due with very small rations)
- Bedding
Make a written checklist that you can easily access. You might include the location of items that are packed away. Decide on these things now, when you have the time to calmly think about what items are the most important.
PS: A quick tip I recently heard was to grab the dirty clothes hamper. For the price of a trip to the laundromat, you'll probably have several days' worth of clothing for the whole family in there.
Very important things that some lists omit
First of all, I can’t emphasize enough the importance of those sentimental items. Because we have lost some very dear loved ones (both my father and my children’s father) we have some things that could never, ever be replaced even with the best insurance policies in the world.
- Photographs from the days well before the digital age
- Special gifts given to us by those who are now gone
- Things from their childhood - I have a music box that my father played with as a little boy and my daughter has her father’s letterman jacket
- Journals and letters
There’s always the possibility when you have to leave your home, you might never be coming back. Identify the things that are dear to your heart and put them in a place where you can grab those treasures quickly. Insurance can’t replace these things. They can’t replace that big-headed clay dinosaur with pink sparkles that your little one lovingly presented to you.
We have all of these items stashed or displayed near a bin into which they can quickly be stowed in the event of an evacuation. We have backed up the photos digitally. You can’t imagine how awful it would feel to lose these things, so please take steps to make them quick and easy to take with you.
Secondly, if you have room, take some of your favorite things that may not be practical right now, but that you’d really miss. Do you have a favorite suit for work? A pair of shoes or a tie that make you feel fantastic and confident? Some comfy sweats that you’ve spent 7 years breaking in until they reached the perfect level of softness?
As impractical as it sounds, these are far less easy to replace than jeans and whatever t-shirt you grab first. Favorite things can help you feel more normal when your world is turned upside down. If the worst happens, and your home is destroyed, you will find some small comfort in familiar items.
If your home is destroyed.
Sometimes, despite the best efforts of emergency crews, your home is destroyed in whatever disaster you evacuated from. The first step to rebuilding your life is replacing any important documents that you weren’t able to bring with you. You can find more information on that topic here. If you have livestock, you will need an evacuation plan for your animals too. This article goes into detail about evacuating a homestead.
By taking some simple steps well before there’s an emergency on the horizon, you can be prepared to handle an evacuation with far less stress, giving you a head start on your escape.
My PDF guide, *The Bug Out Book*, provides more detailed information on evacuation.
The Organic Prepper’s QuickStart Guide to What to Eat When the Power Goes Out
When you’re in for some turbulent weather, do you…
A.) Head to the store with a list entitled, “Food for Power Outage?”
Or
B.) do you already have a supply of food for power outages that you keep carefully hidden from your family?
If the answer is A, then you’ve got some work to do. This list is as simple as possible for both acquisition and preparation.
Stuff that doesn’t require cooking
Many folks these days don’t have a way to cook when the power goes out, so that should be considered when creating your supply of the best foods for a power outage.
If you don’t already have a stockpile of non-perishable food that doesn’t require cooking, it’s time to build one.
In my family, a power outage means party time and some foods we that we do not usually indulge in.
Of course, we do have backup cooking methods for heating food when the electricity goes out, but if the event is going to be short-term, we usually focus on food that doesn’t need to be cooked.
While you may have a fireplace or woodstove, in the summer you won’t want to heat the house up with it. And if your backup method is an outdoor grill, during a storm, you won’t want to stand outside in the rain cooking on the barbecue.
So, during a short-term power outage, it makes life easier in many cases to eat things that don’t require much in the way of preparation.
What non-perishable food should you buy when a storm is coming?
The radio and preparedness websites always tell you to stock up on non-perishable food, but what is it?
Non-perishable foods are items that are shelf-stable and will not spoil if left out at room temperature for a long period of time. Some examples of non-perishable foods are:
- Canned goods
- Packaged dry food
- Cheese or peanut butter crackers
- Beef jerky
- Applesauce
- Pudding
- Fruit cups
- Granola bars
NOTE: Dried goods like beans and grains are also non-perishable, but they aren’t very practical for a power outage.
The Best No-Cook Food for Power Outages
Depending on your budget, what is available, and your diet, here are some ideas for food to eat when the power goes out.
- Graham crackers W/peanut butter
- Protein shakes
- Saltines with peanut butter
- Fresh fruit (apples, oranges, bananas)
- Canned juice
- Trail mix
• Dry cereal
• Cereal with rehydrated dry milk
• Canned pork and baked beans
• Pretzels
• Nuts
• Pudding cups
• Canned fruit
• Jerky
• Pouches of pre-cooked rice
• Cookies
• Granola bars
• Crackers
• Dried Fruits
• Sandwiches
**No-Power “Recipes”**
Following are some “recipes” for power outage food. Okay, “recipe” is a stretch - perhaps just some “tasty combinations”.
**No-Power Nachos:** Layer organic tortilla chips with canned cheese sauce, salsa, and canned jalapenos
**Blackout ‘Smores:** Top graham crackers with chocolate-nut spread and marshmallow fluff
**Burritos:** Spread canned refried beans in a tortilla. Top it with some salsa or hot sauce.
**Roll-ups:** Soft tortillas filled with canned meat, a touch of mustard or mayo, and veggies from the fridge
**No-cook Soft Tacos:** Soft tortillas with canned meat (we use our home canned chicken or taco meat for this), salsa, and canned cheese sauce
**Main Dish Tuna Salad:** Combine a can of tuna, a can of white beans, chopped onion, chopped peppers and chopped black olives (veggies are optional). Top with Italian dressing mixed with Dijon mustard to taste.
**Pudding Cones:** Drain canned fruit of choice and stir it into vanilla pudding. Serve in ice cream cones for a kid-friendly treat. (We do this with yogurt also.)
**Mexican Bean Salad:** Combine 1 can of black beans, drained and rinsed; with 1 can of organic corn, drained. For the dressing mix 1/2 jar of salsa; 1/2 tsp each of chili powder, onion powder, and garlic powder; 3 tbsp of lemon juice. Toss well. Serve as a salad, in a soft tortilla or mixed with a pouch of pre-cooked rice.
What should you do about food in the refrigerator when the power goes out?
If you’re pretty sure the event is short-term, keep the refrigerator door closed to help prevent the food inside from spoiling.
For food safety purposes, it’s a good idea to grab a digital thermometer so that you can tell what the temperature is in your refrigerator and freezer. I keep one in the fridge and one in the freezer.
The charts on the following pages from FoodSafety.gov will help you determine whether or not your food is safe to eat.
| MEAT | POULTRY | SEAFOOD | HELD ABOVE 40°F OVER 2 HOURS |
|------|---------|---------|-----------------------------|
| Raw | Cooked Poultry | Fish | Seafood | DISCARD |
| Thawing Meat | Poultry | DISCARD |
| Salads: Meat | Tuna | Shrimp | Chicken | Egg | DISCARD |
| Gravy | Stuffing | Broth | DISCARD |
| Lunchmeat | Hot Dogs | Bacon | Sausage | Dried Beef | DISCARD |
| Pizza W/Any Topping | DISCARD |
| Canned Ham Labeled "Keep Refrigerated" | DISCARD |
| Open Canned Meat | Fish | DISCARD |
| Casseroles | Soup | Stew | DISCARD |
| CHEESE | HELD ABOVE 40°F OVER 2 HOURS |
|--------|-------------------------------|
| Soft Cheese | Blue | Roquefort | Brie | Camembert | Cottage | Cream | Edam | Monterey Jack | Ricotta | Mozzarella | Muenster | Neufchatel | Queso Blanco | Queso Fresco | DISCARD |
| Hard Cheese | Cheddar | Colby | Swiss | Parmesan | Provolone | Romano | SAFE |
| Processed Cheese | SAFE |
| Shredded Cheese | DISCARD |
| Low-Fat Cheese | DISCARD |
| Grated Parmesan | Romano (Can/Jar) | SAFE |
| Category | Items | Conditions |
|-------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| DAIRY | Milk, Cream, Buttermilk, Evaporated Milk, Yogurt, Egg Nog, Soy Milk | Discard if held above 40°F over 2 hours |
| | Butter, Margarine | Safe |
| | Open Baby Formula | Discard |
| EGGS | Fresh Eggs, Hard Cooked in Shell, Egg Dishes, Egg Products, Custard, Pudding, Quiche | Discard if held above 40°F over 2 hours |
| FRUITS | Fresh Fruit, Cut, Fruit Juice, Open Canned Fruit, Fresh Fruit (Not Cut), Coconut, Dried Fruit, Candied Fruit | Discard if held above 40°F over 2 hours; Safe |
| SAUCE | SPREAD | JAM | Open Mayo, Tartar Sauce, Horse Radish, Peanut Butter, Jelly, Relish, Taco Sauce, Mustard, Catsup, Worcestershire, Soy, BBQ, Hoison, Opened Vinegar Based Dressing, Opened Creamy Dressings, Open Spaghetti Sauce (Jar) | Discard if held above 50°F over 8 hours; Safe |
| Category | Items | Status |
|---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|
| BREAD | GRAINS | COOKIES | PASTA | HELD ABOVE 40°F OVER 2 HOURS |
| Bread | Rolls | Cake | Muffins | Tortillas | SAFE |
| Fridge Biscuits | Rolls | Cookie Dough | DISCARD |
| Cooked Pasta | Rice | Potatoes | DISCARD |
| Pasta Salad W/Mayo or Vinaigrette | DISCARD |
| Fresh Pasta | DISCARD |
| Waffles | Pancakes | Bagels | SAFE |
| Category | Items | Status |
|---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|
| PIES | PASTRY | HELD ABOVE 40°F OVER 2 HOURS |
| Cream Filled Pastry | DISCARD |
| Pies | Custard | Cheese Filled | Chiffon | DISCARD |
| Pies | Fruit | SAFE |
| Category | Items | Status |
|---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|
| VEGETABLES | HELD ABOVE 40°F OVER 2 HOURS |
| Fresh Mushrooms | Herbs | Spices | SAFE |
| Greens | Pre-Cut | Packaged | DISCARD |
| Raw Vegetables | SAFE |
| Open Vegetable Juice | DISCARD |
| Baked Potatoes | DISCARD |
| Commercial Garlic in Oil | DISCARD |
| Casseroles | Soups | Stews | DISCARD |
If you do get items from the refrigerator, plan it out so you can quickly grab all the things and then close the door again to help maintain the temperature while the electricity is out.
If it appears to be a longer-term event, you’re going to want to make a plan for the food in your refrigerator and freezer to help prevent it from going to waste. If you have a way to pressure can without power, you can learn how to preserve your meat and vegetables before they go to waste.
(Check out my book, *The Prepper’s Canning Guide* for instructions on off-grid canning.)
**Some ways to use up the food before it spoils**
If you’re like me, you hate letting things go to waste.
- Put the items you’d most hate to lose into a cooler full of ice. (For us, that’s meat and cream for our coffee)
- Eat refrigerated leftovers, fruits, and vegetables first.
- Make sandwiches and put them in the cooler.
- Throw a barbecue and invite all the neighbors. It’s better than throwing it out, right?
If you do end up having to dispose of food, try to bag it up and put it in the outdoor garbage can before it begins to decompose. The stench is terrible and you will never, ever get it out of your freezer.
I learned this horrifying lesson when a repairman unplugged my freezer for one of his tools and failed to plug it back in. I discovered the error 3 weeks later. Really, that’s all the detail you need to know
Trust me.
**Use disposable items to conserve water during a power outage.**
If you are on well-water, if the power goes out, you will probably not have any running water. If you are on city water, the fluid from the taps may be contaminated and may not be hot.
To circumvent a few difficulties, we stock up on disposable goods to use during power outages:
- Styrofoam or paper plates
- Paper towels and napkins
- Plastic cutlery
- Baby wipes
- Disinfecting wipes
Plastic cups
Even if you’re normally very eco-friendly, you will find that these items make your life during a power outage so much easier.
Other power outage resources
Last-Minute Emergency Supplies: What to Buy When the Shelves Are Almost Empty
“I’m bored”: 30 Ways to Keep Kids Entertained When the Power Goes Out
8 Prepper Hacks for Cleaning Without Running Water
Getting Started: Prepping for a Two Week Power Outage
How to Survive a Summer Power Outage
Staying Warm During a Winter Power Outage
And, if you want to handle a power outage like a boss, get your PDF of The Blackout Book. It’s a thorough guide to handling a power outage and it will be helpful to both beginners and those with a bit more experience.
THE OP
© Banned Books Publishing 2021
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Tips for safe electricity use
Electricity is used widely and round-the-clock in our homes, for lighting, cooling, heating, and in multiple appliances for a variety of household functions. If used properly, electricity and electrical appliance/equipment usage is safe. But carelessness or not following safety practices can lead to accidents and dangerous consequences including fire and personal injury.
Given below are some practices that can be adopted for your safety.
**What to do**
- Install proper capacity fuse wire, Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) and Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB) to ensure protection from voltage surges, overload and faulty equipment/wiring. It is mandatory to use an ELCB for loads of 2KW and above.
- Ensure that proper capacity fuse wire is used and proper earthing is done at your premises.
- Install such protective devices at an easily accessible place so they can be turned off in case of any emergency.
- Ensure that your wiring is in order and there is no loose/exposed wiring in your premise.
- Use ISI mark appliances, equipments, cables, wires, switches, protective devices etc.
- In case of any electrical fault or damage of electrical lines/equipments, don’t touch any live part and immediately inform the electricity company.
- Use only CO2 or Dry Chemical Powder extinguishers for dousing electrical fires. Always keep fire extinguishers in working order.
- Turn off the switch before plugging in or removing or repairing any electrical appliance, or while replacing lamps (bulbs/tubes etc.).
- Use only one plug in a socket. Overloading the socket can be dangerous.
- Try to keep extension boards from away of children’s reach. Don’t keep plugs open.
- Use power cable with three pin plug electrical appliances
- Educate your children to not play with plugs, sockets, wires or other electrical equipments.
- Keep electrical appliances away from water.
- Replace loose switches and broken sockets on wall fittings immediately.
**What not to do**
- Don't use wires with joints, especially without proper insulation.
- Don't insert wires directly into the plug socket without appropriate sockets/pins.
- Don't use metallic wires for hanging wet or damp clothes.
- Don't tie cloth hanging ropes with any electrical lines or supports.
- Don't touch any electrical wires/appliances with wet hands.
- Don't overload wires/appliances.
- Don't use water for extinguishing fires in the vicinity of live electrical wiring/apparatus.
- Don't carry out any construction or plant trees near overhead lines.
- Don't attend any fault in your premises yourself but get it done by licensed electrical contractor.
- Do not clean the electrical appliances with water/do not clean blenders, LEDs, immersion water heaters, etc. with tap water in a sink/basin.
The concept of electrical load can be confusing for most of us. However, it is important to know a few things if you are planning to install and use multiple appliances/equipment which consume high electricity.
**What is an electrical load?**
Electrical load is the calculation of how much power is required to run everything that consumes electricity in your home. If your consumption is more than your current sanctioned electrical load, you need to increase it by applying to the DISCOM (electricity distribution company).
**What is Sanctioned load?**
Sanctioned Load (or connected load) is the total supply that is given to the meter. This is calculated in kW (or Kilo-Watts). It is the permissible total peak kW given based on the appliances connected to the meter. This is not your actual energy consumption.
Sanctioned load also determines if the connection will be single-phase or three-phase. Every DISCOM has a method of calculating the load to be sanctioned to an applicant. It varies widely based on factors including constructed area and assessment based on the load of the connected appliances.
In case you are installing heavy equipment like additional air conditioners, geyser, washing machine etc., get an assessment done for your load requirement. Apply to the DISCOM for increasing the connected load if required.
- Be smart while buying an appliance
- Know the exact power requirement of your appliance
- Check your usage
- Look for the right size of appliance
- Select energy efficient appliance
What is Star Label
You may have seen star rating stickers on appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, etc. These are BEE Star Labels which show how much electricity the appliance consumes in a year. A higher star rating means a more efficient appliance, which means a lower electricity bill every month. The star labels are issued by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power.
Star labels have become an important factor while buying appliances as modern households have multiple appliances that consume a lot of electricity, such as ACs, refrigerators, geysers and even ceiling fans. If the usage of any appliance is high, such as in AC, one must go for a higher energy efficient appliance. For example, ACs can consume up to 1.5 units/hour of usage, which can be brought down to as low as 1.0 unit/hour.
Ceiling fans have a very high usage of 10-20 hours per day. Refrigerators and geysers can also contribute a lot to daily energy consumption. Therefore, purchasing energy efficient appliances with higher star ratings makes a lot of sense.
While it is mandatory for consumer appliances such as Air Conditioners, Refrigerators, Tubular Florescent Lamp, Color TVs, Electric Geysers and LED Lamps to have star label, manufacturers can voluntarily rate and give star labels to other appliances such as Ceiling Fans and Washing Machines.
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## PROGRESSION IN ART & DESIGN
**On-going sketchbook work throughout the year to assess progression in drawing**
| Reception | YEAR 1 | YEAR 2 | YEAR 3 | YEAR 4 | YEAR 5 | YEAR 6 |
|-----------|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------|
| **ART** | | | | | | |
| Experiment with colour, design, texture, form and function. Safely use and explore a variety of materials, tools and techniques. Explore mixing colours. Represent own ideas, thoughts and feelings through art. Make own choices with regard to equipment and materials. | **AREAS OF STUDY** | Collage, Drawing & Painting | Printing | Sculpture | Textiles- Batik | Printing | Painting & Drawing | Drawing & Painting | Collage | Drawing & Painting | Textiles - Tie dye | Drawing & Painting | Sculpture | Drawing & Painting |
| **SHAPE, LINE/FORM, SPACE AND SIZE** | • Begin to control lines to create simple drawings • Make marks using paint with a variety of tools • Develop understanding of 2D and 3D in terms of artwork together to form simple structures | • Draw on smaller and larger scales • Make marks using a variety of tools • Begin to form own 3D pieces | • Use sketchbooks to record drawings from observation Include increased detail within work • Draw on a range of scales | • Draw using a variety of tools and surfaces (paint, chalk, pastel, pen and ink) • Use a variety of brushes and pencils and different ways of marking with them • Create work on a larger scale as a group | • Use first-hand observations using different viewpoints, developing more abstract representations • Introduce perspective, foreground and middle ground | • Use a range of mediums on a range of backgrounds • Investigate proportions • Develop fine brush strokes |
| **COLOUR** | • Recognise warm and cold colours • Recognise and name primary and secondary colours | • Add white to colours to make tints and black to colours to make tones • Mix primary colours to make secondary colours • Experiment with shades of colour | • Lighten and darken tones using black and white • Explore complementary and opposing colours in creating patterns • Mix and match colours (create palettes to match images) | • Begin to experiment with colour to create more abstract colour palettes (e.g. blues for leaves) | • Build on previous work with colour by exploring intensity • Explore using limited colour palettes | • Experiment with colour in creating an effect • Mark make with paint (blocks of colour) |
| **TECHNIQUES** | • Hold a large paint brush correctly • Use thick felt tip pens/chalks/charcoal/wax crayon/pastel | • Investigate clay - pinching, rolling, twisting, scratching and coiling and add details and textures using tools • Simple batik work • Dye fabrics using tea, red cabbage, beetroot, onion, spinach | • Experiment with different tones using graded pencils • Blend two colours when printing | • Create work on a larger scale as a group • Experiment with watercolour, exploring intensity of colour to develop shades • Develop shadows | • Sew using a variety of stitches • Change fabrics by cutting • Tie dying | • Build on sculpting techniques to improve design and skills • Embellish sculptures with colour and textures • Introduce acrylic paint |
| **TEXTURE AND PATTERN** | • Collect natural materials to create a temporary collage (an autumn tree/the school building using sticks/sacks/rope etc) • Sponge printing to form patterns and experiment with the amount of paint applied • Develop controlled printing within a line | • Investigate a range of textures • Collect natural materials to create texture and pattern | • Develop individual and group collages, working on a range of scales • Use a range of stimulus for inspired collage work, trying to think of more abstract ways of showing views | • Represent pattern in different forms such as abstract art • Use a range of stimulus for collage work | • Experiment with pattern • Represent textures using tie dyeing techniques • Use a range of mediums to create textures | • Add detail and texture to sculptures • Show total qualities using cross hatching, pointillism, sidestrokes, use of rubber to draw/highlight |
| Reception | YEAR 1 | YEAR 2 | YEAR 3 | YEAR 4 | YEAR 5 | YEAR 6 |
|-----------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | **VOCABULARY** | | | | | |
| | Collage – texture, materials, wax resist, observe, tear, layer, collage, 2-D, 3-D | Sculpture – natural, man-made, place, arrange, 3-D / 2-D techniques, sculpture, form, surface | Printing – pattern, design, texture, dots, lines, application, mono-printing, shape, blocking | Drawing (sketchbooks) – detail, scale, proportion, graded pencils, light, dark, observation, smudge, blend | Drawing (sketchbooks) – perspective, shade, graded pencils, rub out to highlight | Sculpture – sculpt, colour, 2-D, 3-D, mould, model, technique, natural, manmade forms, malleable, embellish detail |
| | Drawing (sketchbooks) – sketch, detail, shadow, drawing | Textiles – wax resist, materials, dye, fabric, colour, batik, fix, natural, shades | Painting – colour, form, colour wheel, dotting, splashing, splatting, palette, abstract, energy | Painting – wash, colour, form, shades, colour wheel, observation, mood, feeling, represent | Painting – mood, layers, fore ground, middle ground, back ground, mix, primary colours, secondary colours, illustrate | Drawing (sketchbooks) – abstract, crosshatching, highlight |
| | Painting – colour, primary colours, secondary colours, warm colours, cold colours, thin/thick line, brush size, lighter, darker | Sketchbooks – Drawing – line, shape, represent, dark, light | Drawing (sketchbooks) - detail, scale, proportion, graded pencils, light, dark, observation, smudge, blend | Collage – abstract, image, cut, tear, overlap, overlay, colour, object | Textiles – tie-dye, colour, fold, tie, inspiration | Painting -composition, abstract, proportions, fine brush strokes | | 68dee916-212f-4a9a-b4f3-3ac37fe20706 | CC-MAIN-2025-05 | https://stpatricksdipton.bwcet.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Art-whole-school-progression-v1.0.pdf | 2025-01-12T20:39:04+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-05/segments/1736703361969.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20250112194358-20250112224358-00086.warc.gz | 587,953,054 | 1,366 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.9934 | eng_Latn | 0.9934 | [
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Using Integrated Data to Answer Critical Policy Questions: Lessons Learned in Three States
November 19, 2018
Overview
Presenters:
• Carlise King, Executive Director, Early Childhood Data Collaborative
• Stephanie Hogenson, Outreach Director, Children’s Defense Fund of Minnesota
• Ben Walker, Project Manager, Mississippi State University’s Social Science Research Center
• Leanne Barrett, Senior Policy Analyst, Rhode Island KIDS COUNT
Facilitator:
• Elizabeth Jordan, Director of Policy Communications, Child Trends
Agenda
• Overview of demonstration projects
• Findings from the report
• Successes and challenges in Rhode Island, Mississippi, and Minnesota
• Q&A
The Early Childhood Data Collaborative (ECDC) promotes policies and practices to support policymakers’ development and use of coordinated state early care and education (ECE) data systems.
**Effective use of data systems will help policymakers improve:**
- Access to high-quality programs
- Program quality
- ECE workforce quality
- Child outcomes
**Equity policy concerns:**
- Equal access to high quality early childhood programs
- Preschool expulsion
- Equity for early learning professionals
Integrating Early Childhood Data
Health, education, and social services collecting information on young children
- **Subsidized child care (birth to 13)**
- Financial support for low-income working families to help them access child care services
- **Home visiting (prenatal to 5)**
- In-home support for parents to improve child health and school readiness, and reduce parental stress
- **Head Start (prenatal to 5)**
- Education, health, nutrition, and parental involvement supports for low-income children and their families
- **Early intervention (birth to 3)**
- Supports for children experiencing developmental delays
- **Preschool special education (3 to 5)**
- Supports for children experiencing developmental delays
- **State preschool (3 to 5)**
- Universal or targeted programs to support children's language, literacy, math, and social skills development
Services Share Data
Stages of Development:
- Prenatal
- Infant
- Preschool
- School-age
2018 Early Childhood Data Systems Survey
Number of States Linking Child, Workforce, and Program Data
- **ECE**: 22 Links, 12 Plans to Link, 16 Does Not Link/Plan
- **Health**: 8 Links, 21 Plans to Link, 21 Does Not Link/Plan
- **Social services**: 11 Links, 17 Plans to Link, 22 Does Not Link/Plan
- **K-12**: 22 Links, 18 Plans to Link, 10 Does Not Link/Plan
- **Program**: 22 Links, 17 Plans to Link, 11 Does Not Link/Plan
- **Workforce**: 15 Links, 18 Plans to Link, 17 Does Not Link/Plan
ECIDS Demonstration Project: Goals
1. To demonstrate the types of policy questions that can be answered when agencies share data about the families they serve.
2. To understand any barriers to accessing and using these types of data for states that have systems in place and capacity to provide integrated data for research purposes.
3. To share the stories of these states’ experiences to promote changes needed to develop integrated data system, which link early childhood data with other systems (i.e., K-12, housing or financial assistance programs, or parental employment data).
ECIDS Demonstration Project Overview
• Identified research questions related to current policy conversations that could only be answered through integrating early care and education data with data from other public systems:
Rhode Island (child welfare)
Minnesota (public assistance (TANF/SNAP))
Mississippi (Medicaid)
• Each state is at a different stage of their ECE integration efforts
Findings from the Demonstration Projects
Key Findings
1. This work is groundbreaking for states and comes with a myriad of challenges:
- Setting up data-sharing agreements, building stakeholder interest, translating data for policy audiences.
2. Strong partnerships are key in overcoming those challenges
- Agency leaders, the governor, other advocates
3. Even for the state with the most advanced early childhood integrated data system (ECIDS), there is still much work to be done.
- Adding in new data sources, building capacity, sharing the data
Recommendations
1. Include all the systems that touch young children’s lives: health, family, education, public assistance
2. Convene leaders across systems and promote brainstorming, goal setting, and discussion
3. Invest in a data governance structure to guide the work and drive it into the future
4. Build the time and skills for public agencies to support data integration
5. Use the data regularly in programmatic and policy work, sharing successes with others in the field
Minnesota: Stephanie Hogenson
Children’s Defense Fund of Minnesota
**Minnesota**
**Policy question:** Do children of color and lower income children participating in public assistance programs have equal access to ECE programs?
**Data linkages needed:**
- Minnesota Family Investment Program (MFIP) and Cash assistance (Minnesota’s TANF program)
- Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
- School Meal Program
- Child Care Assistance Program (CCAP)
- Early Childhood Family Education (ECFE)
- Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE) and early intervention
- District preschool
Mississippi: Ben Walker, Mississippi State University’s Social Science Research Center
Mississippi
Policy question: How does early childhood health relate to kindergarten readiness?
Data linkages needed:
• Mississippi Division of Medicaid/Medicaid enrollment and EPSDT
• Mississippi Department of Education, kindergarten and kindergarten readiness assessments
Rhode Island: Leanne Barrett
Rhode Island KIDS COUNT
Rhode Island
Policy question: How many young children involved in the child welfare system participate in high-quality ECE?
Data linkages needed:
• Family home visiting
• Public pre-K and preschool special education
• Child care assistance program
• Early intervention
• Early Head Start and Head Start
• KIDSNET health data
The potential for a future productive workforce, prosperous economy and thriving communities in Minnesota is being formed right now in the experiences and opportunities provided to the state’s youngest citizens. During the first years of life a child’s brain goes through its most rapid development with 700 new neural connections occurring every second.\(^1\) Those neural connections are the building blocks of the brain, which is constructed from the bottom up starting with simple skills that provide the foundation for more advanced skills later in life. That’s why providing a stable foundation for brain development in a child’s earliest years through strong caregiver relationships, early education for all young children and early intervention when development is disrupted by adverse experiences (such as poverty, hunger, exposure to violence, or parental mental illness or addiction) is essential to ensuring positive outcomes later in a child’s life. Investments in early education and intervention programs not only support future learning and development, but also reduce the need for remedial services like Special Education, justice systems, and public work support programs, and can result in societal returns on investment of up to $16 for every $1 spent on prevention and intervention.\(^2\) This is the best possible investment communities can make in their children’s futures. The state’s future workforce and economy depends on how we treat children now because today’s preschoolers are tomorrow’s workforce.
These programs can tip the scales toward positive development for children by preparing them socially and academically for school, providing emotional support to build resilience, and including cultural support to develop a secure identity. Evidence has shown that children at greater risk of developmental concerns, like children of color, American Indian children, and lower income children, experience even greater positive effects from participation in rigorously evaluated early childhood programs that incorporate these high-quality components. Gains include improved school readiness, increased reading comprehension by third grade,\(^3\) improved health outcomes,\(^4\) and supported development of executive functioning skills like self-control, memory, leadership skills and mental flexibility.\(^5\)
The benefits of early childhood programs have become widely known and recognized through public investment at the national, state and local levels. In recent years, Minnesota has invested millions of dollars into programs like Early Learning Scholarships, School Readiness, Voluntary Pre-K, Head Start and the Child Care Assistance Program (CCAP) because lawmakers, parents and citizens understand the long-term return on investments of these programs. However, it has become increasingly difficult to track data on children’s early childhood program participation, particularly across programs, and long-term outcomes based on that participation primarily because early childhood programs are administered by different state agencies, have various levels and sources of funding, and track participation differently and inconsistently. This limits our understanding of the
Health is a crucial component of childhood academic success. Healthier students consistently perform better on standardized assessments and have lower rates of absenteeism\(^1\), while asthma, vision problems, obesity, and other chronic conditions can prevent children from attending and participating in school. Health is also closely linked to poverty. Family income is one of several factors linked to poor child health outcomes\(^2\). Children who grow up in economically-stressed environments have higher rates of chronic illness, poorer nutrition, and slower language development\(^3,4\). Early childhood screening provides an important opportunity to close the achievement gap by identifying developmental delays and health problems during the child’s most developmentally critical period.
In Mississippi, the effects of early screening might be particularly potent, as young children face persistent poverty and health challenges: 34.6% of children under age 5 live in poverty and 11.4% of infants are born with low birthweight, both the highest rates in the nation\(^5\). Over half of Mississippi’s children (51%) are enrolled in Medicaid or the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), indicating these programs play a crucial role in the health of Mississippi’s children\(^6\). Rates of public coverage are particularly high for Mississippi’s youngest children. Given the connection between health and education and the significant number of children in Mississippi covered by public insurance, preventative care programs such as Medicaid’s Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic, and Treatment (EPSDT) Program have the potential to not only improve child health, but to improve education outcomes and close the achievement gap for Mississippi’s children.
This brief was made possible with support from the Annie E. Casey Foundation and technical assistance through the Early Childhood Data Collaborative at Child Trends. This research has built upon work funded by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation in implementing the Mississippi Data Project (msdataproject.com). Together, this support has allowed researchers at Mississippi KIDS COUNT
Decades of research show that when children participate in high-quality programs designed to improve early learning and development, they do better in school and in life. In every state there is a diverse array of programs designed to support the healthy development of young children. These include family home visiting, child care, Early Head Start/Head Start, State Pre-K, Early Intervention, and preschool special education. Programs vary in quality and intensity of services, training and qualifications of staff, and focus of services to improve individual child outcomes (e.g. early language and literacy, social emotional skills, etc.) and/or family outcomes (e.g. economic security, parenting skills, etc.).¹
Because early care and education programs are funded and managed separately and are sometimes layered on top of each other to meet the needs of children and families (e.g. a child may be participating in Head Start, child care, and preschool special education at the same time), states are developing systems to integrate information across programs. When program data is shared and integrated, program administrators and policymakers can learn which children are getting the services they need at the right time, without gaps, and with the right dosage and duration to be ready for school — and which children are falling through the cracks.²
Development and use of integrated state early care and education data, INTEGRATED EARLY CARE AND EDUCATION PROGRAM DATA CAN SUPPORT CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT & LEARNING
Minnesota: Strategies for Continued Work
Continue partnerships
- Continue to build on the stronger relationship between CDF-MN and MN Department of Education.
Promote the Early Childhood Longitudinal Data System (ECLDS)
- Encourage stakeholders to tap into the ECLDS and incorporate it into their work.
Advocate for additional data
- Encourage expansion of the ECLDS to include additional elements, such as Head Start participation data.
Mississippi: Strategies for Continued Work
Continue to monitor progress over time
- Use this analysis as a baseline to understand whether and how outcomes improve
Be flexible
- Consider carefully the scope of administrative data availability when developing research questions
Support data access
- Work on policies that build agency staff capacity (time and skills) to support the use of integrated data
Rhode Island: Strategies for Continued Work
Establish an ECE data governance process
- Design process for housing and managing state’s data systems
- Assign roles and responsibilities among state agency leaders
- Guide efforts to strengthen coordination, funding, security, and appropriate data use
Questions?
Our vision
Policymakers, practitioners, and parents consistently use quality early childhood data to make decisions that improve outcomes for young children.
READ MORE
Carlise King, Executive Director, Early Childhood Data Collaborative
Phone: 240-223-9329
Email: firstname.lastname@example.org
Visit www.ecedata.org for more information
Follow us on twitter @ecedata
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BONTEBOK
Early morning dew glitters atop the delicate interior of a white protea.
Safe Haven
A very little park and a very big achievement. Bontebok National Park is a sanctuary for many species, a place where rare things are common.
BY DALE MORRIS
Global population of bontebok: 5000
9000 species of plants harboured by the Cape Floristic Region, the smallest plant kingdom on Earth
70% of these species are endemic.
PLAYGROUND
Bontebok is a great park for kids as they can explore freely.
A CHILLY WINTER’S WIND BLEW DOWN from the snow-frosted Langeberg and whistled through the feathery fynbos of Bontebok National Park. Ericas, proteas and restios shimmied as if they were shivering in the cold, while nearby a grey rhebok snorted in alarm at my presence. It sounded as if he were sneezing. I looked at him, and he bolted like a bunny over the lip of a gently sloping hill.
“Winter is such a beautiful time to visit Bontebok,” said Siviwe Nondobo while pulling his beanie tightly over his ears. Perhaps it’s not the best time of year for a refreshing dip or a kayak trip in the Breede River. Summer and spring would be best for that. But with perfect walking weather and endless, riotous colour, many of my flowers come into bloom.”
A SANParks ranger since 2009, Siviwe is also a fledgling scientist, a young man who has grown to love and respect the incredibly rare plants under his care. As part of a FETech course and also as part of his SANParks duties, he has been put in charge of keeping an eye on several of the 56 Red Data plant species, including three endemics found in Bontebok National Park and nowhere else on Earth.
It’s a big responsibility, especially when you consider that some of these plants are scarcer than snow in summer. But the duty is one Siviwe has taken very much to his heart.
“This is Erica filamentosa,” he told me while crouching down in front of a little shrub with purple flowers. “You will find it growing in just five sites, all of which are in the park.”
The patch of knee-high plants among which I was crouching was roughly the size of a tennis court. Perhaps a little smaller.
“And if you think this one is rare, let’s go take a look at one of my other study plants.”
We drove for a while through rolling hills and along soft ridges where white proteas lifted their opulent blooms towards a weak winter’s sun. Sugarbirds flitted like angels between the flowers.
Bontebok nibbled at fynbos stems. Across a broad valley, I spied a neat little row of rare Cape mountain zebra who stared at our car with wide-eyed suspicion.
The scenery was made even more special by a chorus of bird calls and an ethereal mist which rose from the nearby Breede River like smoke. Around 200 bird species have been logged at Bontebok and during our short drive I spotted some fish eagles soaring above the river, a pair of secretary birds and a half dozen elegant blue cranes.
“Here it is,” said Siviwe as we pulled up alongside a small patch of wispy stems. “Aspalathus burchelliana. The last of their kind.”
The frail-looking plants trembled in the wind, their little yellow flowers quivered as if afraid. And were they might have been.
“More of them?” I asked incredulously. “That’s the entire species!”
They looked so delicate and vulnerable out there on that exposed hill in South Africa’s smallest national park that my heart went out to them. I’d never felt that way about a plant before.
“Yes, I think that’s all of them,” replied Siviwe. “They used to occur outside the park, but unsurprisingly, none have been seen for a while now.”
The reason for this is that Renosterveld, a vast bushland in Cape Floristic Kingdom, has been heavily hit by agricultural practices from as far back as the late 1700s. Less than 10 per cent of this critically endangered habitat survives, with only two per cent being conserved formally in national parks and reserves. A fair whack of Renosterveld can be found in the tiny 3 500-hectare Bontebok National Park.
Location, location
Originally, this small park was established in the 1930s near Bredasdorp in order to save and propagate the last few bontebok animals in existence. Locals had already witnessed the extinction of the blue antelope due to hunting and habitat loss. Not wanting to see the beautiful bontebok go down that same path, they banded together and created a sanctuary.
It was a great idea, implemented in the nick of time. Within a decade or two, bontebok had bounced back from the edge of oblivion to number several hundred. However, after 30 years of conservation efforts, it was agreed that the vegetation quality and abundance of parasites in the Bredasdorp location warranted a move. So in 1961, the whole project was relocated to its current location beneath the shadow of the Langeberg next to the historic little town of Swellendam.
Since then, bontebok have been relocated to various parks, reserves and farms within their former range, and now the global population stands at somewhere around 5000 animals. It’s hard to imagine that 80 years ago the entire species was represented by just 17 vulnerable individuals.
Our next port of call was on the other side of the park, a drive of just 30 minutes. There are around 20 kilometres of well-graded dirt roads to explore in Bontebok, and although that might not sound like much, there’s always plenty to see on the route.
“It’s okay to get out of your car in Bontebok,” Siviwe told me as we drew up next to a particularly pretty patch of fynbos. “There aren’t any big predators here.” Red hartebeest were ambling through a field of blooming pink ericas, as was a small herd of bontebok. It was a lovely sight.
“You can really appreciate the details when walking,” Siviwe said, indicating the plants all over, and he was correct. The closer I looked, the more details and species and colours I saw and shared I saw. There were pretty little ferns tucked among little flowering plants. Succulents, aloes and spindly restios were mixed in with feathery herbs, lichens, perennials and garish geophytes. Rare things are very common here.
My final destination with Siviwe was a rather forlorn-looking corner of the park. It was obvious from the scorched blackness of the earth and the twisted charcoal sticks of former protea bushes that a fierce fire had recently swept through the area. The dark clouds that had drifted in above us and the croaking sound of nearby crows and blue cranes helped lend an almost apocalyptic ambience to the place. Hartebeest dragged their hooves through the landscape, kicking up little eddies of fine dust as they went about their business.
“This is the last known site of *Disoma falax*,” said Siviwe as we walked across barren earth. “It’s an inconspicuous fynbos plant that may possibly now be extinct.” He was staring intently at the ground, scanning with his eyes in search of something. “An accidental fire swept through here recently and killed all the plants. Now our only hope is that there are seeds in the soil. Unfortunately though, I don’t actually know what a *Disoma falax* sprout looks like. In fact, nobody does.”
We left the area then and I prayed that at least one of the tiny seedlings I could see pushing up through the dust would turn out to be a proverbial phoenix rising from the ashes to reanimate lost life.
“We mustn’t worry too much though,” said Siviwe with an optimistic smile on his face. “Earlier this year, a species of aloe we had thought to be long extinct suddenly started growing here again. Fynbos needs fire and I’m pretty sure *Disoma* will make a comeback. That’s why I am here studying these things.”
Big things can come from little packages it would seem, and Bontebok National Park certainly does sum up the idea that, in conservation, every little bit helps.
**TRIP PLANNER**
**GETTING THERE** Bontebok National Park is about 40km from the historic town of Swellendam, signposted off the N7. It’s about 240km from Cape Town and 540km from Port Elizabeth.
**ACCOMMODATION** The camp is a beautiful collection of 12 rustic wooden units that overlook the silvery river (chalets R75/5 night for two R172/for an additional adult R295 a night). There are also self-catering chalets both with and without electricity, where habilitated bontebok graze the well-kept lawns as they owned the place. Campsites without electricity R165 a night for two and with electricity R190-R255 for an additional adult, R59 for a child. The bontebok are so used to people that they’ll even leave the deck of your cabin to look off quite a few species. The camp is a great base from which to explore the surrounding country side and towns.
**ACTIVITIES** Like a place-studded forest, the Breede River’s scenery is stunning: excellent for strolling through the wide open fynbos covered plains that so typify this picturesque little park. Bontebok National Park has four distinct hiking trails three of which commence from a picnic site on the banks of the Breede River close to the Langkloof Dam. The shortest is 1.5km strenuous and the longest is a mere 5.5km.
There’s a dedicated 9km mountain biking track where you can pedal to your heart’s content, but be careful of getting into a car or running over a hiker. You’ll have to bring your own bike for the time being, but there are plans afoot to develop a mountain bike trail in the park. You should also be able to rent canoes in the not-too-distant future.
The park has a number of swimming holes, new plants with picnic facilities, a day visitors’ braai area, a kiddies’ jungle gym, river walks with resident otters, as well as a boma for braais, camping for parties, weddings, and other events.
**RESERVATIONS** 072-438 9111
firstname.lastname@example.org
1. *Erica filamentosa* is one of the rarest plants in the world.
2. *Struthiola argentea* has a sweet evening scent.
3. Field ranger Siviwe Nomvuso with the *Disoma* fynbos.
4. Strolling on the Breede River’s beach.
“Flowers turn the fields into pure canvases of colour.”
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Marsh Fritillary in Wales
A practical guide to managing grassland for Marsh Fritillary in Wales
The Marsh Fritillary – a flagship species of Welsh grasslands
In Wales, the Marsh Fritillary butterfly is typically found on wet grassland (Rhôs pasture) but also occurs on wet slacks in sand dunes, on fens and on limestone grassland on the Pembrokeshire Coast.
This butterfly is declining in Wales due to habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. It has suffered a 40% decline in distribution and 60% decline in abundance over the last 30 years. Urgent action is needed to halt and reverse the decline of this butterfly and other animals and plants that depend on these habitats.
This leaflet describes the habitat in which the Marsh Fritillary occurs and explains how to manage this land to safeguard the butterfly.
Map: the decline in distribution of Marsh Fritillary in the UK since 1970. Light yellow squares show the 1970–1990 distribution overlaid with orange for the 1990–2009 distribution and red for the 2010–2017 distribution.
Marsh Fritillary life cycle and requirements
The Marsh Fritillary flies from mid-May until the end of June. The female lays eggs in large batches on the underside of large Devil’s-bit Scabious plants. Small, brown, spiny caterpillars emerge a month later and can be easily seen feeding together on Scabious leaves inside a silken web. Prior to the winter months a dense hibernation web is spun, tucked down in grass tussocks to protect the caterpillars from the weather and predators. The caterpillars emerge in February to early March and often separate in search of fresh Scabious plants. By late April the caterpillars pupate and emerge as adults two to three weeks later.
The Marsh Fritillary exists as metapopulations, comprising groups of local populations connected by occasional dispersal. This means that the butterfly needs networks of well-connected habitat. Research suggests a minimum of 70 hectares of suitably managed habitat in a landscape is needed for it to survive.
All suitable and potentially suitable habitat in landscapes where the butterfly occurs should be targeted for management. Sites within 2km of occupied sites are a priority, with up to 5km being important. Not all sites are occupied in all years, but are still valuable; these sites can offer habitat in ‘boom’ years for the butterfly, and then provide source populations if those on core sites crash, improving network resilience.
Damp grassland
Rhôs pasture is a distinctive, Welsh marshy grassland habitat. It is rich in wildlife with characteristic plant species such as Meadow Thistle, Devil’s-bit Scabious and Whorled Caraway growing among vegetation dominated by Purple Moor-grass and various rush species. The habitat typically occurs as part of a patchwork with wet heath, drier grassland, and scrub habitats.
In Wales, Rhôs pasture is the main habitat used by the Marsh Fritillary, along with other characteristic species including Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary, Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk-moth, Dormouse and Snipe. Barn Owls and Short-eared Owls also use it for hunting. Habitat management for the Marsh Fritillary will benefit many species, and thriving populations of the butterfly indicate a healthy natural environment.
How to manage Rhôs pasture for the Marsh Fritillary
To benefit Marsh Fritillary and other characteristic species, aim for:
- An uneven, tussocky, structured sward at the end of the grazing season (normally end of September) between 12–25cm high (5–10”). These conditions provide suitable breeding areas, a plentiful supply of food for the larvae and somewhere to shelter through the winter months. Some dead grass or leaf litter is important for the larvae to bask on.
- Frequent flowering plants present, such as thistles, Devil’s-Bit Scabious and Marsh Violet, providing important larval food plants and adult nectar sources.
- Scrub species covering a maximum of 5–10% of the total area, to provide important shelter.
This is best achieved by:
- Extensive grazing in the period May–September with cattle and/or ponies. Native breeds such as Welsh Black cattle and Welsh Mountain ponies are hardy and well-suited but other more mainstream breeds can also be suitable. Some poaching, especially of tussocky patches, creates pockets of bare ground for plants to germinate.
- Checking the site regularly. A rough guideline is one cow or pony per hectare (2.5 acres) for three months, but stocking rates may need to vary according to site conditions; it may be necessary to move the stock off early in a dry year, or to stock later in a wet year (September–November) to achieve suitable habitat conditions.
Occasional cutting (March and June or late July if Snipe or Curlew are likely to breed) or burning in late winter (January–early March) might be useful in areas of the site ignored by the livestock, to control patches of dense rushes, young scrub or rank grasses, and if a litter layer has built up. All cut material should be removed. Avoid burning or cutting more than one-third of the site in any year. Mowing and burning are both unsuitable for Marsh Fritillary breeding areas.
Please avoid:
- Extensive poaching or overgrazing where the sward is grazed tightly; this leads to the loss of suitable Devil’s-bit Scabious plants and the shelter provided by a tussocky sward.
- Undergrazing or abandonment, leading to encroachment of coarse grasses; dead litter will build up, smothering flowering plants including Scabious. Scrubby species will invade the site.
- Sheep are generally unsuitable, as they eat the Scabious plants and produce a ‘tight’ sward.
Because of natural variation in site conditions and grazing preferences of stock it might not be feasible to achieve ideal habitat conditions across the whole site all of the time. However, aim to maximise the amount of ideal habitat by adjusting stocking levels and the grazing period to the site conditions during that year. If necessary, encourage grazing of under-grazed areas by burning or cutting tracks into the vegetation.
**Scrub works**
Regular scrub management is often necessary in grassland habitats. However, scrub provides important habitat for insects (e.g. Green Hairstreak) and nesting sites for birds, and should therefore never be eradicated; levels of 5–10% across the site are desirable. When carrying out scrub control, avoid damage to the habitat by heavy machinery. Always remove cut materials from the site, or burn cut materials in a few designated areas, preferably on galvanised iron sheets so that the nutrient-rich ash can be easily removed from the site. Treat stumps with an appropriate herbicide to prevent regrowth immediately after cutting.
**Restoration of Sites**
In general the litter layer should be removed prior to restoring grazing, by either cutting (one-third of field annually and removing arisings) or burning, and grazing reintroduced gradually. ‘Blitz grazing’ will destroy much of the invertebrate interest of the site. The aim is to gradually open up the vegetation to encourage the spread and density of Scabious and other smaller plants. This spreads the work and enables the grazier to assess how the stock are responding and adjust the stocking rates accordingly.
**Further help and advice**
For further information and advice, please contact Butterfly Conservation below. Financial support may be available through Wales’ agri-environment scheme to enable sympathetic management of environmental features on your holding. This grant scheme is administered by the Welsh Government.
Visit [gov.wales](http://gov.wales) or contact your local office for more information. Natural Resources Wales should be consulted regarding designated sites.
---
**About Butterfly Conservation**
Butterfly Conservation is a national charity dedicated to saving butterflies, moths and their habitats.
Wales Office: 01792 642972, e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org website: butterfly-conservation.org/wales.
Company limited by guarantee, registered in England (2206468). Registered Office: Manor Yard, East Lulworth, Wareham, Dorset, BH20 5QP Charity registered in England and Wales (254937) and in Scotland (SCO39268).
Photo credits: G. Tordoff, C. Williams, B. Williams and A. Rowe.
This leaflet was produced with support from the National Lottery. Leaflet design by Immediate Media. | be6dba84-f251-4c97-9942-35bd62efc41e | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://butterfly-conservation.org/sites/default/files/2021-09/Marsh%20Fritillary%20-%20Managing%20grassland_0.pdf | 2023-10-03T10:11:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233511075.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20231003092549-20231003122549-00591.warc.gz | 165,336,282 | 1,767 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993174 | eng_Latn | 0.997568 | [
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Allium
Every year, a significant proportion of the UK Allium crop would be lost to pests and diseases if growers did not monitor their crops and employ effective protection strategies.
This Crop Walkers’ Guide is aimed at assisting growers, agronomists and their staff in the vital task of monitoring onion and leek crops in the field and in storage. It is designed to help with the accurate identification of pests, diseases, nutritional deficiencies and physiological disorders. Images of key stages in the life cycles of pests and diseases are included, along with comments to help with identification.
It is impossible to show every symptom of every pest, disease, or deficiency, therefore, growers are advised to familiarise themselves with the range of symptoms that can be expressed and be aware of new problems that occasionally arise.
This guide does not offer any advice on the measures available for controlling Allium pests or diseases, as both chemical active ingredients and their approvals frequently change. However, having identified a particular pest or disease in their crop, growers can refer to other AHDB Horticulture publications that contain information on control measures.
Dr Dawn Teverson
Research and Knowledge Exchange Manager (Field Vegetables)
AHDB Horticulture
## Contents
### Pests
| Pest | Section |
|-----------------------------|---------|
| Allium leaf miner | 1.1 |
| Bean seed fly | 1.2 |
| Cutworm – Turnip moth | 1.4 |
| Leek moth | 1.5 |
| Nematodes (Free-living) – Eelworm | 1.6 |
| Nematodes (Stem and bulb) | 1.7 |
| Nematodes (Root-knot) | 1.9 |
| Onion fly | 1.10 |
| Onion thrips | 1.11 |
| Wireworm | 1.12 |
### Diseases
#### BACTERIAL
| Disease | Section |
|------------------------------|---------|
| Bacterial leaf blight | 2.1 |
| Bacterial soft rot | 2.2 |
| Slippery skin | 2.3 |
| Sour skin | 2.4 |
| Xanthomonas leaf blight | 2.5 |
#### FUNGAL
| Disease | Section |
|------------------------------|---------|
| Black mould | 2.6 |
| Blue/green mould | 2.7 |
| Fusarium basal rot | 2.8 |
| Leaf blight | 2.9 |
| Leaf blotch | 2.10 |
| Disease | Page |
|----------------------------------------------|------|
| Neck rot | 2.11 |
| Onion smudge | 2.12 |
| Onion smut | 2.13 |
| Pink root | 2.14 |
| Purple blotch/Stemphylium leaf blight | 2.15 |
| Rust | 2.16 |
| White rot | 2.18 |
| **OOMYCETE** | |
| Downy mildew | 2.20 |
| White tip | 2.21 |
| **VIRAL** | |
| Iris yellow spot virus | 2.22 |
| Onion yellow dwarf virus | 2.23 |
### Nutrient disorders
| Nutrient | Page |
|----------|------|
| Boron (B) | 3.1 |
| Calcium (Ca) | 3.2 |
| Copper (Cu) | 3.3 |
| Iron (Fe) | 3.4 |
| Magnesium (Mg) | 3.5 |
| Manganese (Mn) | 3.6 |
| Molybdenum (Mo) | 3.7 |
| Nitrogen (N) | 3.8 |
| Phosphorus (P) | 3.9 |
| Potassium (K) | 3.10 |
| Sulphur (S) | 3.11 |
| Zinc (Zn) | 3.12 |
Cultural disorders
Bolting 4.1
Bulb splitting 4.2
Chimera 4.3
Hail/heavy rain damage 4.4
Thicknecks 4.5
Watery scale and leathery skin 4.6
References
Acknowledgements 5.1
Photographic credits 5.2
Pests
Allium leaf miner
Phytomyza gymnostoma
- Pest of onion, leek and garlic crops. First detected in the UK in 2002, and since then it has spread, especially in the Midlands.
- Adult flies emerge in spring from pupae, which overwinter within the host plant or in the soil if the host plant dies.
- Female flies feed by making punctures in the leaves and sucking up the exuding sap.
- Larvae make tunnels in foliage stems and bulbs of host plants.
- Plants affected by Allium leaf miner tend to rot, due to secondary infections from fungi and bacteria that develop in the damaged tissues.
Bean seed fly
*Delia platura* and *Delia florilega*
- Common pest of Allium crops, damage can be localised and sporadic, even though adult flies are common.
- Adults emerge between March and September to lay eggs. Larvae feed on germinating seeds and emerging seedlings.
- The first sign of attack is patchy emergence of seedlings. Plants are often killed at the ‘loop’ or ‘crook’ stage.
- Egg laying is stimulated by decomposing organic material. Females prefer to lay their eggs in freshly disturbed soil, especially where crop debris or farmyard manure are present.
Bean seed fly
*Delia platura* and *Delia florilega*
- Any factors that slow down the speed of germination or reduce shoot vigour increase the risk of damage, especially low temperature and sowing too deep.
- Sheltered fields with a high content of plant debris may increase the severity of attacks.
- Bean seed flies can complete between three and six generations per year, depending on the ambient temperature.
Cutworm – Turnip moth
*Agrotis segetum*
- Leeks are more commonly affected than onions, most problematic in hot, dry years, and on light sandy soils.
- Cutworms are the larvae of the turnip moth, which has a wide host range.
- Causes sporadic but severe damage, leading to loss of plants and reduction in quality.
- Adults emerge from May onwards and, after mating, lay eggs on host plant leaves and roots.
- Larvae initially feed on aerial parts of the plant before descending underground to damage plant roots and stems.
- Pheromone traps can be used to determine risk. A cutworm forecasting system is available.
Leek moth
*Acrolepiopsis assectella*
- Affects onion and leek crops. Damage and associated decay can render leeks unmarketable. It is more problematic in warm locations in the south of the UK.
- Caterpillars are small (up to 13 mm in length) and grey at first, turning to yellowish-green as they develop.
- Larvae bore through folded leaves, leaving a ‘shot hole’ effect, before migrating to the centre, where they destroy developing leaves.
- Mature larvae form silken cocoons on host plant leaves.
- Adult moths emerge in April and lay eggs. Larvae feed May/June. A second generation of larvae cause feeding damage August/September.
- Adult moths are nocturnal. Male moths can be captured by pheromone traps.
Nematodes (Free-living) – Eelworm
Various spp.
- Wide host range, including Alliums.
- Three main species in the UK are stubby root (*Trichodorus* spp.), needle (*Longidorus* spp.), and (*Pratylenchus* spp.)
- Root feeding nematodes are able to move easily through soils, especially sands, both across a field and within the soil profile.
- Root damage causes poor growth and stunting of affected crops.
- Soil sampling in the autumn prior to cropping will aid risk assessment.
Nematodes (Stem and bulb)
*Ditylenchus dipsaci*
- Serious pest of Alliums in temperate climates, difficult to control once established.
- Unlike other pest nematodes, *D. dipsaci* proliferates in shoots and causes twisting and distortion, with stunted leaves and multiple side shoots – known as ‘bloat’.
- Secondary infections then cause rotting at soil level, so that when badly infested plants are pulled they leave their roots in the soil.
Nematodes (Stem and bulb)
*Ditylenchus dipsaci*
- Spread of nematodes is largely passive. They may be transferred on soil or host plants, including seed, or by flooding.
- Even light infestations can cause secondary bacterial decay in storage that shows as brown necrotic rings.
- GPS soil sampling in the autumn prior to cropping will aid risk assessment.
Nematodes (Root-knot)
Meloidogyne spp.
- Wide host range and worldwide distribution.
- Spends most of its time within the plant and causes characteristic galls on affected roots.
- Galls are 1–2 mm diameter on onions.
- Infected secondary root systems are shorter and have fewer roots and root hairs than healthy plants.
- Erratic plant stand, plant stunting and yellowing may result from loss of vigour of the root system.
- More severe in sandy textured soils than clay soils.
Onion fly
*Delia antiqua*
- Rare, localised pest of onion and leek crops in the UK. It causes serious damage to bulb and salad onion. Leeks and shallots are also attacked, but damage is less severe.
- Onion seedlings attacked by onion fly larvae quickly collapse and die. Larger plants are rendered unmarketable by the damage caused by larval feeding.
- Usually two generations per year, but, in warm locations, there may be a partial third generation.
- Adults emerge from mid-May and lay eggs close to young seedlings. A second generation emerges in July/August.
- When bulbs are cut open, larval feeding damage is evident.
Onion thrips
Thrips tabaci
- Thrips are a common pest of bulb onion, salad onion and leek crops, being most problematic in hot, dry seasons.
- Orange, brown nymphs (immature adults) live deep in plant leaf sheaths and stems, feeding on developing tissue.
- Damage is highly characteristic, consisting of silvery patches or streaks on the leaves.
- Affected crops may be unmarketable.
- Alliums are the preferred overwintering hosts, but cereals may also be used. High temperatures (around 25°C) promote fast larval development and dispersal to new hosts.
- Blue sticky traps sited around field edges can be used to monitor populations.
Wireworm
*Agriotes spp.*
- Locally important pest of onion and leek crops. Most problematic in fields that have been long-term grassland or minimal tillage cereals or set-aside.
- Wireworms are larvae of the click beetle. They have a wide host range.
- Larvae feed on plant roots and stems, feeding for five years, before pupating and living for a year as an adult.
- Bait and pheromone traps to determine presence or absence of wireworms and adult beetles can help to determine risk.
Diseases
BACTERIAL
FUNGAL
OOMYCETE
VIRAL
Bacterial leaf blight
*Pseudomonas syringae pv. porri*
- Primarily a disease of leeks; seedborne.
- Young leaves show water-soaked, and then longitudinal lesions or stripes that eventually split and rot.
- On older leaves, yellowing is seen around wounds. Flowering stalks are very susceptible.
- Leek transplants can develop the disease in propagation.
- Susceptibility is increased by leaf damage due to heavy rain, hail or herbicide scorch.
- Spread by rain splash or overhead irrigation.
Bacterial soft rot
*Pectobacterium carotovorum* subsp. *carotovorum*
- Distributed worldwide.
- Initially, affected scales develop a watery rot and become pale yellow to light brown. Eventually, the centre of the bulb completely rots, producing a pungent smell.
- Encouraged by in-field damage and high storage temperatures.
- Often a secondary infection after onion fly damage.
- This pathogen was previously called *Erwinia carotovora*.
BACTERIAL
Slippery skin
*Burkholderia gladioli* pv. *alliicola*
- Most common cause of UK onion storage rots.
- Typically affects internal scales, which are water-soaked and brown.
- Affected onions appear normal on the surface, but are completely rotten inside, with vinegary odour.
- Encouraged by in-field damage, heavy rain, excessive irrigation, hail, herbicide scorch and high storage temperatures.
- The causal pathogen was previously called *Pseudomonas gladioli* pv. *alliicola*.
Sour skin
*Burkholderia cepacia*
- Primarily a disease of stored onions, worldwide.
- Infection usually begins with damage in the field.
- Soft bulb scales produce a grainy yellow ooze that smells vinegary.
- Infection spreads within, rather than between, scales.
- Overhead irrigation after bulbing and high temperatures contribute to symptom development.
- The causal pathogen was previously called *Pseudomonas cepacia*.
Xanthomonas leaf blight
*Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. allii*
- Usually occurs in tropical and subtropical climates.
- Lesions initially appear as irregularly shaped pale spots with water-soaked margins, and quickly enlarge and darken. Lesions may extend the entire length of the leaves.
- A bacteria encouraged by moderate to high temperatures and rainfall.
- Spread by rain splash, irrigation and wind-blown sand.
- Carry-over caused by infested crop debris and contaminated seeds
- Seedborne.
Black mould
Aspergillus niger
- Rarely causes economic damage in the UK, mainly occurs in the tropics.
- Characteristic ‘dusty’ black fungal spores develop around the bulb neck.
- Optimum temperatures for growth are 28–34°C, with high humidity levels.
- May be seedborne.
- Note – this disease is a potential human pathogen so care is needed when handling affected crops.
Blue/green mould
*Penicillium* spp.
- Common storage disease of bulb onions and garlic. Mainly occurs in storage but field symptoms can occur on maturing bulbs.
- Develops when storage temperature is above 15°C, and where relative humidity in excess of 85% is present in storage for a prolonged period.
- Initial symptoms include water-soaked areas on scale surface. Then blue-green or grey ‘dust’-like spores cover affected bulbs.
- On very thick-skinned bulbs, *Penicillium* spp. may develop under the outer skin around the neck.
Fusarium basal rot
*Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae* and *F. culmorum*
- *Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae* commonly affects onions, whereas *F. culmorum* more commonly affects leeks in the UK.
- Causes damping off in seedlings and a tan/pink basal rot on more mature plants.
- Initial field symptoms are yellowing and wilting of affected plants, occurring in distinct patches as temperatures rise in spring to 15°C or more.
- Dense white mycelial growth is often seen around the root base. A progressive bulb rot then develops.
- Root damage by waterlogging, bean seed fly or nematodes significantly increases susceptibility.
- Symptoms in bulb onions may not be apparent at harvest but can develop in store. It also produces spores that can survive in the soil for many years.
Fungal
Leaf blight
*Botrytis squamosa*
- Commonly affects onions, causing significant yield loss when severe blighting occurs early in the season.
- Symptoms begin as small white spots surrounded by a light green halo, which occur parallel to leaf veins, eventually coalescing to cause leaf dieback.
- Encouraged by prolonged rainy periods when leaves remain wet for 24 hours or longer.
- Overwinters on infested leaf debris.
- Should not be confused with hail or wind-blown soil damage.
Leaf blotch
*Cladosporium spp.*
- Common disease of leeks and onions.
- Most damaging in cool, wet conditions October to April.
- While symptoms are visually similar, onions are affected by *C. allii-cepae* and leeks by *C. allii*.
- Overwinters on infested leaf debris.
- Characteristic oval lesions with dark centres. Lesions eventually merge, causing necrotic striping on leaves.
- Young lesions are pure white and can look like chemical scorch.
Neck rot
*Botrytis spp.*
- Post-harvest onion disease in temperate areas, causing major storage losses.
- Necks develop a water-soaked decay that gradually moves down through the entire bulb.
- Occurs where necks are insufficiently dried after harvest.
- White/grey mycelium threads may appear between scales. Masses of greyish mould and black sclerotia form on the outer scales of the bulb.
- Seedborne. Infected plant debris also cause disease carry-over.
Onion smudge
*Colletotrichum circinans*
- Occurs worldwide on Alliums.
- Characterised by production of green/black bristled fruiting bodies that form concentric rings on the surface of bulbs that can be seen with a hand lens.
- May also cause lesions on leaves in warm, wet conditions.
- Humidity and temperatures of 13–25°C favour growth.
- Spread by rain splash from infected debris in soil.
- Found mainly on white onion cultivars.
Onion smut
Urocystis cepulae
- Occasional disease of bulb, salad onions and leeks.
- Initial lesions are black streaks on young leaves. Blister-like lesions develop on older plants near the base of scales.
- Mature lesions contain black, powdery spores.
- Optimum temperature for infection is 13–22°C.
Pink root
*Phoma terrestris*
- Worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical conditions.
- Infected roots are pink, becoming more intense in colour as the disease develops.
- Roots are destroyed, causing yellowing, stunting and wilting of plants, which may collapse and die.
- Soilborne disease with a wide non-Allium host range.
- May be confused with *Fusarium* basal rot.
Purple blotch/Stemphylium leaf blight
Alternaria porri and Stemphylium vesicarium
- Most common in leek and onion, prevalent worldwide but most damaging in areas with warm, humid climates.
- Initial symptoms are small water-soaked lesions on leaves or stalks.
- These lesions enlarge, turn yellow and develop a purple sporulating centre, leaves may collapse and die.
- Purple blotch is caused by both pathogens, which may occur separately or together.
- Optimum temperature is 25°C with high humidity.
Rust
*Puccinia allii*
- Most important foliar disease of leeks in the UK. Rarely affects onions under UK conditions. Some strains affect garlic.
- Causes leaf blemishes that affect both crop marketability and yield.
- Initial small, white flecks develop into characteristic orange pustules on the leaf. Bands of pustules occur laterally across individual leaves.
Yellowing and death occurs when leaves are severely affected.
Spores are dispersed by wind. Leaf wetness and high humidity are required for infection.
Dense planting and stressful conditions for the crop encourage disease development.
Overwintered crops are a source of infection for spring planted crops.
White rot
*Sclerotium cepivorum*
- One of the most important widespread fungal diseases of Allium species, occurring worldwide in cool conditions. Leeks are less susceptible.
- Encouraged by the high plant densities typical of salad onion production.
- Foliar symptoms include premature yellowing and dying of older leaves, and stunting of plants, rapidly followed by foliage collapse.
- Plants die in patches, each resulting from a single sclerotial infection, from June onwards.
White rot
Sclerotium cepivorum
- White, cotton wool-like mycelium growth is often found on the base plate. Small poppy seed-sized sclerotia form on and in decaying tissues.
- Optimum temperature range is 14–18°C.
- When white rot is advanced, roots and bulbs rot, due to secondary infections.
- Sclerotia can lie dormant in soil for at least 20 years in field soil, so crop rotation is of limited value.
Downy mildew
*Peronospora destructor*
- Occurs worldwide. Serious economically damaging disease of bulb and salad onions, and occasionally leeks.
- Initial symptoms are a fine downy purple/grey sporulation, usually on older leaves.
- Affected leaves become pale green, then yellow, necrotic and collapse.
- Optimum temperature 10–12°C, with free water on leaf for 2–4 hours.
- Encouraged by dense crop canopy and irrigation.
- Infection sources – wind-blown spores, debris, crop overlap and systemically infected bulbs or sets.
White tip
*Phytophthora porri*
- Common on leek crops and can affect other Alliums, including onions.
- Initial symptoms are yellowing of the leaf tips; lesions are water-soaked, then become bleached, and leaf tips die back and become crisp and white.
- Spread by rain-splash, so particularly affects overwintering crops.
- Can cause loss in harvestable yield as the crop needs extra trimming.
- Infected plant debris cause carry-over of infection.
Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV)
- Occurs on onions in Europe. Reports in UK have not been on Alliums so far.
- Characteristic diamond-shaped yellow/straw-coloured lesions on leaves and stalks. Some lesions have green centres, with yellow or tan borders. Others have concentric rings of yellow and green.
- Lesions can merge, weakening leaves and stems, causing lodging.
- Reduces plant vigour and bulb size.
- IYSV is spread by onion thrips, which are widespread in the UK. May also be spread by movement of thrips infested planting material.
Onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV)
- Occurs worldwide on onion, shallot and garlic.
- Initial symptoms are yellow streaks on the bases of the first leaves.
- All subsequent leaves show symptoms from yellow streaks to complete yellowing.
- Leaves may be crinkled, flattened and fall over; bulbs are small but remain firm.
- Spread by *Myzus persicae* and other aphid vectors.
Nutrient disorders
Boron
- Alliums grown on leached sands are most at risk.
- Boron is most available for uptake by plants in neutral soils, and becomes less available in acidic or alkaline soil.
- Older leaves become brittle and may turn grey-green to deep blue-green in colour.
- Characteristic transverse cracks – ‘cat scratches’ – appear at the base of older leaves.
Calcium
Ca
- Appears as dieback of young leaves without prior yellowing in onions, or results in the death of a short length of leaf causing distal parts to collapse and die.
- In leeks, leaves become very narrow and die back abruptly from tips without first yellowing.
- Deficiency is rare in the UK.
- Symptoms similar to those resulting from potassium deficiency.
Copper
Cu
- Onions grown on acid light sands and peat soils most at risk.
- Chlorosis symptoms first appear on the leaf tips, which turn white, and then twist, and spiral ‘pig tailing’.
- Deficiency causes soft, thin and light-coloured skins on bulb onions.
Iron
Fe
- High levels required by growing crop.
- However most soils, particularly the iron rich soils of the UK, are capable of supplying this requirement so deficiency is rarely seen.
- Iron is necessary for chlorophyll synthesis, so deficiency causes chlorosis.
Magnesium
Mg
- Moderately common deficiency occurring on a range of soil types.
- Leads to slow plant growth.
- Older leaves become uniformly yellow along their length without any dieback.
- Can be confused with nitrogen deficiency.
Manganese
Mn
- Common deficiency affecting onions and leeks on sandy peat or soils with a high pH.
- Older leaves develop interveinal chlorosis, which appears as longitudinal striping on the older leaves.
- There is also death of affected leaves, leaf curling, reduced bulbing and thick necks.
- Results in slow growth in onions.
- Symptoms can be transient and may disappear following rain.
Molybdenum
Mo
- Alliums grown on light sandy and peat soils with low pH are most at risk.
- Deficiency results in poor emergence and seedling death.
- Leaves die back from tips, with a noticeable soft, water-soaked transition zone between healthy and necrotic tissue.
- Highly mobile nutrient in the soil.
In onions, plants are stunted, with pale green to yellow leaves that die back from the tips. In leeks, leaves become pale green and erect, growth may also be stunted.
Crops may become nitrogen deficient under conditions of poor drainage, low temperatures or, in wet seasons, on light soils where plant populations are very high.
Sulphur or magnesium deficiency can result in similar symptoms.
Most soils contain good levels of available phosphate but deficiency can occur at high pH, especially on sandy soils.
Symptoms include slowed growth, delayed maturity and a high percentage of thick-necked bulbs at harvest.
Leaves become dull-green in colour and older leaves wilt and die back from the tips.
Potassium
K
- Most problematic in wet seasons on sandy soils and peat soils.
- Foliage initially turns darker green. Leaf tips of older leaves begin to wilt, wither and die.
- Leaves may droop and have a papery appearance where deficiency is severe.
- Bulbs may be soft with thin skins and do not store well.
Alliums grown on light sandy and chalky soils are most at risk.
Onion leaves become thick and deformed, with new leaves turning yellow. Leek leaves become stiff and erect, with early swelling of the stem base.
Chlorosis first appears on young developing leaves. Whole plants may turn yellow in cases of extreme deficiency.
Nitrogen deficiency can give similar symptoms.
Zinc
Onions grown on light sandy soils with a high pH are most at risk but deficiency is extremely rare in the UK.
- Leaves become noticeably twisted with faint interveinal chlorosis.
- Leaves become striped yellow, twisted and stunted.
Cultural disorders
The importance of early diagnosis of crop nutrient disorders
Suspected nutrient disorders based on the appearance of symptoms should be confirmed by growing media and leaf analysis.
General guidance on collecting both growing media and leaves for analysis can be found in the AHDB factsheet 10/16 ‘Sampling methodologies and analysis interpretation for growers of hardy nursery stock’.
Onions and leeks are biennials (i.e. grow from seeds in the first year of development, and flower and produce seeds in the second). Bolting is premature flowerhead development, usually occurring in the first year of growth.
Plant size, ambient temperatures and day length are the main factors that initiate flowering.
Plants in advance of normal development, affected by seasonally colder than average temperatures, are most at risk.
Bulb splitting
- Commonly occurs in bulb onions.
- Basal plate of the onion splits and secondary growth of the affected bulb may occur as protrusions from the damaged base. This damage may allow microorganisms to invade, causing bulb decay.
- Watering heavily after plants have been under significant drought stress increases susceptibility.
- Damage to the root base by bean seed fly, *Fusarium* or nematodes may increase incidence.
Chimera
- Affects both onion and leek.
- Variegated leaf tissue that typically occurs in yellow and/or white strips longitudinally along the leaf.
- The pale-coloured streaks are deficient in chlorophyll, which can result in stunted plant growth.
- Caused by a genetic mutation that typically occurs in a very small percentage of plants.
Hail/heavy rain damage
- Irregular white markings, usually only on one side of the leaf.
- Where severe, holes may be punched in the leaves, or leaves may be broken off completely.
- Crops subject to heavy rainfall or hail damage have increased susceptibility to bacterial infections.
Thicknecks
- Immature bulbs, harvested before bulbing is complete.
- Phosphorous deficiency during growth can increase occurrence.
- Common in low population bulb onion crops or where bulbing stimulus is poor, particularly in cool, wet summers.
- Affected plants often regrow leaves in store.
Watery scale and leathery skin
- Common disorder of bulb onions, particularly if conditions are wet at harvest.
- During long-term storage, thick skins restrict the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the bulb scales, effectively suffocating the tissues.
- Affected bulbs develop very thick, leathery skins, which are difficult to dry.
- Affected bulbs develop water-soaked outer scales (watery scale).
References
AHDB Horticulture is grateful to Andy Richardson (Allium & Brassica Centre) for writing the original guide and to the following technical editors:
- ‘Pest section’ – Rosemary Collier (University of Warwick) and for providing images used in this publication
- ‘Disease section’ – Peter Gladders (ADAS)
- ‘Nutritional Deficiencies and Physiological Disorders sections’ – Don Tiffin (ADAS) and Yara UK Ltd
Our gratitude also goes to Tom Will (Vegetable Consultancy Services Ltd) and David Norman (Fresh Produce Consultancy Ltd) for contributing other images used in this guide.
Finally, our thanks go to the British Onions and the Leek Growers’ Associations for supporting the production of this publication – we hope it proves a helpful aid to your businesses.
Section 1 – Pests
All images, except the following, courtesy and copyright of ADAS
1.1 (both) © Vegetable Consultancy Services Ltd.
1.2 (top) © The University of Warwick
1.2 (bottom) © Jon Oakley
1.4 (bottom left) © Tony Morris
1.4 (top and bottom right) © The University of Warwick
1.5 (top left, top right and bottom right) © The University of Warwick
1.5 (bottom left) © Paul Kitchener
1.9 (right) © Agriculture and Agri-Food, Government of Canada,
Reproduced by permission from Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases and Pests, 2nd Ed., 2008. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.
1.9 (left) © David Norman, Fresh Produce Consultancy Ltd.
1.10 (top left) © J. Ogrodnick, Cornell University,
New York State. Agricultural Experiment Station
1.10 (top right) © Ken Gray Image Courtesy of Oregon State University
1.10 (bottom left) © The University of Warwick
1.10 (bottom right) © Rasbak at nl.wikipedia.org
1.11 (bottom right) © W. S. Cranshaw
1.12 (top left) © Food and Environmental Research Agency (Fera),
Crown Copyright
1.12 (top right) © Scott Hartley, Saskatchewan Government
1.12 (bottom) © Vegetable Consultancy Services Ltd.
Section 2 – Diseases
All images, except the following, courtesy and copyright of the Allium and Brassica Centre (ABC).
2.1 © John Clarkson, The University of Warwick
2.2 © Dr Steven Roberts, Plant Health Solutions
2.3 (top right and left), © Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, bugwood.org
2.5 © Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, bugwood.org
2.7 (top right and left and bottom right), © D. R. Sumner, reproduced by permission from Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases and Pests, 2nd Ed., 2008. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.
2.8 (top right, bottom right and left), © John Clarkson, The University of Warwick
2.8 (top left) © Ralph Noble, The University of Warwick
2.9 © David Norman, Fresh Produce Consultancy Ltd.
2.11 © Dr Steven Roberts, Plant Health Solutions
2.12 (top and bottom right) © Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, bugwood.org
2.12 (bottom left) © Cesar Calderon, USDA APHIS PPQ, bugwood.org
2.13 (top) © Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, bugwood.org
2.13 (bottom) © the department of the agriculture and agri-food, government of Canada
2.14 (right) © Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, bugwood.org
2.15 © Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, bugwood.org
2.16 © The University of Warwick
2.18 (bottom) © Ralph Noble, The University of Warwick
Section 2 – Diseases
All images, except the following, courtesy and copyright of ADAS
2.19 (top left and right) © Ralph Noble, The University of Warwick
2.21 (left) © David Norman
2.21 (right) © The University of Warwick
2.22 (top) © Fera
2.22 (bottom left) © Nigel Cattlin, FLPA
2.23 © The University of Warwick
Section 3 – Nutrient disorders
All images, except the following, courtesy and copyright of The University of Warwick
3.1 © Vegetable Consultancy Services Ltd.
3.3 © D. D. Warncke, (reprinted from Bender, 1993), reproduced by permission from Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases and Pests, 2nd Ed., 2008. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.
3.4 © YARA
3.6 © Vegetable Consultancy Services Ltd.
3.7 (left) © Vegetable Consultancy Services Ltd.
3.8 © YARA
3.11 © D. D. Warncke, (reprinted from Bender, 1993), reproduced by permission from Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases and Pests, 2nd Ed., 2008. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.
Section 4 – Cultural disorders
All images are courtesy and copyright of the Allium and Brassica Centre (ABC)
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LAKE VERMILION
LAKE VERMILION before the turn of the century.
GOLD RUSH
David A. Walker
THE SEARCH FOR GOLD has stimulated the economic development of many sections of North America. During the nineteenth century, particularly the latter half of it, hopeful prospectors for gold rushed in major numbers to California, Colorado, Montana, the Black Hills, and the Yukon Territory of Canada. Would-be miners also made numerous smaller and lesser known attempts to find gold elsewhere, including the Lake Vermilion region of Minnesota. While accelerated growth and prosperity of northeastern Minnesota ultimately awaited the discovery and exploitation of vast iron ore deposits there, the brief gold fever surge to the shores of Lake Vermilion immediately following the Civil War led to permanent white settlement of the interior of that section. What is now known as the Arrowhead country lured El Dorado seekers rather than farmers — individuals interested in what that land contained rather than what it might produce.
Even before the Indians ceded the lands in the Chippewa treaty of 1854, prospectors made sporadic attempts to locate veins of copper, and possibly also gold and silver, in the area. Miners from the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan began test-pitting for copper along the French and Knife rivers that flow into Lake Superior northeast of Duluth. Surveyors who in 1848 and 1849 conducted the first federal government reconnaissance of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa reported that copper ores had been discovered a few years earlier. After thousands of dollars had been spent opening veins, sinking shafts, and raising ore near the falls of the Black River in northwestern Wisconsin south of the village of Fond du Lac, Minnesota, the effort was abandoned in 1848 as "unproductive." Several additional attempts were made during the next two decades, but copper mining failed to reach the level of large-scale production. The presence of the ore, however, led to conjecture and exploration that expanded interest in other mineral resources in northeastern Minnesota.\(^1\)
Minnesota governors very early recognized the economic potential of the Lake Superior region and sought to exploit its known mineral and timber resources. In his first official message as governor of Minnesota Territory in 1849, Alexander Ramsey called for the construction of a road from St. Paul to Lake Superior that he believed would "open the mineral regions on the shores of that lake to the farm produce of our territory, and lead to a trade mutually advantageous."\(^2\)
---
\(^1\) C[hristopher] W. Hall, "A Brief History of Copper Mining in Minnesota," in Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences, *Bulletin*, 3:105–11 (January, 1883); William H. Emmons and Frank F. Grout, eds., "Mineral Resources of Minnesota," in University of Minnesota, Minnesota Geological Survey, *Bulletin* no. 30, p. 138 (1943); F. F. Chartier and J. B. Richards, "Information as to Gold Mining Companies in Minnesota. Special — 'Gold Rush of 1860's,'" typewritten manuscript, April 10, 1940, p. 3, in the Minnesota Historical Society; David Dale Owen, *Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota*, 306 (quote) (Philadelphia, 1852); Ruth M. Elliot, "The Vermilion Gold Rush of 1865," unpagged term thesis, 1923, copy in Helen McCann White, "Notes on the Vermilion Gold Rush, 1865–1868," in the Minnesota Historical Society, hereafter cited as Elliot, in White Papers. For a brief, popular account of the gold rush, see Merle Potter, *101 Best Stories of Minnesota*, 225–27 (Minneapolis, 1931).
\(^2\) Minnesota, *House Journal*, 1849, p. 16.
Mr. Walker earned his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin in Madison and now teaches history at Mankato State College. He wrote his doctoral dissertation on the iron ranges in Minnesota. This article is derived from his thesis.
Eleven years later when he was second governor of the state of Minnesota, Ramsey continued to urge legislative concern for the northeastern area. He spoke of agricultural possibilities and of safe and spacious harbors, but most of all he stressed the mineral potential. The governor declared the mineral lands to be "not only of magnificent extent, but the ores, both of iron and copper[,] are known to be of singular purity." In January, 1864, Governor Henry A. Swift continued this official interest when he told the legislators that the portion of Minnesota bordering Lake Superior abounded "in precious ores which deserve the fostering care of the Legislature."
That same year, at last convinced of the potential value of the northern region, the legislature authorized the governor to select a "suitable" person to conduct a geological survey. It also appropriated $2,000 to search "the mineral lands on the north shore of Lake Superior" as well as "all other mineral or coal districts of the State." Swift appointed Augustus A. Hanchett as the first official state geologist of Minnesota. Described by a contemporary newspaper as "not much of a geologist himself," Hanchett turned over all field work to Thomas Clark, a competent geologist and civil engineer. The survey team, aware that it lacked enough money to carry out as thorough and extensive an examination as it desired, devoted its first season's energies to the area along the North Shore and in the vicinity of Lake Vermilion. The Hanchett and Clark report, published in 1865, indicated the existence of both copper and iron ore but made no mention of gold. The geologists discovered copper close to the Lake Superior shore between French River and Grand Portage, an area where preliminary mining operations had already begun. Although the survey noted the existence of iron ore in a "heavy deposit" near Lake Vermilion, Clark did not ascertain the exact percentage of commercially pure iron there. He did advise the state, however, to continue an investigation of "the abundant richness of the ore in that region" as soon as practicable.
Hanchett and Clark were not the first geologists to point out the potential mineral wealth of the Lake Vermilion district. In September, 1848, Joseph C. Norwood, a leader in David Dale Owen's federally funded survey of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa, had studied the lake. He pointed out rocks along the shore that contained "beautiful crystals of iron pyrites," noted the possibility of other minerals being associated with them, and cataloged a specimen found on an island midway out in the lake as "quartz of reddish brown color; crystalline, with yellow iron pyrites." Later assays revealed that these veins contained gold-bearing quartz. Charles Whittlesey, a prominent geologist and member of Owen's survey team, reported further on the rocky formations along the shores of Lake Vermilion and the Vermilion River. He speculated that "where there is [sic] iron and copper pyrites with the quartz there is more or less gold. . . . The proportions of the precious metals are variable; but veins in such formations . . . invariably yield gold and silver."
In 1865 Governor Stephen Miller not only authorized continuing the geological survey of mineral lands along the North Shore but also expanding it to cover "other mineral bearing districts." Miller appointed Henry H. Eames state geologist and director of the new geological survey. To help ensure the more thorough survey they sought, the governor and legislators asked the geologist named, before he began his duties, to swear that he would "diligently and faithfully discharge such duties to the best of his ability." They advised the surveyor to analyze the metal-bearing rocks, draw maps showing the location of minerals examined, and ascertain their commercial value. Funds appropriated "to pay the actual and necessary expenses incurred" could not exceed $1,000.
Eames's brother Richard was appointed assistant state geologist. The two of them established headquar-
---
3 *House Journal*, 1860, p. 180–81.
4 *Henry A. Swift, Annual Message to the Legislature*, 1864, p. 23.
5 *Minnesota Laws*, 1864, p. 111.
6 *Superior Gazette*, November 5, 1864. A contradictory report in the *St. Paul Daily Press*, August 10, 1864, described Hanchett as a man possessing "intimate knowledge . . . [of the] metal bearing ground of this lake region." Nonetheless, Hanchett accepted the governor's appointment, declined any personal compensation, and never accompanied the survey field work. See also William Watts Folwell, *A History of Minnesota*, 4:1–8 (St. Paul, 1969) and [Newton] H. Winchell, *The History of Geological Surveys in Minnesota*. (Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, Bulletin no. 1 — St. Paul, 1889).
7 Thomas Clark, *Report of the State Geologist*. Aug. H. Hanchett, M.D., 3–7 (p. 6 quotes) (St. Paul, 1865); Stephen Miller to Thomas Clark, December 23, 1864, Charles McIlrath to Clark, February 24, 1865, Miller to Clark, March 7, 1865, William R. Marshall to Clark, March 14, 1866, in Thomas Clark Papers, 1854–76, in the Minnesota Historical Society.
8 Owen, *Report of the Geological Survey*, 314 (first quote); James W. Taylor, "Report on the Mineral Resources of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains," in 40 Congress, 2 session, *House Executive Documents*, no. 273, p. 15–16 (second quote) (serial 1343).
9 Charles Whittlesey, *Geology and Minerals. A Report of Explorations in the Mineral Regions of Minnesota During the Years 1848, 1859 and 1864*, p. 9–10 (quote) (Cleveland, 1866); *Superior Gazette*, November 4, 1865.
10 *Laws*, 1865, p. 84–85 (quotes). Henry H. Eames held the position of state geologist for two years before the legislature refused further appropriations and the survey came to a temporary halt. In March, 1872, Newton H. Winchell was appointed Minnesota state geologist — the first professional geologist and a truly "public-spirited man." See *Gopher Historian*, September, 1951, p. 9, and George Merrill, *The First One Hundred Years of American Geology*, 429, 469 (New Haven, 1924).
ters in the small settlement of Duluth and spent the summer of 1865 in northeastern Minnesota, claiming that shortage of time and limited financial support confined their attention to this small portion of the state. The geologists confirmed earlier reports of the existence of iron ore, but this failed to arouse excitement either among local residents or the members of the surveying team. When they reported finding veins of gold- and silver-bearing quartz at Lake Vermilion, however, the news spread like wildfire. The governor forwarded a three-pound specimen to the chief assayer of the United States mint at Philadelphia, John R. Eckfeldt. In mid-September he reported the results of chemical analysis: The quartz sample contained $25.63 in gold and $4.42 in silver per short ton.\(^{11}\) The following month Miller sent a second specimen to Philadelphia that assayed at $21.70 gold and $1.00 silver per ton.\(^{12}\) Then the governor mailed a final sample to Professor Edward Kent, an eminent New York chemist, who analyzed the quartz and found $41.01 in gold per short ton of rock. Henry Eames considered these a fair average sampling of surface gold-bearing quartz in the vicinity of Lake Vermilion.\(^{13}\)
THE INITIAL announcement and repeated publicizing of these chemical tests aroused great excitement in St. Paul. The newspapers speculated that the existence of gold-bearing quartz would "immediately turn the tide of California emigration to Minnesota." Enthusiastic speculators pointed out that in the West gold could be mined profitably when worth only eight to ten dollars per ton. In fact, the news reports continued, a majority of the best-paying mines on the entire Pacific Coast averaged less than twenty-five dollars per ton.\(^{14}\)
Further to enhance the public's knowledge and interest, the *St. Paul Pioneer* dispatched a special reporter to the new gold fields in Minnesota. During September and October, 1865, Ossian Euclid Dodge, writing under the pen name of "Oro Fino," submitted a series of "Gold Letters" to the paper.\(^{15}\) Dodge, who had been a journalist and itinerant singer and song writer in the East before settling in St. Paul in 1862, described vividly the route he took and his sometimes perilous means of travel
\(^{11}\) Henry H. Eames, *Report of the State Geologist on the Metaliferous Region Bordering on Lake Superior*, 6, 10-11, 19-23 (St. Paul, 1866); *St. Paul Press*, September 19, 1865; *St. Paul Pioneer*, September 19, 1865; *Superior Gazette*, September 20, 1865.
\(^{12}\) James Pollack to Miller, October 6, 1865, copy in Eames, *Report of the State Geologist*, 22.
\(^{13}\) *St. Paul Pioneer*, December 14, 21, 1865.
\(^{14}\) *St. Paul Pioneer*, September 20, 1865; *Superior Gazette*, October 14, 1865.
\(^{15}\) *St. Paul Pioneer*, September 30, October 5, 7, 8, 15, 18, 21, 24, 25, 1865. For a study of Dodge's career, see Philip D. Jordan, "Ossian Euclid Dodge: Eccentric Troubadour," in *The Historian*, 31:194-210 (February, 1969).
miners, and Vermilion City, at the Falls on the South Vermilion River, be peopled by a population not less than ten thousand."
In St. Paul, the topic of street conversation centered on the gold fields; few people remained outwardly skeptical at this early date. All who knew anything of the geology of the region surrounding the lake accepted reports of gold-bearing quartz as an established fact.
At a very early date inhabitants of both St. Paul and Superior, Wisconsin, realized the economic gains to be accorded their own city if it became the major source of mining supplies. St. Paul's boosters claimed that their route to the gold fields followed a good road and passed through settlements. Confidently predicting that their city would be the chief outfitting point for miners, St. Paul businessmen suggested traveling by train from Chicago to the Minnesota capital and then heading north to Duluth rather than Superior, Wisconsin. Superior merchants immediately fought back. Although they were quick to agree that the Vermilion gold fields were as easily accessible as any yet discovered, they denied that stage routes terminated in Duluth. These port city residents pointed out that supplies purchased in St. Paul had to be transported an extra 160 miles at a freight expense of not less than five cents per pound. Miners who arrived in Superior by either boat or stage, however, could obtain provisions, blankets, and utensils—in fact, everything necessary for camp life—there as cheaply as they could anywhere north or west of Detroit and Chicago. Despite conflicting claims, both Superior and St. Paul benefited from the brief gold excitement.
News of the gold discovery spread far beyond Minnesota. In December, 1865, Richard Eames traveled to New York City in the hope of attracting financial support for several mining company ventures already under way. He advertised in the United States Mining Journal and wrote for that New York publication an account (reprinted in the St. Paul Pioneer of December 21, 1865) of a recent trip he took to the gold fields. Eames invited interested citizens to come to the Bible House, where he had set up headquarters in New York, to examine specimens of gold quartz from Lake Vermilion. For the benefit of eastern financiers Eames advertised the assay reports of Kent and Eckfeldt and portrayed Vermilion as a "beautiful body of water, supposed to be about eighteen miles long and ten wide, and is about fifty miles west of Lake Superior, and eighty miles from Duluth.
The Lake presents a succession of deep bays and rocky points, and [is] studded with numerous islands, rendering it a complete labyrinth of tangled channels, through which it is no easy matter for a stranger to find his way to a given point." The land near the lake, he continued, "is hilly, and very promising for mining purposes; it is well timbered with yellow pine (Norway pine), birch [...] white cedar, maple, spruce, fir, ash and aspen. The lake abounds in fish — pickerel[,] white fish and trout. The game is abundant: geese and ducks are found in myriads; cariboo (reindeer), elk, partridges, grouse and rabbits. There is also no lack of water power."
Eames considered all these features essential ingredients for maintaining profitable mining camp operations. The quartz formation, found interspersed with slate in veins from two to eight feet wide and three inches deep, occurred in a gold-bearing district some fourteen miles long and eight miles wide along the south shore of the lake. Eames stressed, however, that the main vein reached across the lake and reappeared on several peninsulas and islands. He closed his elaborate description by boasting that "this country, when developed, will be a second California."
HENRY EAMES was reappointed state geologist in January, 1866, at a yearly salary of $2,000 and with a promise from the legislature to pay a maximum of $3,000 for all surveying, locating, and analyzing costs. The legislators warned the geologist not to use his office for private speculation and instructed him to work exclusively for the benefit of the state. To prove his outward compliance, Eames was to set up a public display of mineral specimens in an office at the State Capitol. The surveyors spent the greater part of their second season in authenticating the abundance and value of gold-bearing deposits at Lake Vermilion. Officially, however, they expanded the survey to include a cursory investigation of twelve central and northern counties.
In 1866 Eames submitted two separate reports to the governor and the legislature. He officially recorded the discovery of gold and silver in quartz veins from one inch to several feet in width but said that the richness and extent of the ore, covered in many locations with glacial drift or debris, could be determined only by actual mining. Eames reported that veins which could be "traced for some distance" existed on every island, point, or section of the main shore line. But the geologist cautioned miners that even though the gold-bearing
---
16St. Paul Press, September 19, 1865; St. Paul Pioneer, September 20, December 21, 1865; Superior Gazette, September 30, 1865.
17St. Paul Pioneer, September 21, 1865; Superior Gazette, September 30, December 16, 1865.
18Other accounts described the area surrounding the lake in more realistic terms. The St. Paul Pioneer of April 7, 1866, published the following: "The soil throughout this section is almost entirely worthless, being thin, rocky, and covered with tamarack, spruce, and scrub cedar"; there was also evidence of former immense volcanic eruptions—"the rocks in places are black and scorched." Another account, in the Superior Gazette of November 25, 1865, noted: "There is almost no arable land, and between the hills are tamarack swamps."
19Laws, 1866, p. 98-99. Eames, Report of the State Geologist, 31-48; St. Paul Pioneer, July 26, 1866.
quartz might appear to vary in color from milky white to reddish brown, it "has the appearance of being burnt." After an analysis of twenty-three separate veins, Eames said he was confident that quartz in the vicinity of the lake contained both gold and silver in profitable quantities. He incorporated the results of seven assays on selected specimens of ore in an appendix to his report written after the second summer's observations. This analysis demonstrated the existence of gold from a mere trace to $62.81 per short ton of quartz while silver tested between $2.00 and $12.73. Although Eames never revealed the precise locations of any samples, he concluded after two seasons of work that "the hidden sources of wealth, lying buried in the strata, would justify the investment of capital."
Rumors of gold acted as a magnet to attract a great influx of white settlers. But before miners and speculators could take full advantage of the discoveries, the matter of the land title had to be resolved. The Chippewa (Ojibway) Indians claimed that a portion of the western end of the lake had never been ceded and therefore remained their property. The federal government thus faced the problem of removing the Indian title from a portion of the shore line. The home of the Bois Fort bands of the Chippewa, Vermilion is a translation of the Ojibway name of the lake — Onamuni, said to mean "red and gold reflection from the sky to the smooth lake surface near sunset." A few weeks after the gold discovery news began to circulate, reports spread that the Indians would resist any white settlement on their lands.
Luther E. Webb, United States Indian agent to the Lake Superior Chippewa, learned of the situation during payment of annuities at Grand Portage in November, 1865, when the Indians requested a council to express their views on the land dispute. Spokesmen for the Bois Fort claimed that the treaty signed at La Pointe in September, 1854, by which the Chippewa ceded most of northeastern Minnesota, was not valid because only one of their chiefs had attended, and even if he had signed the treaty, which he denied, he lacked authority to speak for all the Bois Fort. The Indians also said that the agent sent for them in 1856 to make another treaty, but that if a treaty was signed they knew nothing of it. They said the agent gave them a paper and promised: "Next year you will get a payment for this paper." But after three years and no payment, they threw the paper away, the Indians said.
The editor of the *Superior Gazette* argued that the Indians possessed full legal title to a portion of the Vermilion country and that thus the whites in the area were trespassing. On November 4, 1865, the *Gazette* published a letter that Dennis N. Cooley, commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C., wrote about the dispute to D. George Morrison, Superior register of deeds, who had requested information. Cooley said the Bois Fort had agreed to cede the lands in question through a treaty signed on September 16, 1856, but the Senate had yet to act upon it. The *Gazette* editor sympathized with the Indians' assumption that, after nine years of neglect, the federal government had no desire to purchase their lands. As a result, the Bois Fort, with the full knowledge of agent Webb, had established and occupied a semiofficial reservation, never formally recognized as such by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, upon a tract of land that included the western shore of Lake Vermilion. The editor predicted that trouble would develop when gold seekers swarmed to the lake if the matter were not "at once amicably settled." He added that "the settlers in this locality do not fancy being made targets for the Chippewas, to accommodate the St. Paul scrip locaters." He again urged the commissioner to call the chiefs of the band to Washington to "either make a new treaty, or renew their assent to the one which has been so long before the Senate." In his letter, Cooley had said the Department of the Interior was too busy to "give its attention" to any visiting Indian delegation "in a manner that would meet their expectations." He closed his letter by informing Morrison: "Should it, however, become necessary for them to visit Washington at any time hereafter, they will be invited to do so through their agent whose attention will be called to the subject contained in your letter."
Conflicting viewpoints about the land dispute were soon aired in St. Paul, the center of gold-fever activities. The editor of the *St. Paul Pioneer* suggested contradictory solutions: establishing a military post to prevent the violation of treaty regulations and to enable the country to be opened, or purchasing the land in question. The next day, defending the interests of several mining company incorporators, he declared the difficulty to be "purely mythical" and argued that the "carefully worded treaties of 1854 and 1855" [sic] had awarded the federal government clear and undisputed title to the land. The 1854 treaty established the western boundary line of Indian holdings as follows: "Beginning at a point, where the east branch of Snake River crosses the southern
them by retarding settlement and economic growth. Claiming support from Webb and Cooley, the editor of the *Superior Gazette* admitted that the boundary line drawn in 1854 could be interpreted to give the Bois Fort control of at least one shore of Lake Vermilion. The "most westerly bend of the Vermillion River" might be above or below the lake so far as any accurate survey at the time had determined. The editor argued, however, that the Indians did not knowingly relinquish excellent fishing waters, "hence they had the line so drawn that it should follow their canoe route," and thus they retained the western shore. He concluded by denouncing as "useless" the attempts to "pervert this accepted boundary" and called for all interested parties to reach an amicable settlement before the spring of 1866 when the rush to the gold fields would increase.
Senator Alexander Ramsey of Minnesota finally arranged for a council of chiefs to visit Washington, since meeting them in their own territory during the winter seemed impossible. Leaving in February, 1866, under the supervision of D. George Morrison, six Bois Fort chiefs traveled by lake steamer and railroad car to the nation's capital to negotiate a land cession. By the terms of the resulting treaty, signed in April, the Indians surrendered all claim to and interest in land east of the 1854 treaty line and specifically "that portion of said territory heretofore claimed and occupied by them at and near Lake Vermillion [sic] as a reservation." In return, the federal government promised these Chippewa bands a tract of land, not less than one hundred thousand acres, and $50,000 to establish themselves in their new home eventually at Nett Lake, some forty miles northwest of Lake Vermilion, and on the Grand Fork River at the mouth of Deer Creek. Annually, for a maximum period of twenty years, the Indians were to receive specified financial aid for a blacksmith and his assistant, a teacher, farm tools, seed, provisions, ammunition, tobacco, and "goods and other articles suited to their wants and condition."
---
25 *St. Paul Pioneer*, November 11, 12 (first quotes), 1865. Charles J. Kappler, comp. and ed., *Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties*, 2:484–85 (boundary quote) (Washington, 1903); Elliot, in *White Papers*.
26 *Superior Gazette*, November 18, December 9 (quotes), 1865. See Charles C. Royce, comp., *Indian Land Cessions in the United States in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution* (Washington, 1899), vol. 2, map 33, on which the western shore of Lake Vermilion is clearly shown to be outside the boundary of the Chippewa treaty of 1854.
27 *St. Paul Pioneer*, October 31, December 16, 1865. January 16, 20, February 10, 1866; George P. Sanger, "Treaties Concluded by the United States of America, with Foreign Nations and Indian Tribes," in United States, *Statutes at Large*, 14:81–84 (quotes). The specific location of the reservation at Nett Lake was not formalized until June 30, 1883.
Thus, before the first major season of mining in the area surrounding Lake Vermilion, the federal government had extinguished Indian claims and opened the land to white settlement.
BEFORE THE CONCLUSION of the Chippewa negotiations and also before State Geologist Henry Eames presented a formal report to the governor and legislature, citizens of St. Paul had begun to experience intense excitement. The published reports of special correspondent Ossian Dodge and the confirmation of the assay results from the Philadelphia mint heightened the growing interest in gold in northeastern Minnesota. Henry and Richard Eames spent the latter part of October, 1865, in St. Paul talking cautiously but confidently about the extent and richness of their discovery. By the end of December, the full force of gold fever hit the city. Businessmen organized several mining companies and offered their stock to the public. Within two years, more than a dozen groups had incorporated to develop the Lake Vermilion gold fields.\(^{28}\)
St. Paul residents served as the major officers and stockholders of the earliest companies formed, including the Vermilion Falls Gold Mining Company that was incorporated in early November, 1865. Planned to "mine and smelt gold and other precious metals," this organization included among its leading shareholders Ossian Dodge, who only two months earlier had traveled to the gold fields as a special newspaper correspondent and located several promising tracts. The company established mining operations on the southern shore of Lake Vermilion, a location it touted as one of the most favorable. The site supposedly included the well-advertised "ten foot vein" from which Henry Eames had assayed specimens at $30 to the ton. The members of this company also controlled the falls of the South Vermilion River (now the Pike), a convenient source of water power. In the spring of 1866 they erected a sawmill on this site with machinery hauled overland from Duluth. The capital stock totaled $300,000 which was divided into 6,000 shares that sold for $50 each. By the end of December, 1865, the company's offices in St. Paul had raised more than $100,000 through the sale of stock.\(^{29}\)
A second outfit, organized during the first week of December, 1865, was the Minnesota Gold Mining Company which included among its officers and stockholders some of the most prominent businessmen and politicians in St. Paul. Henry H. Sibley, one of the original incorporators, became its president and Governor Stephen Miller its secretary. A member of Henry Eames's geological survey team, Henry Mayhew, managed the firm's mining operations at Lake Vermilion. The company sold 10,000 shares of stock at $50 per share. General business opinion in St. Paul considered the Minnesota Gold Mining Company one of the most secure, both financially and politically, of the various gold mining firms. The incorporators said that "the enterprises of the company shall be confined to actual mining operations, primarily for the purpose of demonstrating, in a manner that will be sure to command public confidence, whether the prospective profitable working of the Minnesota gold mines is a reality or a delusion."\(^{30}\)
During the spring and summer of 1866 — the peak of the gold fever — widespread publicity led to the incorporation of numerous mining companies which received financial support not only from Minnesotans but also from investors in Superior, Chicago, and New York. Following an accepted pattern, most of these companies capitalized at $500,000, selling shares at $50 each. The amount actually received ranged from as little as $2,000 to as much as $500,000. The larger firms spent an estimated total of more than $135,000 on supplies, transportation, machinery, and building construction.\(^{31}\)
The Mutual Protection Gold Mining Company became the most publicized of the mining organizations. The director and leading force behind this company, Major Thomas M. Newsom, was referred to by his enemies as "Generalissimo High Cockilorum Chief" because of his haughty and domineering personality.\(^{32}\) Newsom's company proposed to locate, settle, and develop land and mines for "mutual aid and protection" and for general benefit of the group. The original incorporators consisted of twenty-five men, each of whom paid $150 to purchase the necessary teams, sleds, wagons, and provisions. Once in the gold fields, each man was to establish a claim, and the entire amount of land thus obtained became common property. The firm then issued certificates vesting one share of the whole operation — lands, townsites, and improvements — in every member. Each shareholder remained a working partner in the company and went to the mines either in person or by proxy. The risk of investment appeared minimal, and if anything occurred to break up the organization, property was to be sold and the proceeds equally divided. Persons not among the original twenty-five who wished to join could do so upon ap-
\(^{28}\) *St. Paul Pioneer*, October 31, 1865; January 28, 1868; *Superior Gazette*, December 16, 1865.
\(^{29}\) Chartier and Richards, "Information as to Gold Mining Companies in Minnesota," 4-5 (first quote); *St. Paul Pioneer*, December 14, 1865; February 10, April 3 (quote), May 31, 1866.
\(^{30}\) *St. Paul Pioneer*, December 14, 24 (quote), 1865; *Superior Gazette*, December 16, 1865; the Richard Eames Papers, 1865-1894, in the Minnesota Historical Society, contain stock certificates showing he owned 270 shares in the company.
\(^{31}\) Chartier and Richards, "Information as to Gold Mining Companies in Minnesota," 2-8; *St. Paul Press*, June 24, 1866; *St. Paul Pioneer*, January 28, 1868.
\(^{32}\) *St. Paul Pioneer*, April 3, 1866.
proval of the members and the payment of $300.\textsuperscript{32}
"Major" Newson, a former brigade quartermaster in the United States army, organized his association along strict military lines. As president, he took the role of commander-in-chief, with rank of major. He appointed a captain to act as second in command. Two lieutenants assumed control of smaller groups that also included an engineer, quartermaster, commissary sergeant, wagon master, and chaplain. Composed chiefly of young soldiers who had just returned from fighting in the Civil War, this quasi-military organization was well armed and fully equipped when it left St. Paul on December 27, 1865, amidst great fanfare and publicity. People lined the streets to see the formal departure of the first gold mining company actually to begin work in the new district. Its train consisted of five ox sleds, pulled by two yoke each, loaded with provisions and baggage, followed by an ammunition wagon and pony-drawn ambulance. A sled six feet high, six feet wide, and eighteen feet long, covered with a canvas top, served as a cooking and dining car. It contained a stove built into the forward end, and on either side narrow tables allowed the men to eat standing up on the outside. To avoid driving their oxen too hard, the men took seventeen days to reach the head of the lakes. On January 16, 1866, Superior citizens arranged a special supper and dance in honor of the gold seekers. Two days later, they crossed the bay to Duluth and began moving toward Lake Vermilion.\textsuperscript{34}
In order to transport men and supplies over eighty miles of rugged terrain, the Mutual Company crew cleared a road, starting at a point forty miles north of Duluth and moving at a rate of two miles per day. The men and vehicles made slow but steady progress, according to newspaper accounts, in spite of snow nearly three feet deep and temperatures that often plunged to thirty or forty degrees below zero. On March 5 the train arrived at Lake Vermilion. Three or four other companies followed soon thereafter but, according to Newson, never assisted in cutting out the roadway. After seventy days of travel the miners, animals, and equipment reached their destination, "a unit, harmonious and in good health."\textsuperscript{35}
Lake Vermilion rapidly acquired many signs of civilized settlement. During the remaining winter weeks partners of the Mutual Protection Company devoted time and energy to building cabins, establishing claims, and preparing to begin mining operations in the spring. By the middle of April they had constructed nine cabins and claimed thirty-five mineral tracts, 640 acres of fine timber, and three water power sites. They also established the town of Winston — named after their general agent, R. A. Winston — on the extreme southern extension of the lake near the mouth of the South Vermilion (Pike) River. Winston soon claimed 300 inhabitants. A sawmill that the Vermilion Falls Company operated nearby received more orders than it could fill. A blacksmith shop also enjoyed a thriving business. On the lake shore, canoes and other small craft were constructed in a navy yard. Saloons and "other places of entertainment" quickly sprang up in the mushrooming community. A post office, providing irregular mail service, a hotel, and a general store all appeared during the spring and early summer.\textsuperscript{36}
\textsuperscript{32}The Mutual Protection Gold Mining Company of Minnesota. Articles of Organization," hand-written manuscript in the Thomas M. Newson Papers, 1840–1886, in the Minnesota Historical Society; \textit{Superior Gazette}, December 16, 1865 (quote).
\textsuperscript{34}\textit{Superior Gazette}, December 16, 1865; \textit{St. Paul Pioneer}, December 14, 27, 1865, January 28, 1866. A special correspondent for the \textit{Pioneer}, writing under the pen name, "Buckskin," accompanied the Mutual men.
\textsuperscript{35}\textit{St. Paul Pioneer}, February 17, March 10, 16 (quote), 1866; Calvin R. Fix, "Family History and Autobiography," 64–68, microfilm of a typewritten manuscript, in Minnesota Historical Society; Elliot, in White Papers.
\textsuperscript{36}\textit{St. Paul Pioneer}, May 9, 25, 1866; \textit{St. Paul Daily Press}, May 19, 1866; Folwell, \textit{Minnesota}, 4:6 (quote). The area did not remain settled long enough for either the state census of 1865 or the federal census of 1870 to provide accurate population statistics.
FROM THE BEGINNING, the availability of provisions and machinery was recognized as essential to the very survival of all mining operations. To accomplish this, some men had begun as early as September, 1865, to open a winter or sled road from Duluth to the new gold fields. Those involved in the project hoped to provide an immediate avenue for transporting necessary supplies during the winter. They also wanted to take an initial step toward construction of a permanent stage and wagon road. Residents of Superior considered constructing a railroad to Lake Vermilion but abandoned the project once it became apparent that the time, money, and effort required for such an undertaking were prohibitive.\(^{37}\)
Late in November, 1865, a party of ten men under the direction of Colonel Josiah B. Culver set out from Duluth to blaze an eighty-mile trail to Lake Vermilion. Citizens of St. Paul, Superior, and Duluth, aware of the economic benefits to be derived from such an enterprise, contributed funds to defray construction costs. By the end of February, 1866, with the last half of the route completed by the Mutual Protection Company men, construction parties had widened the Vermilion Trail into a winter road. Teamsters carried an estimated seventy-five to 100 tons of equipment to the lake before spring thaws made the road impassable. Throughout the winter of 1866–67, when mining operations demanded heavier equipment, as many as eighty teams and wagons set forth daily from Duluth.\(^{38}\)
Since the route, out of necessity, crossed rivers, creeks, and swamps, winter traffic was at first the only means of supplying the gold fields. During the summers, travel over most of the route became either treacherous or downright impossible. Several gold mining companies strenuously advocated construction of an improved roadway. Finally, in 1869, after the intense gold excitement subsided, the federal government intervened directly by appropriating $10,000 for road improvements. Secretary of War William W. Belknap appointed George Riley Stuntz, a pioneer resident of northeastern Minnesota, to improve not only the Vermilion Trail but to extend the route northwest to the Bois Fort Indian Reservation at Nett Lake as well. Early in July, 1869, Stuntz organized a party of ten axmen, purchased necessary supplies, and began construction. By the end of that season's activities, pestered by unusually heavy rainfall and swarms of mosquitoes and black flies, Stuntz and his men had improved a twelve-foot-wide road from Duluth to Lake Vermilion. However, they merely located and surveyed the portion beyond to the reservation.\(^{39}\)
Having dealt with the inconvenience of poor transportation facilities, the mining companies moved their men and machinery to the lake only to be faced with the complex problem of land ownership. When the Mutual Protection Company representatives arrived in the field, they attempted to control their claim by no other method than actual occupation. Furthermore, the company refused to recognize claims of other parties unless such individuals were actually occupying and developing them. The Mutual partners continually settled on and
\(^{37}\)Superior Gazette, September 30, 1865; St. Paul Pioneer, December 21, 1865.
\(^{38}\)George R. Stuntz, "Road from Du Luth to Fort Bois [sic] Reservation," in 41 Congress, 2 session, Senate Executive Documents, no. 104, p. 2–35 (serial 1407); Horace Johnson, Gold Rush to the Vermilion and Rainy Lake Districts of Minnesota and Ontario in 1865 and 1894, 11–12 (Duluth, 1926); Elliot, in White Papers.
\(^{39}\)United States, Statutes at Large, 15:318; Stuntz, "Road from Du Luth to Fort Bois Reservation," 2–35; Elliot, in White Papers; Johnson, Gold Rush, 11; Duluth News Tribune, May 18, 1952; Burleigh K. Rapp, "The Life of George R. Stuntz," 20–21, 24, typewritten manuscript, in Minnesota Historical Society.
took possession of potentially valuable mineral tracts, even though others claimed ownership by the location of land scrip.\textsuperscript{40}
In the Vermilion gold fields, absentee speculators and large mining companies frequently used the Chippewa half-breed scrip to control choice locations — a practice that antagonized individual miners ready to work their sites. These men contended that both the government and other miners should disregard scrip entries and strongly supported the general practice followed in the mineral regions of California, Idaho, and other areas of the West.\textsuperscript{41} There, each miner or association held only as much land as he or the association actually worked. This practice, the miners argued, encouraged individual enterprise and immediate development. The \textit{Superior Gazette}, strongly opposed to scrip locations, editorialized that "a monopoly of this territory by a horde of speculators would be a curse to this region, such as we hope never to see fall upon it."\textsuperscript{42}
In order to harmonize conflicting interests and to regulate mining operations, seventy-eight men met at Winston on March 10, 1866, to organize a mining district. Major Newson presided over the convention that adopted "The Mining Laws of the Vermilion Lake Mining District, Minnesota" to govern an area of forty square miles surrounding the lake.\textsuperscript{43} The document called for the election of a president, vice-president, recorder, and test miner and specifically set forth their duties. Individual claims could not exceed tracts 900 yards long and 450 yards wide. All miners, after plainly marking their location on four corners, were to deposit a description of their site with the recorder. In order to avoid absentee speculation the code provided that each man work his claim a minimum of one day per month or else have it considered abandoned. In a short period of time, however, the state and federal governments altered these local initiatives.
TWO MONTHS EARLIER, in January, 1866, in his annual message to the legislature, Governor Stephen Miller had urged the passage of an act confirming such miner's laws "as shall be adopted by the occupants of this region." He pointed out that such a practice followed a precedent established by western state and territorial lawmakers. The governor reminded the legislators that private funds had been used to reach and extract the mineral wealth of the state, and "as these individuals have located Sioux or Chippewa half-breed scrip, in good faith, upon about three thousand acres of land in that region," he urged that their claims be protected by law. Limiting each person to 160 acres would not be an injustice to owners of nonscrip locations, the governor
\textsuperscript{40}\textit{Superior Gazette}, October 31, December 14, 16, 1865, January 20, 1866; \textit{St. Paul Pioneer}, May 25, 1866.
\textsuperscript{41}\textit{United States, Statutes at Large}, 10:598-99: "Chippewa Half-Breeds of Lake Superior," 158-page report in 42 Congress, 2 session, \textit{House Executive Documents}, no. 193, p. 1-2, 17-18 (serial 1513); \textit{St. Paul Pioneer}, February 10, 1866. The \textit{Pioneer} of September 20, 1865, reported that as soon as news of the discovery of gold reached St. Paul's financial market the price of scrip "jumped from $3.25 an acre to $12.00 and at sunset there was nothing to be had even at that price."
\textsuperscript{42}\textit{Superior Gazette}, October 21, November 11 (quote), 1865. See also "Chippewa Half-Breeds of Lake Superior," the 158-page report referred to in footnote 41, for a lengthy discussion of the investigation into fraud and speculation involving half-breed scrip, and Folwell, \textit{Minnesota}, 1:470-78, on the same subject.
\textsuperscript{43}"Mining Laws of the Vermilion Lake Mining District, Minnesota," adopted in Convention of Miners, at Vermilion Lake, March 10, 1866, in \textit{Vermilion Lake Mineral Land Company, Articles of Association}, in Richard Eames Papers.
continued, because "the area of the auriferous district is sufficiently extensive to meet the requirements of all concerned." 44
Within two months after the governor's speech, Minnesota legislators tackled the problem of regulating mining on public lands. They passed laws which recognized the right of miners to meet, form a district, and pass all rules and regulations that were deemed necessary. They decreed that miners should control the locating, holding, recording, and working of claims within their jurisdiction and limited the size of individual claims to 200 square feet, in support of the belief that each owner should occupy his own tract. 45
While not solely concerned with Minnesota, Congress also supported the "local custom or rules of miners in the [mining] district." The federal law, passed on July 26, 1866, prohibited a person from filing a claim at the local land office until he had occupied and improved it according to local rules and expended not less than $1,000 in actual labor and improvements. Each location acquired after passage of the federal statute could not exceed 200 feet in length along the vein. In addition, an association of miners could not acquire more than 3,000 feet in any one claim. 46
Thus both state and federal governments supported a possessory title for mineral lands that called for the actual occupation and development of small claims. Mining companies at Lake Vermilion, however, continued to express disagreement over scrip locations and dissatisfaction with the limits placed on individual claims.
Before further problems arose, the Vermilion gold excitement subsided, and interest in the mines steadily declined. By late summer and early fall of 1866, many miners had abandoned the gold fields without locating gold deposits of any value. Large companies with heavy capital investments remained throughout the 1867 season, but they, too, returned empty-handed. Late in the summer of 1867, Newson and most of the Mutual Protection crews traveled back to St. Paul. By July, only seventy miners remained at the lake, prompting the Superior Gazette to report "the Vermilion mines played out, no encouraging reports from mining operations." 47 Within ten years the only white people remaining in the area were a few government employees at the Nett Lake Reservation. About the only individuals who had
---
44 Stephen Miller, Annual Message to the Legislature, 1866, p. 13–15.
45 Laws, 1866, p. 80–81.
46 United States, Statutes at Large, 14:251–53. The law operated until it was repealed in 1872. Within less than a year, new legislation excluded Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin mineral lands. See Statutes at Large, 17:91–96, 465.
47 Elliot, in White Papers (quoting Superior Gazette for July 20, 1867).
realized a profit from the gold excitement were teamsters freighting equipment north from the head of Lake Superior, owners of stores handling mining supplies, and operators of boarding houses and saloons.
No serious observer had doubted the existence of gold- and silver-bearing quartz in the Lake Vermilion countryside, although Henry H. Eames never relocated the exact source of the samples that had created the initial excitement. Geologist Albert Chester of New York was hired to search for iron ore in 1882 and also conducted a thorough examination of the "so-called gold deposits." He collected specimens from many quartz veins, carefully analyzed all of them, and concluded that "it was . . . not a matter of surprise that these 'gold ores' did not contain any gold."48 Six years later, in 1888, Minnesota State Geologist Newton H. Winchell included a brief description of the Vermilion gold district in his annual field observations. He agreed with Chester's analysis but explained that what the New York geologist had collected "was magnetic pyrite which is rarely if ever auriferous." After an examination of the former Winston townsite in 1886, Winchell had observed: "Other quartz veins are pervaded by pyrites in abundance." The state geologist concluded that gold-bearing quartz existed in the vicinity of Lake Vermilion in enough quantity "to make a valuable low grade ore that could profitably be mined by the same methods as those employed in the Black Hills."49 This report, however, never proved sufficient incentive to encourage further speculation in Vermilion gold ore.
No sizable profits resulted from investments made in the fifteen or so companies which organized, established claims, and sought gold-bearing quartz. The Lake Vermilion gold rush did, however, have other significant results. It evoked a speculative excitement that renewed and redirected attention toward the western Great Lakes, an interest that had diminished as a result of panic and depression in the late 1850s. It briefly attracted national attention to a region of vast potential mineral wealth, it brought about the Chippewas' relinquishment of title to the land; and it helped open the interior of the Arrowhead country through the construction of a road. Later this transportation link was essential for the profitable extraction of vast stores of iron ore. Many men who "caught" the gold fever, including George Stuntz and Lewis J. Merritt, subsequently played major roles in the initial exploitation of both the Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges. The search for gold in the mid-1860s spurred state government interest in the North Shore that led to the establishment of a regular and scientifically accurate geologic survey. But with the passing of the gold rush, ten years were to elapse, a decade during which an expanding iron and steel industry demanded additional sources of iron ore, before speculators rekindled a concern for the natural resources of the interior of northeastern Minnesota.
---
48 Albert H. Chester, "The Iron Region of Northern Minnesota," in Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. Annual Report, 1882, 155–166 (first quote), 167 (second quote).
49 Newton H. Winchell, "Record of Field-Observations in 1888," in Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. Annual Report, 1889, 19–22.
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Tell Me More: Digital Eyes to the Physical World for Early Childhood Learning
Vijay Ekambaram, Ruhi Sharma Mittal, Prasenjit Dey, Ravi Kokku, Aditya K Sinha, Satya V Nitta
IBM Research
email@example.com, firstname.lastname@example.org, email@example.com
firstname.lastname@example.org, email@example.com, firstname.lastname@example.org
ABSTRACT
Children are inherently curious and rapidly learn a number of things from the physical environments they live in, including rich vocabulary. An effective way of building vocabulary is for the child to actually interact with physical objects in their surroundings and learn in their context [17]. Enabling effective learning from the physical world with digital technologies is, however, challenging. Specifically, a critical technology component for physical-digital interaction is visual recognition. The recognition accuracy provided by state-of-the-art computer vision services is not sufficient for use in Early Childhood Learning (ECL); without high (near 100%) recognition accuracy of objects in context, learners may be presented with wrongly contextualized content and concepts, thereby making the learning solutions ineffective and un-adoptable. In this paper, we present a holistic visual recognition system for ECL physical-digital interaction that improves recognition accuracy levels using (a) domain restriction, (b) multi-modal fusion of contextual information, and (c) semi-automated feedback with different gaming scenarios for right object-tag identification & classifier re-training. We evaluate the system with a group of 12 children in the age group of 3-5 years and show how these new systems can combine existing APIs and techniques in interesting ways to greatly improve accuracies, and hence make such new learning experiences possible.
1. INTRODUCTION
Children learn a lot from the physical environment they live in. One of the important aspects of early childhood learning is vocabulary building, which happens to a substantial extent in the physical environment they grow up in [17]. Studies have shown that failure to develop sufficient vocabulary at an early age affects a child’s reading comprehension and hence their ability to understand other important concepts that may define their academic success in the future. It is also evident from a study that failure to expose a child to sufficient number of words by the age of three years leads to a 30 million word gap between kids who have been exposed to a lot of quality conversations, versus the ones that have not been exposed as much [13].
Vocabulary building has been a theme for early childhood learning and is closely associated with its context in the physical world. The exploration of physical surroundings of the child triggers new vocabulary and vice-versa. Relating physical world objects and concepts, to digital world content requires seamless flow of information. Increasingly, availability of cheap sensors such as camera, microphone etc. on connected devices enable capture of physical world information and context, and translate them to personalized digital learning.
An envisioned system uses mobile devices to take pictures of the child’s physical surroundings and make the best sense out of the picture. This is then translated to a learning session where the child is taught about the object in focus, its relation to other objects, its pronunciation, it’s multiple representations, etc. Recognition of pictures for teaching a child requires high recognition accuracy. In-the-wild image recognition accuracies are in general low, especially for images taken with mobile devices. Moreover, pictures taken by a child is even more challenging given the shake, blur, lighting issues, pose etc. that come with it.
To this end, in this paper, we take a holistic approach of recognition-in-context using a combination of (a) domain restriction, (b) multi-modal fusion of contextual information, and (c) gamified disambiguation and classifier re-training using child-in-the-loop. Specifically, we use object recognition results from a custom-trained (with images from restricted domains) vision classifier, and combine them with information from the domain knowledge that is available whenever a new domain of words is taught to a child in the classroom or at home. We use a new voting based multimodal classifier fusion algorithm to disambiguate the results of vision classifier, with results from multiple NLP classifiers, for better accuracy. We show that using such a framework, we can attain levels of accuracy that can make a large majority of the physical-digital interaction experiences fruitful to the child, and also get useful feedback from the child at a low cognitive load to enable the system to retrain the classifier and improve accuracy. We tested our system with a group of 12 children in the age group of 3-5 years and show that children can play an image disambiguation game (that allows the child to verify what class label has actually been identified by the system) very easily with graceful degradation of performance on difficult images. In most cases, multi-modal context disambiguation improves object recognition accuracy significantly, and hence the human disambiguation step remains limited to one or two rounds, which ensures the child’s continuing interest in the games and learning activities. The system learns from the child feedback, and the child in turn feels engaged to enable the system to learn over time. The nuggets of information made available about the object in focus at the end of playing a game were also found to be very engaging by the child.
In summary, this paper makes the following contributions:
- We take a holistic approach to address the challenges with
automatic visual recognition for physical digital interaction to enable early childhood learning in context. Our three-stage approach includes (a) domain restriction, (b) contextual disambiguation and (c) gamified human disambiguation, which enables a platform for building a variety of early childhood learning applications with physical-digital interaction.
- We propose a novel re-ranking algorithm that uses the notion of strong vouching to re-order the output labels of a vision classifier based on strong supporting evidence provided by the additional context from semantic representation models in NLP, namely GloVe [6], Word2vec [11] and ConceptNet [5] (which can be textual cues in the form of classroom and curriculum context, domain focus, conversational input and clues, etc.). Note that, we use the terms “re-order” and “re-rank” interchangeably throughout this paper.
- We evaluate a simple disambiguation game for children to choose the right label from the Top-K labels given out by the system. Through an usability study with 12 children, we make the case that engaging user experiences can indeed be developed to bridge the gap between automatic visual recognition accuracies and the requirement of high accuracy for meaningful learning activities.
2. MOTIVATION AND RELATED WORK
Early childhood learning applications with physical-digital interaction fall into two categories: (i) Application-initiated activities: In this category, the child is given a context by the application and is required to find relevant physical object and take a picture [2]. For example, the application may prompt the child to take a picture of “something that we sit on”, “a fruit”, “something that can be used to cut paper”, etc. (ii) Child-initiated activities: In this category, the child takes a picture of an object and intends to know what it is, where it comes from, other examples of the same type of objects, etc. For example, the child may take a picture of a new gadget or machine found in school, a plant or a leaf or a flower, etc. and wants to know more about them.
In each of these categories, the application is required to identify what the object is with Top-1 accuracy (i.e. a vision recognition solution should emit the right label at the top with high confidence). While a lot of advancement has been made in the improvement of accuracy of vision classifiers, Top-1 accuracy levels are still relatively low, although Top-5 accuracy levels (i.e. the right label is one of the top 5 labels emitted) are more reasonable. Nevertheless, the goal is to be able to work with the Top-5 list, and using the techniques described earlier, push the Top-1 accuracy to acceptable levels for a better interaction.
2.1 Vision Recognition Accuracy
To understand the efficacy of state-of-the-art solutions quantitatively, we experimented with two deep convolution neural networks (Baseline Model 1: VGGNet [18] and Baseline Model 2: Inception V3 [19]). Inception V3 has been found to have 21.2% top-1 error rate for ILSVRC 2012 classification challenge validation set [8]. Even in experiments where baseline models were custom trained with 300 training images per class and tested with images taken from iPad, we observed low Top-1 accuracy (of 72.6% in Baseline Model 1 and 79.1% in Baseline Model 2); i.e. one in about four images will be wrongly labeled. Even the Top-5 accuracy is 88.05% in Baseline Model 1 and 89.3% in Baseline Model 2. We also trained the Baseline models with the complete Imagenet[8] images for the considered classes and we observed <1% improvement. Further, when multiple objects are present in the image frame, the Top-1 accuracy degrades further (38.2% in Baseline Model 1 and 44.5% in Baseline Model 2 for 2 objects in a frame), and so does Top-5 accuracy (of 77.9% in Baseline Model 1 and 85.6% in Baseline Model 2). Note that this could be a common scenario with children taking pictures, in which multiple objects get captured in a single image frame. Observe that recent Augment Reality (AR) Applications such as Blippar [4], Layer [9], Aurasma [3] rely on similar vision recognition task, and hence run into similar inaccuracies in uncontrolled settings. While adult users of such applications may be tolerant to inaccuracies of the application, children may get disengaged when the system detects something wrongly or is unable to detect at all.
2.2 Multi-modal Information Fusion
Using additional information to identify the objects holds promise in improving the accuracy of vision recognition. For instance, several past works ([22], [14], [15]) improve the image classification output based on the text features derived from the image. Specifically, authors in [20] propose techniques that train the model specifically with images that contain text, for efficient extraction of text and image features from the image. They also propose fusion techniques to merge these features for improving image recognition accuracies. While this may be possible in some scenarios, the application’s accuracy will remain a challenge when such textual information embedded in the image is not present. Several works in literature propose indexing of images based on text annotations for efficient image search. [12] surveys and consolidates various approaches related to efficient image retrieval system based on text annotations. Likewise, [21] proposes techniques to label images based on image similarity concepts. These works are complementary, and do not address the problem of correctly determining the labels right when a picture is taken based on a context.
In summary, the early childhood learning scenarios require a holistic solution that leverages the state-of-the-art vision recognition solutions, but goes beyond in improving the detection accuracy of the image captured to make engaging applications for children. We describe one such holistic solution next.
3. PROPOSED APPROACH
Our goal is to enable a holistic solution for applications to provide as input an image taken by a child, and emit as output the final label that should be used as an index into the relevant learning content. A high level overview of our solution is depicted in Figure. 1. In one of the envisioned applications built for physical-digital interaction, a child takes a picture that is sent as input to the proposed ECL Image Recognition (ECL-IR) Module that emits the correct label of the image by applying the following three stages: (i) Stage 1: Domain Specific Customized Training (which improves Top-K accuracy), (ii) Stage 2: Domain Knowledge (DK) based disambiguation and reordering (which improves Top-1 accuracy) and (iii) Stage 3: Human Disambiguation game (confirmation step). We now discuss each of these stages in detail.
3.1 Stage 1: Domain Specific Customized Training of Baseline Models
The first stage of our solution strives to improve the Top-K accuracy of the vision classifiers by constraining the domain of child learning in which they are applied. In order to achieve this, we perform custom training of the baseline models with domain-specific data sets. This step is very commonly applied in most of the vision recognition use-cases for improving the Top-K accuracy and several reported statistics indicate good Top-K accuracy improvements through custom training. For example current state-of-art vision classifier [19] reports 94.6% Top-5 accuracy on ILSVRC 2012 classification challenge validation set. However, even this state-of-art vision classifier reports 21.2% Top-1 error rate on the same validation set. In the next section, we discuss how ECL-IR module improves Top-1 accuracy through contextualized reordering (Stage 2).
3.2 Stage 2: Domain Knowledge based Disambiguation and Reordering
In this section, we propose to improve the Top-1 accuracy through intelligent reordering of the Top-5 labels from the vision classifier. In order to achieve this, we leverage the domain knowledge associated with the teaching activity as a second source of information to re-order the Top-5 output labels. Domain Knowledge refers to the classroom learning context (derived from teacher’s current syllabus, teaching themes, object related clues, collaborative clues) based on which the learning activity is conducted. Note that the Domain Knowledge could be a word or a phrase too. We now discuss various important aspects of this stage in detail.
Enabling Semantic Capability. Domain Knowledge is a text representation of the intent or activity derived from the classroom context. However, same intent or information could be conveyed through different keywords, and hence traditional bag-of-word approaches [23] will not solve the problem in our use-cases. We leverage the support of semantic representations (i.e. distributed word representation [16]) of words for enabling keyword independent re-ranking algorithm. In distributed word representation, words are represented as N-dimensional vectors such that distance between them capture semantic information. There are various pre-trained semantic representation models (also called word embedding models such as Word2Vec [11], GloVe [6]) available which enable semantic comparison of words. Likewise, there is also ConceptNet [5] which is a multilingual knowledge base, representing words and phrases that people use and the common-sense relationships between them. This paper leverages these existing works to achieve an effective re-ranking of the output label-set with semantic capability.
Existing Approach Results. One naive way to approach the problem of re-ranking is to find the DK Correlation Score (DK-CS) using Algorithm. 1 and re-rank the Top-5 labels in descending order of their DK-CS. However, this approach has strong bias towards the semantic representation output and completely ignores the ranking that is produced by the vision classifier.
Other fusion approaches that have been tried are combining one or more of the classifier outputs (i) Word2Vec (S1), (ii) GloVe (S2), (iii) ConceptNet (S3), (iv) Vision (S4) in different ways. The most common are the product rule and the weighted average rule where the confidence scores are combined by computing either a product of them or a weighted sum of them. The improvement in Top-1 accuracy of such combinations varies from -1% to 6%. We observe that the Top-1 accuracy of the system did not increase significantly and in many cases Top-1 accuracy of the system dropped after re-ranking as compared to the original list. The reason being the need for proper and more efficient resolution of conflicts between DK-CS wins vs. vision confidence score wins. In the next section, we explain the proposed novel re-ranking algorithm which highly improves the Top-1 accuracy of the system by effectively resolving the conflicts between DK-CS and vision rankings.
Proposed Re-Ranking Approach. In our proposed approach, we fuse the inferences from various semantic models and vision model using Majority-Win Strong Vouching algorithm for re-ordering the Top-5 output list. There are two important aspects of this approach: (i) Strong Vouching of Semantic Models, (ii) Majority Voting across Semantic Models.
Strong Vouching of Semantic Models: As discussed earlier, the reason for failure of the traditional fusion approaches is the need for efficient resolution of conflicts between the semantic model ranks and the vision model ranks. Let us understand this problem through 2 example scenarios. (i) Scenario 1: Top-1 prediction is “orange”. Top-2 prediction is “apple”, domain Knowledge is “fruits”; (ii) Scenario 2: Top-1 prediction is “orange”, Top-2 prediction is “apple”, domain knowledge is “red fruits”. In the first scenario, since the domain knowledge is semantically correlated towards both Top-1 and Top-2 predicted labels, system should maintain the same order as predicted by the vision model. However, in the second scenario, since the domain knowledge (i.e. “red fruits”) is highly correlated towards Top-2 (i.e. “apple”) as compared to Top-1 (i.e. “orange”), system should swap the order of Top-1 and Top-2 labels. It turns out that just having a higher DK-CS to swap the labels is not enough. We show that DK-CS of one label (label-1) should override the other label (label-2) by a specific threshold value to indicate that label-1 is semantically more correlated with as compared to label-2 and hence effect a swap against the vision rank. Through empirical analysis in Section. 4.2, we show that, in the context of reordering Top-K labels, if normalized DK-CS of a label is greater than the other label by a value equal to $1/k$ (threshold value), then the former label is more semantically correlated with domain knowledge as compared to the latter.
Majority Voting across Semantic Models: As mentioned before, many semantic models exist in the literature and each of them are trained on various data-sets. Therefore, it is not necessary that the strong vouching behavior of all these semantic models to be same. In order to resolve this, our approach considers multiple semantic models together (such as GloVe, Word2Vec and ConceptNet) and enables swapping of i-th label with j-th label ($i<j$) in the Top-K output list only when majority of semantic models are strongly vouching that j-th label is more correlated with DK as compared to the i-th label. This makes the system more intelligent in resolving across...
semantic models as well as resolving conflicts across DK correlation score wins vs. vision confidence score wins. Algorithm. 2 explains the overall flow of the proposed re-ranking algorithm.
**Algorithm 2:** Fusion based on Majority Win Strong Vouching Concept
**Input:** Top-K output label from image recognition model, Domain Knowledge(DK)
**Output:** Reordered Top-K output label list
1. Sort Top-K labels based on vision confidence score
2. Re-rank the Top-K label by sorting using the following compare logic
3. Compare logic (i-th label, j-th label, DK): **begin**
- [Note] i-th label precedes j-th label in the ranked Top-K list.
- X1 = Total number of semantic models strongly-vouching for j-th label as compared to i-th label
- X2 = Total number of semantic models strongly-vouching for i-th label as compared to j-th label
- **if** X1 > X2 **then**
- swap i-th label and j-th label in the Ranked Top-K list
- **else**
- Maintain the same order of i-th label and j-th label
4. **return** Re-Ranked Top-K List
### 3.3 Stage 3: Human Disambiguation Game
It is important to note that, due to limitation of existing state-of-art vision models, though we achieve effective improvements, we never reach an accuracy of 100%. Even after effective custom training and DK based Top-K re-ranking, accuracy of the system is not 100% (though high improvements are observed). So, there has to be a confirmation step involving human-in-loop to confirm whether the predicted label is the right label to prevent teaching wrong objectives. Since we are dealing with Kids, this step has to be extremely light, simple, and also engaging for the Kids so that, they do not feel any extra cognitive load. In this section, we propose a simple disambiguation game which is designed in a way that, (i) Kids easily play with it correctly, (ii) Kids interaction with the game highly reduces when Top-1 accuracy of the system is high. Through enhancements as explained in previous sections, we make vision model to reach high Top-1 accuracy which in-turn reduces the Kids interactions in the disambiguation game, thereby reducing the overall cognitive overload to the Kids.
Our system leverages image matching for the disambiguation game. Re-ranked Top-K list (which is the output from Stage 2) is fed as input to the disambiguation game. This game is depicted in Figure. 2 renders reference images of the label (with possible variants of a same object) one by one in the order of the re-ranked list and asks the Kid to select the image, if it looks similar to the object clicked (through camera). If not, system show the next reference image and continues till all K labels are rendered. Since the input to the game is a re-ranked Top-K list (which has high Top-1 accuracy), Kid has high chances of encountering the right image in the first or second step itself, thus reducing the cognitive load of the kid to traverse till the end. Usability Guidelines [10] [1] for Child based Apps suggest large on-screen elements which are well spatially separated for Kids to easily interact with them. So, based on the display size of the form-factor, system could configure the no of images to be rendered in one step/cycle. Through usability study with 15 Kids, we show that Kids are able to easily play image similarity based disambiguation games. In scenarios when the right label is not in the predicted Top-K labels, system executes the exit scenarios as configured. Few possible exit scenarios could be: (i) Continue the game with other labels in the learning vocabulary set in the sorted order of DK, (ii) Request for teacher intervention, etc.
### 4. EVALUATION
We present here the experimental setup and results of improvement in the vision classifier results achieved by the re-ordering approach. We then explain and present the results of the empirical analysis to determine the value of threshold for strong vouching of the semantic models. To show that our approach is independent of domain knowledge, test set, training class set, and baseline image classification models (generality of approach), we performed various experiments as explained in following subsections. Later in this section, we present the usability study and inferences from the study conducted with a group of 12 children in the age group of 3–5 years.
**Datasets:** The training dataset includes images from Imagenet [8]. We used 52 classes and approximately 400 images per class for training. These 52 selected classes are objects commonly used in early childhood learning, for example, apple, car, book, and violin, etc. The test datasets include real images taken from mobile phones and tablets. The test dataset I includes 1K images where single object (from training set) is present in an image frame. The test dataset II includes 2.6K images where two objects (from training set) are present in an image frame. All the experiments were performed using two baseline image classification models: (i) Baseline Model 1 (BM1): Model based on VGGNet architecture [18], (ii) Baseline Model 2 (BM2): Model based on Inception-V3 architecture [19].
**Domain Knowledge:** During all the experiments, we used two different domain knowledge (DK): Domain Knowledge 1 (DK1), which is the google dictionary definition [7] of each object class; Domain Knowledge 2 (DK2), which is the merged description of each object class collected from three different annotators (crowdsourced approach). By this way, we make sure that the domain knowledge is not keyword dependent and re-ordering happens at semantic level rather than at any specific keyword matching level.
**Evaluation Metrics:** In order to illustrate the performance of the proposed approach, evaluation parameters such as Top-1 accuracy, Top-5 accuracy, and improvements in Top-1 accuracy are used. The Top-1 accuracy is computed as the proportion of images such that the ground-truth label is the Top-1 predicted label. Similarly, the Top-5 accuracy is computed as the proportion of images such that the ground truth label is one of the Top-5 predicted labels.
### 4.1 Experimental Results
The cumulative accuracy distribution of Baseline Model 1 (BM1) and Baseline Model 2 (BM2) on test dataset I and II is shown in Figure. 3. Figures 3(a), 3(b) shows the improvement in the Top-1 accuracy after re-ordering on dataset I which has one object in an image frame. As shown in Figure. 3, for BM1, without re-ordering only 35% of object classes have Top-1 accuracy more than 90%, whereas with re-ordering using DK1 or DK2 around 55% of classes...
have more than 90% Top-1 accuracy. Similarly, for BM2 our approach shows 20% improvement in number of classes for 90% or above Top-1 accuracy on dataset I as shown in Figure 3(b).
When a child takes an image, it is common that multiple objects get captured in that image. If more than one object is present in an image, then the confusion of the classifier highly increases which leads to low Top-1 accuracy. Figure. 3(c), 3(d) show the improvement in Top-1 accuracy on data set II, where two objects (from training set) are present in an image frame. As shown in Figure. 3(c), for BM1, without re-ordering only 7% of object classes have Top-1 accuracy more than 90% whereas with re-ordering using DK1 or DK2 around 40% of classes have more than 90% Top-1 accuracy. Similarly, for BM2, our approach shows improvement of 45% in number of classes for 90% or more Top-1 accuracy on dataset II as shown in Figure. 3(d).
### 4.2 Empirical analysis to determine threshold for strong vouching of semantic models
In this section, we explain the empirical analysis which determines the threshold value required by semantic models for strong vouching as discussed in Section. 3.2. In comparing two elements with respect to their semantic correlation with domain knowledge (i.e. DK-CS), the threshold stands for the minimum value by which DK-CS of one element should be higher than the other to confidently say that the element is semantically more correlated with the domain knowledge as compared to the other element. Choice of correct threshold value is very crucial for the proposed approach. *The threshold value should be as high so as to avoid wrong swapping of labels, and as low to allow correct swapping of labels for better Top-1 accuracy improvements.*
For the empirical analysis of threshold value, we conducted experiments on dataset II with the following combinations (i) four different domain knowledges collected through crowd sourcing, (ii) four different threshold values, and (iii) for both baseline models (BM1&BM2) to make it independent of any local data-behavior. The results are shown in Figure. 4. From the results, we noticed that the correct threshold value is 0.2 for reordering Top-5 predicted labels. As observed in Figure. 4, Top-1 accuracy reaches the peak value when the threshold value is 0.2. We now discuss the reason behind this magical number.
In our approach, we use normalized DK-CS, which means if we consider equal distribution of labels while reordering Top-5 predicted labels, then the DK-CS for each label is 0.2 (i.e. 1/5). We propose that, if DK-CS of one label overrides the semantic score of another label by a value near or equal to the $1/k$ (i.e. individual DK-CS of the labels considering equal distribution of each label), then it is considered as **strong vouching** by semantic model for the former label.
In order to confirm the above proposed claim, we performed experiments to reorder Top-4 predicted labels (results are shown in Figure. 5). From the results, we can see that the performance is at peak for threshold between values 0.2 and 0.3, which is near to 0.25 (1/k where k is number 4). There is very noticeable degradation in performance when threshold is below 0.2 or above 0.3. Similar trends were also observed when experimenting with Top-3 re-ordering.
Therefore, the correct choice of threshold while re-ordering Top-k predicted labels is $1/k$. When system is tuned to vouch strongly using this threshold value, we observe high improvements in Top-1 accuracy.
### 4.3 Usability Study
The main purpose of this usability study is to observe the following key points in children of ages between 3-5 years: (i) whether they can take images using the camera of a phone or tablet, (ii) whether they can perform visual comparison between the physical object for which picture was taken, and its reference image provided by the classifier in the disambiguation game, (iii) comparison of cognitive load on children when they see less vs. more number of images on a device screen during the game. To conduct this study, we asked the child to play with our app installed on iPads, which logged the complete click stream data of the app for tracking various quantitative parameters. We also noted down the feedback from parents/observer during the activity play.
We conducted this usability study on 12 children with a total of 29 trials. In each trail, a child was allowed to play with the app as long
s/he wanted. We observed that some children played only one time in a trial and some played upto 8 times in a trail. There were no limitations on the number of trails per child. We did not observe even a single instance where a child was asked to capture an image of a relevant object using the camera and s/he failed to do it. This shows that children of that age group can easily take pictures. The average time taken by a child to search for an object in the environment and take picture was 20 seconds. From the collected data, we observed that around 90% of times, children are able play the disambiguation game correctly. The common feedback which we got from parents/observers is that children liked this app and wanted to play it again and again.
The comparison of cognitive load on a child when (s)he got 2 object images (from Top-2) vs. 5 object images (from Top-5) on a screen during disambiguation game is shown in Figure.6 (a). Around 95% of children took upto 7 and 11 seconds for disambiguation game when they got 2 and 5 options on a screen, respectively (as shown in figure 6a). Similarly, Figure. 6 (b) shows that on an average a child failed to make a visual comparison only 5% of time (when there were 2 images on a screen) and 15% of time (when there were 5 images on a screen). These results indicate that, child is able to easily play the disambiguation game but the cognitive load reduces when less number of images were rendered in each turn of the game. Since the proposed re-ranking algorithm increases the Top-1 accuracy of the system, the child could reach the right object in initial rounds of the disambiguation game with high chance, thereby providing a good user experience.
5. CONCLUSION
We present a holistic visual recognition system for Early Childhood Learning through physical-digital interaction that improves recognition accuracy levels using (a) domain restriction and custom training of vision classifiers, (b) a novel re-ranking algorithm for multi-modal fusion of contextual information, and (c) semi-automated feedback with different gaming scenarios for right object-tag identification & classifier re-training. Through a usability study with 12 children, we make the case that engaging user experiences can indeed be developed to bridge the gap between automatic visual recognition accuracies and the requirement of high accuracy for meaningful learning activities.
Extensive evaluations on large datasets brought forth the deficiency of existing multimodal fusion techniques in combining the domain knowledge context with the vision classification results. Using a data driven approach we show the efficacy of our proposed re-ranking algorithm based on strong vouching, and also show that the swapping threshold (derived from data) is also anchored in a physical meaning.
For future work we would like to conduct extensive pilot study with children to demonstrate evidence-of-learning for vocabulary acquisition using physical-digital interaction. We would also like to use other implicit contexts such as location, speech cues, wearable sensors etc. to derive domain knowledge for better multimodal disambiguation.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Usability guidelines for kids. http://rosenfeldmedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/DesignforKids-excerpt.pdf.
[2] Alien assignment app. http://mykindertown.com/apps/alien-assignment, 2017.
[3] Aurasma. https://www.aurasma.com/, 2017.
[4] Blippar. https://blippar.com/en/, 2017.
[5] Conceptnet. https://github.com/commonsense/conceptnet5/wiki, 2017.
[6] Glove. http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/glove/, 2017.
[7] Google dictionary. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/google, 2017.
[8] Imagenet. http://www.image-net.org/, 2017.
[9] Layar - augmented reality. http://app.crawlr.com/ios/layar-reality-browser-augmented, 2017.
[10] Usability guidelines for kids. http://hci.usask.ca/publications/2005/HCI_TR_2005_02_-_Design.pdf, 2017.
[11] Word2vec. https://github.com/dav/word2vec, 2017.
[12] A. N. Bhute and B. Meshram. Text based approach for indexing and retrieval of image and video: A review. arXiv preprint arXiv:1404.1514, 2014.
[13] B. Hart et al. The early catastrophe: The 30 million word gap by age 3. American educator, 27(1):4–9, 2003.
[14] Y. Lin et al. Text-aided image classification: Using labeled text from web to help image classification. In Web Conference (APWEB), 2010 12th International Asia-Pacific, pages 267–273. IEEE, 2010.
[15] H. Ma et al. Bridging the semantic gap between image contents and tags. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, 12(5):462–473, 2010.
[16] T. Mikolov et al. Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In Advances in neural information processing systems, pages 3111–3119, 2013.
[17] B. C. Roy et al. Predicting the birth of a spoken word. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(41):12663–12668, 2015.
[18] K. Simonyan and A. Zisserman. Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1556, 2014.
[19] C. Szegedy et al. Rethinking the inception architecture for computer vision. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pages 2818–2826, 2016.
[20] L. Tian et al. Image classification based on the combination of text features and visual features. International Journal of Intelligent Systems, 28(3):242–256, 2013.
[21] G. Wang et al. Building text features for object image classification. In Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pages 1.367–1.374. IEEE, 2009.
[22] C. Xu et al. Fusion of text and image features: A new approach to image spam filtering. In Practical Applications of Intelligent Systems, pages 129–140. Springer, 2011.
[23] Y. Zhang et al. Understanding bag-of-words model: a statistical framework. International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics, 1(1-4):43–52, 2010. | <urn:uuid:4fcefb59-442b-4ad9-a50b-fddcbc0d6c96> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | http://educationaldatamining.org/EDM2017/proc_files/papers/paper_108.pdf | 2018-10-18T11:14:43Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583511806.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20181018105742-20181018131242-00441.warc.gz | 113,146,438 | 7,801 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995314 | eng_Latn | 0.996477 | [
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UNIT 5 MANAGING LOGISTICS
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 An Overview of Logistics
5.3 Functions of Logistics in Business
5.4 Principles of Logistics
5.5 Key Logistics Activities
5.6 Logistics Management – Conceptual Framework
5.6.1 Conceptual Framework of Logistics Management
5.6.2 Objectives of Logistics Management
5.6.3 Scope of Logistics Management
5.6.4 Importance of Logistics Management
5.7 Agricultural Logistics
5.7.1 Meaning of Agricultural Logistics
5.7.2 Logistics Management for the Agri Farm
5.7.3 Major Challenges in Agricultural Logistics
5.7.4 Government Measures to Improve Agricultural Logistics
5.7.5 Benefits of Improved Agricultural Logistics for Farmers and Stakeholders
5.8 Role of Logistics Management in Agriculture
5.9 Factors Determining Logistics Plan
5.10 Let Us Sum Up
5.11 Keywords
5.12 Suggested Further Readings/References
5.13 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define the concept of logistics and its functions;
• provide a conceptual framework of Logistic Management;
• justify the need for logistics management in agricultural business; and
• elaborate on the key activities related to logistics.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learners,
In previous units of this course, we understood the concept of agri value chain, agri value sheet, and agri supply chain. We also learned how to apply supply chain in agri farms in the previous unit. However, the effectiveness of the supply chain depends on logistics. In any type of organization, the activities pertaining to the production and delivery of products and services assume importance. Their design, acquisition, storage, movement, distribution, maintenance and several related aspects must be taken care of and managed. This whole process comes under the function of logistics management. The term ‘Logistics’ focuses on the efficient and cost-effective delivery of goods to the customer. In general, supply chain management controls the development of raw materials into finished goods that move from the supplier to producer to warehouse to retailers and/or consumers.
We know that, in supply chain management, logistics are responsible for the movement and storage of goods and services, along with the documents and reports that record those movements throughout an item’s journey to the customer. Logistics include the numerous transportation methods that carry inventory from one location to another. The agriculture sector or agribusiness sector is not the exception. However, in this unit, we will concentrate on the term called ‘Logistics’. We shall introduce the concept of logistics and discuss its principles and forms. While the terms “logistics” and “supply chain” are sometimes used interchangeably, that is not correct, logistics is an element of the overall supply chain.
Here, we will learn how logistics management plays a crucial role in ensuring the success of the agricultural supply chain and particularly, in the production of the most widely produced crops in our country. We shall be familiarizing ourselves with certain terms and concepts that are important in the overall framework of logistics management. We also learn about the objectives and importance of logistics or logistics management in agribusiness and you will get a guideline on how to solve the logistics-related problems for any agribusiness.
5.2 AN OVERVIEW OF LOGISTICS
The term ‘logistics’ is derived from the Greek term l’ogos, which denotes ‘order’, and from the French word loger, which implies the art of war pertaining to the movement and supply of armies; being the branch of military science concerned with the movement, supply and maintenance of troops. The origin of logistics is of a strictly military nature and this discipline gained significance because of the importance of the study of the methodologies employed to guarantee the appropriate supply of provisions, ammunition and fuel to the troops and in general, to ensure the army the facility of moving and fighting in the most difficult conditions. In its all-inclusive sense, logistics covered those aspects of military operations that deal with:
i) design, development, acquisition, storage, movement, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of materials;
ii) movement, evacuation, and hospitalization of personnel;
iii) acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities; and
iv) acquisition or furnishing of services.
In any business, logistics is the management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption to meet the requirements of customers or corporations.
• Recent Developments in Logistics
Logistics is a very old concept. In recent times, the concept of logistics has been changed. Logistics development over the period was evolving, around 1980, new concepts of logistics management assumed importance in the movement of materials at every stage of the process including:
i) Materials management, the timely movement of raw materials, parts and supplies.
ii) Physical distribution, of the firm’s finished products to the customers.
So, the function of logistics ranges from materials management to the distribution of finished products. The scenario by 2000, due to technological developments was of total integration. The goal of logistics is to coordinate all efforts of the organization to maintain a cost-effective flow of goods. Now, the coordination function is also included in logistics which means the importance of logistics has been expanded.
However, in simple words, logistics refers to the movement of goods from one place to another place, which entails two primary functions: transportation and warehousing.
5.3 FUNCTIONS OF LOGISTICS IN BUSINESS
First, we have to know the function of logistics in any business. The role of logistics is clearly much greater than just distribution of products. It ranges from the purchase of raw materials, and inventory management, to production management, operations control (inventory, quality, distribution and transportation), demand management (forecasting) and long-term planning (facility location, project management).
The logistics concept includes:
i) Satisfaction of stakeholders of a value chain (already we have learned in Unit 1 and Unit 2 of this course), here stakeholders include mainly, (i) suppliers, (ii) intermediate customers and (iii) final customers.
ii) Integrated efforts through (i) product, (ii) price, (iii) promotion and (iv) place or distribution.
iii) Farm profits by way of (i) maximizing long-term profitability; and (ii) lowest total costs given an acceptable level of customer service.
In subsequent sections, we shall discuss the function of logistics or logistics management in an agri farm in detail.
5.4 PRINCIPLES OF LOGISTICS
Initially, logistics was considered a custodial activity with storekeepers being the custodians of stored supplies. This view has changed with logistics concerned with the efficient movement of materials to the customers. The central principles of logistics are given as the Seven Rights of Logistics. It encompasses the movement of:
i) The Right Materials/Products so that always the product/service required at the time must be made available.
ii) In Right Quantity so that the correct amount is available, as smaller amounts result in the halting of production, while larger amounts result in building up stocks.
iii) In Right Condition so that the right quality of the product or service is made available that the client requires.
iv) At the Right Time ensuring the product/service is made available at the time required by the client.
v) To the Right Place so that the product/service be made available at the place where the client needs it.
vi) At the Right Cost ensuring the product/service is made available at the cost accepted by the client.
vii) To the Right Customers, Associates, Suppliers and Stockholders.
These seven rights highlight the importance of moving and storing materials in an efficient, timely, and reliable manner. The seven rights also link logistics to the key strategic objectives of cost competitiveness, quality, flexibility, and delivery. The seven rights demonstrate that logistic activities provide the foundation for high levels of customer satisfaction.
5.5 KEY LOGISTICS ACTIVITIES
The logistics of an agribusiness is the physical distribution of goods along with related activities that comprise the following:
i) Order processing: This encompasses activities for receiving, handling, filing, and recording orders and ensuring that they are accurate, reliable, and fast. The commercial team accepts the order from the customer and places the order in the warehouse. This is an important step in logistics activities because any lapse in this step (wrong entries of quantity, delivery address etc.) can affect the whole logistics process.
ii) Procurement: Obtaining materials from outside suppliers, including supply sourcing, negotiation, order placement, inbound transportation, receiving and inspection, storage, and handling.
iii) Material Handling: Material handling is the movement of goods within
the warehouse. It involves handling the material in such a way that the warehouse can process orders efficiently. It is important to properly arrange the material within the warehouse to facilitate easy movement and dispatch.
iv) Warehousing: Warehousing is the storing of finished goods until they are sold. The manufacturing activity for large companies might be at one point, but the distribution could be across the world. The important point is that the warehouse should be near to the dealer or the distributors’ place and it should facilitate the easy delivery of goods.
v) Inventory Control: Inventory i.e., stock, should be enough to meet customer requirements, and simultaneously, its carrying costs should be lowest. Inventory control is related to logistics.
vi) Transportation: Transportation involves the physical delivery of goods from the organization to the distributor or dealer and from the dealer to the end customer. It is one of the major logistics activities that consumes a lot of revenue for the organization. The better the warehousing and inventory management of a company, the lower its transportation costs.
vii) Packaging: Packaging the product is the responsibility of the logistics team because the product may reach in a damaged condition to the end customer and this becomes a huge cost to the company. There are two types of packaging (i) The package that the customer sees on the shelves of stores in markets that appears attractive and makes the customer buy the product, and (ii) The transport packaging where the products are packed in bulk and transported safely with minimum breakage or spillage.
viii) Information: Logistics is basically an information-based activity of inventory movement across a supply chain. Therefore, the information system plays a vital role in delivering a superior service to the customers.
Check Your Progress 5.1
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain the meaning of logistics management.
2. List any six logistics activities.
5.6 LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT – CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
After understanding the concept of logistics, we have to build an idea about logistics management. As we understand from the previous discussions, some of the logistics activities involve supply and demand planning, storage handling, distribution and product management, implementing technology and automation, sales logistics, customer service management, and reverse logistics. However, we shall be discussing the concept of logistics management.
5.6.1 Conceptual Framework of Logistics Management
During the recent two decades, the concept of logistics management has emerged to meet customer demand with the highest degree of accuracy. At present, effective logistics management is a critical success factor for all sectors including the agriculture sector. Logistics management in the agricultural farm is the process that ensures the optimal and continuous flow of agro-products from farmers to producers and, eventually, to consumers. You have to keep in mind that inefficient logistics can lead to increased costs, delays in production, and even spoilage of goods. As we know that increase in costs leads to a decrease in profits. So, logistics management is very crucial for any agri farm.
However, the management of logistics calls for effective planning, execution, controlling and coordinating of several activities. Its scope is wide and involves the processing of orders, maintenance of inventory, transportation, materials handling and packaging. This Unit acquaints the learners with the conceptual framework of logistics management, its scope and importance. It familiarizes the learner with certain key concepts in the realm of logistics management. The parties who are involved in a logistics management process are portrayed in Figure 5.1:
Logistics or logistics management is in charge of the safety of the product because it transports the goods from one location to another safely. It deals with material handling, warehousing, shipping, packaging and inventory control. Dealing with both finished and unfinished goods is a part of logistics.
Logistics management can affect an organization in more than one way. If the logistics of the organization is not efficient enough, it would lead to increased
costs and low customer satisfaction. On the other hand, efficient logistics serves to reduce the costs for the organization and increase customer service, therefore, helping in increasing the profitability.
5.6.2 Objectives of Logistics Management
The primary objective of logistics management is to maintain a smooth flow of materials in a supply chain effectively to meet the customers’ desired level of satisfaction. Maintaining organisational goals while keeping costs to a minimum is the purpose of logistics management. Storage, distribution, warehousing, handling of goods, transportation, tracking, and delivery of goods are all included in logistics management. In order to ensure that goods arrive at the appropriate location, at the appropriate time, for the appropriate price, and in the appropriate condition, it also requires planning, arranging, managing, coordinating, and controlling the flow of commodities. The objectives of logistics management are as follows:
i) To ensure all the requirements of the customers are met on time;
ii) To coordinate with third-party logistics (3PLs);
iii) To ensure the timely dispatch of the products;
iv) To devise policies and procedures for the successful implementation of the logistics system;
v) To synchronize business goals with a logistics system;
vi) To create and maintain customer support;
vii) To have stable integration among the vendors, service providers and transport carriers;
viii) To provide a competitive edge to an organisation through increased sales and better customer service; and
ix) To ensure cost reduction and maximize return from products/services.
5.6.3 Scope of Logistics Management
The scope of logistics management involves order processing, inventory control, transportation, warehousing, materials handling and packaging, all integrated throughout a network of facilities.
However, the scope of logistics management includes:
i) **Business Logistics**: It is the systematic and coordinated set of activities to provide the physical movement and storage of goods, services, and related information from the point of origin of the vendor or the supply services through company facilities to the point of consumption (customer/market) and the associated activities (like packaging, order processing) in an efficient manner necessary to enable the organisation to contribute to the explicit goals of the company and meet customer requirements.
ii) **Materials Management**: Materials management is the planning, organisation and control of all aspects of inventory, embracing procurement,
warehousing, work-in-progress, shipping and distribution of finished goods. It is the inbound logistics from suppliers through the production process, the movement and management of materials and products from procurement through production.
iii) **Physical Distribution:** It is the movement and storage functions associated with finished goods from manufacturing plants to warehouses and customers.
iv) **Distribution:** It relates to outbound logistics, from the end of the production line to the end user having activities associated with the movement of material, usually finished goods or service parts, from the manufacturer to the customer. These involve the functions of transportation, warehousing, inventory control, material handling, site and location analysis, packaging, and the communications network necessary for effective management.
v) **Supply Management:** Supply management is the act of identifying, acquiring, and managing the resources and suppliers that are essential to the operations of an organisation. It is related to logistics management.
### 5.6.4 Importance of Logistics Management
Logistics management is extremely important for any enterprise to be successful. It involves careful control of the goods both entering and leaving the business premises, thus keeping the organisation running smoothly as a whole. Logistics management helps organisations seeking to use logistics as the key to gaining a competitive advantage.
In logistics management, unwise decisions create multiple issues. For example, product deliveries that fail or are delayed lead to buyer dissatisfaction. The damage to goods due to careless transportation is another potential issue. Poor logistics planning gradually increases expenses, and issues may arise from the implementation of ineffective logistics software. Most of these problems occur due to improper decisions related to outsourcing, such as selecting the wrong vendor or carrying out delivery tasks without sufficient resources.
Logistics management is important for the following reasons:
i) **Cost Reduction and Profit Maximization:** The optimal way is to boost the revenue by improving logistics management. Logistics management results in cost reduction and profit maximization.
ii) **Success of Supply Chain:** Logistics management deals with numerous aspects of the supply chain such as production, automating functions, material handling, distribution and so on. This supply chain management actually depends on logistics management.
iii) **Efficient Flows of Production:** Inbound logistics help in the efficient flow of operations, due to the on-time delivery of materials, proper utilization of materials and semi-finished goods in the production process and so on.
iv) **Competitive Edge:** Logistics provide, maintain and sharpen the competitive edge of an enterprise by increasing sales through providing better customer
service, arranging for rapid and reliable delivery, avoiding errors in order processing; and so on.
v) **Successful Communication System**: An efficient information system is a must for sound logistics management. As such, logistics management helps in developing an effective communication system for continuous interface with suppliers and rapid response to customer enquiries.
vi) **Sound Inventory Management**: Sound inventory management is a byproduct of logistics management.
vii) **Get Better Warehouse Management**: When you optimize the logistics activities, it allows you to control and monitor your warehouse operations. Warehouse management activities involve storage and material handling of goods. It is a core pillar in the agriculture sector that starts from checking and tracking to distributing the goods to their final destination.
viii) **Improve Visibility**: Managing your logistics is important for business growth as it plays a major role in improving connectivity and visibility of the operations.
ix) **Risk Management**: Logistics management helps in reducing the risks of the farm. Logistics management can develop an effective approach to risk management to minimize the impact of business threats.
**Check Your Progress 5.2**
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write any three objectives of logistics management.
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2. Mention any three points of importance of logistics management.
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### 5.7 AGRICULTURAL LOGISTICS
Logistics in general deals with the management of the flow of things and materials in an organisation. This Unit already introduced the concept of logistics and discussed various aspects related to logistics management. Now, we have to discuss the logistics concept from an agri-farm perspective.
So, let’s introduce the concept of Agricultural logistics.
5.7.1 Meaning of Agricultural Logistics
In simple words, agricultural logistics means the logistics or logistics management in agri farm or business. Agricultural logistics is the process of ensuring a continuous flow of farm produce from the suppliers to the end consumers. Some of the activities include agricultural production, acquisition, storage, handling, transportation and distribution. These activities are performed effectively to meet the demands of consumers and achieve maximum value.
Now, it is termed as Agro logistics. It is a relatively new interdisciplinary field in the agricultural sector, including the management of supply chains of agricultural products and raw materials from production to delivery to the consumer, combining agricultural production, marketing, management and logistics.
5.7.2 Logistics Management for the Agri Farm
Logistics management in the agricultural sector is the process that ensures the optimal and continuous flow of agro-goods from farmers to consumers. Some of the activities needed to facilitate this logistics process include agricultural production, acquisition, storage, handling, transportation and distribution. The activities in this process must be effectively managed to ensure that customers’ demands are met in time and the maximum value of the cultivated products is achieved.
Moreover, it is essential to minimize distribution expenses, improve the circulation of agricultural goods, reduce unnecessary losses and strive for environment-friendly and compliant logistics.
5.7.3 Major Challenges in Agricultural Logistics
The challenges of agricultural logistics are:
i) Due to the lack of effective and efficient agricultural logistics management practices in India, approximately one-third of agri-fresh products such as fruits and vegetables are wasted every year. Managing the logistics of these products is a challenging task as the perishable nature of the products adds to further complexity.
ii) Inadequate transportation infrastructure leads to delays, higher costs and reduced freshness of produce. This affects quality, increases wastage and lowers profitability for farmers.
iii) It is also related to transportation. One of the biggest challenges facing logistics companies is the ever-increasing cost of fuel. This can make it difficult to maintain profitability and can even lead to some companies going out of business.
iv) Lack of cold storage facilities results in post-harvest losses for perishable produce.
v) One of the major challenges faced by the Indian logistics sector is higher logistics costs. India's expenditure on logistics costs amounts to approximately 13-14% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which is considerably higher than the global average of around 8%. It affects the agriculture sector.
vi) Lack of modern technology is one of the problems for marginal farmers. Technology today allows all agricultural logistics stakeholders to stay connected in real time. It reduces lead time, paperwork and other unnecessary activities, all of which benefit farmers in coordinating, accessing information and data interchange, improving customer and supplier relationships and inventory management.
vii) Moreover, all environmental issues have an impact on agricultural logistics.
5.7.4 Government Measures to Improve Agricultural Logistics
The government may take the following measures to overcome the above-mentioned challenges:
i) Infrastructure Investment: Develop rural road infrastructure and improve connectivity to production areas.
ii) Cold Storage and Warehousing: Establish more cold storage units and warehousing facilities.
iii) Financial Incentives: Provide incentives for setting up food processing units and improving logistics.
iv) Digital Platforms: Promote digital platforms for sharing real-time information.
v) Private Sector Participation: Encourage private sector involvement in logistics development.
5.7.5 Benefits of Improved Agricultural Logistics for Farmers and Stakeholders
Being a farmer or farm manager, if you can implement improved Agricultural Logistics on your farm, then surely you will enjoy the following benefits:
i) **Higher Income**: Improved logistics led to a higher income for farmers.
ii) **Reduced Losses**: Post-harvest losses are minimized.
iii) **Market Access**: Better logistics provide increased market access.
iv) **Efficient Supply Chain**: Improved efficiency benefits the entire supply chain.
v) **Food Security**: Reduced wastage contributes to food security.
vi) **Quality Produce**: Consumers receive fresher and higher-quality produce.
vii) **Increase efficiency and sustainability**: Logistics Management helps to increase efficiency and sustainability.
5.8 ROLE OF LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
Our main concern in studying this unit is to understand the role of logistics management in agriculture. With the increase in population, the demand for agricultural produce is rising consistently. Logistics management in the agricultural industry has become even more vital in ensuring the smooth run of the food supply chain to prevent shortages across the world. Let’s discuss the roles of logistics management in agriculture as follows:
i) Agricultural logistics is the process of ensuring a continuous flow of farm produce from the suppliers to the end consumers. Some of the activities include agricultural production, acquisition, storage, handling, transportation and distribution. These activities are performed effectively to meet the demands of consumers and achieve maximum value.
ii) A major part of the agricultural produce, consists of fresh fruits and vegetables, as a result, this process requires some special delivery requirements like fast delivery, air-conditioned vans, etc. We require strong logistical support to deliver perishable produce within a short time and in good condition.
iii) Specifically, farmers need to get agri inputs as quickly as they need to get their produce to the market or buyers. This involves logistics. Over the years, there have been concerted efforts to ensure that inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, farm implements and tools and other necessary items get to smallholder farmers and those in hard-to-reach areas.
iv) It enables organisations to cut down on expenses and bolster customer satisfaction.
v) It also considers reducing supply costs and retaining excess inventories.
vi) It helps farmers or farm managers to increase their productivity.
vii) It helps in choosing the right supplier for providing transportation facilities.
viii) It assists in choosing the most effective channel for product distribution.
ix) It measures the customer and market needs.
x) It helps in cutting down on inventory and storage costs.
xi) It focuses on maximizing organizational profits.
xii) It helps to meet customers’ satisfaction.
xiii) Ultimately, it ensures the five ‘R’s of logistics which are as follows:
- Right products
- Right place
- Right time
- Right condition
- Right cost
5.9 FACTORS DETERMINING LOGISTICS PLAN
Logistics models are used to describe the complete logistics process that should be executed in order to fulfil inbound, outbound and internal requests. In the Logistics Models view you can create logistics models that help the flow of agri products in a consistent, reliable, and stable manner.
The logistics model consists of the following facilities:
i) Farms
ii) Warehouse
iii) Retailers/Distribution Centers
iv) Customers
Raw materials and finished products actually flow between the facilities.
At the initial stage, the framer initiates the process with its crops or other raw items, and then processors convert it into finished or saleable goods through its processing plants. Then all those items will be stored. Ultimately, it reaches to customers via distributors.
**Figure 5.3: Logistics Model**
*Source: https://ddu.ext.unb.ca/4690/Lecture_notes/Lec5.pdf*
Assuming that farms and retailer locations are fixed, we concentrate on the following strategic decisions in terms of warehouses.
i) Pick the optimal number, location, and size of warehouses.
ii) Determine optimal sourcing strategy i.e., get the right materials at the right time.
iii) Which farm should produce which agri product?
iv) Determine the best distribution channels for agri products so that customers can get the right product at the right time at the right location.
v) Which warehouses should service which retailers? This helps to maintain a smooth distribution process.
vi) Determination of associated cost. The objective is to design or reconfigure the logistics network to minimize annual system-wide costs, including Production/purchasing costs i.e., cost related to purchasing raw materials; Inventory carrying costs and facility costs (handling and fixed costs) i.e., cost related to holding the materials; Transportation costs i.e., cost related to moving agricultural products to retailers or customers (Figure 5.2). Here, we would like to find a minimal-annual-cost configuration of the distribution network that satisfies product demands at specified customer service levels.
**Activity 5.1:**
Visit a nearby farm and collect details about the various types of logistics used and their costs for shipping its produce to the end customer.
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**5.10 LET US SUM UP**
In this unit, you have learnt the following:
- Logistics is the designing and managing of a system in order to control the flow of material throughout a corporation. The three functional areas of logistics – order processing, inventory and transportation – can be engineered into a variety of different operational arrangements.
The central principles of logistics are given as the Seven Rights of Logistics.
During the recent two decades, the concept of logistics management has emerged to meet customer demand with the highest degree of accuracy. At present, effective logistics management is a critical success factor for all sectors including the agriculture sector. Logistics management in the agricultural farm is the process that ensures the optimal and continuous flow of agro-products from farmers to end consumers.
Agricultural logistics means the logistics or logistics management in agri farm or business, nothing else. Agricultural logistics is the process of ensuring a continuous flow of farm produce from the suppliers to the end consumers. Some of the activities include agricultural production, acquisition, storage, handling, transportation and distribution.
Agribusiness also uses effective logistic management, similar to other businesses, to deliver its goods to clients. This will enable agricultural businesses to deliver the ideal product at the ideal time and location at the lowest possible cost.
Logistics models are used to describe the complete logistics process that should be executed in order to fulfil inbound, outbound and internal requests.
### 5.11 KEYWORDS
| Term | Definition |
|-------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **3PLs** | Third-party logistics (or 3PL) refers to the outsourcing of e-commerce logistics processes to a third-party business, including inventory management, warehousing, and fulfilment. |
| **Customer Service Management (CSM)** | Customer service management (CSM) is the practice of empowering your team with the tools, training, and day-to-day support they need to deliver exceptional customer service experiences. |
| **Demand Forecasting** | It is a method for predicting the likely future demand for a good or service. It is based on an examination of historical demand for that good or service in the current market circumstances. |
| **Gross Domestic Product (GDP)** | GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services that is, those that are bought by the final user produced in a country in a given period of time. |
| **Physical Distribution** | Physical distribution is the set of activities concerned with the efficient movement of finished goods from the end of the production operation to the consumer. |
Procurement: It is concerned with purchasing and arranging inbound movement of materials, parts, and/or finished inventory from suppliers to manufacturing or assembly plants, warehouses, or retail stores.
Reverse Logistics: Reverse logistics is the collective term for moving goods in the opposite direction than usual, from customers back to retailers, suppliers, or farmers.
5.12 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS/REFERENCES
1. Ailawadi C. Sathish and Rakesh Singh, Logistics Management, Prentice Hall India, 2005.
2. Ballou, Business Logistics/Supply Chain Management, Pearson Education.
3. Ballou, R.H. (2005). Business Logistics/Supply Chain Management. (5th ed.). Pearson.
4. Bowersox, D. J., Logistics Management, Tata McGraw Hill, 2002
5. Ghiani, G., Laporte, G. & Musmanno, R. (2013). Introduction to Logistics Systems Management. (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
6. https://iimm.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Logistics-and-Warehousing-Management.pdf
7. https://www.sriramsias.com.
8. Jayasimha, K.R. (Ed.) (2004). Logistics Management – An Introduction. Hyderabad, India: ICFAI University Press.
9. Material Handling & Logistics. Retrieved from https://www.mhlnews.com/
10. Misra, V., Kahn, M.I. & Singh, U.K. (2010). Supply Chain Management Systems: Architecture, Design and Vision. Journal of Strategic Innovation and Sustainability. 6(4), 96-101.
11. Reji Ismail, Logistics Management, Excel Books, Delhi.
12. Study Notes Retrieved from: https://blog.chargeerp.com/2021/08/14/logistics
13. Study Notes Retrieved from: https://ebooks.lpude.in/management/mba/term_4/DMGT523_LOGISTICS_AND_SUPPLY_CHAIN_MANAGEMENT.pdf
14. Study Notes Retrieved from: https://www.learnaboutlogistics.com/your-supply-chain-strategy-needs-a-logistics-plan/
5.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 5.1
1. Logistics management is a part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient flow and storage of goods, services, and related information in order to meet the customers’ requirements.
2. Six logistics activities are: i) Order processing; ii) Procurement and Material handling; iii) Warehousing; iv) Inventory Control; v) Transportation and vi) Packaging.
Check Your Progress 5.2
1. Three objectives of logistics management are as follows:
i. To ensure all the requirements of the customers are met on time
ii. To coordinate with third-party logistics (3PLs)
iii. To ensure timely dispatch of the products
2. Four importance of logistics management are:
i. Revenue augmentation, Cost Reduction and Profit Maximization
ii. Successful operations of the Supply Chain
iii. Efficient Flows of Production due to in-time delivery of materials, proper utilization of materials and semi-finished goods in the production process and so on.
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CENTRIKID PRESENTS
WOW FACTOR
GOD GIVES GREAT GIFTS
SEE WHAT GREAT LOVE THE FATHER HAS GIVEN US THAT WE SHOULD BE CALLED GOD’S CHILDREN—AND WE ARE!
1 JOHN 3:1A
Are you ready for an amazing week at Wow Factor? This week we will be learning all about the incredible gifts that God gives us. God loves us, and He gives above and beyond anything that we could ask or think. You will use this booklet each morning during Time Alone with God to help lead you through your daily time with Him. You will also use this booklet during Worship to follow along with your Camp Pastor. It is time to enter Wow Factor!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Kick-Off Notes ........................................... 2
Day 2 Time Alone with God ............ 3
Day 2 Worship Notes ................................. 6
Day 3 Time Alone with God ......... 8
Day 3 Worship Notes ................................. 12
Day 4 Time Alone with God ...... 14
Day 4 Worship Notes ................................. 18
Day 5 Time Alone with God ......... 20
Send-Off Notes ........................................... 24
Missions Projects ................................. 25
The Gospel: God’s Plan for Me .... 26
READ ALONG:
Theme Verse: 1 John 3:1a
See what great love the Father has given us that we should be called God’s children—and we are!
SERMON NOTES
1. You cannot ______________ your way to God.
2. God gives you an ______________ through ____________.
3. When you ______________ Jesus and follow Him, God makes you one of His ____________.
Day 2 Theme
God Gives His Son
Time Alone with God Theme: God Gives His Word
Text: John 1:1-5
READ
Read the Theme Verse written below.
As you read:
• Circle who gives something to us
• Draw a square around what is given
• Underline who we are because of God’s great love
SEE WHAT GREAT LOVE THE FATHER HAS GIVEN US THAT WE SHOULD BE CALLED GOD’S CHILDREN — AND WE ARE!
1 JOHN 3:1A
This week at CentriKid, we are learning that God gives great gifts!
What’s the GREATEST gift you have ever been given? Draw or write it below!
What’s the GREATEST gift you have ever given someone else? Draw or write it below!
Read John 1:1-5 in your Bible to learn more about God’s gift of His Word. Circle “the Word” every time you see it, underline “created”, and draw light rays around the word “light.”
One of the greatest gifts God gives us is His Word. His Word helps us know Him – the Creator of the whole universe – more. Wow!
These verses tell us that from the very beginning, the Word existed. The Word was with God and the Word was God. But what or who could this Word be?
Check out John 1:14 in your Bible for a clue about “the Word” that John mentions!
After reading John 1:14, who do you think the Word is?
John 1:14 tells us that the Word became flesh and lived on earth with humans. It also says that the Word is God’s only Son, so the Word must be Jesus! But why would Jesus be called the Word? How can someone be a word?!
One reason John called Jesus the Word is found in the book of Hebrews. Turn in your Bible to Hebrews 1:1-3.
Who did God speak through to our ancestors long ago? (Hint: look in verse 1!)
Who has God spoken to us through in these last days? (Hint: look in verse 2!)
These verses tell us that God spoke through prophets long ago! Prophets were men or women to whom God gave His message so they could deliver it to His people. But “in these last days,” God has spoken to us by His Son, Jesus!
God’s ultimate message or WORD comes through His Son, Jesus! That’s one reason John calls Him “the Word.” Jesus is God’s greatest gift to us because He made a way for us to know God. Jesus has existed since the beginning. Jesus has always been with God, and Jesus has always been God. Wow, how cool is that?!
**PRAY**
Thank God for giving us the greatest gift ever: Jesus, His ultimate and best Word! Ask God to show you throughout the day just how great of a gift we have in Jesus.
**TAKE-AWAY**
Do you still have questions about what it means for Jesus to be the Word? Write them down and ask your Group Leader later today.
1. Jesus lived a ____________ life.
2. Jesus ____________ His Father.
3. Jesus _______ for our ______, and He offers us a _______ _______.
Day 3 Theme
God Gives His Holy Spirit
Time Alone with God Theme: God Gives His Word
Text: 2 Peter 1:20-21; Psalm 119:89-90
READ
Unscramble the scrambled words in the Theme Verse below:
See what _______ (treag) _______ (vleo) the _______ (rahtFe) has _______ (egivn) us that we _______ (uldohs) be _______ (lalcde) God’s _______ (nerdichl) — and we are!
1______ (nhoJ) 3:1a
Are you ready for a great Day 3 of CentriKid?!
Remember, this week we are learning all about how God gives great gifts! One of those great gifts is His Word. Isn’t it awesome that we have been given His Word and can read it any time we want? God, who is in charge of everything, made a way to speak to each of us because He loves us!
Read 2 Peter 1:20-21.
Above all, you know this: no prophecy of Scripture comes from the prophet’s own interpretation, because no prophecy ever came by the will of man; instead, men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.
2 Peter 1:20-21
Who carried along those who wrote Scripture?
These verses tell us that Scripture (the words in the Bible) didn’t come from people writing whatever they wanted, but Scripture comes from God! The Holy Spirit helped the writers of the Bible know what to say.
This is good news for us because words and actions from people can let us down. People can mess up or even lie to us. But God is perfect and faithful, and His Word lasts forever!
Turn to Psalm 119:89-90 in your Bible.
According to these verses, how long does God’s Word last? (Hint: look in verse 89!)
According to these verses, how long does God’s faithfulness last? (Hint: Look in verse 90!)
When you receive a gift, would you rather it break the first day you get it, or would you rather it last a long time? Of course, you want your gift to last a long time! Words from people won’t last, but God’s Word lasts forever. What a great gift!
**PRAY**
Thank God that His Word will last forever. Thank Him for giving His Word to us so that we can know Him more each time we read it.
**TAKE-AWAY**
Ask an adult from your church how many generations in their own family they can name (Do they know the names of their parents, grandparents, great grandparents, great great grandparents, and great great great grandparents?!). A lot of us don’t even know the names of the people in our family just a few generations away from us, but the Bible says God’s faithfulness lasts for ALL generations! Wow!
11
Day 4 Theme
God Gives a Forever Family
Time Alone With God Theme: God Gives His Word
Text: Colossians 3:16; Psalm 19:14
Read
Read the Theme Verse below, and follow the tangled lines to find the missing words! Make sure you choose the correct gift for each word!
What _______ the Father has given ______ that we should be ______ — and we are!
1 John ______
Love us called 3:1a see God’s great children
Day 4 of CentriKid is here! Have you been having so much fun? This might be your first time staying away from home, or maybe you’ve stayed away from home a bunch of times!
Where is your favorite place to visit or stay? Maybe it’s your favorite vacation spot, your best friend’s house, or even CentriKid! Draw a picture of it below.
Have you ever thought to yourself that you wish you could just live in your favorite place all the time? You might love it so much that you want to stay there. Dwell is a word that means to live or stay somewhere for a while, or to be a permanent resident (which means you’re not leaving!).
In Colossians 3:16, the apostle Paul tells us about something that we should let dwell among us. Check it out in your Bible to see what it is.
What did Paul say should dwell richly among us?
Paul is saying here that we should love God’s Word so much that it stays with us. We should keep it close through reading it, listening to teaching about it, and even singing about it! We should let our hearts and minds dwell on, or think deeply about, God’s Word. And we shouldn’t keep it to ourselves! We should let it overflow out of us as we encourage others with it!
**PRAY**
Find Psalm 19:14 in your Bible. Pray those words to God today.
**TAKE-AWAY**
Write the word “dwell” on your hand or in a spot you’ll see it throughout the day. Remember each time you see it that God has given us His Word so that it can stay with us each day.
17
1. Jesus provides ________________.
2. God _________ us into His ________.
3. God gives us an ________________.
Day 5 Theme
God Gives His Promise
Time Alone with God Theme: God Gives His Word
Text: Ezekiel 3:1-3; Psalm 19:7-11
Read
Fill in the blanks in the Theme Verse below (Hint: For help, look up 1 John 3:1a):
______ ______ ______ ______ THE ______ HAS
______ ______ THAT WE ________ BE _______ — AND ______ ______! 1 ______ 3:1A
Wow! Can you believe it’s already Day 5 of CentriKid?! You’ve learned about so many of the great gifts God gives.
What gift has God given that you have learned about each morning in Time Alone with God?
Each day you’ve learned a little more about how God gives His Word to us so that we can know Him and love Him more and more. What a good and sweet gift God has given us!
Speaking of “sweet,” when you’re eating a snack, what do you like better: sweet or salty?
Draw your favorite **sweet snack** here:
Draw your favorite **salty snack** here:
Did you know that God’s Word is often compared to a very sweet food? Do you think you know what food it is? Let’s figure out what it could be by going on a scavenger hunt through the Bible!
Find and read Ezekiel 3:1-3.
In these verses, we read about a vision, or dream, a man named Ezekiel had when the Israelites were in a place called Babylon. In this vision, God told Ezekiel to eat a scroll with God’s message to the people on it. This was God’s Word!
In the vision, Ezekiel ate the scroll, and what did he say it was as sweet as?
Now, let’s go to the book of Psalms. King David compares God’s Word to something sweet as well!
Read Psalm 19:7-11 below.
Underline any word or phrase that is another way to say God’s Word. (Hint: look for words like instruction, precepts, command, etc.)
Circle the sweet food that we keep reading about in Scripture to describe God’s Word.
The instruction of the LORD is perfect,
renewing one’s life;
the testimony of the LORD is trustworthy,
making the inexperienced wise.
The precepts of the LORD are right,
making the heart glad;
the command of the LORD is radiant,
making the eyes light up.
The fear of the LORD is pure,
enduring forever;
the ordinances of the LORD are reliable
and altogether righteous.
They are more desirable than gold —
than an abundance of pure gold;
and sweeter than honey
dripping from a honeycomb.
In addition, your servant is warned by them,
and in keeping them there is an abundant reward.
Honey! The Bible says that God’s Word is sweeter than honey dripping from a honeycomb! It is such a sweet gift that God has given us because His Word shows us who God is. The verses we read above say that God’s Word renews our lives, makes us wise, makes our hearts glad, and makes our eyes light up! God’s Word is perfect, trustworthy, right, radiant, pure, and it lasts forever.
Wow! God loves you so much that He has given you this great and sweet gift!
**PRAY**
Reread Psalm 19:7-11. Which phrase about God’s Word stands out to you the most? Thank God for the gift of His Word. Ask Him to help you grow in your desire to read it and your desire to know and love Him more.
**TAKE-AWAY**
God’s Word is sweeter than honey! Anytime you eat something sweet today, remember that God has given you the great gift of His Word. Tell a friend or family member about it!
1. God will make ____________ right and _______.
2. God’s promises are __________ and _______.
3. God’s story is __________. We can put our _______ in Him!
PRAY. Write a prayer for the people in Ethiopia and Philadelphia.
GIVE. How can you give this week?
GO. Talk to your Group Leader about ways you can get involved with missions.
The gospel
God’s plan for me
gospel – noun. good news. the message about Christ, the kingdom of God, and salvation.
God rules.
The Bible tells us God created everything, including you and me, and He is in charge of everything. Genesis 1:1; Revelation 4:11; Colossians 1:16-17
We sinned.
We all choose to disobey God. The Bible calls this sin. Sin separates us from God and deserves God’s punishment of death. Romans 3:23; 6:23
GOD PROVIDED.
God sent Jesus, the perfect solution to our sin problem, to rescue us from the punishment we deserve. It’s something we, as sinners, could never earn on our own. Jesus alone saves us. John 3:16; Ephesians 2:8-9
JESUS GIVES.
He lived a perfect life, died on the cross for our sins, and rose again. Because Jesus gave up His life for us, we can be welcomed into God’s family for eternity. This is the best gift ever! Romans 5:8; 2 Corinthians 5:21; 1 Peter 3:18; Ephesians 2:8-9
WE RESPOND.
Believe in your heart that Jesus alone saves you through what He’s already done on the cross. Repent, turning from self and sin to Jesus. Tell God and others that your faith is in Jesus. John 14:6; Romans 10:9-10,13
I SPY
WOW!
FACTOR
CAN YOU FIND ALL 8 PEACHES?
DAY 1
Check-in (CAMP STORE OPEN) ........................................... 1:00-4:00 p.m.
Dinner .................................................................................. 8:30 a.m.
Kick-Off .............................................................................. 7:00
Team Time // Adult Gathering ............................................ 8:00
Church Group Time ............................................................. 9:00
Evening Hang Time ............................................................. Head to Room 9:30
Lights Out ........................................................................... 10:00
DAY 2 - DAY 4
Breakfast // Time Alone with God ........................................ 8:30 a.m.
I Can’t Wait ........................................................................ 9:15
Team Time (Bible Study & Rec) ......................................... 9:15
Lunch .................................................................................. 1:15 p.m.
The Spot ............................................................................. 1:30
Track A ............................................................................... 2:30
The SPOT ........................................................................... 2:45
Track B ............................................................................... Hang Time (CAMP STORE OPEN)
Hang Time (CAMP STORE OPEN) ........................................ 7:00
Dinner .................................................................................. Worship 8:00
Church Group Time ............................................................. Head to Room 9:30
Evening Hang Time (CAMP STORE OPEN) ......................... Lights Out 10:00
DAY 5
Breakfast // Time Alone with God ........................................ Send-Off ................................................................. 8:30 a.m.
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This guide has been funded by the League of Women Voters of Pennsylvania Citizen Education Fund through a Section 319 federal Clean Water Act grant from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The Southwestern Pennsylvania’s Homeowner’s Guide to Stormwater is based upon The Homeowner’s Guide to Stormwater produced by the Little Conestoga Partnership and its funder the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.
Partners for the Southwestern Pennsylvania Guide
County of Allegheny
City of Pittsburgh
County of Westmoreland
PENNSATE
Cooperative Extension
College of Agricultural Sciences
Allegheny County Conservation District
Westmoreland Conservation District
Produced by:
Penn’s Corner Conservancy and Charitable Trust, Inc.
Penn’s Corner Conservancy and Charitable Trust, Inc.
c/o Allegheny County Conservation District
Riverwalk Corporate Centre
33 Terminal Way, Suite 325 B
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
Printed: 3/2015
Penn’s Corner Conservancy Charitable Trust, Inc.
Our vision: Complete restoration and ongoing conservation of our natural resources, in harmony with strong, productive communities.
Our mission: To enhance the area’s natural resources and build strong communities by fostering regional partnerships, securing resources, and delivering needed services and programs.
Our focus: Entire southwestern Pennsylvania region.
Contact your local County Conservation District for more information about stormwater
Allegheny..............(412) 241-7645 www.accdpa.org
Armstrong ............(724) 548-3425 www.armstrongcd.org
Beaver ..................(724) 378-1701 beavercountyconservationdistrict.org
Butler ...................(724) 284-5270 www.bccdonline.org
Fayette ...................(724) 438-4497 www.fayettecd.org
Greene...................(724) 852-5278 www.co.greene.pa.us
Indiana.................(724) 471-4751 www.iccdpa.org
Washington.............(724) 705-7098 pawccd.org
Westmoreland .........(724) 837-5271 www.wcdpa.com
Photo Credits
Kathryn Hamilton, RLA: inside front cover; page 2, stormdrain; page 3, driveway; pavers; page 5, surface ponding; stream erosion; downspouts; page 7, rain garden; page 16, maps; page 17, pavers; page 18, swale in rain; coneflower and bee
Stephen Simpson, page 2, stormwater on road
Margaret Kyler, page 6, rain gauge
Matt Kofroth, LCCD, page 18, girl and rain barrel
Matt Royer, Penn State, page 8, planting
Dick Brown, page 8, vegetated swale
Fritz Schroeder, Live Green, page 17, rain barrel
Kristen Kyler, Penn State, page 19 measuring water
Mark Jackson, page 2, forest; page 7, riparian buffer; page 8 meadow; page 23, houses
Graphics
Matt Zambelli, page 4, property boundaries; buildings on property; page 5, natural features on property; page 21, BMP graphics, map of potential best management practices on property, Best Management Practices Treatment Potential for one inch rainfall.
Purpose of this Guide
Are you concerned about water quality? Is flooding a problem in your neighborhood? Are you planning a home improvement project? If the answer is yes to any of these questions, then you need to know more about managing stormwater.* This guide will help you better understand:
• what stormwater is, why stormwater runoff can be a problem, and what you can do about it;
• how much stormwater runoff is generated by impervious areas on your property;
• how stormwater flows across and leaves your property; and
• how you can reduce the amount of stormwater runoff leaving your property.
This guide will help you create your own stormwater management plan and select simple stormwater solutions to be implemented on your property.
* Check with your local municipality to find out more about what permits may be required for any building projects.
Acknowledgments
The Penn’s Corner Conservancy Charitable Trust, Inc., extends its appreciation to the Little Conestoga Partnership and its funder, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, for allowing us to adapt their publication, The Homeowner’s Guide to Stormwater, for our residents in southwestern Pennsylvania. Members of the Little Conestoga Partnership include: Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, Brandywine Conservancy, Chesapeake Bay Foundation, Habitat MT, Lancaster County Clean Water Consortium, Lancaster County Conservancy, Lancaster County Conservation District, Lancaster County Planning Commission, Little Conestoga Watershed Alliance, PA Department of Environmental Protection, PA Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, PA Landscape & Nursery Association, and Penn State University.
What is Stormwater Runoff?
Stormwater runoff is precipitation (rain or snowmelt) that flows across the land. Stormwater may infiltrate into soil, discharge directly into streams, water bodies, or stormdrains, or evaporate back into the atmosphere.
In the natural environment, most precipitation is absorbed by trees and plants or permeates into the ground, which results in stable stream flows and good water quality.
Things are different in the built environment. Rain that falls on a roof, driveway, patio, or lawn runs off the surface more rapidly, picking up pollutants as it goes. This stormwater runoff flows into streams or storm drains that empty into waterways like the Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio rivers.
Why Can Stormwater Runoff Be a Problem?
Poorly managed stormwater runoff can cause many problems. These include:
- **Flooding.** As stormwater runs off roofs, driveways, and lawns, large volumes quickly reach streams, causing them to rise and flood. When more impervious surfaces exist, flooding occurs rapidly and can be severe, resulting in damage to property and harm to people.
- **Pollution.** Stormwater running over roofs, driveways, roads, and lawns will pick up pollutants such as oil, fertilizers, pesticides, dirt/sediment, trash, and animal waste. These pollutants “hitch a ride” with the stormwater and flow untreated into local streams, polluting our waters.
- **Stream Bank Erosion.** When stormwater flows into streams at unnaturally high volumes and speeds, the power of these flows can cause severe stream bank erosion. Eroding banks can eat away at streamside property, create dangerous situations, and damage natural habitat for fish and other aquatic life. This erosion is another source of sediment pollution in streams.
- **Threats to Human Health.** Stormwater runoff can carry many pollutants, such as toxic metals, organic compounds, bacteria, and viruses. Polluted stormwater, especially coming from combined sewer overflows, can contaminate drinking water supplies and hamper recreational opportunities as well as threaten fish and other aquatic life.
As a homeowner, you can help avoid the problems associated with stormwater runoff by:
- reducing impervious areas (hard surfaces like roofs, paved areas) so that rain soaks into the ground
- planting native trees and plants which help infiltrate stormwater and increase evaporation and transpiration
- managing stormwater on-site with rain gardens, rain barrels, and similar practices
- following the lawn care practices described in this guide
By doing many small things on your property, you can have a big impact on improving stormwater management and water quality in our region.
In Pennsylvania, the drainage area of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio rivers covers more than a third of the state and is home to more than three million people. (www.orsanco.org)
Managing stormwater on your property will not only help protect local streams, but will also help clean up downstream waterways like these rivers.
Section 2: Assessing Stormwater on Your Property
In order to better manage stormwater on your property you should first understand how stormwater affects it. Follow these simple steps to figure out where stormwater is generated, how it flows, and approximately how much stormwater comes from your property. You may draw your map on paper using Appendix A, or use the additional instructions in Appendix B to create an aerial photo map.
1. Walk your property and map your boundaries and basic features.
**Step 1: Draw your property boundaries.**
Draw the boundaries of your lot. If you are not sure of your boundaries, you may be able to look this up on your property tax assessment, deed to your house, or at your county’s tax office.
**Step 2: Draw buildings and other features of your property.**
Draw and label the buildings and other features of your property. These include:
- **Impervious areas.** These are hard surfaces on your property that prevent stormwater from soaking into the ground. They include rooftops, driveways, parking areas, walkways, decks, patios, or other hard surfaces.
- **Lawn and landscaped areas.** These include any areas with grass or landscaping that you regularly maintain.
- **Natural vegetation.** These are areas of woods, meadow, or other naturally vegetated areas that are allowed to grow on your property.
- **Water features.** These could be streams, wetlands, ponds, or swimming pools.
You can determine the approximate size of each area by using a tape measure and calculating the square footage of each. Depending on the overall size of your property, you may want to calculate these areas in square feet or convert to acres (1 acre = 43,560 square feet). If your property has no natural vegetation, such as woods or meadows, or water features on it, you can simply subtract the impervious areas from your total lot size to get your total lawn and landscaped area.
2. Assess and map your stormwater flow.
The next step is to show how and where runoff flows on your property and identify any problems it may be causing. Common stormwater problems may include large puddles (“ponding”), damp basements, soil erosion, and collapsing stream banks. The ideal time to assess stormwater flow is during or immediately after a rain storm. Look for and map the following:
- **Roof downspouts.** Indicate the location of roof downspouts and the direction stormwater flows from the downspouts.
- **Stormwater flow paths.** Using arrows, show the direction of stormwater flow off impervious surfaces. If you have any areas where stormwater collects, such as drainage swales or ditches, show this and label them as such.
- **Areas of ponding.** Indicate locations of standing water or ponding on the map.
- **Gullies or ditches from soil erosion.** Indicate any areas of soil erosion which have resulted in gullies or ditches. This may appear within existing drainage swales or channels and would be good to note on your assessment.
- **Slope of the land.** Water always flows downhill. Which areas of your property are high and which are low? What is above or below your home?
If you have multiple downspouts, drainage channels, ponding areas, etc., organize your map and assessment plan by numbering them.
3. Estimate how much stormwater is generated on your property.
The amount of stormwater runoff generated from your property depends on how long and how hard it rains, the slope of your property, the type and quality of the soils, the amount of impervious surface on your property, and other factors. Nevertheless, there is a simple calculation you can use to estimate how much stormwater runoff your property generates during a typical rainstorm.
The majority of annual rainfall in southwestern Pennsylvania comes in the form of small storms of one inch or less. These small storms carry most of the pollutants that impact water quality, and thus the stormwater generated by your property for the one inch storm is a good measure of typical stormwater runoff. Use the following chart to determine how much stormwater is generated by the impervious area on your property:
| Square Feet of Impervious Area | Gallons of Runoff to be Managed |
|---------------------------------|--------------------------------|
| 500 or less | less than 312 |
| 501 – 1,000 | 312 – 624 |
| 1,001 – 2,000 | 624 – 1,246 |
| 2,001 – 3,000 | 1,246 – 1,869 |
| 3,001 – 4,000 | 1,869 – 2,492 |
| 4,001 – 5,000 | 2,492 – 3,115 |
| 5,001 – 10,000 | 3,115 – 6,231 |
| 10,001 – 20,000 | 6,231 – 12,462 |
| 20,001 – 43,000 | 12,462 – 26,793 |
The above numbers were calculated using the following formula:
(Total square feet of impervious area) x 0.0833 x 7.48 = _______ gallons of runoff
Use this formula if you want a more accurate calculation of the runoff generated from your impervious area.
0.0833 is to convert feet to inches • 7.48 = number of gallons per cubic foot
Now that you know what areas of your property generate stormwater when it rains, how the runoff flows, and what areas generate the most amount of runoff, you can start thinking about adding stormwater management practices to your property.
1. Types of stormwater best management practices.
Many management practices exist for handling stormwater runoff. This guide suggests six of the simpler, easier to implement practices. Each practice is introduced briefly in this section so you can consider which ones are right for you. (related cost value scale: $ $$ $$$ )
**RAIN GARDEN**
A depressed landscape bed that uses mulch, soil mix, and deep-rooted native plants to capture, absorb, and infiltrate stormwater.
| Benefits | Negatives | Cost |
|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Manages stormwater and filters pollutants | Plants can take 2-3 years to establish | $ – $$$ |
| Provides wildlife habitat | More maintenance required in first few years | varies depending on size and depth |
| Minimal maintenance | | |
| Adds beauty | | |
| Maintenance | Aesthetic Appeal | Implementation Considerations |
|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Low once plants are established | Ranges from medium to high | Construct downslope of runoff to be captured |
| Weeding and watering in first two years | Can customize based on plant selection | Locate at least 10 feet from buildings & utilities |
| Some thinning in later years | | Soils may require underdrain |
**RIPARIAN BUFFER**
Planting native trees or shrubs along streams to restore the streamside area to forested conditions. These “riparian buffers” filter runoff and have numerous water quality benefits.
| Benefits | Negatives | Cost |
|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Increases infiltration and groundwater recharge | Not as effective on steep slopes | $ |
| Improves water quality | Flooding may damage planting | Supplement existing native vegetation |
| Controls erosion & sedimentation | | |
| Provides wildlife habitat | | |
| Maintenance | Aesthetic Appeal | Implementation Considerations |
|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Low, once native plants are established | Ranges from medium to high | Plant in spring or fall |
| Weeding and watering in first two years | Higher aesthetic appeal than conventional stormwater conveyances | Contact your municipality or conservation district for possible permit information |
| Some plant thinning in later years | | |
| Regularly remove debris | | |
**TREE PLANTING**
Planting native trees and shrubs to restore a portion of your property to forested conditions.
| Benefits | Negatives |
|----------|-----------|
| Increases infiltration and evapotranspiration of stormwater | Takes many years before trees grow to provide maximum benefit |
| Filters pollutants | Regular maintenance is required where invasive plant species exist |
| Requires minimal maintenance | Must guard against deer browsing and rodent damage |
| Provides wildlife habitat | |
**Maintenance**
- Maintain tree tube/stakes or cages, remove after 5 years
- Mow between trees at least twice a year during first 4 to 5 years
**Aesthetic Appeal**
- High aesthetic appeal, as trees add interest, structure, color, and wildlife to property
**Implementation Considerations**
- Plant in spring or fall
- Watering may be necessary after planting during dry weather (25 gallons/week)
**Cost**
- $-$
**VEGETATED SWALE OR NATIVE MEADOW**
An area planted with native grasses and wildflowers and maintained as a natural area. “No mow” areas can also develop into meadow areas.
| Benefits | Negatives |
|----------|-----------|
| Increases infiltration and evapotranspiration of stormwater | Site preparation (including turf grass removal) is required before planting |
| Filters pollutants | Meadows may conflict with local weed ordinances |
| Requires little maintenance | |
**Maintenance**
- Mow twice a year for first two years, then annually
- Control invasive plant species
**Aesthetic appeal**
- High aesthetic appeal, as tall grasses and wildflowers add interest, structure, color, and wildlife to property
**Implementation Considerations**
- Plant in spring
- Monitor and control invasive species
**Cost**
- $
---
**Stormwater Management Plan**
Property Owner’s Name: _______________________________________________________
Property Address: ___________________________________________________________
Municipality: _______________________________ County: _________________________
Watershed: _________________________________________________________________ (example: Youghiogheny River)
Name of stream into which stormwater flows: ________________________________ (example: Sewickley Creek)
**EXISTING CONDITIONS**
| IMPERVIOUS AREAS |
|------------------|
| Buildings |
| Number | Description (house, shed, etc.) | Square Feet |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| Driveways and Walkways |
| Number | Description (driveway, back walkway, front walkway, etc.) | Square Feet |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| Other Hard Surfaces |
| Number | Description (patio, deck, etc.) | Square Feet |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
**Total Impervious Area:** ______________________________________________________
Stormwater Management Plan Map
## Proposed Stormwater Best Management Practices
### Rain Garden
| Number | Description (front yard, back yard, etc.) | Square Feet |
|--------|------------------------------------------|-------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
### Riparian Buffer
| Number | Description (tributary, main stem of creek, etc.) | Square Feet |
|--------|----------------------------------------------------|-------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
### Tree Planting
| Number | Description (backyard woods, side woods, etc.) | Square Feet |
|--------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
### Vegetated Swale or Native Meadow
| Number | Description (side yard swale, back yard meadow, etc.) | Square Feet |
|--------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
### Pervious Paving
| Number | Description (front walkway; back patio etc.) | Square Feet |
|--------|----------------------------------------------|-------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
### Rain Barrel
| Number | Description (side house barrel, shed barrel, etc.) | Gallons |
|--------|-----------------------------------------------------|---------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
---
## Appendix B: Interactive Computer Resources
### COMPUTER MAPPING TUTORIAL
1. **Open Web Browser.**
Go to Google maps (www.google.com/maps) or Bing maps (www.bing.com/maps), or your local county’s tax maps to access an aerial map of your property. Or use www.stormwaterguide.org and follow the prompts.
2. **Type in your property address, if using Google or Bing Maps.**
Use the zoom functions to zoom in as close as you can to your property, making sure your entire lot is shown on the map. Make sure the “Satellite” or “Aerial” function is turned on so that the map is shown in aerial photography format.
3. **Press “Print Screen”; Paste.**
Use print screen option on your computer to paste the screen shot in the program of your choice to crop and edit. We recommend Power Point, Microsoft Word, or Paint.
4. **Use drawing tools to add your different elements.**
Using the “shapes” or other drawing tools available you can add your areas affected by stormwater and your new best management practices. The arrows and freeform tools are particularly useful. Be sure to use different colors for different elements of your map. Text boxes can be used to add labels or a legend.
5. **Save and print your map.**
When you are done, you can save your map as a .pdf or print it to go with your written stormwater management plan.
### STORMWATER CALCULATOR
EPA’s National Stormwater Calculator is a computer desktop application that estimates the annual amount of rainwater and frequency of runoff from a specific site anywhere in the United States. Estimates are based on local soil conditions, land cover, and historic rainfall records. All you need to do is supply information on your property’s cover and what best management practices you would like to use. Just follow these instructions to download the National Stormwater Calculator to your computer.
1. Go to www2.epa.gov/water-research/national-stormwater-calculator
2. Download the National Stormwater Calculator Exe (13MB) version 1.1
3. If your browser offers the option to run the setup program then do so.
4. Otherwise, have your browser display its list of recent downloads and select the setup file to run it.
5. If you have problems installing the calculator, contact your system administrator or try to download a 7MB zip file version.
**PERVIOUS PAVING**
Pervious concrete or asphalt can be poured in place for use in driveways, parking areas, or walkways. Impervious building materials, such as stone, concrete, or brick, can be laid with space in between to allow for pervious areas (gravel, sand, or vegetation).
| Benefits | Negatives |
|----------|-----------|
| Increases infiltration and groundwater recharge | More labor intensive to install than other practices |
| Reduces volume and rate of runoff | Extra maintenance needed |
**Cost**
$$$
- Can save by installing permeable pavers
- May need to excavate and install stone base
**Maintenance**
- Moderate to high maintenance
- Grass between pavers may have to be mowed
- Inspect for signs of clogging
- Pressure wash and replace pea stone as needed
- Snow plow using higher blade
**Aesthetic appeal**
- Ranges from low to medium
- Artistic designs with layout can increase aesthetic appeal
- Creeping plants can be used as infill
**Implementation Considerations**
- Need to install permeable stone base layer 10”-12” thick
- May require underdrain
- Pavement subgrade should slope away from building foundation
---
**RAIN BARREL/CISTERN**
A barrel that captures rainwater from a roof and stores it for later use, such as watering plants or gardens. A cistern is a larger container that does the same thing.
| Benefits | Negatives |
|----------|-----------|
| Conserves water | Minimal volume captured |
| Captures and reuses stormwater | Poor construction or maintenance can result in mosquitoes |
| | Freezing/splitting if not put away in the winter |
**Cost**
$
- Minimal cost as DIY project
- Can save dollars because of reduced potable water usage
**Maintenance**
- Clean screen/filter regularly
- Clean gutters twice annually
- Monitor during severe storms to avoid overflow
- Empty before winter months
**Aesthetic appeal**
- Ranges from low to medium depending on type of barrel used
**Implementation Considerations**
- Place on level surface
- Full rain barrel weighs 400 lbs
- Can be used in series for more storage capacity
- Water should be used between rain events
2. Factors to consider when choosing stormwater best management practices for your property.
Here are some considerations that might help you decide which practices you would like to install on your property.
- If you would like to enhance your landscaping with flowers and other attractive plants consider a rain garden or a native meadow/swale.
- If you want to reduce the amount of time it takes to mow the lawn, a rain garden or native meadow/swale would help accomplish this goal.
- If you would like to see more butterflies, a rain garden or native meadow/swale can provide excellent butterfly habitat.
- If you have outdoor water needs (water for a garden, to water your lawn, or to wash your car) consider a rain barrel.
- If you don’t have much yard to work with, a rain barrel takes up minimal space.
- If your driveway needs to be repaved, consider using pervious paving instead of traditional pavement.
- If you would like to give your patio a new look, consider pervious paving.
- If you would like to restore forested conditions on a portion of your property, consider tree planting.
- If a stream is running through your property installing a forested riparian buffer would be beneficial.
- If you want to cut down on air conditioning costs during the summer, consider planting some trees on your property.
3. Choose where to locate the stormwater best management practices on your property.
Now that you know about your property and the type of practices you would like to install, it’s time to choose the right locations for the practices. Some considerations in your planning are:
- **Ponding Water.** Many stormwater practices encourage water to infiltrate into the soil (such as rain gardens and pervious paving). Where water ponds on your property, water is unable to infiltrate and it may be inappropriate to use these practices. *(Note- if you have an on-lot sanitary septic disposal system and an area is permanently wet near this system, the septic system may be failing. The disposal system should be evaluated and fixed before any other practices are installed.)*
- **Depth to bedrock.** You do not want to construct infiltration practices where rock layers are visible or are close to the surface.
- **Proximity to foundations.** You should also avoid constructing infiltration practices within 10 feet of building foundations.
- **Location of underground utilities.** Do not construct infiltration practices near septic systems or drinking water wells. Also avoid any underground utilities such as electric, cable, water, sewer, and gas lines (make sure to use the PA ONE-CALL system to locate underground utilities and contact your municipality).
- **Slope.** Depending on the practice, a steeper slope may prohibit siting, or it may be something that needs to be taken into account during the design stage. Consult the chart on the next page for guidance.
- **Soil percolation.** Since rain gardens and pervious paving are designed to infiltrate stormwater into the ground, the soil in the location of the rain garden or pervious paving must be able to drain. When considering these practices, you should conduct a simple percolation test where you would like to locate them:
- Dig a 1 foot deep hole and fill with water.
- Allow the water to moisten soil and drain completely. If water is still in the hole after 24 hours, choose a different location.
- Fill the hole with water a second time and place a ruler in the hole. Note the water level and time.
- After 15 minutes, re-measure the water level. Multiply the change in water level by 4 to get the number of inches of infiltration per hour.
- A perforated underdrain may be necessary to drain excess water from a rain garden or permeable pavement if the infiltration rate is less than 1/2 inch per hour.
Use this summary chart to help you select one or more stormwater practices that are right for your property.
| Space Required | Rain Garden | Riparian Buffer | Tree Planting | Native Swale/Meadow | Pervious Paving | Rain Barrel/ Cistern |
|----------------|-------------|-----------------|---------------|---------------------|----------------|----------------------|
| Minimum Size: 50 – 200 ft² 5 – 10 ft wide 10 – 20 ft long 6 – 12 inches ponding depth | The wider the better for water quality benefits based on lot size and configuration | Consider space needed for canopy spread | Not a factor | As needed to accommodate walkway, patio, or driveway | Not a factor |
| Slopes | Locate down slope of building foundations and drainage | Not usually a limitation, but a design consideration | Not usually a limitation, but a design consideration | 5% or less along length of swale | 2% or less | Barrel must be on level surface |
| Depth to Water Table | 1 – 4 ft clearance | Not a factor if correct species are planted | 1 – 4 ft clearance | Not a factor | 1 – 4 ft clearance | Not a factor |
| Depth to Bedrock | 1 – 4 ft clearance | 1 – 4 ft clearance | 1 – 4 ft clearance | Not a factor | 1 – 4 ft clearance | Not a factor |
| Building Foundations | Minimum 10 ft down slope from building foundations | Usually not a factor | |
| Maintenance | All practices should be inspected seasonally and after major storm events. | Low to Moderate: Weeding and watering in first 2 years. Some thinning in later years. Replace mulch. | Low to Moderate: Maintain tree tubes or cages. Mow between trees for first 4-5 years. Control invasives. Water as needed. | Low to Moderate: Maintain tree tubes or cages. Mow between trees for first 4-5 years. Control invasives. Water as needed. | Low to Moderate: Mow twice annually for first two years. Control invasive plants | Moderate to High: Trim vegetation. Inspect for signs of clogging and vacuum 2 times per year. Replace stone fill as needed. | Low: Clean screen/filter regularly. Clean gutters twice annually. Monitor for overflows. Empty and store before winter months. |
| Treatment Potential | 1500 gallons treatment capacity per 200 ft²* | 200 gallons captured and treated per 1000 ft² | 45 gallons of water captured and treated per 2 inch caliper deciduous tree. 75 gallons of water captured and treated per 6 ft evergreen tree | 200 gallons captured and treated per 1000 ft² | 30 gallons water captured and treated for a 1/2 inch rain fall per 100 ft² | A 55 gallon drum will be filled from a one inch storm on a 100 ft² roof |
*the subsurface storage of a rain garden should be equal to the surface ponding volume.
Chart adapted from the New Hampshire Homeowner’s Guide to Stormwater Management Do-It-Yourself Stormwater Solutions. NH Department of Environmental Services (March 2011, revised February 2012).
Please remember that by law and for safety you must call PA One Call before digging underground so you know where your underground utilities are located (ie electrical, sanitary sewer, water, etc.).
Now that you’ve chosen stormwater management practices for your property, list them on the stormwater management plan template provided in Appendix A. Draw them on your property map. Again, you can either hand draw them on the graph paper provided in Appendix A, or continue to follow the Computer Mapping Tutorial in Appendix B to map your chosen stormwater practices on your computer generated property map.
Congratulations! Your stormwater management plan is complete! You have taken an important step in managing stormwater on your property to help clean your local stream and river. Now you are ready to start implementing your plan. If you are a do-it-yourselfer, there are several online resources that provide detailed design and implementation guidance for the six practices discussed in this guide. Note: Please refer to the disclaimer at the end of this guide.
In the meantime, here are some other online guides you can reference:
**RAIN GARDENS**
- **Rain Gardens: A How-To Manual for Homeowners (University of Wisconsin Extension)**
http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/GWQ037.pdf
- **Rain Gardens in Connecticut: A Design Guide for Homeowners (UConn Cooperative Extension System)**
http://nemo.uconn.edu/publications/rain_garden_broch.pdf
- **Primer - Bioretention in Clay Soils**
http://wcdpa.com/tech-services/stormwater-management/stormwater-primer-entry-page/
- **Three Rivers Rain Garden Alliance**
http://www.raingardenalliance.org
**RIPARIAN BUFFERS**
- **Riparian Forest Buffer Guidance (PA Department of Environmental Protection)**
http://www.elibrary.dep.state.pa.us/dsweb/Get/Document-82308/394-5600-001.pdf
**TREE PLANTING**
- **Planting and After Care of Community Trees (Penn State Extension)**
http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/freepubs/pdfs/uh143.pdf
- **PATrees.org: The Free Resource Guide**
http://www.patrees.org
**NATIVE MEADOWS**
- **Meadows and Prairies: Wildlife-Friendly Alternatives to Lawn (Penn State Extension)**
http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uh117.pdf
**PERVIOUS PAVING**
- **New Hampshire Homeowner’s Guide to Stormwater Management Do-It-Yourself**
- **Stormwater Solutions: Pervious Walkways & Patios (NH Dept. of Environmental Sciences)**
http://des.nh.gov/organization/divisions/water/stormwater/documents/perw-walkw-patios-fs.pdf
- **Westmoreland Conservation District Fact Sheets**
http://www.wcdpa.com
**RAIN BARRELS AND CISTERNs**
- **Build Your Own Rain Barrel (Chesapeake Bay Foundation)**
http://www.cbf.org/Document.Doc?id=30
- **Rainwater Harvesting: Guidance for Homeowners (North Carolina Cooperative Extension)**
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/agecon/WECO/documents/WaterHarvestHome2008.pdf
**STORMWATER MANAGEMENT**
- **3 Rivers Wet Weather**
http://www.3riverswetweather.org
- **StormwaterPA**
http://stormwaterpa.org/
- **Pennsylvania Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual**
http://wcdpa.com/publications/technical-reference-manuals/pa-stormwater-bmp-guide-2006-cover-id/
**WATERSHEDS**
- **EPA Surf Your Watershed**
http://cfpublepa.gov/index.cfm
If installing these stormwater practices is not something you want to tackle, you can take your plan to a landscape professional with experience in designing and implementing these types of stormwater practices. You may want to do some of the work yourself and enlist the help of a professional to do the other part. The choice is up to you.
Please note that this guide focuses on six practices that are fairly simple to plan and construct. There are many other, more complex stormwater best management practices that may be applicable to your property and that you may want to consider. These include bioswales, underground cisterns, drywells, infiltration trenches, and many more. If you are interested in seeing if any of these types of practices are a good fit for your property, you should consult an experienced professional to plan, design, and implement them.
---
**Section 5: Healthy Lawn Care Practices**
The practices described in this guide are alternatives to maintaining a lawn and go a long way to protecting our streams. Yet lawns remain a significant component of the residential landscape and are important to homeowners for many uses. A special EPA Expert Panel looking at the issue of lawns and water quality concluded that maintaining a dense, vegetative cover of turf grass reduces runoff, prevents erosion, and retains nutrients in the turf grass.
**EPA’S TIPS FOR GROWING AND MAINTAINING A HEALTHY LAWN:**
Consult with your local Penn State extension office or lawn care professional for technical assistance to develop an effective nutrient management plan for your lawn based on a soil test analysis.
The precise lawn care prescription should be based on site-specific recommendations that take into account soil properties, the type of grass species, the age of the lawn, and other factors. Look
for professionals who are Pennsylvania Certified Horticulturists or Landscape Industry Certified.
**Per the recommendations of your local extension educator or your lawn care professional, follow one of four fertilizer application strategies: (1) choose not to fertilize; (2) fertilize with organic materials; (3) reduce rate and monitor; or (4) apply less than a pound of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet per each individual application.**
First, elect not to fertilize at all. Some lawns, due to their age or natural soil fertility may be able to maintain a healthy, dense cover without additional fertilization. (However, if your lawn is thin, is weed infested, or has bare spots, you should consider fertilizing to restore a thick turf grass cover, using one of the other three strategies.)
Second, apply organic fertilizer such as compost, composted manure, or Milorganite™
Third, take a “reduced rate and monitor” approach. For this approach, follow the nitrogen application rates on the fertilizer bag label and reduce them by one-third to a half, and monitor the results. If lawn quality starts to fall below acceptable levels, re-apply at the reduced rates.
Fourth, fertilize at the Penn State Extension recommended rate (3.0 to 3.5 pounds of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet of lawn per season), but split into 3 or 4 small doses during the growing season (for example, early spring, late spring, late summer and mid-fall). This will get you to an accepted application rate of less than a pound of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet for each individual application.
Most bagged fertilizers in Pennsylvania have already removed phosphorus from their products, except for “starter fertilizers” used to establish grass seed in new lawns. If your soil tests show a phosphorus deficiency, ask your lawn care professional for recommendations on how to provide the phosphorus your lawn needs.
**Use a mulching mower to retain clippings and mulched leaves on the lawn and keep them out of streets and storm drains.**
Lawn clippings are high in nutrients and should be treated as if they are a fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilization can be reduced without decreasing turf grass quality when clippings are left to decompose and return to the lawn.
**Do not apply fertilizers before spring green up or after the grass becomes dormant.**
The risk of pollution by leaching or surface runoff is greatest during the seasons of the year when grass is dormant. Avoid applying fertilizer in the late fall or winter. In spring, wait until the grass begins to green.
**Maximize use of slow release nitrogen fertilizer.**
Less nutrient loss occurs when slow release fertilizer products are used during the growing season, compared to water soluble formulations. Slow release fertilizer is typically shown on fertilizer products as water insoluble nitrogen (WIN), and can range from 20 to 50% of the total nitrogen product. You can shop for the fertilizer product with the greatest percentage of WIN. Avoid using in late fall as they may release nitrogen when the grass is dormant or frozen.
**Apply lime.**
Lime will improve vegetation health and soil porosity. Many southwestern PA soils are clay-based and have a low pH - an indication of an acid soil. Lime applied according to Penn State Extension recommendations will ensure good turf grass growth and stormwater retention.
**Immediately sweep off any fertilizer that lands on a paved surface.**
Rotary spreaders are the most common method to apply fertilizers and can broadcast fertilizer granules near the edge of a lawn, street, or driveway, where they can be subsequently washed off in a rain storm. Sweep up wayward granules before they have a chance to get into gutters and storm sewers. If you use a rotary spreader, purchase one with a deflector shield to prevent spraying fertilizer on the street, driveway, or sidewalks.
**Do not apply fertilizer within 15 to 20 feet of a stream, pond, or other water body and consider managing this zone as a perennial planting, native meadow, native grass buffer, or forest buffer.**
The risk of runoff is greatest from lawn areas adjacent to water features such as streams, shorelines, sinkholes and drainage ditches. Consider establishing a riparian buffer of shrubs, trees, or perennials along streams and other water courses.
**Set mower height at 3 inches or taller.**
Maintaining taller grass produces a deeper and more extensive root system, increasing nutrient uptake, and reducing runoff. The deeper roots also capture moisture during times of drought, suppress weeds, and increase turf density.
A well maintained lawn, with a dense healthy cover of turf grass significantly slows and absorbs stormwater runoff. However, you should consider installing stormwater best management practices where runoff is causing problems. Rain gardens, trees, and vegetated swales help lawns infiltrate excess stormwater.
---
**Disclaimer**
The practices described in this guide are provided exclusively for general educational and informational purposes. This guide is intended to help property owners evaluate and assess current runoff pathways on their properties and identify practices to better manage stormwater. This guide outlines several practices to choose from that are fairly simple to plan and construct.
All efforts have been made to ensure the material in this guide is accurate and up to date. However, Penn’s Corner Conservancy and Charitable Trust and its partner organizations cannot be held responsible for any circumstances resulting from its use, unavailability, or possible inaccuracy.
This guide is not intended to be a substitute for professional design and implementation services. This guide provides you with general information on an “as is” basis. You acknowledge that you assume the entire risk of loss in using this guide and the information provided herein, including without limitation any loss incurred by any end user. You further acknowledge that the management of stormwater is a complex and site specific issue and that the general information contained in this guide may not be sufficient to assess any and all particular site conditions. Any stormwater management practice should be installed with the consultation of an experienced professional who can address specific site conditions.
The Penn’s Corner Conservancy and Charitable Trust and its partner organizations make no representations and specifically disclaim all liabilities and warranties, express, implied, or statutory, regarding the accuracy, timeliness, or completeness for any particular purpose of any material contained in this guide.
The information presented in this guide does not in any way replace or supersede any municipal, county, state, or federal requirements or regulations related to stormwater management. You should check with all appropriate regulatory authorities before relying upon this guide to plan or implement any and all stormwater management practices on your property. | <urn:uuid:9cf03991-3969-4b42-8dea-25057305aef7> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | http://derryborough.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Homeowners-Stormwater-Guide.pdf | 2018-11-17T02:32:18Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039743248.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20181117020225-20181117042221-00065.warc.gz | 83,938,542 | 9,362 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.982839 | eng_Latn | 0.99541 | [
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Classroom Activities
Kites and Downdrafts board game
Motivational set (anticipatory set)
Video Anticipation Guide
Displaying Data
Discussion Starter
Activity - Kites and Downdrafts board game
In small groups have students play the board game to explore environmental impacts and mitigation factors, or choices- link to video
Master #3 - Kites and Downdrafts Board Game
Note: 1 die is required
Activity - Motivational set (anticipatory set)
To get students thinking about air quality, consider:
• have students simulate asthma - breathe through a straw, or have a guest in with breathing difficulties
• brainstorm: do a KWL chart: what do we know, what we want to learn about air quality
• take a tour/field trip to a local air monitoring station
Alberta Program of Studies Outcomes
Students will:
• Investigate and describe relationships between humans and their environments, and identify related issues and scientific questions
• illustrate how life-supporting environments meet the needs of living things for nutrients, energy sources, moisture, suitable habitat, and exchange of gases
• describe examples of interaction and interdependency within an ecosystem (e.g., identify examples of dependency between species, and describe adaptations involved; identify changing relationships between humans and their environments, over time and in different cultures-as, for example, in aboriginal cultures)
• identify examples of human impacts on ecosystems, and investigate and analyze the link between these impacts and the human wants and needs that give rise to them (e.g., identify impacts of the use of plants and animals as sources of food, fibre and other materials; identify potential impacts of waste products on environments)
• analyze personal and public decisions that involve consideration of environmental impacts, and • Identify needs for scientific knowledge that can inform those decisions
Activity - Video anticipation guide
In pairs, students answer 10 true or false statements before watching the video, then watch the video, then check their answers
Master #4 - the Video Anticipation Guide
Identify questions arising from practical problems and issues:
- use of various forms of transportation (SUV vs. smart cars vs. public transit vs. bicycling, vs. walking) Predict the change in outdoor air quality if:
- single occupant vehicles were not allowed on our roadways
- if families were limited to one vehicle per household
- discuss the number of students in the class who have asthma or another respiratory ailment and possible links to air quality (teacher tip: introduce questions about how much time students spend indoors vs. outdoors) - design and conduct a survey as a first step in investigating this issue - look for other sources of information related to this topic, based on the number of students in your class who have a respiratory ailment, estimate the total number of students in your school who do
Alberta Program of Studies Outcomes
Describe the relationships among knowledge, decisions and actions in maintaining life-supporting environments
- identify intended and unintended consequences of human activities within local and global environments
- describe and interpret examples of scientific investigations that serve to inform environmental decision making
- illustrate, through examples, the limits of scientific and technological knowledge in making decisions about life-supporting environments
- analyze a local environmental issue or problem based on evidence from a variety of sources, and
- identify possible actions and consequences
Skill outcome: Initiating and Planning
Students will: Ask questions about the relationships between and among observable variables, and plan investigations to address those questions
- identify science-related issues
- identify questions to investigate arising from practical problems and issues
- state a prediction and a hypothesis based on background information or an observed pattern of events
- select appropriate methods and tools for collecting data and information
Skill outcome: Performing and Recording
Students will: Conduct investigations into the relationships between and among observations, and gather and record qualitative and quantitative data
- research information relevant to a given problem or issue
- select and integrate information from various print and electronic sources or from several parts of the same source
- use tools and apparatus effectively and accurately for collecting data
- estimate measurements
Activity - Displaying Data
In small groups, find one month of data on ground level ozone concentrations from the Fort Air Partnership web site (www.fortair.org). Display one month of data in a variety of ways (i.e. a spreadsheet, a chart and a graph). Determine which is the best way of displaying the data. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of the ways you’ve chosen of displaying data.
Master #1 - Student Self Evaluation
Master #2 - Student Group Self Evaluation
Alberta Program of Studies Outcomes
Skill outcome: Analyzing and Interpreting
Students will: Analyze qualitative and quantitative data, and develop and assess possible explanations
- identify strengths and weaknesses of different methods of collecting and displaying data
- compile and display data, by hand or computer, in a variety of formats, including diagrams, flow charts, tables, bar graphs and line graphs
Skill outcome: Communication and Teamwork
Students will: Work collaboratively on problems; and use appropriate language and formats to communicate ideas, procedures and results
- communicate questions, ideas, intentions, plans and results, using lists, notes in point form, sentences, data tables, graphs, drawings, oral language and other means
- evaluate individual and group processes used in planning, problem solving, decision making and completing a task
- defend a given position on an issue, based on their findings (e.g., make a case for or against on an issue, such as: "Should a natural gas plant be located near a farming community")
Activity - Discussion Starter
From the poster, identify five human activities that have an impact on air quality and also identify alternatives that would lessen the impact on air.
Take home and complete a quiz with 15 questions and “always,” “sometimes,” “never” answers. Then set one family goal to reduce your family’s negative impact on air quality. Share your results with your buddy. Family log that the students keep for one month. Each week evaluate on progress toward your goal, discuss it with a parent or guardian, and have them sign it. Each week, teacher collects the completed goal sheet.
Master #5 - Family Quiz and Goal Setting Sheet
Alberta Program of Studies Outcome
Attitude outcome: Stewardship
Demonstrate sensitivity and responsibility in pursuing a balance between the needs of humans and a sustainable environment (e.g., assume personal responsibility for their impact on the environment; predict consequences of proposed personal actions on the environment; consider
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DEMONSTRATING STRATEGIC RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE RIVER AVON SAC
Demonstrating STrategic REstoration And Management (STREAM) is a £1 million four-year conservation project centred on the River Avon and the Avon Valley in Wiltshire and Hampshire, Southern England. STREAM is supported financially by the European Commission’s LIFE-Nature programme, Natural England, the Environment Agency, Wiltshire Wildlife Trust, Hampshire and the Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust and Wessex Water.
The crystal clear waters of the River Avon and its tributaries create special conditions for wildlife. The river system and lower Avon Valley contain some of the most rare or threatened species and habitats in Europe and are protected as Natura 2000 sites. The River Avon and its main tributaries are designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and the Avon Valley is designated as a Special Protection Area (SPA) for birds.
The River Avon catchment, South West England, showing European and UK designated sites and STREAM river restoration sites
PROJECT AIMS
The overall aim of STREAM is to demonstrate restoration of favourable physical habitat conditions in the River Avon SAC and to link its management with that of the adjacent Avon Valley SPA.
The project addresses the need to restore river channels that have been damaged by past land drainage activities. It is part of a broader initiative that encompasses restoration of flow, water quality and physical habitat in designated sites, wider biodiversity work and engaging the local community with the river.
Restoration of the River Avon Special Area of Conservation
Parts of the River Avon system have been dredged in the past, with channels being widened and the gravel on the river bed removed. This damaged the habitat for fish and other wildlife, which need a mixture of clean gravel and muddy bits on the river bed and a range of water depths and speeds to thrive.
The STREAM project tackled the effects of past engineering and loss of good quality habitat by restoring the river channel at six sites, improving over 7 km of river habitat and:
• restoring suitable conditions for the River Avon SAC habitats and species
• demonstrating innovative techniques and proven habitat enhancement methods
• sharing best practice through advice notes, demonstration days, conferences and seminars and public open days.
STREAM aims to reinstate lost physical habitat by putting back a more natural river channel, making it inviting for rare plants, fish and many other species, and encouraging natural processes to maintain and enhance it. The STREAM project has particularly focused on restoring the river for rare or threatened European species and habitats: Atlantic salmon, bullhead, brook and sea lamprey, Desmoulin’s whorl snail and typical chalk river plants including water crowfoot.
**Desmoulin’s whorl snail**
Desmoulin’s whorl snails love boggy areas with tall plants. They climb and feed on them in summer and hide amongst them in winter.
**Atlantic salmon**
Atlantic salmon return from the sea to the river they were born in. They rest in pools before laying eggs in clean gravel and fast waters.
**Bullhead**
Bullheads hide amongst tree roots and plants and stick their eggs to large stones. The father scares egg thieves away by “clicking” at them.
**Brook lamprey**
Brook lamprey live in the silt at the edge of the river for five years. They eventually emerge to mate, lay their eggs and then die.
**Chalk river plants**
Water crowfoot is the beautiful white flower that can be seen ‘floating’ at the surface of the river in the summer.
A summary of the techniques used at the project restoration sites is given below.
| TECHNIQUE | WHAT IT DOES |
|----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Large fallen trees (large woody debris) | Large fallen trees are a vital natural component of chalk streams. However, traditional river management has included their removal, on the grounds that they may restrict angling access, collect debris and could pose a risk of flooding. The retention or replacement of large woody debris in chalk streams can have a significant benefit in creating habitat. Large woody debris causes local changes in water speed and direction, cleaning the gravel bed in high flow areas, depositing fine sediment in areas of low velocity. |
| Flow deflectors | Deflectors function by concentrating flow vertically or horizontally, increasing the speed of flow locally, cleaning some areas of the river bed and depositing material in others. Knowing where you want areas of scour and deposition is the main consideration when planning where to install deflectors. |
| Channel re-shaping | Extensive past drainage activity has resulted in many river channels being widened, deepened and embanked and the natural bed material removed. Channel re-shaping aims to reinstate an approximation of the channel’s “natural” cross-sectional area. Following restoration, natural processes encourage the deposition of fine sediment in marginal, low velocity areas, where it will consolidate, further reshaping the channel. |
| Gravel reintroduction/reinstatement | Past land drainage work often involved lowering the river bed, removing characteristic gravel dominated, fast flowing areas which are vital spawning and juvenile habitat for salmon, lamprey and bullhead. Deepened channels also tend to collect fine sediment, reducing the quality of any remaining spawning gravel. Replacing gravel raises the river bed speeds up flow, reduces the depth of water and can increase habitat diversity. |
MEASURES OF SUCCESS
River restoration is increasingly seen as a way of improving ecology and habitat diversity in river systems. Monitoring against project aims is a key part of evaluating how successful restoration has been and to identify any problems with the techniques used. However, because it is relatively expensive, few UK projects are currently monitored.
STREAM has developed a monitoring protocol for assessing river restoration in lowland rivers. Using the protocol, flow speed and depth, vegetation type and quantity, river bed quality and numbers of fish were measured and photographs taken before and after the restoration works. This monitoring has been combined with a UK River Restoration Centre (RRC) expert assessment to evaluate the overall effect of the restoration.
The monitoring protocol and expert assessment demonstrate practical, cost effective ways to assess the physical and biological impact of river restoration projects.
Because rivers are complex and take several years to respond to restoration, it is not possible to draw any definite conclusions yet. However there are encouraging signs, such as salmon seen living and spawning in the restored River Wylye and improvements in the gravel river bed and the plant community at all sites. It is anticipated that future monitoring will show this success has been maintained.
BENEFITS TO THE RIVER AND LESSONS LEARNT
Amesbury on the River Avon
The river channel was reshaped, large woody debris put into the water and a small area of bed raised.
Benefits: Whilst flow remains generally slow, the large woody debris has created a more varied habitat and there is more water crowfoot growing. Sedimentation is now more concentrated in the channel edges, with the gravel bed being kept clean, creating fish spawning habitat.
Lessons: The very low gradient and depth of the channel remains a limitation on vegetation growth in the channel.
Chilhampton on the River Wylye
The river channel was reshaped, three areas of river bed raised and large woody debris put into the water.
Benefits: Flow diversity has increased where the bed has been raised and the large woody debris is scouring the gravel clean. Water crowfoot is starting to grow and salmon have returned to the raised bed area. The re-shaped river bank is collecting silt and growing vegetation, creating good marginal habitat.
Lessons: The channel re-shaping could have been bolder and its impact is limited by the downstream sluices.
Fovant on the River Nadder
Triangular flow deflectors were built and the sluices at the bottom of the reach opened up.
Benefits: These two approaches in combination mean that pools are being scoured in the river bed, whilst the areas between the structures are collecting silt. The establishment of emergent vegetation on and between the structures will eventually narrow the channel significantly. The gravel river bed is much cleaner, providing spawning habitat for salmon and trout.
Lessons: Longer, alternating flow deflectors that were lower in the water could work more effectively.
Blashford on the Dockens Water
A new floodplain pool was created, reconnecting river and floodplain – the pool was intended to mimic natural chutes, which are channels that flow across the floodplain when water levels are high.
**Benefits:** A floodplain pool has been created and there have been small scale changes in the vegetation.
**Lessons:** As yet the pool only holds water periodically and looks unnatural. It is hoped that it will collect silt over time and hold water more consistently.
Upper Woodford on the River Avon
The river channel was reshaped and small islands and flow deflectors created.
**Benefits:** The structures have increased flow variability and speed and created refuge areas of slow water. Habitat for young fish has also been created but may only be short to medium term as the deflectors fill with silt. The amount of water crowfoot has increased in the river.
**Lessons:** Vegetation may need to be planted in the structures, as consistent high flows mean it is not yet well established.
Woodgreen on the River Avon
Part of the river bed was raised, existing gravel was reshaped and large woody debris was installed.
**Benefits:** The main bed raising has created good flow diversity, providing spawning habitat for fish. The reshaped gravel has also created some habitat diversity. The woody debris is creating local flow variation.
**Lessons:** More, bigger woody debris was needed to be effective. Practical limitations such as the availability and size of large trees that can still be moved with machinery may limit the use of woody debris in deep wide channels.
The management of the lower River Avon SAC is closely linked with the management of the grazing marshes of the Avon Valley SPA. The breeding waders and wintering birds that use the valley are dependent on suitable conditions being created, by controlling and retaining water on the floodplain at key times. Conditions for these species in the SPA are currently unfavourable, largely due to neglect of the watercourse network and inappropriate water level management.
Restoring the Avon Valley to favourable condition requires rehabilitation of the ditch network, tree and scrub removal and restoration or installation of sluices or structures. However, all these activities potentially affect fish populations. The STREAM project has developed practical ways to overcome these conflicts and contribute to both the integrated management of water levels in the Valley and the needs of migrating fish populations in the River Avon.
**Guidance on operating sluices and hatches**
STREAM has developed guidance on operating protocols for structures (such as sluices), which can be used to help manage water levels for river and floodplain habitats and species.
**Planning floodplain restoration**
STREAM has also developed a way to plan floodplain restoration works whilst avoiding trapping fish in the valley ditch network. This involves using available fishery data to generate colour coded maps, which are then used to assess the potential impact on fish of measures such as ditch reinstatement and new structures.
**Benefits of linking river and floodplain**
The STREAM guidance is being used to achieve appropriate water level management at another 32 structures in the Avon catchment and is being used in other parts of the UK. The STREAM approach to planning floodplain restoration has now been applied to 35 kilometres of the River Avon.
The STREAM methods for prioritising floodplain restoration works and creating hatch operating protocols are valuable new management tools where there are potential conflicts between the needs of river and wetland habitats and species.
SHARING INFORMATION
An increasing amount of restoration work is needed across Europe in order to improve rivers and floodplains, which have been damaged by decades of unsympathetic management. Sharing the STREAM project experience makes an important contribution to this work.
The project has run site visits, workshops and seminars for landowners, fishery managers, local planners and regulatory bodies from across Europe. Over a hundred river experts attended the STREAM international conference in July 2009. All the events gave people a chance to discuss technical aspects of the STREAM project, visit the restoration sites and pick up tips on how to restore Europe’s rivers.
Community consultation and involvement
STREAM consulted local people before carrying out the restoration works, explaining the aims and expected results and giving them a chance to raise any concerns they might have. The project also worked closely with its sister project the Living River to increase general awareness and appreciation of the River Avon and its tributaries.
Much of the River Avon system is on private land, so people have limited opportunities to visit it. STREAM and Living River have created and improved opportunities for those who live and work in the catchment to learn about the river system and get involved in the conservation of its natural heritage.
As part of a joint “Week of Water”, the Salisbury Playday saw over 3000 children of all ages entertained by a model river, fly fishing practice, a river bug “explorer” and making their own sea horses. The Playday was run in conjunction with Salisbury International Arts Festival.
Local people also joined the project team on the river bank at open days, guided walks and family fun days. Activities such as pond dipping, Pooh stick racing, nature trails, an audio archive and interactive water exhibit all proved popular ways to raise awareness about the river system.
AND THE WINNER IS...
STREAM won the Wild Trout Trust Conservation Award 2008 and the CIWEM Living Wetlands Award. STREAM and the Living River project were joint finalists in the prestigious 2009 International Thiess Riverprize, which recognises excellence in river management worldwide.
WHAT HAPPENS NEXT?
STREAM has not solved all the problems affecting the River Avon system, but importantly has built strong partnerships, tested techniques and created tools that will be used to carry on river restoration work. A restoration plan covering the whole river system is already underway and the STREAM project partners are considering what further action is needed. An action plan will be developed over the next twelve months, setting out the priorities for the future.
TIPS FOR LARGE-SCALE RESTORATION PROJECTS
STREAM has highlighted particular issues relevant to large-scale river restoration projects. STREAM technical advice notes on river restoration techniques, planning and implementing river restoration and linking river and floodplain are available on the project website. Based on the STREAM project experience, some tips for implementing river restoration programmes are given below.
**Project partners and team**
A strong relationship with all project partners is crucial to project success. Having a range of partners from different sectors is beneficial as it allows access to a wider range of skills, experience and contacts.
**Expect and incorporate restraints to final designs**
Restoration can improve river habitat and contribute to favourable condition of protected sites. The final design and implementation are influenced by constraints such as protected species, landowner aspirations, hydraulic controls, machine access routes etc., but must still meet the ecological objectives for restoration.
**Monitor against targets**
Monitoring projects against clearly defined aims is a crucial part of evaluating the effectiveness of river restoration.
**Establish close working relationships**
Close working with landowners and fishing clubs in developing and carrying out the river restoration work is crucial to securing sustainable long term management of the sites.
**Carry out early consultation**
Early consultation is vital for obtaining the relevant permissions and often identifies a way to “design out” many issues. In a heavily regulated country such as the UK, particular aspects to consider include: waste licensing, planning permission, environmental impact assessment and flood risk assessment.
**Plan time for contract management**
Large restoration projects need specialist construction contract management and the contracting process can be lengthy. This must be incorporated into the project planning cycle, site facilities, supervision, reinstatement etc require a larger proportion of the budget than for smaller-scale restoration projects.
**Split work between internal and external workforce**
The nature of the partner organisations and availability of staff involved can change during the project. Splitting the work between internal staff and consultants minimises risks to the project but still enables development of in-house expertise.
**Extensive site supervision**
Partner staff may have carried out lots of river maintenance or more traditional river engineering but little river restoration. Clear communication and extensive site supervision are needed to ensure designs are feasible to build and implemented effectively.
**Consistent, clear communication strategy**
Key messages, audiences and delivery mechanisms should be identified and used to guide all communication actions.
**Communicate and consult with the public**
Local meetings, press releases and project briefing notes should all be used to communicate the aims of restoration and what people can expect to see in the short, medium and long term. This is particularly important where controversial action is planned e.g. felling large trees or works in existing areas of high flood risk.
**Manage expectations**
One project cannot solve all the issues affecting a river system, but can act as a catalyst for future action.
The STREAM project has demonstrated techniques for river restoration work on the River Avon and its tributaries and linked the management of the river and its floodplain.
The River Avon System and Avon Valley contain some of the most rare or threatened wildlife in Europe. They are protected as Natura 2000 sites.
STREAM is supported by the LIFE Nature fund, Natural England, the Environment Agency, Wiltshire Wildlife Trust, Hampshire and the Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust and Wessex Water.
STREAM works closely with the Living River Project, which aims to increase local people’s awareness and appreciation of the River Avon System.
TO FIND OUT MORE
The experience of the STREAM project informs river restoration and floodplain management across Europe. Information on all aspects of the project, including guidance notes on river restoration techniques, permissions, linking river and floodplain, monitoring protocols and technical reports are available on the STREAM website.
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The Real Dirt on Farming
Helping you make informed choices with straight answers on food security, climate change, animal welfare, food safety and much more
Your Guide to Food & Farming in Canada
# Table of contents
## Chapter 1: Canadian farms and farmers – who is growing our food?
- What does it mean to farm in Canada?
- Who is growing our food?
- Female and farming
- Indigenous agriculture
- Getting into farming
- Conventional and organic farming
- The corporate farm question
- The biggest change? Size
- Family is at the heart of Canada’s farms
- Regional roundup
## Chapter 2: Crops and plants
- A Canadian oil for the world: canola
- Grains, oilseeds and specialty crops
- Pulses
- Fruits, vegetables and fungi
- Growing crops indoors
- Medicinal and ceremonial crops
- Wine, beer and other craft beverages
- The ultimate Canadian crop: maple syrup
## Chapter 3: Farm animals
- Turkeys and chickens
- Hens and eggs
- Dairy cattle
- Real deal about veal
- Beef cattle
- Pigs
- Sheep, goats and guardian animals
- Insects are farm animals too
- The buzz on honey
- What about fur farming?
- Fish farming
## Chapter 4: Humane treatment of farm animals
- Why are most farm animals raised indoors in Canada?
- Keep farm animals healthy – practise biosecurity
- Why can’t they have more space?
- Genetics and animal breeding
- Are there rules for raising farm animals?
- Livestock on the move
- Animal care practices
- Animal welfare and animal rights
## Chapter 5: Food security, eating local and the cost of food
- The cost of food
- Food insecurity
- The luxury of choice
- Food labels and claims – What do they really mean?
- Plant-based proteins
- Buying organic
- Making healthy food choices
- What is supply management?
- Eating locally
- Imports and exports
- Working in agriculture
- Seasonal agricultural and temporary foreign farm workers
## Chapter 6: Environment, climate change and sustainable farming
- Soil health and organic matter
- Growing crops sustainably
- Pollinators, bee health and neonic
- Farming and technology
- Greener energy on the farm
- Farming’s carbon footprint
- Livestock as part of the solution
- Going the extra mile for wildlife
- Manure, fertilizers, phosphorus and water
- What about plastics and packaging?
- Food waste
## Chapter 7: Healthy and safe food
- Food safety rules for farmers
- Traceability
- Keeping farm animals healthy
- When animal and human health meet
- Antibiotics and resistance
- Raw facts about raw milk
- DNA barcoding
- Hormones, livestock and meat
- What about pesticides?
- GMOs
## Chapter 8: Food, farming and the future
- Mental health on the farm
- Changing consumer trends
- Facing the future
Farm photos in this book are all taken of Canadian farms, or of Canadian farmers. Many were winning entries in Farm & Food Care’s Farm Photo Contest. Photo credits are listed, where available.
Sources, where noted, are available in the online version of this publication at: www.RealDirtonFarming.ca
Front cover photo credits: Sheri Mangin, Ashton Irwin, Sarah Sebastian, Jodie Aldred and Coralie Spratt
Back cover photo credits: Alycia Walker, Nancy French Photography, Grieg Seafood BC and Amy Haak
Our food has a story and it starts with Canadian farms.
We’ve heard from Canadians across the country that they want to know more about food production. We have also heard what’s important to you when it comes to the food you eat: topics like food safety, the environment, and the humane treatment of farm animals.
Food is connected to many of the big issues facing our society, from the cost of living and energy, to climate change, and health care.
In this publication, we’re tackling those issues head-on to answer your questions, and to show you what we are doing to feed you safely, nutritiously, and sustainably.
You’ll notice a particular focus on science. COVID-19 changed our world, and we learned first-hand how important it is to have science available to guide decision-making, and to make sure that things are done safely.
It’s no different when we’re producing food. As farmers, we’re the ones growing crops and raising livestock every day, but we know that we need the advice of experts in fields like animal welfare, pesticide use, and food safety, so that we can make the best possible decisions on our farms to produce the best food possible.
Canadian farming has an impressive story to tell, and we’re pleased that you’re interested to hear it.
Sincerely,
Canada’s Farmers and Food Producers
Canadian farms and farmers – who is growing our food?
Food and farming are a big deal in Canada. Not only do Canadians depend on farmers to produce the food we eat, but agriculture and agri-food provide jobs for more than 2.3 million people\(^1\). One in eight Canadian jobs is directly linked to the sector, which contributed $142.7 billion\(^2\) to our national economy in 2019, and is thus a major driver of economic growth.
What does it mean to farm in Canada?
That question and answer depend on where you live. Farmers from coast to coast to coast raise a variety of livestock and poultry, and grow many different crops according to the climate and soils in their regions.
Canadian farms come in all types and sizes, from small orchards and vineyards to large grain farms and cattle ranches, varying in their ability to produce food. A small piece of very fertile land can profitably grow specialty vegetables for a niche market, for example, whereas a large 5,000-acre farm in a cooler climate with poorer soil is better suited for grazing animals.
At a glance...
**It’s all about family:** 97 per cent of Canada’s farms are family owned\(^3\).
**Farms are bigger than in the past\(^4\):** the average Canadian farm was 820 acres in 2016, up from 779 acres in 2011, and 237 in 1941. Technology means that farmers can produce more food and manage larger farms than in the past.
**There are fewer farms:** Canada counted 193,492 farms in the last Canadian census (2016)\(^5\), as compared to 205,700 in 2011, and 276,500 in 1996.
**Farms are diverse:** Ontario has the most farms, but Saskatchewan’s are the biggest, and British Columbia has the largest number of small farms (those producing less than $10,000 in gross annual income). Canadian farms grow and raise everything from bison, alpacas, and mink, to lavender, grapes, greenhouse vegetables, and hazelnuts.
**Canada feeds the world:** we are the fifth largest exporter of agricultural and agri-food products in the world, including:
- 71 per cent of the world’s maple products (maple syrup and maple sugar)\(^6\)
- 40 per cent of the world’s flaxseed\(^7\)
- 31 per cent of the world’s canola (world’s leading producer)\(^8\)
- 39 per cent of the world’s pulses (world’s leading producer of lentils and peas)\(^9\)
- 52 per cent of the world’s mustard\(^10\)
Who is growing our food?
Fewer than two per cent of Canadians farm, and those that do are getting older. In fact, the average age of Canadian farmers reached 55 in 2016.
But for the first time in 25 years, we’ve also seen an increase in the number of young farmers in Canada (those under 35)\(^1\). More than half of young farmers supplement their farm income with off-farm revenue, working in management, business, finance, trades, health, education, or natural resources and agriculture-related jobs. Their share of off-farm income varies significantly by farm type, which reflects the size and profitability of the farming operation, the seasonality of production, and opportunities to work off-farm.
Many farmers in Canada today have come here from another country to farm. For example, almost 60 per cent of Canadian immigrant farmers in fruit and tree nut production come from India, and Punjabi is now the third-most popular mother tongue of new Canadians who farm.
German and Dutch are the two largest language groups among Canada’s immigrant farmers; that’s because almost three quarters of Canada’s immigrant dairy farmers come from the Netherlands and Switzerland\(^2\).
Because there is a severe shortage of labour on Canadian farms, and there aren’t enough willing domestic workers to fill all the available jobs, Canada also relies on many seasonal and temporary foreign farm workers.
**Career Profile**
**Organic Grape Grower**
**Karnail Singh Sidhu**
Karnail Singh Sidhu arrived in British Columbia in 1993 at the age of 25. While he trained as an electrical engineer in India, his qualifications weren’t recognized in Canada. Instead, Sidhu landed a job at a local winery, where his work ethic attracted the attention of the vineyard owner, who eventually funded his studies in viticulture (grape growing for wine) at Okanagan College and promoted him to vineyard manager.
In 2008, Sidhu opened Kalala Organic Estate Winery, with his wife Narinder, in the beautiful Okanagan Valley. Their winery produces upwards of 72,000 bottles of wine annually, which are mostly sold throughout BC. His wife takes care of the business and administration; his brother helps in the vineyard, and his daughters, nieces, and nephews all help both in the vineyard and with bottling.
In 2020, he was named BC Viticulturist of the Year, partly due to his commitment to ongoing research and community involvement. He believes his mentors played an important role in his success, and pays it forward today with his family, staff and other viticulturists. “Everyone has a different way of thinking,” said Sidhu, “I think we can learn a lot from sharing our views and our knowledge with others.”
*Photo courtesy of the BC Wine Institute*
**Female and farming**
Although the majority of farmers are still men, more women are farming today than ever before. Just under 30 per cent of farmers are female, according to the last census, compared to 25 per cent in 1996\(^4\). One in five young female farmers study agriculture after high school, and overall, women in agriculture are two times more likely to have a university education now than they were 20 years ago.
Various women in agriculture, including female farmers, have been inducted into the Canadian Agricultural Hall of Fame for their outstanding contributions to their sectors.
JoAnne Buth, a former President of the Canola Council of Canada, helped oversee unprecedented growth for Canadian grains and oilseeds. She served two years in the Senate of Canada, and became the first female CEO of the Canadian International Grains Institute.
Indigenous agriculture
Indigenous people have an important connection to the land, and harvested plants and animals for traditional medicines and foods long before settlers arrived to what is now called Canada. In addition to the challenges that all farmers face, Indigenous farmers can encounter obstacles associated with colonization, such as regulatory systems including the *Indian Act*, as well as natural and geographic factors.\(^{15}\)
The number of Indigenous farmers in Canada has been on the rise, increasing by more than 50 per cent between 1996 and 2016\(^{16}\). Several factors may have contributed to the increase including changes in self-reported identification over time. Almost 80 per cent of Indigenous farmers identify as Métis, with the largest numbers farming in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. A little over a quarter self-identified as First Nations, with most farming in British Columbia, Ontario and Alberta.
- Many Métis farmers raise cattle, or are involved in specialty crops like hay, sugar beets, hemp, hops, herbs and spices.
- Indigenous farmers are more likely to be women, as compared with non-Indigenous farmers.
- First Nations people fostered the planting relationship known as the “Three Sisters”, where beans, corn and squash are planted side by side. The beans fix nitrogen to the soil; the corn stalks act as a trellis for beans; and the squash leaves provide ground cover that prevents weed growth and conserves moisture.\(^{17}\)
The corporate farm question
Like many Canadian businesses, some farm families have opted to incorporate their businesses. This change means that they’ve chosen a business structure that can include both family members and paid employees—but it has nothing to do with how big or small a farm is, or how well animals or crops are cared for. According to the 2016 Census of Agriculture, 22.5 per cent of Canadian farms are incorporated as family corporations (only 2.7 per cent of incorporated farms are non-family corporations)\(^{18}\).
Getting into farming
Most Canadian farms are family businesses that are passed from one generation to the next. The cost of land in particular is high, making it difficult for young people to get into farming if there’s no farm in the family to take over. That situation means that many have to get creative if they want to make their farming dream a reality.
Many new farmers start out by renting or buying small pieces of land, and getting help from friends, neighbours, or family, while also working outside the farm. Many look to specialty products, direct-to-consumer sales, or niche markets that they can supply on a small scale to differentiate themselves in the marketplace. Some farmers without a next generation to take over are building succession plans with young farmers that aren’t part of their family, and others work out creative agreements to give young farmers a start.
More than one way to farm: conventional and organic farming
Farmers choose to farm in a variety of ways following different types of production practices such as conventional (non-organic) or organic production. Organic food is grown in ways that support the principles of organic agriculture: health, ecology, fairness, and care\(^{19}\)—many principles that also apply to conventional farmers.
Farmers producing organic food follow production rules around improved sustainability which can include a focus on crop rotation, improving soil health, natural pest control methods, humane livestock management practices, and traceability from farm to fork—although it should be noted that many conventional farmers also follow these very same principles.
Some farmers grow both organic and conventional crops on their farms for different markets, but regardless of the type of farming, the key is sustainable production.
In Canada, demand for organic foods is on the rise. Canada’s market for organic food items is worth over $5 billion annually, increasing by 8.7 per cent every year\(^{20}\). About 7,300 Canadian farms and 1,700 food processors are certified as organic.
For more information on organic food production, visit page 33.
The biggest change? Size.
Farms are bigger, and there are more tools and technologies to help farmers with their work. Smartphone apps and sensors can let a farmer know if a cow is sick even before she shows any symptoms; drones can detect crop pests and diseases in a field more quickly than a human; and GPS systems can help farmers pinpoint exactly where and how much fertilizer is needed in a field.
Most farmers today specialize in a specific type of farming, like greenhouse vegetables, mushrooms, dairy, or pork production. This specialization helps farms to be more efficient and produce more food, and makes it easier for farmers to learn and to adapt to challenges in their area of expertise.
A big challenge for today’s farms is feeding Canadians sustainably. That means growing enough food in ways that are good for people, animals, and the planet—as well being financially viable and socially responsible—and all farms have a role to play in this process.
Family is at the heart of Canada’s farms
In Canada, farming is still all about family. Many farms are handed down from one generation to the next in a process called succession. Parents and even grandparents often work together with sons, daughters, and grandchildren in the family’s farming business. There are farms in Canada that have now been home to eight or nine generations of the same family.
Career Profile
Potato Farmers
Jason, Harrison and Josh Hayden
Jason Hayden, a sixth-generation potato farmer on Prince Edward Island, is pleased to see his sons, Harrison and Josh, follow in his footsteps. “We feel very fortunate to have our next generation taking an interest in farming and not have to worry about the future of our farm.” He added that working with family also makes day-to-day chores easier and more rewarding.
The family grows table potatoes, including white and russet, and operates a potato packaging warehouse on their farm. Potatoes grown on their own and neighbouring farms are packed and shipped across Canada and into the United States.
Harrison and Josh now run their own farms, growing a rotation of winter wheat, soybeans, and potatoes. “Making their own business decisions and having some ownership over how they farm is the best way to learn,” said Hayden, but adds that he is always there for some helpful advice.
Regional roundup
Canada is a big country—and just as our geography and climate vary from coast to coast, so do our farms. The key to Canada’s farm and food success has always been diversity. Here’s a snapshot of farming across the country:
- **British Columbia** produces 95 per cent of Canada’s cherry crop.
- **Alberta** leads Canada in beef production, and accounts for more than 40 per cent of all beef cattle in Canada.
- **Saskatchewan** grows more field crops than any other province—such as canola, spring wheat and lentils.
- **Manitoba** has the largest number of young farmers under 35 in Canada.
- **Ontario** is the country’s leading chicken producer, and is home to two-thirds of Canada’s greenhouse vegetable production.
- **Quebec** is a food and farming powerhouse, producing more dairy, maple syrup, pork, nuts, fruit and berries than any other province.
- **New Brunswick’s** leading fruit/berry crop is blueberries.
- **Prince Edward Island** grows more potatoes than any other province in Canada.
- **Nova Scotia** has the highest proportion of female farmers in Atlantic Canada.
- **Newfoundland & Labrador** farms have the highest rate of leased and rented farmland in Canada.
Canadian farmers grow a diverse variety of crops across the country—crops that are used both here at home, and exported to countries around the world. You’ll find everything from pulses, grains, and oilseeds, to fruits, vegetables, flowers, and specialty crops like herbs in Canada’s fields, orchards and greenhouses.
A Canadian oil for the world
Canola is a “Made in Canada” crop that was developed through traditional plant breeding techniques, and is now the cooking oil of choice for billions of people around the world. Its name comes from a contraction of the words Canada and ola, meaning oil. Canola oil is prized for its heart-healthy properties, and contains the least amount of saturated fat of all common culinary oils. It is one of the most versatile and affordable oils, with many applications at home, in restaurants, and in food processing.
It is also a multi-purpose crop. Once the oil is extracted from the canola seed, a high-protein meal is produced from the remaining portion, which makes a great addition to livestock feed. It’s also used as a replacement for petroleum, to make green plastics, and an environmentally-friendly fuel called biofuel. Canada exports more than 90 per cent of its canola as seed, oil, or meal, to approximately 50 markets around the world.
DID YOU KNOW?
Canola is a member of the Brassicaceae family – the same botanical family as broccoli, turnips, rutabaga, cabbage, cauliflower and mustard.
Career Profile
Canola Farmers
Stacey Sagon
Mark and Stacey Sagon and daughters Georgia and Jayla raise beef cattle and grow canola, wheat, barley, oats and pulse crops like peas and lentils on their farm in western Saskatchewan.
They’re especially enthusiastic about growing canola. “We love the potential of the crop. It responds so well to our farming practices and its quality is amazing,” Sagon said. She added that the crop also continues to get better. In the last ten years, genetic improvements have resulted in higher yields and greater oil content in the seeds.
Sagon feels great pride when she sees canola oil on the shelf of her local grocery store. “There are so many choices in oils and I’m proud that canola oil, which is such a healthy choice, is right there and we’re producing it on our farm.”
Photo courtesy of Debra Marshall Photography
Stop!
Crops like canola and sunflowers are beautiful when they are in bloom and they attract a lot of admirers. But it’s easy to damage the crop while walking through it, even just to take a few photos. Always get permission from the farmer before entering a field.
Grains, oilseeds and specialty crops
Corn, soybeans, barley, oats, canola, and wheat (including durum wheat—the kind used to make pasta) are Canada’s major grain and oilseed crops. “What’s an oilseed crop?” you may be wondering. It’s a crop that is grown primarily for the oil found in the seeds.
Farmers will grow a variety of crops, depending on the soil and climate factors in their areas. Soybeans and grain corn are mainly grown in Ontario, Québec, and Manitoba, although farmers in Saskatchewan and the Maritimes also grow these crops. Canola, barley, oats, and durum wheat are grown primarily in the Prairie provinces. Other Canadian grain, oilseed, and specialty crops, also primarily grown in the Prairies, include rye, quinoa, flax, canary seed, mustard, sunflower, buckwheat, and camelina, as well as forages and industrial hemp.
Canadian grains and oilseeds are exported to many countries around the world. In 2019, for example, the EU, Iran and Bangladesh were major buyers of Canadian soybeans. China has traditionally been a major importer of Canadian soybeans. Canadian oats were in demand in the United States and Mexico.
Canada is a world leader in the production and export of mustard, with Saskatchewan responsible for two-thirds of the country’s production. In 2019, Prairie farmers grew just under 400,000 acres of the crop in three different types: yellow, brown, and oriental mustard.
Sweet corn kernels grow in an even number of rows on the cob!
DID YOU KNOW?
Farmers grow three main types of corn in Canada:
**Grain corn** is corn in which the kernels on the cob are used to feed livestock, and are used to make fuels like ethanol, and as a human food ingredient.
**Silage corn** involves the whole plant being harvested as feed for livestock.
**Sweet corn** is the type of corn that people eat fresh, canned or frozen.
Career Profile
**Grain Farmer**
**Lane Stockbrugger**
The Stockbrugger family has been farming on land in east-central Saskatchewan for over 100 years. Today, Lane Stockbrugger farms with his brother Lance and their two families.
They grow a rotation of malt barley, wheat, oats, canary seed, canola and peas. “No two farms are exactly the same, but what remains consistent is the time and attention that is put into every decision that farmers make,” said Stockbrugger. “We’re lucky that we can work through these decisions together, but we’ll also draw on the expertise of others when needed, all to ensure we are making the right choices from a sustainability and safety perspective.”
Farming has changed significantly over the last century, and the brothers hope to continue to evolve and build a farm legacy that the next generation wants to be involved in.
*Photo with permission from Country Guide/Photography: Richard Jenkins • Reflections by Richard*
Pulses
Pulses are the dry, edible seeds of certain plants in the legume family. Major pulse crops grown in Canada include chickpeas, lentils, dry or field peas, faba beans, and dry beans. Most pulse crops are grown in Western Canada, but farmers in Ontario and parts of Québec are significant growers of dry beans, including navy beans, black beans, red kidney, white kidney, cranberry, and adzuki beans.
Pulse crops are a low-fat, high-fibre protein powerhouse with high levels of minerals like iron, zinc, and phosphorus, as well as potassium, folate, and other B-vitamins. They’ve also been found to help lower bad types of cholesterol, and to help maintain healthy blood sugar levels.
Pulses are also a key part of sustainable food production. They are a “nitrogen-fixing crop”—meaning that they have the potential to work with soil bacteria to draw nitrogen from the air and store it, so farmers can reduce the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied to their field. After harvest, pulses leave behind nitrogen-rich crop residue, which can further reduce the amount of fertilizer that farmers need to apply for the next crop too.
More than 85 per cent of Canada’s pulse crops are exported annually, and they end up in 125 different countries, with China being the largest buyer of Canadian peas.
Career Profile
Pulse Farmers
Hailey and Cale Jeffries
High school sweethearts Hailey and Cale Jeffries are farmers and entrepreneurs. Together, they’re behind the Prairie Fava business.
In 2015, they moved home to Glenboro, Manitoba, so Cale could take over his fifth-generation family seed farm, Jeffries Seeds. Hailey left behind a fast-paced corporate sales and marketing job, and was unsure how to apply that spirit to their new life.
After Hailey’s mother was diagnosed with cancer, she found a renewed interest in health and healthy food in particular. With the family seed business, and Hailey’s marketing know-how, she saw the perfect opportunity to address the growing consumer demand for plant-based proteins. In 2015, they established Prairie Fava and began processing fava beans two years later.
Fava beans are very neutral tasting, making them a versatile option to enhance the protein and fibre content of everyday foods without adversely affecting the taste, colour or aroma. Fava flour is also a Canadian-grown, higher protein alternative for gluten-free flour substitutes.
They now ship whole and split beans, as well as flour, across North America and to Japan, Vietnam and Belgium. Prairie Fava recently received the Start-Up of the Year Award at the 2019 Manitoba Chambers of Commerce Business Awards.
QUICK FACT
Over 50 per cent of all lentils traded in the world come from Saskatchewan fields.
Mushrooms all year long
Mushrooms are one of the few crops that can be grown in Canada year-round. Canadian farmers grow more than 145 million kilograms of mushrooms every year\textsuperscript{35}—mostly white button, followed by brown and Portobello. Demand for specialty mushrooms, such as Shiitake, Oyster, King Oyster, and Enoki, continues to grow. Oh, and the little black specks you sometimes see on mushrooms at the store? That’s the very important compost mixture (called substrate) used to grow beds of mushrooms—just rinse or wipe it off before eating.
Fruits and vegetables
More than 120 fruit and vegetable crops are grown in Canada, on approximately 14,000\textsuperscript{36} farms. These include many long-time favourites from apples, peaches, pears, blueberries, strawberries, and grapes, to carrots, peppers, onions, lettuce, potatoes, asparagus, cabbage, cucumbers, and tomatoes, but also ginseng, cranberries, garlic, cauliflower, cherries, apricots, hazelnuts, Saskatoon berries, and many more.
British Columbia has the most fruit farms in Canada, and farmers in British Columbia, Québec, and Ontario grow 90 per cent of Canada’s fruit crops\textsuperscript{37}. In the early 1990s, a chance seedling (a genetically unique plant that has been unintentionally bred) was discovered on an orchard in Cawston, BC, after the farmers noticed its unique and delicious apples. This variety was later named the Ambrosia Apple, meaning “food of the gods”.
Ontario is Canada’s vegetable king: home to almost 70 per cent of Canada’s production of greenhouse vegetables; the leader in field vegetable production (those that are grown outside in a field instead of in a greenhouse); and also the biggest producer of mushrooms in the country\textsuperscript{38}. Québec and British Columbia are Canada’s other two big vegetable-producing provinces.
Career Profile
Fruit & Vegetable Farmer
Chris Oram
One of the biggest challenges of farming in Newfoundland is unpredictable weather, as fruit and vegetable farmer Chris Oram and his family can attest to. Spring can be late in coming and winter early in arriving which makes for a short growing season compared to other provinces. As such, “cole” crops (or cool season plants) like cabbage, rutabaga, carrots and potatoes are popular crops grown on the island. The family also grows “A to Z” – apples to zucchini and everything in between which they sell at their family’s market and others in the area. Rutabaga is an island speciality. “Everyone says we have the sweetest rutabaga in the world because of our cold climate,” Oram noted.
After high school, he wasn’t planning on farming with his parents Dick and Arlene. He attended university, playing on the varsity basketball team. But the longer he was away, the more he missed the family business. His wife Kayla also now works with them and they look forward to welcoming a third generation in the months ahead.
Did You Know?
Farmers and researchers in Ontario are experimenting with a crop called Tiger Nut? It’s a small tuber, or root crop, that is the key ingredient in a popular Spanish drink called Horchata de Chufa.
Quick Fact
Space spud – the first vegetable grown in space was a potato! NASA and the University of Wisconsin first tested seed potatoes in space aboard the Columbia space shuttle in 1995\textsuperscript{39}.
Growing under glass
More and more of the fresh produce and flowers which Canadians enjoy are grown in greenhouses, under glass, rigid plastic or poly-film, practically year-round. Tomatoes, peppers, and cucumbers are Canada’s biggest greenhouse crops, but farmers are also growing lettuce, green beans, eggplants, microgreens, and herbs, and increasingly, fruits like juicy, sweet strawberries indoors.
Southern Ontario has the highest concentration of greenhouses in North America, and the province has the most vegetable greenhouses in Canada, covering almost 3,100 acres – that’s about 7,750 Canadian hockey rinks!
Flowers and potted plants are also greenhouse crops in Canada, with farmers producing over one billion greenhouse flowers and plants in 2018. Tulips, gerberas, chrysanthemums, snapdragons, and lilies are among the most popular cut flowers grown in Canada, whereas outdoor geraniums, herbs, and hanging baskets, as well as tropical and green plants, are the leading potted plants.
Greenhouse growers typically use a soilless growing system, called hydroponics, where plants are grown in media such as rockwool or coconut fiber. Inside a greenhouse, farmers provide heat, water, nutrients, and sometimes extra light to boost natural levels of sunshine to nourish plants. They also use bugs, like bumblebees, to pollinate plants, and ladybugs to control harmful insects.
That consistent indoor climate means production 10 out of 12 months of the year. There’s no worries about bad weather; and farmers can plan their production reliably to make sure that they have enough products to meet consumer demand.
Other ways to farm indoors
Growing food indoors is becoming popular in ways other than by using a greenhouse, as people look to minimize risk from climate change, and to buy more of their food locally.
In vertical farming, plants like lettuce, herbs, and leafy greens are grown indoors in vertical stacks, instead of side by side the way they grow in a field. Farmers can provide the exact amounts of water, light, and nutrients that a crop needs—and because the crops are growing vertically, farmers can grow a lot of food in a small area.
Container farming is similar, but it uses smaller, self-contained units that often resemble a shipping container to grow lettuce, herbs, and leafy greens. They’re an affordable way for people to grow their own food in areas like Canada’s north, where it is too cold to grow vegetables most of the year. Even some farmers in southern Canada are using container farms so they can start offering consumers fresh local crops all year long.
Medicinal crops
Some farmers grow crops not as food, but as medicine. **Ginseng** is one such example—the root was traditionally used in Chinese and Indigenous medicine, but has now found wider use as a stress-reducer, and to promote overall well-being. Canada is a global leader in the production of North American ginseng (*Panax quinquefolius*), and more than two-thirds of the entire crop is grown in a small area of Southwestern Ontario. Ginseng beds are easily recognizable, as they’re covered by shade cloth structures—that’s because the plants must be grown in 70 – 80 per cent shade.
**Cannabis** is another crop that is now increasingly being grown in Canada, both for medicinal and recreational uses. Licensed growers grow the crop primarily in greenhouses, under very strict rules and regulations. In 2018, Canada became the second country in the world to legalize use of recreational marijuana, although health-related uses had been allowed for longer.
Growing for sacred ceremonies
Tobacco, cedar, sweet grass, and sage are the four sacred plants of Indigenous peoples. Tobacco plays a major role in every stage of life for some Indigenous cultures—the smoke is believed to be a pathway to the spirit world, carrying all thoughts, feelings, and prayers to the Creator\(^{45}\). University of Saskatchewan has been conducting trials growing traditional *Nicotiana rustica* or ceremonial tobacco, harvesting its first crop in 2019, and sharing plants and seeds with local Indigenous populations\(^{46}\).
Canadian crops for the Canadian climate
Our climate varies across the country, but winters pretty much anywhere in Canada are cold, with plenty of snow, and we only have a few warm summer months. Our crops have to be strong enough to survive those extremes, and plants that grow well in warmer climates don’t always produce well in Canada. That’s why Canadian plant breeders work hard to develop new varieties that love Canadian weather in all parts of the country!
New corn and soybean varieties can now be grown in cooler regions of the country. Cold Snap™ Pear is a popular, winter-hardy new pear variety developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada fruit breeders.
Radiance is a tasty sweet potato developed for Canadian farmers at the Vineland Research and Innovation Centre, where they’re also breeding hardy, low maintenance, and disease-resistant Canadian roses.
What is old is new again
Some Canadian farmers are looking to the past to find new niche products, and are growing vegetable and fruit varieties, and raising livestock breeds that were common 50 or 100 years ago, but are no longer used in modern food production.
They are called “heritage breeds” or “heirloom varieties” and often have unique flavours and other traits, like disease resistance or drought tolerance. That’s why they’re popular with chefs and food lovers, but also with plant and animal breeders who are looking for ways to make crops and livestock healthier and better able to withstand climate change.
One example is canary seed, a crop in development in Saskatchewan for human consumption under the name “alpiste”. It’s a member of the same cereal grain family as wheat, oats, barley, and rye, and is gluten-free, nutrient dense, and high in protein.
Wines, beers and other craft beverages
Some crops aren’t just consumed as food; they make excellent drinks too! Canada’s main wine-producing regions are in Ontario, British Columbia, Québec, and Nova Scotia, with over 600 wineries and growing\(^{47}\).
Cider, a fermented beverage made from apple or pear juice, is quickly becoming popular with Canadians, and many of Canada’s new craft cideries use North American apple varieties like McIntosh, Ida Red, Northern Spy, Gala and Russet in their products.
Craft beer is also popular, and there are farmers who grow specialty grain and hop varieties to help craft brewers to create unique types of local beer. In 2019, there were more breweries in Canada than ever before—and most are small, local businesses\(^{48}\).
A growing number of Canadian distilleries are now making specialty spirits, and even using milk to make vodka! And non-alcoholic craft beverages are emerging too, like kombucha breweries in Atlantic Canada. Kombucha is a fizzy drink made using sweetened tea, fermented with bacteria and yeast, and contains antioxidants and probiotics, with potential health benefits\(^{49}\).
DID YOU KNOW?
During the coronavirus pandemic, many of Canada’s distilleries quickly switched to producing much-needed hand sanitizer for local hospitals, businesses and other organizations.
QUICK FACT
Cider was the first alcoholic beverage produced and consumed in North America, arriving with the first settlers in the 1600s\(^{50}\).
It doesn’t get more Canadian than maple syrup! And Canada is a leader in the production of this golden goodness, supplying about 71 per cent of the world market. Québec is by far the biggest maple syrup producer in Canada—more than 90 per cent of Canada’s maple syrup comes from that province.
Indigenous people taught early Canadian settlers how to harvest sap, and boil it to make maple syrup. Maple sugar was the first kind of sugar produced in eastern North America, and remained the standard sweetener until 1875, when cane sugar became available.
DID YOU KNOW?
That the world has a Global Strategic Maple Syrup Reserve? Yup, and it’s in Canada—a collection of warehouses that have stockpiled over 100 million pounds of maple syrup!
Career Profile
Maple Syrup Producer
Jo-Anne Beaucage
“In life, or for work, where our farm is located is marvellous. We’re so lucky!”
And for 40 years, Jo-Anne Beaucage has lived in that lucky location, 121 hectares of woodlands on the edge of La Vérendrye provincial park, a two-hour drive north of Ottawa. Originally from Montreal, Beaucage moved to the area with her husband to start maple syrup production at Sucrerie Beaubel.
Today the farm has 27,000 taps, including on crown land made available to Quebec’s maple syrup producers to promote sylviculture (sustainable forest management) while increasing maple syrup production. That meant almost 40,000 litres of syrup in 2020 at Sucrerie Beaubel, one of the largest full-time maple syrup producers in the province.
Although most of the farm’s syrup is sold commercially, Beaucage has started producing some certified organic syrup for sale at the markets in Ottawa through a program organized by Quebec’s maple syrup producers’ federation. “We work hard and like all entrepreneurs we always try to be efficient as possible, but quality is always important; we must have respect for the product,” she says.
Farmers across Canada raise a wide variety of livestock and poultry to produce meat, dairy, eggs, fibre, and many other products. Here’s a look at some of the main types for farm animals raised in Canada.
**Turkeys and chickens**
Turkeys and chickens raised for meat (those chickens are called “broilers”) live in modern barns where temperature, humidity, light, and ventilation are carefully monitored to ensure that the birds stay healthy. They roam freely around the barn on a floor that is covered with a soft bedding material of straw or wood shavings, and can help themselves to feed and water any time they want. Their feed consists of mixed grains and oilseeds, including corn, soybeans, wheat, barley, and canola, as well as minerals and nutrients.
Young chickens and turkeys arrive on the farm from a hatchery as chicks or poult, and grow to market weight with other birds as part of a flock. Once birds go to market, all the bedding and manure is taken out of the barn, and the building is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before the next flock of birds arrives. This approach helps prevent disease, and keeps the flock healthy.
---
**Career Profile**
**Turkey Farmers**
**Lucas McCartney & Werda Saeed**
Werda Saeed thought she knew what a farmer “looked like”, until she met her husband, Lucas McCartney, when they both attended McGill University. Growing up in Ottawa, Ontario, Saeed’s experience on farms was limited. “It never, ever, occurred to me that I could grow up and become a farmer,” admitted Saeed, but she now knows that farmers come in all shapes and sizes.
The newlyweds tackle every new challenge as a team, including taking over McCartney’s third generation family turkey farm located outside of Quebec City. It has been a total collaboration since the first flock that they raised together almost two years ago. They are open to trying new ideas, and treat each new flock as a carefully observed investigation, all with the objective of improving the health and comfort of the animals even further. This approach to farming is the result of their research backgrounds in plant science and engineering. McCartney holds a M.Sc. and Ph.D., with a focus in greenhouse ventilation and cooling technologies, which can be “surprisingly applicable to the systems we use in poultry barns to keep the birds comfortable,” said McCartney.
Photo courtesy of Marie Michelle Trudeau
Hens and eggs
Egg-laying hens in Canada can live in five different types of barns:
- **Enriched**—Hens live in smaller, more natural sized groups with nest boxes, scratch pads, and perches that allow them to exhibit natural behaviour. This method will be the industry standard in Canada by 2036.
- **Free run**—Hens live in larger groups, and can move around freely on the entire barn floor, but don’t go outside. They have scratch pads, and lay their eggs in nesting boxes.
- **Free range**—Hens in larger groups are raised in barns similar to free run, but can go outside when the weather is suitable for them to do so. They are able to scratch and lay their eggs in nesting boxes.
- **Aviary**—Larger groups of hens live in a barn with several levels for perching, eating, and drinking. They lay their eggs in nest boxes, and can go down to the barn floor to scratch.
- **Conventional**—Hens live in small groups with equal access to fresh food and water. Mesh floors allow the hens’ waste to fall away, keeping the birds and eggs clean. Canadian egg farmers began eliminating this type of barn in 2014, and any new barns that are being built, or existing barns that are being renovated, must follow the new housing standards.
Each type of housing has pros and cons, but the focus is always on flock health. And research is ongoing in Canada and around the world continuously to develop the best housing solutions for birds, farmers and consumers.
Check out [www.FarmFood360.ca](http://www.FarmFood360.ca) to tour farms using the different types of hen housing, and to learn what the labels on your egg cartons mean.
**Career Profile**
**Egg Farmers**
**David, Glen and Tyler Coburn**
David Coburn and his sons, Glen and Tyler, are sixth and seventh generation farmers in Keswick Ridge, New Brunswick. Like many others in Eastern Canada, the Coburns have diversified their farm, which now includes laying hens, row crops, a feed mill, pumpkins and an apple orchard, as well as a small beef herd.
They like to think of their farm as a closed loop. Their in-vessel composting system, the first in Atlantic Canada, is used to compost organic waste including manure and apple pomace, which can then be applied to cropland to grow feed for the animals.
In 2018, they built an enriched housing barn for their hens – a project of the two brothers as they increasingly take over management from their father. Coburn is proud to see his sons take over the farm and make their own contributions to the Coburn family history.
Coburn has been working on creating an on-farm museum that details its 200-year-old history. The family proudly showcases the museum annually when they invite the local community to visit and tour the farm.
*Photo courtesy of Egg Farmers of Canada*
**DID YOU KNOW?**
The average hen lays about 340 eggs per year. That’s more than 28 dozen!
More than one stomach compartment
Unlike humans, some animals digest their food in more than one step. First, they eat the raw material, and then they regurgitate a partially-digested version of that feed, which is called cud, and chew it again. This process is called ruminating—and animals that digest their food this way are called **ruminants**.
Ruminants include cows, goats, sheep, llamas, bison, buffalo, elk, and deer; they each have four compartments in their stomachs (rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum) to help them digest their food.
Dairy cows
Dairy cows—those raised to produce milk—are leaner than their beef cattle cousins, as they put their energy into making milk instead of gaining weight by building fat and muscle. Holsteins are the most popular milking cows in Canada, and are easily recognizable by their black and white spotted hides.
Other common dairy breeds in Canada are Jersey, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Milking Shorthorn, and Canadienne.
Did you know that more and more Canadian farmers are using robots to milk their cows? Cows move around freely inside the barn, and it’s up to them to choose when and how often they go to a robot, where they are milked by an automatic machine. The robot keeps track of how many times a day each cow has been milked, how much milk she has produced, and can track how much feed she has eaten. That means that the robot can let farmers know if a cow might be sick, if she isn’t giving as much milk, or isn’t coming to the robot to be milked as often.
There are two other common barn styles used to house Canadian dairy cows:
**Free-stall barns** barns are open-concept where cows move around freely, and go to a central milking area, called a parlour, two or three times a day at a set time to be milked by farmers. To keep cows comfortable, many farmers have large fans and backscratching stations, and robots that travel the alleys pushing feed closer for the cows to eat.
**Tie-stall barns** barns have an individual stall for each cow, with bedding, and cows are milked in their stalls. The farmer brings feed to the cows in their stalls.
In all barns, milk flows through pipes into a large milk tank, called a bulk tank, where it is cooled and stored until the milk truck comes—every two days on most Canadian farms—to pick it up and take it to a dairy processing plant.
Some dairy farmers will let their cows out onto pastures in spring, summer and fall. When it rains or is too hot, though, cows generally prefer the comfort of a cool, well-ventilated barn.
DID YOU KNOW?
The average dairy cow produces 10,909 litres of milk every year.
Some cows naturally produce milk with the A2 version of beta-casein rather than A1. Some studies suggest that this A2 milk can have a beneficial impact on human gut health, making it popular with people who have gastrointestinal sensitivities to regular dairy milk on the market. A few dairies in Canada have started selling this type of milk to meet consumer demand.
**Calf hutches**
On some farms, calves live in small white structures outside the barn called “hutches” in the first few weeks of life, while their immune systems aren’t yet fully developed. This separation is to protect them against bacteria and germs, and to make sure they get a strong, healthy start until they are big enough to move from the hutches into group housing with other calves. Once they’re old enough, the females will have calves of their own and become part of the farm’s milking herd.
**The real deal about veal**
The male offspring of dairy cows are called bull calves. They don’t produce milk, so many are raised for meat called veal. Ontario and Quebec are the largest Canadian producers of veal because they also have the greatest number of dairy farms. Holsteins are the most common breed of veal cattle. They grow quickly, are well-muscled, and very lean.
**Grain-fed** veal cattle are raised on a mainly milk-based diet until they’re six to eight weeks old, before transitioning to a balanced ration based on grain and pellets made of protein, vitamins, and minerals. They reach market weight around 348 kilograms (769 pounds).
**Milk-fed** veal cattle are raised mainly on a milk-based diet, with some grain and fibre included in the ration. They’re ready for market once they weigh approximately 250 kilograms (550 pounds).
Veal cattle are raised in group housing with other veal cattle of a similar age. They are housed in well-ventilated barns, and are bedded with straw or wood shavings so they stay clean, dry, and comfortable. Research is ongoing into many aspects of veal production, especially health and welfare of the animals.
In some parts of Canada, dairy steers (castrated bulls) are more commonly raised in feedlots for beef production.
About beef cattle
Specific breeds of cattle that are raised for meat are called beef cattle. Canada’s major beef cattle breeds include Aberdeen Angus, Charolais, Hereford, Simmental, Limousin, Maine-Anjou, Salers, Gelbvieh, and Shorthorn, and farmers choose which breed or breeds to raise based on the characteristics of each breed.
Beef cows and their calves typically live on pasture during spring, summer, and fall, eating mostly a grass diet. Their thick coat means that, with adequate shelter and a steady supply of feed and water, they can live outdoors comfortably all year long.
When beef cattle reach a weight of approximately 400 to 460 kilograms (about 900 to 1,000 pounds), they usually move from fields and ranges to open-air yards or barns called feedlots, where they can be managed more closely.
In feedlots, cattle are slowly moved from a diet of mainly forages (grasses and other plants) to a higher energy diet of grains (like barley or corn), hay silage (chopped and naturally fermented plants), minerals, and hay. This process helps make marbled, high quality grades of beef. Marbling is the existence of small white flecks of fat that run through lean meat, which contributes to its flavour and tenderness.
Grass-fed or grain-fed
You may have heard or seen the terms “grass-fed” and “grain-fed” beef. These terms are related to what beef cattle eat before going to market. Grass-fed means that the cattle are raised on pasture, and supplemented with hay or silage in the winter, for their entire life. Grain-fed cattle are raised on pasture before being transitioned to a diet consisting primarily of corn or barley during the latter period of their life—this change is what helps give the meat its marbling. Both methods are used in Canada to raise beef cattle in a sustainable, environmentally-responsible manner. About 80 per cent of the feed that all beef cattle eat during their life is based on grass.
So, which is better for you?
Both! Beef from both grass-fed and grain-finished cattle contributes a wide variety of nutrients important to our health. Most studies agree that the nutritional differences between these two types of beef are small.
To read the profile of two beef farmers visit pages 41 and 45.
Career Profile
Pig Farmers
Paul and Micah Larsen
Paul Larsen and his son Micah raise pigs on their farm near Belfast, Prince Edward Island. They grow a rotation of barley, winter wheat and soybeans which are then used to make feed for the pigs in their on-farm feed mill. They make specialized recipes, called rations, depending on the needs of the animals at that age. The manure produced by the pigs is then used as a natural fertilizer for their crops.
Micah has been farming full time for three years. In 2019, he spearheaded a change to make the farm more cost efficient and environmentally-friendly by installing a high-efficiency biomass boiler to heat their barns. A biomass boiler uses renewable fuel to create energy. It can burn woodchips and sawdust from leftover waste such as tree tops and branches, shipping pallets and construction or furniture offcuts, as well as straw, corn husks and cherry pits to name a few.
DID YOU KNOW?
Pigs can get a sunburn too! That’s why even pigs that live outdoors must have access to some kind of shelter from the sun.
Pigs
Pigs can be raised indoors or outside, but since most breeds don’t have fur or wool coats to keep them warm in Canada’s cold winter weather, it is difficult for them to live outdoors all year long. That’s why most pigs in Canada live in specially-designed barns with fans—or “curtains” that can be opened—to keep a steady, comfortable climate indoors year-round, and to protect the animals against disease. For more information on biosecurity, visit page 24.
Sows and piglets
Sows are female pigs that “farrow” or give birth to a litter of piglets twice a year. Each litter usually includes 12 to 16 piglets.
Just before giving birth, most sows go into special enclosures called farrowing pens where they stay until they’ve finished nursing their piglets. They can lean against the bars of the pens as they lie down—that’s to make sure they don’t accidentally lie down on top of their piglets and crush them. The pens allow farmers to monitor the piglets and sows closely during this critical time, and also include a special area next to the sow where the piglets sleep, and can be kept warm with a heat lamp or a heating pad.
Once they are weaned from their mothers, piglets live in groups with other pigs the same size or age. In barns built after 2014, sows live in groups too, as individual stalls are being phased out in Canada. Farmers, researchers, and other welfare experts work continually to improve how pigs are raised, and research in pig health, behaviour and housing is ongoing in Canada and around the world.
Sheep, goats and animal guardians
In Canada, some sheep live outside, on pastures, all year long, with farmers feeding them hay and grain in the winter. Other shepherds prefer to keep their flocks in the barn, but most farms use a mixture of both systems. Many sheep farmers use dogs to help with herding, and to guard and protect animals from predators like coyotes. Donkeys and llamas are also good guardian animals.
Goats can be raised for milk or meat production, just like cattle. And just like dairy cows, dairy goats live in barns and are milked regularly. Meat goats may live on pastures too, but still need protection against cold winter weather and predators.
Goat milk can be an excellent alternative for adults with allergies or intolerances to cow’s milk—cheese, ice cream, yogurt, and curds are just some of the dairy goat products now widely available. It can also be suitable for children who can’t drink cow’s milk, pending consultation from a pediatrician.
Insects are farm animals too!
Some farmers in Canada and other countries are now raising insects. Crickets are a major source of protein for over two billion people from Mexico to Asia, and insect-based food products, from flour to nutrition bars and pasta sauces, are now available in Canadian grocery stores too. Insect protein is also a major ingredient in reptile and fish feed—it’s a more natural and sustainable alternative to other protein sources in fish diets—and research is underway in various countries as to whether it might be suitable for livestock and poultry as well.
Honey
Honey bees are vital for pollinating fruit, vegetables, and other crops, like canola. Canada produces about 75 million pounds of honey every year. More than 80 per cent of Canada’s honey is produced in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. About 9.3 million pounds of honey were produced in Canada in 2018, with 7.8 million pounds exported, mostly to the United States.
What about fur?
The fur trade has existed in Canada long before we were even a country. Mink is the most common animal raised for fur in Canada, followed by fox and chinchilla. Popular wild furs include muskrat, beaver, raccoon, coyote, and marten.
Just as with other farmed animals, farmers have to follow rules and regulations for raising fur-bearing animals, including a recently updated *Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farmed Mink (and Farmed Fox)* [www.nfacc.ca/codes-of-practice](http://www.nfacc.ca/codes-of-practice).
Sustainability is a big part of fur farming. Animals, like mink, help to reduce food waste by eating leftover eggs, cheese, fish, chicken, and other human food that has been discarded from grocery stores, restaurants, and other locations. Their bedding of straw or wood shavings and even the animal remains themselves are composted and recycled as a natural fertilizer, or used to make biodiesel, an environmentally-friendly fuel.
Career Profile
Salmon Farmer
Kirstyn Nygren
Not all farmers drive tractors or work in barns. In fact, salmon farmer Kirstyn Nygren spends more than half the year floating off the coast of remote Nootka Sound, British Columbia. But she doesn’t mind the solitude. After all, she has as many as 700,000 Atlantic salmon to keep her occupied, not to mention a breathtaking view of the Pacific Ocean.
Nygren grew up fishing with her family, and loves spending time outdoors, which is essential to her job as the Assistant Manager of one of Grieg Seafood’s open-net salmon farms. The ocean can be unpredictable, so you have to be able to “roll with the punches and adapt quickly,” explained Nygren. She has a B.Sc. in Marine Biology and Oceanography, and especially enjoys environmental monitoring, like taking plankton samples and testing water conditions. Fish farmers come from all kinds of backgrounds, but the one thing they have in common is a “respect for the environment that they work and live in,” says Nygren.
Bison, elk, rabbits, and more
Beyond the traditional farm animals to which we’ve just introduced you, Canadian farmers also raise many other types of animals on their farms, especially for consumers who are looking for more diverse food choices including deer, elk, bison, rabbit, and duck, for meat. Wool from alpacas and llamas is prized for its cashmere-like softness, and some farmers milk water buffalo to produce specialty cheeses like buffalo mozzarella.
Horses
In Canada, most horses are used for recreation, but many also work on ranches to help move and manage livestock. Horses eat grass, hay, oats, corn, and barley.
Fish farming
Canada has the world’s longest coastline, the world’s largest freshwater system, and the world’s largest tidal range, so it’s little surprise that aquaculture—also called fish farming—is a natural choice for our country.
Canadian fish farmers raise more than a dozen types of fish and shellfish. The main three species of finfish raised are salmon, rainbow trout, and arctic char; mussels and oysters are the most common types of shellfish farmed in Canada.
B.C.’s salmon industry supports approximately 7,000 jobs, and contributes about $1.5 billion to the province’s economy every year. Three-quarters of the salmon harvested in B.C. every year are raised on farms. Environmental and social sustainability are a priority, and the majority of B.C. salmon farms are certified, or are working towards certification, in independent, globally-recognized standards for salmon production.
Aqua-what? Growing plants with fish
Some vertical farms that grow plants indoors are also raising fish—and using the waste from the fish as fertilizer for the plants. It’s an approach to sustainable, circular farming called aquaponics.
How big are animals really?
Here are some approximate weights of an average, fully-grown male of some common animal species:
- **Chicken**: 1.8 to 2.2 kg
- **Turkey**: 12 to 14 kg
- **Goat**: 70 to 90 kg
- **Sheep**: 55 to 125 kg
- **Pig**: 120 kg
- **Thoroughbred horse**: 408 to 498 kg
- **Beef steer**: 680 kg
- **Elk**: 420 to 600 kg
- **Bison**: 907 kg
Caring for livestock properly, sustainably, and humanely is a matter of doing the right thing. Content, healthy animals and birds are more productive, and lead to safer and better quality food.
Farmers are also continually working to improve farm animal care based on new and verified science, and are investing in farm animal behaviour research to understand better the needs of livestock and poultry animals.
Why are most animals raised indoors in Canada?
Although some grazing animals like sheep, horses, and beef cattle can live outside all year, most Canadian farm animals, especially pigs and poultry, live in barns. There, they’re protected from extreme weather and temperature, diseases, and predators, such as wolves and coyotes.
Another reason for indoor housing is better animal monitoring and care. It’s much easier to ensure that each animal receives the right feed, clean water, and good animal care inside a barn. Many barns now have side walls with curtains that can be rolled up when the weather is warmer, letting in fresh air and sunlight, and some animals spend the summer months on outdoor pastures.
Biosecurity
Most livestock farms have very strict rules in place to keep animals from getting sick. In farming, these rules are called “biosecurity protocols”, and they’re designed to keep diseases from coming into barns.
Farmers keep a record of any visitors to their farms, and what they bring with them, from vehicles to equipment and feed. Visitors to the farm only go into a barn if they absolutely have to, and if they do, they may be asked to put on protective footwear and clean overalls to keep outside germs from entering the barn. At some pig farms, anyone going into a barn has to take a shower before entering, and again when they leave, just to make sure no disease gets in that could make pigs sick.
As with people, it’s always best not to get sick in the first place, than having to take medication to get better.
DID YOU KNOW?
Many barns have smart sensors that closely monitor key metrics, such as temperature and humidity levels in the barn, and will instantly text or notify the farmer the moment these conditions change.
Not enough space?
Farmers know that giving animals enough space is good for their health and well-being. They work with experts like veterinarians and feed nutritionists to ensure that each animal has easy access to feed and water, and room to move and lie down. Science-based research on animal welfare recommends the appropriate amount of space needed for a certain number of animals—in the farming world, this concept is called “stocking density”.
And sometimes, no matter how much space animals are given, they like to be very close to each other for a greater sense of protection and warmth.
Research is ongoing into the best ways to raise healthy animals while producing safe food and recognizing environmental and economic realities.
Livestock monitoring on the go
Increasingly, farmers can control heat and electricity in their barns from their computers, tablets, or smart phones. The majority of farms also have generators to make sure that their barns have electricity if the power goes out. And a growing number of farms are installing sensors and smart systems to track everything from feed consumption to how many steps a day a cow takes—all in an effort to keep animals healthy.
Dairy Farmers of Ontario
QUICK FACT
An artificial intelligence system called Ida analyzes the behaviour of dairy cows to predict when an animal might become sick. This can help reduce antibiotic use and increase milk production.
Genetics and Animal Breeding
Farmers have been selectively breeding animals for years in attempts to build herds or flocks of animals that are healthier and more productive. This process involves selecting parents that have desirable traits, which offspring tend to inherit. Over time, more animals in the herd will be born with the desired trait(s).
Traits are passed from parents to offspring via one or more genes, which are segments of DNA. Animal geneticists have developed techniques, such as genomic selection, that identify and isolate genes to convey desirable traits such as milk production or disease resistance. These techniques provide animal breeders with the ability to identify and select animals with desirable genes more efficiently.
Some farmers breed their animals naturally, while others may choose a process called artificial insemination (AI). In this case, semen from the male animal is collected and delivered to the female’s reproductive tract, to create offspring. AI makes it possible to introduce the best traits available into a herd, even though males with those traits might not live nearby. AI also limits the transmission of disease, and increases safety for the animals and farmers. Farmers can more accurately predict the date that an animal will give birth, so they can provide better care for both the mother and offspring at that time.
Career Profile
Animal Care Researchers
Karen Schwean-Lardner and Bart Lardner
Karen Schwean-Lardner and Bart Lardner share many things including their children, grandchildren and granddogs to name a few. But they also share a passion for animal care and for passing their expertise onto others. Both earned Bachelor, Master and PhD degrees at the University of Saskatchewan before becoming faculty members.
Schwean-Lardner’s work focuses on how good management practices impact the welfare and productivity of laying hens, chickens and turkeys. Her research helped to establish international lighting standards for poultry barns and develop the first enriched housing system for laying hens in North America. She is also passionate about teaching the next generation of poultry scientists.
Lardner’s work focuses on applied research in everything from cattle nutrition to forage and pasture management. “I have always felt that I am an intermediary between the farmers and the research community,” said Lardner, “It’s important that the research can be disseminated to farmers in a way that it can be put to use on their farms.”
The rules for raising farm animals humanely
There are currently 16 Codes of Practice for the care and handling of different livestock and poultry species in Canada that spell out best practices for things like housing, feed and water, health care, humane euthanasia, transportation, and more.
The National Farm Animal Care Council oversees the development and updating of these codes based on the best science available and careful input and consideration by committees of farmers, veterinarians, animal welfare experts, and humane society representatives. To see all the codes, and for more information on how they are developed, please visit www.nfacc.ca.
Like all animal owners, farmers must follow laws for humane treatment. Each province in Canada has laws to protect animals from cruelty. Many provinces reference the Codes of Practice within their regulations.
Are controls in place to deal with farm animal abuse?
Absolutely! Animal neglect and abuse of any kind is a crime, and is not tolerated. Farmers and ranchers are responsible for caring for their animals properly and humanely, and must follow all laws and regulations, including the federal Criminal Code, and provincial animal care legislation.
Most farmers and ranchers do a great job caring for animals, but bad situations do happen—and they upset other farmers as much as everyone else.
That’s why farm organizations in some provinces have developed their own peer services to help improve farm animal care. Ontario farmers created the first council dedicated to farm animal welfare in Canada over 30 years ago, and similar organizations now exist nationally, in other provinces and in the United States.
All farmers, veterinarians, and others who work in the field are encouraged to call for help or report any welfare problems immediately.
On-farm assessments
Most of Canada’s livestock sectors have developed, or are developing, on-farm animal care assessment programs. They include ProAction for dairy farmers, Raised by a Canadian Farmer animal care program for chicken farmers, Canadian Pork Excellence, Egg Quality Assurance, Verified Beef Production Plus to name a few.
Auditing and assessments provide verification that a farm is following best practices, with the goal of finding problems quickly, and continually improving. Failure to follow audit requirements can result in fines, closure to market access, and potentially losing the legal right to produce a product altogether.
Animals on the move
Ensuring livestock and poultry are transported safely and ethically is just as important as caring for them properly on the farm, and is part of responsible animal care. Livestock sometimes move from farm to farm as they pass through their various stages of growth—once piglets born on one farm get big enough, they may move to another to grow to market weight and, of course, they leave the farm to go to market.
Canada is a big country, and sometimes distances between farms or to processing plants are long. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) oversees animal transportation in Canada with regulations around weather, access to food and water, adequate space, maximum travel times, when animals are unfit for transport, and more. They’ve just updated those regulations for the first time in over 40 years to reflect changes in technology and consumer expectations.
For example, they’ve reduced the length of time animals can be in transit, and farmers now share responsibility for the animals’ welfare with the transporter. CFIA inspectors make sure the rules are being followed.
Transport and technology
Transport Genie is new technology that monitors conditions inside livestock trailers affecting animal comfort and welfare, using a system of smart sensors that provides information to users along the supply chain. It can relay real-time data to the driver, so that actions to correct problems can be taken right away. The Canadian-developed technology is currently being tested in various locations, including with Switzerland’s largest poultry producer.
Career Profile
Livestock Transporter
Sara Crawford
Sara Crawford might not look like what you would picture a livestock transporter to look like and she is used to having people look twice when she steps down out of her purple truck and trailer at a farm, processing plant or truck stop. She’s been driving livestock trucks and trailers since she was 18 years old (the age when she could get her AZ licence), bought her first truck three years ago and now travels across Canada and the USA taking pigs and other animals to their destinations. Growing up, she wanted to be a heavy diesel mechanic but said that she was also curious about what it would be like to drive the trucks she was learning to fix in a high school co-op course. She took a course and knew she had found her career.
As a livestock transporter specializing in getting pigs from farms to market, Crawford and her colleagues must also be certified under the Transport Quality Assurance® program. The program helps transporters, farmers and handlers understand how to handle, move and transport pigs. Crawford is convinced that her colleagues are among the best truck drivers on the roads. Said Crawford, “Livestock truckers have got to be great drivers because we’re carrying live animals who need to arrive at their final destination in good shape”.
Career Profile
Hardware and Software Developer
Idris Soule
“The intersection between farming and technology is a no-brainer.”
With experience working for tech-giants like Google and Blackberry, Idris Soule never imaged that he would work in agriculture. But that changed in 2017 when he joined Transport Genie, and helped to develop a real-time tracking system that protects farm animals’ health during transport.
It’s all about “transparency and accountability along the supply chain,” says Soule. “It’s gratifying to help give Canadians and people throughout the world the assurance that their food is safe and meets the highest standards of animal health and welfare.”
To anyone considering a career in agri-tech, Soule says, “The world is changing quickly, and the tech sector is leading the charge. Agri-tech has the opportunity to transform the food system by bridging the gap between tried-and-true farming practices and technology to benefit all stakeholders, including farmers and consumers.”
DID YOU KNOW?
It is illegal to do anything that causes suffering to an animal at any point during transport\(^{61}\).
A look at some livestock management practices
Sometimes procedures are done to enhance animal welfare and worker safety. Here are some examples:
**Dehorning** is the removal of horns from beef and dairy calves. This procedure is for the safety of both the animals and the people working with them. Research has shown that young calves suffer less pain and stress if dehorning is performed when the horns haven’t yet developed. Pain control medication must be used when dehorning. Many types of cattle today are “polled”—they are breeds that genetically don’t grow horns at all.
**Beak trimming** is done to prevent laying hens from hurting each other while establishing the “pecking order” of the flock. The proper procedure is to remove just the tip of the beak when the birds are very young. This is now done with a laser when the chick is first hatched and takes only seconds. Research continues into behaviour, nutrition, and genetics, to look for ways to eliminate the need for this procedure.
**Tail docking** is done in sheep to keep manure from collecting on their tails and hindquarters. That’s to prevent flystrike, a condition that can occur when flies lay eggs in manure-soiled wool that hatch, and the larvae begin to eat the surrounding flesh. Tail docking can decrease the incidence of flystrike and reduce manure buildup on an animal, which also improves food safety, as there’s less chance of contact between meat and bacteria during processing.
New ways of doing things
Research is always under way to find new, better ways to raise the livestock and poultry on our farms—and that’s the same for farmers all around the world. An example of a problem in need of a better solution is that of male chicks in the egg laying industry. The females grow up to lay eggs, but males can’t. They are from breeds not used for meat (they don’t gain weight as quickly or have meat as tender), so there’s no role for them to play on the farm, which means they end up having to be humanely euthanized to veterinary standards.
Canadian farmers are working on a solution to this problem. Hypereye is a light-based, non-invasive egg gender identifying technology developed at McGill University that can separate male eggs from female ones when they are laid, so that only female eggs are incubated and hatched into chicks. The innovation is starting to roll out in Canada in 2020.
Fire!
There is nothing more devastating to a livestock farmer as a barn fire and the loss of their animals. In most cases, the exact causes of barn fires are unknown, but many are thought to start with faulty barn electrical systems.
One tool farmers are using is heat-sensing cameras to determine if electronics are in good working condition, and to pinpoint potential hot spots. And wireless temperature monitors can send alerts directly to a farmer’s cell phone in case barn temperatures climb too high.
Animal welfare and animal rights – what’s the difference?
Why do some groups talk about animal welfare while others talk about animal rights? The two terms have a lot in common, but are really different philosophies along a spectrum concerning all those who care about animals.
**Animal welfare:** humans have a right to use animals, but also the responsibility to ensure the ethical treatment and wellbeing of animals in their care. This position is the one supported by most people, including farmers.
**Animal rights:** humans don’t have the right to use or confine animals for any reason, including food, medicine, domestication, education, clothing or entertainment.
It can be difficult to sort out the many positions and groups involved with animal care or animal use issues, and farmers are open to respectful discussion and transparency. They are interested in finding new, better ways to raise animals, and they invest a lot of time and money into animal welfare practices, education, and research to make that happen.
If you want to know more about how farmers care for their animals, please just ask—on social media, at farmers’ markets on farm tours or at other local events.
**Tip:** many farmers are on Facebook, Instagram or Twitter, and are more than happy to answer genuine questions about how they raise livestock, grow crops, or produce food. If you’re not comfortable asking your question in public, try a direct or private message on one of those platforms.
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**Farm trespassing and “undercover” operations**
Increasingly, Canadian farmers have been faced with animal rights activists trespassing onto their farms, and in some cases, even entering into barns and interfering with animals. Not only does this action cause immense stress to both farmers and livestock; it exposes animals to possible diseases and threatens food safety.
Governments in several Canadian provinces have now introduced laws to protect farmers against this type of trespassing onto private property, and to keep livestock safe from interference during transport.
Another tactic is the release of undercover video footage showing alleged farm animal abuse. At times, individuals filming the undercover footage have been doing so for extended periods of time without taking action to stop abuse or questionable activity. This, too, is unacceptable and should be reported to the proper authorities immediately. Anyone with concerns about animal welfare should notify the appropriate authorities. These authorities have the powers to investigate suspected animal abuse, collect any relevant evidence, and file charges, and are appropriately trained in animal husbandry and handling, biosecurity protocols, collection of evidence, and adhere to a code of conduct.
It’s important to keep in mind that everything may not be what it seems—and just because something is on the internet doesn’t mean that it’s true. Misleading messaging and modified images or videos are often a part of anti-agricultural campaigns, and need to be approached with critical thinking in mind.
**The bottom line:**
There’s no benefit of any kind to anyone from mistreating animals. One extreme case is always one too many, but it is far from the norm and does not reflect the quality care that millions of farm animals all across Canada receive every day.
**See for yourself!**
Experience the many different types of Canadian farms with your home, office or mobile device at [www.FarmFood360.ca](http://www.FarmFood360.ca) and check out the many virtual farm and food tours available.
Food security, eating local and the cost of food
Farming is a critical part of Canada’s national food security, ensuring that our country has enough to eat. But it takes more than farms to feed a country; we also depend on a whole supply chain of feed, fertilizer and equipment suppliers, veterinarians and crop specialists, transporters, processors, distributors, retailers, and delivery companies to get food to Canadians.
Every one of those links in the supply chain must be able to make money in order to stay in business, and that includes farmers. At the same time, food costs have to be kept affordable for consumers.
The cost of producing food
There are many things farmers have to pay for to produce food, like electricity, equipment, water, fertilizer, animal feed, seeds, and fuel, as well as workers to help them raise livestock and poultry and to grow crops.
As with many things, prices for these items continue to go up, so farmers always have to look for new ways to produce more food more efficiently so that they can stay in business. And there are things outside of a farmer’s control that impact their business too, like transportation or processing strikes, trade agreements and political spats between countries, weather events, or global crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.
The cost of buying food
It might not seem that way to everyone, but most Canadians are lucky to spend less of their income on food than people in most other parts of the world. On average, we spend about 10 to 11 per cent, or $0.10 to $0.11 of each dollar of our disposable income, on food and non-alcoholic beverages\(^{63}\), and by early February, the average Canadian has earned enough income to pay for their individual grocery bill for the entire year.
Compare that figure to Mexicans at 23.4 per cent, Ukrainians at 42.2 per cent, and Nigerians at 59 per cent\(^{64}\) and imagine how different your life would be if you had to spend that much of your income on food.
QUICK FACT
On average in 2019, Canadian farmers spent 80 cents of every dollar they earned on expenses to grow food\(^{65}\).
Food insecurity
Even though Canadian food in general is relatively inexpensive compared to other countries around the world, there are still many Canadians who struggle with affordability and accessibility—an issue called “food insecurity”. “Food deserts” are urban neighbourhoods, or even rural areas, where residents have little or no access to stores and restaurants that provide healthy, affordable foods, and where they may be forced to rely more frequently on convenience stores or fast food outlets.
In northern Canada in particular, fresh food is scarce, and the high cost of transporting food into those regions makes many products, particularly healthy food choices, very expensive.
DID YOU KNOW?
In Nunavut, the cost of groceries can be three times the Canadian average, with some items costing up to ten times more. The Arctic Research Foundation has set up “grow pods” powered by wind and sun to grow fresh vegetables in the village of Gjoa Haven.
QUICK FACT
The Global Seed Vault on a remote island in northern Norway is home to almost one million samples of food crop seeds, so we can preserve plant life through crises like war and climate change. It’s a bit like storing your photos in the cloud or on a backup hard drive, so you’ll still have them if you lose your phone!
Milestone: In 2020, the Cherokee Nation became the first North American Indigenous tribe to donate heirloom seeds to the vault, including a sacred corn used in cultural events.
Foodbanks serving up food security
There’s hunger and need even in a country as wealthy as Canada. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic hit, Canadians were making about 1.1 million visits per month to food banks. A variety of circumstances can lead to food insecurity, including unemployment. But even the number of full and part-time workers who require access to foodbanks is growing, with one in eight people who access these services being employed.
Farmers step up
About 40 per cent of food distributed by Canadian food banks is fresh, like milk, eggs, meat, and produce. A lot of that food is donated by Canadian farmers. Many provincial and national farm organizations have regular food bank donation programs, including grain, fruit, vegetable, egg, dairy, pork, beef, turkey and chicken farmers.
Career Profile
Container Farm
ColdAcre
In the far north of Canada where the climate isn’t conducive to growing most crops, especially year round, ColdAcre Food Systems specializes in indoor all-season food production in the Yukon. They grow, harvest, and sell more than 30 varieties of leafy green vegetables, microgreens, edible flowers, herbs and mushrooms all year long. Since opening its second shipping container-style growing facility, ColdAcre provides weekly fresh-harvest products for retail, restaurants, and subscription box clients and are already planning expansion for 2021. “There is an enhanced interest and focus in northern markets around locally grown food,” said Carl Burgess, CEO of ColdAcre.
They also build customized growing systems and offer training to Northern communities and businesses seeking food security options and opportunities, including residential and commercial clients. “The technology changes quickly and soon these advances will help people to grow a broader array of food at a smaller scales. ColdAcre wants to help set families and communities up for success,” said Burgess. He also explained that young people are very interested in the technology and predicts that they will be a driving force behind indoor local food production in the future. It’s harvesting in the north for the north.
Photo courtesy of GBP Creative/Gary Brenner
The luxury of choice
In general, we are lucky to have many different choices when it comes to the kinds of foods we can buy. Canadians have the freedom and opportunity to make food choices based not just on cost or availability, but they can also consider environmental concerns, health issues, or ethics.
We can always find whole foods grown and raised in Canada, or foods containing Canadian ingredients at a wide variety of prices, depending on each person’s preference and resources. Regardless of the type of diet Canadians follow, or the amount of money they have available to spend on eating, there are farmers willing and able to grow food for them because of the many different types of farms and ways of farming we have in our country.
Looking at labels
Food labels can be vitally important if people have diagnosed dietary needs. However, marketing labels can add a “perceived value” and be misleading at times, so it pays to do a little research when making food choices.
“Natural” meat
All meat is natural since it comes from animals and is not manufactured. The only meat that can legally be labelled as “natural” is meat from animals raised without ANY human intervention of any kind, like wild game. Companies can, however, use the term “natural” to describe flavour\(^1\).
Raised without antibiotics
Meat with a “raised without antibiotics” label comes from animals that have not received any antibiotics at any time in their lives.
Gluten-free
Gluten is a natural protein found in wheat, barley, rye, triticale, and foods made with these grains. Products labelled “gluten-free” are not any healthier; they are just made with ingredients that don’t include gluten\(^2\)—which is particularly important for the one per cent of Canadians with celiac disease, or those with gluten sensitivities\(^3\).
Sometimes a product will be labelled as being “free” of something, like being gluten-free or GMO-free. However, sometimes that product doesn’t actually contain gluten in the first place, or GMO versions of that product don’t actually exist. These are called absence labels, and are used as a marketing tool to make one product look superior to another.
Plant-based proteins are becoming increasingly popular, as people look for alternative protein sources in their diets, or wish to follow a vegetarian or vegan diet, which means eating fewer or no animal products at all. And food producers are responding accordingly with products like plant-based burgers and “chik’n” strips made from pea, bean, or soy proteins, egg substitutes made from mung bean, and milk-style beverages made using oats, soy or nuts like almonds or cashews. Some producers and restaurants are offering “blended” products that contain a mixture of plant and meat proteins.
Another emerging field is cellular agriculture. This occurs where researchers are producing meat and dairy products in laboratories using only animal cells instead of the animals themselves, using tissue engineering technology that is used in regenerative medicine.
DID YOU KNOW?
In Canada, all chickens are raised without added hormones, so chicken products labelled “raised without the use of added hormones” are no different than chicken products without that label.
Why is organic food more expensive?
Organic farming poses unique challenges as some tools available to other farmers are not available to Canada’s certified organic producers. Generally speaking, foods labelled as organic are grown or produced without the use of tools such as synthetic (man-made) fertilizers or pesticides, genetically modified organisms, growth hormones, or medications like antibiotics.
As a result, organic farming methods tend to be more labour-intensive, and organic food products are often grown, processed, and packaged at smaller volumes. Organic livestock production in particular has higher costs than conventional —organic feed isn’t as readily available, so it costs more; housing is more expensive because the stocking density is lower in a barn, animals need access to the outdoors and there aren’t as many organic dairies and abattoirs\(^74\).
Organic production systems also generally yield less food than conventional production. While organic production may support ecological health on a local scale, there is debate around the idea that lower productivity could mean more land will be needed to produce the same amount of food. The argument is that this difference could actually cause greater global environmental impacts than conventional production\(^75\).
Why do people buy organic?
Many consumers associate organic food with a healthy lifestyle—and some studies have shown higher levels of beneficial omega-3 fatty acids in organic meat and milk, and more antioxidants in organic plant-based foods\(^76\). All agricultural food products—meat, eggs, dairy, fruits, vegetables, and others—are rich in nutrients, though, and are part of *Canada’s Food Guide*.
Whether organic or conventional (non-organic), all food in Canada must meet the same food safety standards. Organic farmers can in fact use naturally derived pesticides to control pests. Just as with crop protection products used by conventional farmers, however, these substances must be approved by the Pest Management Regulatory Agency, which is part of Health Canada. Canada has some of the strictest food safety regulations in the world, so regardless of how the food you choose has been grown, you can be confident that it is a good choice.
Trusting the organic food you’re buying
All Canadian products using the *Canada Organic* logo have been certified by an independent auditor, who verifies that the farm meets the Canadian Organic Standard. These are the rules which organic farmers must follow, and they are regulated by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Organic farms are inspected annually to make sure that they’re still meeting the standard.
For imported products to be sold and labelled as organic, they must meet “equivalency arrangements” by which the regulations and certification process of another country are deemed consistent with Canada’s\(^77\).
Career Profile
Registered Dietitian
Michelle Jaelin
Raised in the Greater Toronto Area, Registered Dietitian Michelle Jaelin said she grew up not knowing anything about agriculture or the potential of having a career in that industry. She’d never met a farmer and there certainly weren’t any farms nearby.
She studied nutrition and food at Ryerson University. While there, she attended a food conference and met people working in the industry. Later, she was invited on a farm tour and said she was fascinated to learn how food was grown.
One of Jaelin’s biggest frustrations is that while there is a lot of information out there, it’s not all good or accurate. Sadly, it’s also easier to sell fear than to sell reassurance. She said she often gets questions like, “Is this safe to eat?” “Is this healthy?” “What’s the difference between organic and conventional?”
In her career, she uses a combination of social and traditional media and other communications tools to help people make more informed food choices. She said it’s extra rewarding to do a TV segment and then get a nice follow up comment from a viewer. She says, “It’s great to be able to give people information that helps them make their lives better and healthier through food”.
How do I know what the right choice is?
There is no right or wrong answer for consumers when it comes to deciding what to eat. What’s important is making an informed decision based on current, accurate facts. Unfortunately, there is a lot of misinformation out there that can make it difficult to know what’s true and what isn’t—so if you have questions about your diet, consult your doctor or a registered dietitian.
Dietitians work within hospitals, grocery stores, doctors’ offices, and in private practices to provide personalized nutritional advice and practical solutions, without fads or gimmicks.
Eating yourself healthy
The link between food and health is well known. Foods rich in essential vitamins and minerals, fibre, antioxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, and other compounds, can help keep us healthy—and science is finding new ways to make good-for-you foods even better:
• A purple wheat variety from Saskatchewan called “AnthoGrain™ wheat” is high in anthocyanins, an antioxidant that aids in eye cell repair\(^78\).
• Specialty canola varieties with higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids are in development. Omega-3 fatty acids are essential to brain, eye, and heart health, and inflammation management\(^79\).
• To prevent stunted growth in children due to malnutrition, a rice variety high in zinc is now available in Indonesia\(^80\).
What is supply management?
To organize the production of eggs, chicken, turkey, and dairy products in Canada, farmers use a system called “supply management”. It lets farmers across Canada match their production to Canadian demand, so consumers have a reliable supply of fresh, high quality food at a reasonable price, and farmers receive fair and stable returns for their work. Supply management does not set retail or restaurant prices for poultry, eggs, or dairy products, but it does ensure that farmers are paid enough to cover their costs of production.
Loving local
Buying and eating local food is very popular in Canada. The definition of “local” varies, however, and can refer to a region, province, or even the entire country.
The local food movement has resulted in more farmers’ markets, local food stores, and food hubs in all parts of Canada, and “buy local” campaigns encourage Canadians to support farmers and food producers in their areas by eating the fruits, vegetables, meat, cheese and yogurt, jams, honeys, or other goods that they’ve produced.
Not only does that support jobs and businesses in local communities, it can also reduce food’s environmental footprint if a product comes from a farm 20 minutes away, as compared to being shipped thousands of kilometres.
Food imports and exports
Every crop is ready for harvest and eating at a different time of the year. In Canada, asparagus is one of the earliest-harvested vegetable crops in the spring, and peaches are a popular summer favourite.
You might not notice the seasonality of these crops though because today, we can buy imported strawberries, asparagus, or sweet corn at the grocery store all year long.
And there are other foods we love that we can’t grow here at all, like coffee, pineapples, cocoa, and avocados, so we import them from countries that are able to grow them.
We also produce much more of certain types of foods than we could possibly eat here at home—like pork, beef, lentils, peas, chickpeas, canola, soybeans, or wheat—so we export to other countries where they’re an important part of people’s diets.
Career Profile
Chef
Ilona Daniel
As a child of Hungarian and Armenian immigrants, meal time has always been important to Ilona Daniel. She can’t pinpoint exactly what inspired her love of food, but fondly remembers “sitting on the counter while my mother cooked a meal that was always too big for our family, and absorbing everything I was seeing.” She added, “It was almost as if I was learning to cook through osmosis.”
Daniel moved to Prince Edward Island twelve years ago to attend the Culinary Institute of Canada on a full scholarship. Now, an instructor there, her experience has come full circle. In addition to teaching, she runs a culinary consulting business and contributes regularly to print and television media.
Her love of PEI has only grown stronger over the years, and she attributes some of that to the more intimate connection that islanders have with their food. “Everywhere you look there is a constant reminder of how food is produced,” she said, “people who grow and produce our food are deeply passionate, and their expertise spans their lifetime. Connecting with them helps us understand just how important our role is as consumers.”
Canola seed
The farm labour challenge
A big part of the economics of producing food is labour. Just as with other businesses, farmers often need to hire extra people apart from family members to help get everything done. Technology and equipment are helping to make some work easier, but people are still the most important part of producing food on the farm.
Farm jobs aren’t like most other jobs. Cows have to be milked every day, and crops have to be harvested when they are ripe, or else they’ll lose their taste and quality, or even just rot in the field or on the vine. That means workers can’t just stop working because it is the weekend, or because the weather is bad.
Mechanical blueberry harvester
Career Profile
Agriculture Student
Oresta Hewryk
Oresta Hewryk was raised in New York City, but when it was time to go to university, studying in Canada was an easy choice because of her dual citizenship. She was initially interested in becoming a veterinarian, so she enrolled in the Ontario Agricultural College’s Animal Science program.
Although Hewryk had little experience with farms or with farmers, she appreciated the sense of community and support she found with her fellow “Aggies”. “Not many other programs have students that are so close-knit. We have so many opportunities to learn from each other and grow as a group,” she said.
Hewryk is currently in her third year of the program’s research stream, but shifted her focus to plant science after a rewarding summer job working in one of the University’s research labs. She plans to pursue graduate studies in plant genetics. Her goal is to teach students like herself in the future with the hopes of inspiring them to explore all of what the agricultural sciences have to offer.
More than just a job
Working in agriculture is much more than growing crops or raising livestock, though. One in eight Canadian jobs is linked to agriculture\(^1\); from communications, engineering, and economics, to food and animal sciences, tourism and the environment, the career possibilities are endless.
There are many more jobs available in Canadian agriculture than people to fill them. There are currently more than 60,000 vacant jobs in the sector, and in ten years, the industry could be short 123,000 people\(^2\). The Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph, for example, estimates there are approximately four jobs for every one of its graduates going into the agri-food sector.
Agriculture in the Classroom Canada, and its provincial member organizations across the country are working to introduce these exciting career opportunities to students to support the long-term sustainability of the sector. You can also read the career profiles throughout this magazine to see a sampling of the diversity of options available.
A helping hand from away – seasonal and temporary foreign workers in Canada
Fruit and vegetable farmers in particular rely on many people to help them plant, manage, and harvest their crops; most bruise or damage easily, so they still need to be cultivated and picked by hand. Even though robots are being developed to harvest crops or scout for pests and diseases, those tools aren’t readily available yet.
Canadian farmers who can’t find enough local employees rely on guest workers from other countries to work on their farms. They come to Canada under various programs, like the Seasonal Agricultural Workers’ Program (SAWP) and the Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP) program. These programs are essential because on-farm agriculture has the highest job vacancy rate of any industry\(^{83}\). This circumstance is largely due to the seasonal nature of the work, as well as the fact that most Canadians live in urban centres, far from the farms where workers are desperately needed.
The solution to these challenges has been, in part, the SAWP, which was established more than 50 years ago to bring workers from Mexico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, and other Eastern Caribbean countries to work on Canadian fruit and vegetable farms. Workers stay for the growing season, and go home to their families for the winter months.
Strict rules imposed by both the workers’ home countries and the Canadian government must be followed by both farmers and workers in order to be part of SAWP. Workers on the program have the same workplace protections as Canadian workers, including minimum wage, health care, and workplace insurance coverage, and access to Employment Insurance, from the moment they arrive in Canada.
Many of these workers have been coming to the same farms for years and have become highly-skilled in these specialized tasks, and the money they earn helps take care of their families and support their communities. In some cases, they’ve been able to set up businesses at home that create local jobs and send their children to university. Without their help, many Canadian farmers wouldn’t be able to grow the local fruits and vegetables that we love.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many international workers were unable to get to Canada to work for the season. Although farmers tried to hire local workers to replace them, many crops were either not planted at all, or could not be harvested, as in the case of perennial crops like asparagus or strawberries.
**Career Profile**
**Seasonal Agricultural Worker**
**Trinidad Vargas Sanchez**
Trinidad Sanchez has been coming to Canada from Mexico as a Seasonal Agricultural Worker for 31 years, always returning to Holland Acres, a farm owned by the Van Luyk family in the Holland Marsh region of Ontario. He arrives each April, returns home in mid-November and now leads the team of employees that helps to grow the farm’s crop of carrots, onions, parsnips and beets. He’s now accompanied annually by his son Eddie and son-in-law Juan. He says that work in Canada has given his family a lot of opportunities. Even though he misses his family when he’s away, he looks forward to returning to Canada each year.
Environment, climate change and sustainable farming
Farmers are on the front line of our environment every day and they know first-hand how important healthy soil, air, and water are to growing crops and raising livestock successfully.
They’re also among the first to experience and be forced to adapt to our changing climate from more frequent extreme weather events, drought and disease.
That’s why, more than ever, sustainable farming is the name of the game—regardless of the type, size or style of farm.
Investing in change for the better
On their own, through farm organizations, and with government, Canadian farmers invest heavily in environmental research and sustainable farming practices.
Success story: the Environmental Farm Plan helps farmers across Canada to identify where environmental improvements can be made on their farms, and to set goals and deadlines to complete them, such as establishing buffer strips along water courses; reducing soil erosion by planting trees and cover crops and supporting pollinators by planting wild flower strips. The program has been so successful that some of its elements can now be found in processor and retailer food system sustainability plans.
Strip of pollinator-friendly flowering plants, including Phacelia, planted at the edge of a farm field as part of the Operation Pollinator program
How good were the “good old days” really?
Environmental degradation is not a phenomenon of “modern” farming. The dust bowl of the 1930s, for example, was caused by a combination of a lengthy drought, and working or tilling the land too much, which caused topsoil to be blown away by strong winds. Back then, fighting weeds and pests often involved plenty of tillage, and naturally occurring but toxic pest control substances like sulphur, mercury, and arsenic compounds were also commonly used.
Today’s products are safer and much more tightly controlled and regulated by government, and we know so much more about soil health, pest and nutrient management, and sustainable crop production.
Where does soil come from?
There are 10 main soil orders in Canada, which are then divided into groups, families, and series, to cover hundreds of different soil types across the country. The Soils of Canada website, developed by a network of Canadian soil scientists, is a great place to learn more about soils across the country: www.soilsofcanada.ca.
All those different Canadian soil types are directly linked to how glaciers moved during the last Ice Age. About 12,000 years ago, glaciers slowly ground rocks into finer particles as they moved south, and when the glaciers retreated, they left that sand and gravel behind in the soil. Combined with climate, and annual cycles of plant and animal growth and decay over millions of years, that process has built Canada’s soils into what they are today.
The type of soil found on a farm—and how farmers look after it—will influence what crops a farmer can grow, and how they’ll be grown.
Isn’t soil the same as dirt?
In a word, no! Soil is a living environment that’s ideal for growing crops. It’s a complex mixture of small particles of sand, silt and clay, decaying plant residue, earthworms, bacteria, fungi, insects, and micro-organisms. In fact, there’s a whole fascinating world under the ground that’s just as important to producing food as what’s above ground—and farmers, soil scientists, and others are just starting to learn about soil microbiology and how it influences the ways in which plants grow.
Dirt, by comparison, is simply dead soil. As such, the title of this magazine should maybe have been *The Real Soil on Farming*!
Listening to what the soil is saying
Farmers have long been sampling their soils to know how much fertilizer or manure they need to apply. But new soil sensing technology is providing a whole new picture of what’s underground. SoilOptix™ uses a sensor mounted to an ATV or a truck to measure gamma radiation emitted by the natural decay of soil. High resolution digital maps of each field show their chemical and physical properties. More information about what’s not visible to the human eye means better soil health decision-making for farmers.
**Did you know?**
It can take between 100 and 500 years to build two centimeters of topsoil. Sustainable tillage helps rebuild topsoil by slowly adding organic matter from the previous year’s crop.
**Quick Fact**
Soils have unique characteristics that can influence the flavour and character of grapes and wines. Wine lovers call this effect “terroir”.
Growing crops without working the land = win-win
Today, farmers widely use crop growing methods like conservation tillage (working the soil as little as possible), strip-till (only working a narrow strip where seeds will be planted) or no-till (not working the soil at all).
With strip-till and no-till, leftover material like roots and stalks from the harvested crop are left in the field, and the next crop is planted directly into that ground-covering material.
These types of tillage give the soil more structure and nutrients, prevent soil erosion, improve water conservation and flood management, and promote populations of beneficial insects and microorganisms.
**Bonus:** no-till isn’t just good for the soil; it’s also less work for farmers, and because they’re using less fuel to prepare a field for planting, there are fewer greenhouse gas emissions too. By following these farming methods, farmers are actually taking greenhouse gases out of the environment, and putting them into the soil through a process called carbon sequestration. This process results in some areas of the Prairies now being net zero greenhouse gas emitters.
New crops that are tolerant to specific herbicides can have environmental benefits as well, because farmers growing these crops can use a spray to kill weeds, instead of having to churn up the soil to get rid of them.
**Mixing it up a little in the field**
As part of sustainable farming, most farmers grow one type of crop in a field one year, a different one the next, and yet a different one again in the following year, instead of just growing the same crop in the same field year after year. That process is called **crop rotation**.
Every crop is affected by specific pests and diseases, and rotating crops reduces those risks. It also lets crops with different types of root structures pull nutrients and moisture from different soil depths, so the soil stays healthy and productive.
Farmers across Canada use different crop rotations, depending on where they farm. In Prince Edward Island, a typical rotation cycles potatoes, grain (such as wheat or barley) and forages (grasses to feed cattle). On the Prairies, by comparison, it’s common to grow grain (oats, wheat, or barley), then oilseeds (canola, flax, or sunflowers) followed by legumes (field peas, beans, lentils, or chickpeas).
**Working with nature to keep crops safe**
Many farmers use a system called **Integrated Pest Management** (IPM) to suppress and manage diseases, insects, and weeds in an effective, economical, and environmentally sound manner. They closely watch fields and orchards to identify pests, and know when they need to take action to protect the crop. Farmers then make strategic use of a variety of biological, physical, cultural, mechanical, behavioural and chemical treatment tools, to reduce pest populations to acceptable levels. Equally important is evaluating the effectiveness of the treatments.
By using IPM, farmers use all the best available pest management strategies, including practices of good land management, using natural enemies, planting certified seed, and keeping pests at bay with physical barriers, such as screens or netting.
One popular IPM tool, particularly in greenhouse production, is biological control, which can also be described as using “good bugs to fight bad bugs”.
Livestock are a part of healthy soil
Healthy, living soil is critical for growing productive crops in a sustainable way—and livestock play an important part. Farmers apply manure to the soil to put natural fertilizer back into the ground, and sheep or cattle graze grasses and cover crops. It’s also common for farmers who don’t have livestock of their own to buy manure from neighbouring farmers to put on their land.
A living ground cover
One way by which farmers keep their soil healthy is by growing **cover crops**—plants like clover, rye, sunflower, radish, and others that farmers plant in the field after they’ve harvested their main crop. Their job? Just as their name says: to keep the ground covered. This step reduces soil erosion, keeps moisture in the soil, and keeps nutrients from fertilizer and manure from being washed away into streams, lakes and rivers.
Some farmers use cover crops as animal feed by letting livestock graze in those fields in the fall.
A long-term approach to soil health
Part of sustainable farming means leaving behind productive land for future generations. Some farmers have adopted an approach to soil health referred to as **regenerative agriculture**\(^{87}\). Here, the emphasis is put on taking steps to improve soil health over time. Key principles include minimizing soil disturbance, integrating livestock to improve soil health, maximizing crop diversity and soil coverage to improve the water and mineral cycle, and reducing the impact of climate change through more **carbon sequestration**. During photosynthesis, plants release oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This captured carbon dioxide can be stored in organic matter in the soil—a process called carbon sequestration\(^{88}\).
*Planting radish in strips, also known as “biostrips”, loosens the soil where crops will be planted next spring without using mechanical tillage.*
Career Profile
**Sheep & Beef Farmer**
**Stuart Chutter**
Stuart Chutter knows the value of diversity both on and off the farm. As a gay man working in agriculture, he is aware of the stereotypes that are placed on farmers and rural communities. “Just like there is no one way to farm, there is no one way to be a farmer,” said Chutter.
He raises sheep and cattle on his farm near Killaly, Saskatchewan, but if you ask him what he farms, he would tell you it’s ‘soil’. He practices regenerative agriculture, which focuses on soil health, something that Chutter believes is vital to raising healthy animals and producing high quality protein.
His animals graze a mix of forage species including oats, turnips, millet, radishes, clovers and sunflowers. But regenerative agriculture isn’t about a specific set of rules says Chutter, “It’s a way of thinking that focuses on soil health as a complex system, and how plant and livestock species have an important role to play in that system.”
Chutter believes that diversity in agriculture will make it more resilient and better positioned to attract new people to the industry. “In my experience, rural people and farmers make world-class neighbours and allies.”
*Photo courtesy of Jenna Loveridge Photography*
Honey bees, bumblebees, and many wild pollinators play a critical role in the production of fruits, vegetables, and other crops. They pollinate blossoms on plants, turning them into apples or pumpkins, for example.
Although data shows that the number of farmed beehives is on the rise in Canada\(^89\), there is concern about higher than normal bee deaths in some parts of the country, as well as in Europe and the United States.
Many factors can impact bee colony health and cause bee death, such as long winters, cold temperatures, inadequate nutrition, or pests and diseases, such as a parasitic mite called *Varroa destructor*, which has been devastating to Canadian honey bee colonies\(^90\).
A lot of attention has been focused on **neonicotinoids**, a class of insecticides used on corn, soybeans, and canola (often as a seed coating), as well as in pet flea collars and home garden products. In 2019, after an extensive re-evaluation of process, Health Canada determined continued registration of products containing neonicotinoids is acceptable with risk mitigation measures to help protect bees and other pollinators including cancelling some uses of these insecticides, and changing other conditions of their use such as restricting the timing of application\(^91\). But even before the required use amendments, farmers were already taking action to adapt their planting practices to protect bees and other pollinators—such as adding dust deflectors on their planters to minimize seed coating dust, and using new techniques to ensure that the pesticide coating stays on the seeds.
As wild spaces are lost to residential development, it’s also great to see so many people including wildflowers and pollinator gardens at their homes. Farmers are using pieces of their land that cannot grow crops in order to create pollinator sanctuary spaces as well.
**Career Profile**
**Entomologist**
**Dr. Jess Vickruck**
Originally from the Niagara Region of Ontario, known for its abundance of orchards and vineyards, Dr. Jess Vickruck is no stranger to the important role that pollinators play in growing food.
“In the spring, I love to visit an orchard in bloom and listen to the hum of the trees that are alive with all of the different species of insects.”
She was interested in insects from a young age but it became a serious passion midway through university when she took her first entomology class. She went on to complete Masters and PhD degrees, and research wild bee species in Ontario and Alberta. Today, she is a research entomologist with Agriculture and Agri-food Canada in New Brunswick, where she lives with her husband and two young sons.
Her research looks at how farmers can manage their land in ways that promote biodiversity while reaping the pollination benefits of high wild bee populations. “We have only scratched the surface of what we know about bees,” she explained, “there are over 800 different species in Canada and we still know very little about the vast majority of them.”
**QUICK FACT**
A honey bee travels the equivalent of 80,000 km for one pound of honey, at an average flight speed of 24 km per hour\(^92\).
**DID YOU KNOW?**
There are more than 800 different species of wild bees in Canada. They are often small (less than two centimeters) and can be blue, green, purple, black, black, yellow and red!
Farming sustainably with a technology tool box
As the climate changes, and extreme weather becomes more common, farming is becoming more challenging. Luckily, farmers can rely on technology to help them adapt to ever more sustainable food production:
- New and more rapid plant breeding methods are leading to crops that are more tolerant of pests, drought, heat, excess moisture, and frost.
- An air sampler placed in fields or vineyards captures fungal spores from the air, and gives farmers an early warning about possible fungal diseases, so they can take quick action to prevent damage to their crops\(^{63}\).
- A smart irrigation system for potted greenhouse flowers only waters crops when the crops are thirsty, reducing water use, and resulting in stronger, more quickly growing plants.
- Smart imaging technology on sprayers can differentiate between crop plants and weeds, and applies pesticide only on the weeds instead of the entire field. This distinction can reduce pesticide use up to 90 per cent\(^{64}\)!
- Special maps show where a field “yields” the most, i.e. identifying which spots are most productive. That information is used to create a fertilizer prescription that helps farmers only to apply fertilizer where the map tells them the soil will use it best.
- Farmers are using drones and robots to help identify pest or disease problems or herd livestock.
Greener energy on the farm
Farmers are always looking for new ways to heat their barns and greenhouses, both affordably and sustainably. They’re installing solar panels and wind turbines to generate electricity—even anaerobic digesters that make methane from organic material, including food waste. Some farmers use the electricity they generate for their own farms and homes; others sell it back to the grid to power homes, businesses, and industry, in urban areas.
Running farm equipment from space
Many Canadian farmers rely on precision agriculture technology to manage field work like planting, applying nutrients, spraying, and harvesting. Satellite-controlled GPS on tractors and equipment ensures that fertilizers and sprays are applied in the right amounts to the right places, and that crops are planted in straight, even rows. This precision reduces fuel consumption, and makes sure that nutrients, seeds and crop protection products aren’t wasted.
Growing fields of fuel
Ethanol is a clean, renewable fuel made from plants (mostly corn) that is blended into gasoline. Biofuel is a diesel fuel substitute made from canola or soybean oil and blended with normal diesel. Both lower greenhouse gas emissions, and are just some of the many ways by which plants and plant residues are being used for more than just feeding people and animals.
Farming’s carbon footprint
Greenhouse gases (GHGs), including carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), methane ($\text{CH}_4$) and nitrous oxide ($\text{N}_2\text{O}$), absorb radiation from the sun and trap heat in the atmosphere, effectively acting like a greenhouse or a layer of insulation for Earth. GHGs are part of the earth’s natural processes, but human activities over the last several centuries have increased GHG levels far past where they should be. This change has very negative consequences for our climate, including increasing global temperatures, and more frequent episodes of severe weather.
$\text{CO}_2$ is produced by farm equipment. It’s also released when soil is disturbed, or when plants decay. $\text{N}_2\text{O}$ emissions are primarily a result of fertilizer use, including manure. Methane is a natural by-product of digestion in the stomachs of ruminants, as well as from manure from farm animals.
GHG emissions from Canadian agriculture have stayed about the same for the last 20 years, even though food production has increased dramatically. That status is mostly because farms have become more efficient—they’re able to grow and raise more food while using less land, water, and fuel. This change also reflects the increased carbon sequestration in crop land. Canadian farmland, particularly in the Prairies, captures more carbon than it releases. That makes it a carbon sink.
The environmental impact of raising livestock can vary a lot. Feed quality, genetics, and the part of the world in which the animal is being raised, are just three factors. Modern advances in genetics, nutrition, and other areas of science have led to more environmentally-efficient animals, and farmers and scientists continue to work towards reducing the amount of methane produced by livestock.
Consider this fact: Today, every kilogram of Canadian beef is produced using 17 per cent less water, 24 per cent less land, and generates 15 per cent less greenhouse gases, than the same amount of beef produced 30 years ago.
Livestock as part of the solution
Sustainably-managed livestock populations are also very much part of the solution to the climate change challenge, and play a significant role in our ecosystems.
Less than eight per cent of Canada’s land is used for agriculture. The rest has been developed as an urban landscape, is forest or shrubland, or is very difficult to impossible to grow crops on (think Arctic regions). But livestock can flourish on terrain that’s too rocky, hilly, wet, or dry. That gives farmers the opportunity to produce food in places where crops can’t grow.
Temperate grasslands, like those found in the southern parts of the Prairie provinces, are among some of the most endangered ecosystems in the world. They support biodiversity by providing widely ranging wildlife habitats, hold water during floods, and provide drinking water for people and wildlife. And because the land is not worked, the carbon captured by plants and put into the soil stays there as long as the land remains intact.
Unfortunately, less than 20 per cent of Canadian grasslands remain intact—most have been built over, or used for growing food. Once these grasslands are lost, it is nearly impossible to replicate them.
Quick Fact
Canada’s total GHG emissions are about 1.6 per cent of global emissions; of that amount, 8.4 per cent can be attributed to agriculture—and only about four per cent comes from livestock.
How cattle are saving our native grasslands
Many of the native grasslands that still exist in Canada are actively-grazed pastures, where cattle mimic the natural ecosystem processes required for the prairie to remain prairie. Grazing prevents over-growth of dominant plant species giving other important species a better chance to flourish. It also minimizes fire risk by reducing dry grasses and brush. The manure that livestock leave behind is also a valuable organic fertilizer that helps build organic matter and enrich the soil.
The Species at Risk Partnerships on Agricultural Lands (SARPAL) is an Environment and Climate Change Canada initiative, working with farmers to support the recovery of species at risk on agricultural land. In Manitoba, for example, the initiative has led to partnerships between beef farmers and conservation groups, in order to recover habitats for specific species at risk, including bird species like the ferruginous hawk, loggerhead shrike, and burrowing owl\(^{100}\).
Other livestock are also raised on these habitats. Wildlife such as deer, ducks and pollinators utilize healthy grasslands for their life cycle too.
Career Profile
Beef Farmer
Ben Campbell
Grazed Right Ranch, owned by Ben Campbell and his family, sits on Alberta’s native grasslands. Here, they produce high-quality beef by raising their cattle on pasture year round.
Grazing cattle can support the grasslands which provide a number of ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, flood mitigation and wildlife habitat. Campbell rotates the cattle onto new pasture regularly, spreading manure that helps build organic matter, and promoting the growth of important, but less competitive plants species. He’s created buffer zones around ponds and sloughs that serve as a duck nesting habitat and filters surface runoff before it enters the water bodies. “We hope to pass the farm onto our children, which is why protecting it and the planet through sustainable agricultural practices is so important.”
In the recently-released documentary *Guardians of the Grasslands*, Campbell explains how the grasslands sequester millions of tonnes of carbon. His ranch alone can store 39,000 tonnes of CO\(_2\) equivalent, which roughly equals the emissions that 2,000 Canadians produce in a year.
And they don’t keep the beauty of the Canadian grasslands all to themselves. Only a short drive from Calgary, the ranch is perfectly situated to reconnect customers with where their food comes from. “We are happy to invite our customers for a tour, by request, so they can see firsthand how the cattle are raised and the land is cared for,” said Campbell.
Going the extra mile for wildlife
Many farmers plant native grasses as buffer zones around water bodies, to protect land and aquatic habitats. Seeding strips of flowering plants for pollinators is also common. And to ensure that soils remain fertile and covered with new plant growth, livestock farmers move their animals from pasture to pasture—a practice called rotational grazing.
Some farmers will also delay cutting hay crops to give nesting birds a chance to hatch their young safely. Others build habitats for snakes—called hibernacula—or install boxes for owls and bats on the farm. These and many other practices help sustain wildlife populations, protect species at risk, and promote biodiversity.
Manure, fertilizers, phosphorus and water
Manure is an excellent source of fertilizer for the soil, but nutrients like phosphorus can contaminate water if they’re not applied and managed properly. Farmers have to follow a lot of rules when it comes to managing nutrients—from manure or fertilizers—on their farms. That diligence includes picking the right location for constructing new farm buildings away from neighbours, water, and wetlands. It’s also important to have enough storage to store manure safely over the winter months; manure shouldn’t be spread when the ground is frozen, because it’s more likely to be washed away by rain and melting snow, instead of going into the soil.
4R Nutrient Stewardship is a program that’s been developed to let the world know when food has been grown sustainably. It balances farmer, industry, and government goals to improve crop productivity and fertilizer efficiency, while also benefitting the environment. How? Through the “4Rs”—Right Source @ Right Rate, Right Time, Right Place®: putting the right type of fertilizer at the right amount in the right spot at the right time for it to be most effective\(^{101}\).
What about water?
There are many different ways to calculate how much water is used to make different food products—and a lot of them can be misleading, like the claim that it takes thousands of litres of water to make one burger patty.
Yes, beef production does use water, but most of that water actually ends up back in the environment through manure or water vapour. This process is known as the water cycle, and it means water is just being used and re-used, and not lost forever, as it merely goes back into rotation\(^{102}\).
Using water to grow crops
Some crops—most often fruits and vegetables—need more water to grow properly than just what they get from rain. The process of supplementing with more water is called irrigation, and there are a variety of technologies farmers use to make sure that their crops have enough water, and that they don’t use more than they need. In greenhouses, water used for irrigation is collected and reused, ensuring sustainable use of this important resource. Irrigation supports 40 per cent of our global food supply; in Canada, it’s only used by about 8.5 per cent of all farms\(^{103}\).
Even though Canada is home to 20 per cent of the world’s fresh water, its availability and quality are important issues for Canadians, especially as the climate continues to change. That’s another reason why sustainable farming practices, and using water in balance with the environment, are becoming more and more important.
Irrigating strawberry plants
What about plastics and packaging?
There’s no denying that a lot of single-use plastics are used across the food supply chain. But as awareness grows about their harmful environmental impacts, farmers and food producers are taking action to use less or different products and to recycle where they can.
Many farmers wrap hay bales in plastic wrapping to help preserve the crop, but figuring out what to do with the wrap once it’s no longer needed has always been a challenge. Farmers in Northern Ontario, for example, are involved in a pilot project to recycle the material into light diesel fuel\(^{104}\).
An organization called Cleanfarms has spearheaded the recycling of more than 126 million plastic agricultural containers into new products, instead of then going into landfills\(^{105}\).
And the Canadian Produce Marketing Association has set up a plastics packaging working group to determine how to reduce the use of plastics without compromising produce quality or safety. Examples include biodegradable food wrappings, or moulded fiber punnets and trays for cucumbers, berries, mushrooms, and tomatoes\(^{106}\).
Wrapping a greenhouse cucumber in film increases its sellable shelf life from around three days, to 15 to 17, because the film limits how the vegetable breathes and keeps it hydrated, thus reducing food waste.
The food we waste
According to the United Nations, one-third of all the food we produce is lost or wasted each year\(^{107}\). **Food loss** usually happens during food production, storage, processing, or distribution, whereas **food waste** happens at the end of the food chain, when food that is of good quality and fit for consumption is discarded.
A 2019 study estimated that 11.2 million metric tons of avoidable food loss or waste occurs across the food value chain in Canada—equivalent to a value of $49.5 billion\(^{108}\). The average Canadian household wastes about 140 kg of food annually, the equivalent of throwing out more than $1,100 each year. That amounts to almost 2.2 million tons of edible food wasted each year, costing Canadians more than $17 billion\(^{109}\).
Farmers and food producers, particularly in the produce sector, are investing in solutions to help reduce food waste, like smart sensors and intelligent packaging that extend shelf-life.
They’re also finding creative ways to find new uses for food waste, like producing environmentally friendly energy, using an extract from mushroom stems to create a natural preservative\(^{110}\), or using the high-in-antioxidants coffee cherries—the fruit whose pit is the coffee bean and is discarded once the bean is extracted—to make a type of tea. Livestock can be fed by-products of human food production, like distillers’ grains (waste from brewing and ethanol production), canola, and soybean meal (what’s left after the oil has been removed) or beet pulp that’s leftover after sugar beets are processed to extract sugar.
Here are some things you can do at home to reduce food waste too:
- Ask for smaller portions
- Keep leftover food for another meal
- Buy “ugly” fruits and vegetables—they are just as good to eat as the pretty, regularly shaped ones!
Career Profile
Product Development Specialist
Sustainable Packaging
Luci Faas
Before moving to Ontario in 2008, Luci Faas lived and worked in many different places, including Japan and the USA. Faas studied environmental education in university and has carried that passion into her work as a Product Development Specialist with Nature Fresh Farms, a large greenhouse near Leamington, Ontario. “Environmental stewardship can be personal,” said Faas, and that “making small choices in your daily life that are more sustainable can make a big impact.” That’s why developing a newly launched 100 per cent Home Compostable Cucumber Wrap has been such a passion project for her. The compostable wrap both prolongs the shelf life of the cucumbers, while reducing harmful plastic waste; it was recently announced as a finalist for The Sustainable Packaging Coalition’s 2020 Innovation Awards.
Faas enjoys the unique challenge of collaborating with many other departments including marketing, operations and quality assurance to research and test new packaging concepts, with a special focus on finding more sustainable options. “It’s rewarding to find a solution that is environmentally-friendly, and that doesn’t compromise the quality or become too costly for the consumer.”
Photo courtesy of Nature Fresh Farms
DID YOU KNOW?
Almost half of all the fruits and vegetables produced in the world are never actually eaten—they’re just wasted\(^{111}\).
Healthy and safe food
Safe, quality food choices are something most Canadians don’t have to think about very often. The shelves in grocery stores and farmers’ markets are rarely empty, and we don’t have to worry about whether what we’re eating is safe.
That’s because there are regulations and safety systems throughout the Canadian food chain, and ultimately, safe food starts on the farm, with farmers.
Food safety rules for farmers
Just as with other food businesses, farmers follow the rules of food safety programs based on HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) that identify critical points on the farm where food safety could be at risk. That risk could occur when new animals come onto the farm, or when fresh produce is sorted and packed into bins.
Although every farm will have slightly different on-farm food safety programs, depending on what they grow or raise, each program includes:
- Evaluating what you’re doing and how you’re doing it
- Keeping detailed records
- Completing regular audits
- Knowing what to do if things go wrong
Others in the food supply chain, from livestock feed manufacturers to processing facilities and grocery stores, follow similar rules.
Traceability
Being able to assure Canadians and consumers in other countries that the food we produce is safe is important. A big part of that is “traceability”. It means having checks and balances in place to assure customers that they’re actually getting what they think they are getting—and that we can trace a product right back to its origin, in case something goes wrong.
For example, an IP “identity preserved” program for food grade soybeans tracks every step of production to prove to international buyers that the beans are authentically food grade, and have been produced to exacting standards. RFID (radio-frequency identification) ear tags for livestock, and a national database of animal movement, mean that we know where animals are and where they’ve been—critical information to have in case of a disease outbreak or food safety problem!
A block what?
A blockchain is the latest traceability tool for food producers. It’s an incorruptible digital ledger of all transactions in a supply chain: information is passed digitally along the chain instead of through a paper trail, and the permanent links between the blocks keep data safe. Pilot projects underway in different countries around the world are all designed to make it easier to do business; to know where food is coming from; and to reduce payment security risks.
Career Profile
Processing Plant Floor Manager
Lyane Cypres-Zepik
In 2008, one of Canada’s leading pork producers, HyLife, acquired the processing plant known as Springhill Farms. This expansion resulted in hundreds of newly created jobs, many of which they were unable to fill with domestic workers.
Located in the rural area of Neepawa, Manitoba, which has a small population and low unemployment rate, they found that recruiting skilled workers from abroad, like Lyane Cypres-Zepik, is essential to filling positions that many Canadians are not interested in doing.
Cypres-Zepik was born in the Philippines, where her family raised pigs and ran a butcher shop. She studied food technology at the University of the Philippines and shortly after began working in quality assurance and production at one of the country’s largest meat processors.
She moved to Canada in 2009 as part of the Manitoba Provincial Nominee Program, which seeks internationally trained and experienced workers who have the skills needed in the local labour market and nominates them to receive Canadian permanent resident visas to settle and work in Manitoba. In the Philippines, life and career advancement can be challenging, so being recruited by a Canadian company was an exciting opportunity to improve her family’s quality of life.
Cypres-Zepik quickly moved from the production floor to management where she had worked as the QA Assistant Manager and now as the Cut Floor Manager. “I enjoy the opportunity to grow at my job. It makes you feel proud,” Cypres-Zepik said. “Who would have thought that you would get to this position?”
The workforce at the HyLife has grown fivefold since 2008, bringing more diversity and opportunities to the area. “I am very grateful for the town of Neepawa for embracing us new immigrants and for helping us integrate and become part of the community.”
Photo courtesy of HyLife
Keeping farm animals healthy
Healthy livestock and poultry are a priority for farmers and their veterinarians. A serious disease outbreak or health problem can make animals sick, and occasionally kill some or all the livestock or poultry on a farm. In extreme cases, a disease can affect more than just one species of animal.
That’s why farmers use many strategies and tools to ensure that their animals are healthy, including providing a good living environment, ensuring good nutrition, and working with a veterinarian who is responsible for prescribing medications and vaccines.
It’s Health Canada’s job to evaluate the safety of animal health products, and to approve them for farmers to use. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is responsible for ensuring the safety of animal vaccines and feed additives.
What is “One Health”?
Many of the same microbes that make animals sick can also infect humans. The World Health Organization and other organizations around the world have embraced the “One Health” approach, by which experts in animal, plant, and human health work together to prevent disease outbreaks and food safety problems.
When animal and human health meet
New diseases are always emerging in animals and in people. The COVID-19 pandemic is the latest and most high-profile example of the impact a new disease can have on health and on the economy—and why it’s important to be prepared.
That’s why public health agencies and groups specializing in animal disease surveillance are always watching for and tracking new outbreaks. Canada’s food system has invested millions of dollars into disease research, prevention, and emergency preparedness, so that Canadians have the safest food and healthiest livestock possible.
Here are some livestock and poultry diseases of interest:
1. Influenza
Commonly called the flu, influenza makes many Canadians sick every year. Birds and pigs can also get the flu—you may have heard or read about “bird flu” or “swine flu”, but you can’t catch either of these from eating pork, eggs, chicken or turkey.
2. African Swine Fever
African Swine Fever is a devastating disease that affects pigs, but there is no human health or food safety risk as it doesn’t infect humans. There is currently no cure or vaccine for this virus, which kills virtually all the animals that become infected. China has been suffering from a major outbreak since 2018, but the disease is present in African, European, and other Asian countries as well. To date, it has never been found in North America, but since Canada is a major world producer of pork, the industry is working hard to keep the disease out.
3. Food-borne illnesses
Human and animal digestive systems are home to billions of bacteria, including some that can cause severe illness or even death if people consume contaminated food or water. *Escherichia coli* (*E. coli*), *Salmonella*, and *Listeria monocytogenes* are the three most common causes of food-borne illness. Canada’s food producers and processors use many different tools to keep food free from pathogens that cause food-borne illness. Consumers have a role to play too: cooking meats to proper temperatures; washing produce thoroughly; and washing hands regularly before handling food, after using the washroom, or after petting animals.
DID YOU KNOW?
Keeping our food safe, and our animals and plants healthy, are why you are asked about contact with farms and farm animals when you come back to Canada from another country.
Common question: antibiotics and resistance
Antibiotics are a type of antimicrobial medication used to fight bacterial infections in people and animals. **Antibiotic resistance** occurs when the bacteria change and develop the ability to survive exposure to the antibiotics used to treat them. As a result, the medication is no longer effective in killing or slowing the growth of a specific disease-causing organism. It’s an important issue worldwide, because it makes it harder to fight human and animal infections caused by these resistant bacteria.
Antimicrobial resistance is a natural phenomenon\(^{114}\) which can be made worse by environmental contamination, misusing antibacterial cleaning products, and using antibiotics in human or animal medicine too much or incorrectly\(^{115}\).
Health Canada has established four categories of antimicrobials based on how they are used in human medicine, ranging from Category I (“very high importance”) to Category IV (“low importance”)\(^{116}\). The Canadian government tightened the rules on antimicrobial use in farm animals in 2018. For example, farmers now need a veterinary prescription to buy any Category I, II, and III products, and using any of these products to promote growth has been banned\(^{117}\). Advances in animal housing, nutrition, and biosecurity practices mean that fewer antibiotics are used today than in past decades.
The bottom line on antibiotics
Antibiotics are a valuable tool for treating sick people and animals, so it is important that everyone uses them responsibly. Resistance is a complex topic, and critically important research into resistance is happening around the world in both human and animal medicine.
What about drug residues?
Drug residues are traces of medication left over in meat, milk, or eggs, after an animal has been treated with a medication. Every animal health product (e.g. antimicrobials, vaccines, supplements) has what is called a “withdrawal period”—a specific amount of time a farmer must wait before sending a treated animal or its products to market\(^{118}\). This ensures that food is safe and free of residues. As an added layer of security, processing plants also test for drug residues to ensure food safety.
Career Profile
Veterinarian
Dr. Cali Lewis
With veterinarians for parents, it’s no wonder that Dr. Cali Lewis would choose to become one herself. Lewis has been practicing in her hometown of Westlock, Alberta, since 2015. She practices both small and large animal veterinary medicine, meaning she works with pets, as well as livestock, such as horses, goats, sheep, and cattle.
She enjoys working closely with farmers on their animal care strategies. “The key is to focus on preventative measures like strong vaccination protocols, limiting stress and providing good nutrition. But antibiotics certainly have their place when needed.”
Lewis describes working with farms as a challenging yet gratifying puzzle. “In addition to caring for the individual animals, you also have to consider the health of the entire herd, as well as economical and production factors. It’s definitely a big picture approach to veterinary care,” said Lewis.
In her free time, she can be found riding her horse, Sadie, hiking or paddle boarding with her dog, Steady, and partaking in all things outdoors.
Raw facts about raw milk
Raw milk has not been pasteurized, meaning it could still contain harmful bacteria and other pathogens that can cause severe, or in some cases fatal, illness\(^{119}\). It is illegal to sell raw milk or cream products in Canada (with the exception of certain raw milk cheeses), so all milk has to be pasteurized before being sold. The milk is heated to a high temperature, which kills any bacteria, but **pasteurization** does not affect milk quality.
Milk is sampled and tested at every farm before it’s picked up by the milk truck, to ensure safety and quality. And every milk truckload is tested again at the processing plant, so if there’s a problem, the entire load is rejected. It’s something dairy farmers take very seriously.
The barcode reveals all
**DNA barcoding** is a Canadian innovation that helps identify plant and animal species, including pests. DNA from a species is extracted and sequenced for identification, similar to how a supermarket scanner reads a product bar code. Accurate identification is critical to choosing the right pest management strategy. Besides identifying pests, this University of Guelph technology also helps expose cases of food fraud—products being sold as something they’re not. Mislabelling fish is common—for example, passing off cheaper tilapia or rockfish as red snapper, which is more expensive\(^{120}\).
**DID YOU KNOW?**
Using just your smart phone and a DNA testing kit, you can authenticate your food, identify the bug that bit you, or learn about bugs in your garden\(^{121}\)?
Career Profile
**Food Scientist**
**Sanjay Tandan**
When Sanjay Tandan was young, he wanted to be a doctor. That dream didn’t happen as he’d planned, exactly, but he sees a lot of similarities between his original goals and his role as an operations manager/food scientist for a dairy processing company because both rely on science. As a food scientist, he says there’s a huge amount of responsibility and accountability to ensure that customers get a safe product. “In one way, I still look after the health of people through the food they consume on a daily basis by ensuring they get safe, healthy and nutritious products.”
Common question: hormones, livestock and meat
Fact: no food is hormone-free. Hormones occur naturally in plants and animals, meaning that there is no such thing as hormone-free food\(^{122}\).
Dairy cows, pigs, chickens, and turkeys in Canada are not given hormones for milk production or growth promotion. Some beef farmers may use government-approved hormones, however, in beef cattle, because it promotes efficient muscle growth, rather than fat\(^{123}\). That application means leaner meat using less feed. It also helps keep food more affordable for Canadians.
Hormone levels from beef cattle that have received implants is virtually the same as the levels in beef from cattle not given growth promoters. There is more variation in the hormone levels of beef from male versus female cattle than between beef from cattle raised with and without hormones.
The bottom line
Worldwide, the use of hormones in cattle has been confirmed as safe, and as having no impact on human health by agencies including Health Canada, the World Health Organization, and the United Nations, and is based on ongoing research and monitoring\(^{124}\).
Quick Fact
Hormones are one of many methods farmers use to produce affordable, environmentally friendly, and high-quality beef for Canadians. The technology allows farmers and ranchers to use 10 per cent less land, seven per cent less fuel, and raise 12 per cent fewer animals to produce the same amount of food\(^{125}\).
Common question: What about pesticides?
Yes, there are rules for those too.
Pesticides, also called crop protection products, are one of the most effective tools available to farmers to keep insects, weeds, and diseases from damaging and destroying fruits, vegetables, and field crops. They also let farmers grow more food on less land, which helps preserve natural forests, wetlands, and other wildlife habitats, while ensuring we all have enough to eat.
Canadian farmers have to follow strict rules, and are only allowed to buy and use products that the government has found to be safe for people and the environment. That’s the responsibility of the Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), a part of Health Canada, and products are only approved for use after years of review and testing have proven that they’re both safe and effective. In some provinces, farmers must be tested and certified before using these products.
Farmers follow best practices when working with pesticides to make sure that the products are used safely. For example, they make sure they’re not applying them on windy days, so that the spray doesn’t “drift” away from weeds onto areas where it isn’t supposed to be. Wearing personal protective equipment is another best practice to ensure worker safety.
About glyphosate
Glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup, is the most widely used weed control product in agriculture. It’s one of many tools farmers use to control weeds in crops like canola, soybeans, and corn, or before planting other crops. To prevent weeds from becoming resistant to the product, and therefore uncontrollable, farmers will rotate pesticides or active ingredients (that’s the main ingredient in a pesticide that actually controls the weeds).
After reviewing more than 1,300 studies, Health Canada has found that, when used according to the label directions, Roundup will not cause cancer or pose other risks to people or the environment.
Every year, an environmental group in the United States releases a “dirty dozen” list of fruits and vegetables it says should be avoided due to high pesticide residue levels. It’s a clever tactic to garner attention, but scientists at the University of California, Davis, and elsewhere, have found the report to be misrepresentative of facts, and deceptive.
Scientific analysis has found that if residues are present, they’re almost always at extremely low levels that don’t cause harm. For example, a child would have to eat 7,240 servings of carrots per day before pesticide residues would be a concern! It’s all about dosage—consider that you likely won’t feel the impact of half a Tylenol tablet on your headache, but taking a whole bottle could be lethal.
There’s no such thing as “zero” when you’re looking for residues or controlling risks, but Health Canada sets the acceptable amount of pesticide allowed to remain on food—called Maximum Residue Limits (MRL)—far below the amount that could pose a health concern, just to be sure people and food are safe.
Today’s lab equipment and testing methods are so precise, that they can find amounts so tiny that they won’t cause harm, but are still detectable. That’s the case with recent findings of glyphosate residues in breakfast cereals like Cheerios. The amounts found are so minute that a person could eat 2.3 kilograms of Cheerios every day, and still be completely safe from any glyphosate-related harm.
For perspective: we can now detect residues in parts per billion—and one part per billion is like one foot on a trip to the moon, or one second in 32 years!
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency surveys fruits and vegetables in Canada for pesticide residues each year. The test results consistently confirm that the overwhelming majority of foods on the market meets Canadian standards for food safety.
**The bottom line:**
You don’t have to worry about Canadian fruits and vegetables; they’re safe, although we still encourage you to wash your produce before eating.
**Better science for more sustainable food**
Growing food means using science. Every aspect of farming, from plant and animal genetics, soil management, and pest and disease control, to animal nutrition and housing, and even weather forecasting, has benefitted from science. For Canadians, science has brought us more abundant, nutritious, and affordable food that’s being grown more sustainably than ever before.
More than 10,000 years ago, the earliest plant breeders were knowingly and unknowingly selecting plants for propagation that had desirable traits, including a shorter growing season, higher yields, and larger seeds or fruits.
Conventional plant breeding is a very long and expensive process that involves crossbreeding two plants, growing new plants from the seeds produced, and painstakingly selecting the offspring with the desired combination of traits—over, and over, and over again. It can take many years to get the right combination of traits, and for new varieties to become available.
What’s a GMO?
GMO stands for genetically modified organism. It’s a term that technically could be applied to almost all plant-based food we eat today, as they’ve all been modified over time, but when people talk about GMOs, they’re most often referring to genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering is a form of biotechnology in which laboratory methods bring together genetic material from multiple sources—a form of genetic recombination. What distinguishes genetic engineering from conventional breeding is the use of recombinant DNA technology.
Here is an example: a gene from another species is added to a crop’s DNA to make it more functional, such as corn that produces a toxin that is lethal to certain crop-killing bugs—meaning that farmers can reduce their insecticide use.
One form of genetic modification can result in “silencing” or turning off specific genes already inside a plant, which can be accomplished through a technique called RNA interference (RNAi)\(^{131}\). For example, the genes that cause bruising in the Innate® potato, and browning in the Arctic® Apple, have been turned off, which ultimately means that less food is wasted.
Apples are one of the most wasted food products on the planet—about 40 per cent are thrown out, much of it because they turn brown once they’re cut, bitten or bruised. Arctic® Apples (which were created in Canada) won’t do that because, with the help of genetic engineering, the enzyme that causes the browning has been turned off\(^{132}\).
Conventional Apple Arctic® Nonbrowning Apple
Okanagan Specialty Fruits Inc.
Genome editing, by comparison, typically involves targeting and changing specific genes that are already there. To edit genes, scientists use a sort of molecular pair of scissors to cut DNA in a desired spot, and then make use of the plant’s own natural repair mechanism. CRISPR-Cas9, the most well-known gene editing technology, is an example of this method. It could potentially be used to make milk, eggs, or peanuts safe for everyone to eat, saving people from allergies that could be life-threatening\textsuperscript{134}.
These new technologies build on conventional plant breeding, and will allow for more efficient development of crops with much-needed traits to make them more resistant to drought or other weather extremes, render them tastier, or even make them contain higher levels of healthy compounds.
**DID YOU KNOW?**
Eating a genetically modified crop will NOT affect a person’s genes. The human body can’t absorb DNA through digestion.
There are only 11 GMO crops available today\textsuperscript{135}:
- Corn (grain and sweet)
- Soybeans
- Cotton
- Squash
- Canola
- Alfalfa
- Sugar beets
- Eggplants
- Papaya
- Apples
- Potatoes
Using science to save foods we love
In the 1840s, a fungus known as blight repeatedly devastated potato crops in Ireland, causing widespread hunger and starvation. Today, farmers can use fungicides—fungus-specific pesticides—to protect potatoes and other crops from being wiped out.
In Bangladesh, genetic modification has saved up to 80 per cent of the eggplant or Brinjal crop from insect devastation, reducing pesticide use and lifting farmers out of poverty\textsuperscript{135}. Hawaiian papaya was saved from ringspot virus with a genetically modified (GM) variety resistant to the disease, and a GM banana is currently in the works that could protect the staple crop from a deadly fungus that is threatening the lives and livelihoods of thousands of farmers in Africa, Asia, and now South America\textsuperscript{136}.
The bottom line on GMOs and your health:
GMOs do not cause cancer or any other health problems. In the more than 20 years that GMO crops have been grown in Canada, not a single case of illness has been attributed to them. Over 900 research studies from around the world have explored this topic, and these studies were analyzed by 15 scientific societies in 2016—with no evidence of risk to human health or the environment discovered\textsuperscript{137}.
Food, farming and the future
The world is always changing, and that change includes how farmers grow food, and how it gets from the farm to our dinner tables.
Mental health on the farm
One of the aspects on which the sector has only recently started to focus is that of farmers’ mental health. As you’ve read in this publication, farming is rewarding, but also can be incredibly challenging. The stresses of a changing climate, market uncertainty, evolving public perceptions, disease and pest threats, activist threats, and more, can take their toll on farmers’ mental health.
Farmers often work long hours by themselves, and farms by their very nature are mostly located in rural, sometimes isolated areas. That feature makes it even easier to feel alone and without support.
Recent research conducted by the University of Guelph into the mental health of Canadian farmers showed some startling results:
- 35 per cent of farmers meet the criteria for depression;
- 45 per cent of farmers experience high stress;
- 58 per cent of farmers meet the criteria for anxiety.
And perhaps most sadly, 40 per cent reported that they would feel uneasy about getting professional help because of what other people might think.
Thankfully, though, things are starting to change. The Do More Agriculture Foundation (www.domore.ag) promotes awareness of farmer mental health, and breaking the stigma. Hundreds of farmers have participated in the organization’s “Talk, Ask, Listen” workshops to date. The University of Guelph has created a mental health course specifically for the Canadian agriculture community called “In the Know” that they’re hoping to roll out soon nation-wide and online.
Mental health professionals, researchers, farmers, and others, support the establishment of a Centre for Farmer Mental Health and Wellness to spearhead mental awareness, response, and support for the farming community.
Career Profile
Chicken Farmer
Amy VanderHeide
Amy VanderHeide runs a third generation chicken farm in Coldbrook, Nova Scotia, with her husband, in-laws, and three sons. Farming can be incredibly rewarding, but it’s not without its challenges – all of which can take a toll. That is something that VanderHeide knows well.
She was diagnosed with Seasonal Affective Disorder three years ago. “Spring through fall is very busy, so there is less time to stop and think about it. Winter arrives and things slow down; meanwhile all of these emotions have been building up,” described VanderHeide.
VanderHeide shared her story on social media, and was overwhelmed by the response from other farmers. “When you begin to open up, it’s surprising to see how many people are feeling the same way,” said VanderHeide, explaining that if her openness is able to help even one person feel less alone then it will all be worth it.
“We’ve come so far, but there is more to do. I hope that when my boys grow up and farm, that checking in on their mental health is just another part of the job.”
Research shows that a growing segment of the Canadian market is becoming aware and conscious of how their consumption is related to ethical questions around animal welfare and climate change. Younger consumers in particular are concerned about climate change as an issue that will affect them in their lifetime, and how they can make a difference.
For example, green eating is a movement by which food choices are based on sustainability principles, and a desire to reduce the environmental impact of eating and food production.
The products which consumers want, and the values that are important to them, are constantly evolving, and farmers and food producers will keep up with those changes. Different farmers will meet different trends in different ways, and to do so, they’ll continue to turn to innovation and technology to make things better, healthier, and more sustainable for people, animals, and the environment.
Many farmers and food producers are active on social media, so it’s easier than ever to have your questions answered by someone who raises farm animals, grows crops or works in the agri-food sector. Try searching popular hashtags like #CdnAg or follow:
@RealDirtonFarming @FarmFoodCareON
@FacesBehindFood @FarmFoodCareSK
@CdnFoodFocus @FarmFoodCarePEI
Facing the future
While much has changed and will continue to change when it comes to food and farming in Canada, one thing has not: farming begins with the commitment of farm families to the land, to animals, and to growing food.
All Canadians want affordable, safe, nutritious, and sustainably-produced food, and we’re lucky to live in a country where how and what to eat are choices that Canadians can make for themselves.
Thank you for supporting Canadian food, and for being interested in how and what Canadian farmers do to produce it. Your trust is not something farmers take lightly—and by working together, we can continue to focus on a sustainable future for our planet and its people.
That’s the real dirt.
Career Profile
Future Farmer
Ben McFarlane
Ben McFarlane, six, is a third generation beef and crop farmer-in-training. His family owns Windyyue Farms Ltd. outside of Guelph, ON. Farm life is fun and busy says McFarlane. He loves to spend time in the barn with his dad and ride in the combine during corn harvest. Staying safe around farm equipment and taking good care of the cows and land are among his important life lessons. He hopes to grow up and be a farmer like his father and grandfather before him. He is excited and looking forward to using new technology in the future including “bigger tractors and combines!”
Photo courtesy of Holly McFarlane
With Thanks
Original text (2006) by: Alison Lane.
2010, 2014, 2017 and 2020 edition updates by: Lilian Schaer, Agri-Food Project Services Ltd.
Design by: Lynn Schouppe, Studio8699.
Project Manager: Madeline Rodrigue
Editors: Dr. Paul Ling and Kelly Daynard
Published by Farm & Food Care, 2020.
www.FarmFoodCare.org
This booklet was made possible with the generous support of farmers, farm organizations, and agribusinesses across Canada. For a complete list, visit www.RealDirtonFarming.ca.
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The motto in gold blue and red CRANLEIGH CARITATEM HABET is interpreted as Cranleigh Cares.
The two cranes are looking backwards to the past reminding us of where we have come from and forward to the future but guarding the task at hand as they hold their foot on the goblet.
Cranleigh Parish Council cares about our planet and supports the sustainability framework of One Planet Living\(^1\).
Our Vision
This strategy places climate change principles at the centre of Council decision making.
Contents
1 Why have we announced a climate and ecological emergency? ........................................... 3
2 How could climate change affect Cranleigh? ........................................................................ 4
3 How can national and local planning policy help reduce the impact of climate change? . 4
4 Waverley Borough Council Climate Emergency .................................................................. 5
4.1 Waverley Borough Council’s Local Plan Part 1 ................................................................. 5
4.2 Cranleigh Neighbourhood Plan ....................................................................................... 7
5 How Energy Efficient is our Community? ............................................................................ 11
6 How sustainable is our transport system? ............................................................................. 12
7 What can we do as a community to tackle Climate Change? .............................................. 13
7.1 IMPACT Community Carbon Calculator ........................................................................... 13
8 What can we do as a Parish Council to tackle Climate Change? ........................................ 17
8.1 What have we done so far? ............................................................................................. 17
8.2 What can we do in the future? ....................................................................................... 18
8.2.1 Community: ........................................................................................................... 18
8.2.2 Land: ....................................................................................................................... 19
8.2.3 Buildings: ............................................................................................................... 20
9 References: ......................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
\(^1\)Bioregional One Planet Living https://www.bioregional.com/one-planet-living
1 Why have we announced a climate and ecological emergency?
The climate emergency is the biggest threat facing our planet and in response to this we need to drastically reduce our greenhouse gas emissions.
Climate change is already having visible effects on the world, resulting in rising temperatures, extreme weather events, rising sea levels, with a significant loss of biodiversity and extinction of many species.
In 1997 the international treaty known as the Kyoto Protocol was signed in a commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and this became law in 2005. This applies to the six greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). These gases trap and hold heat in the atmosphere.
In 2015 Paris Agreement was entered into by virtually every nation and this set out a global framework to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2°C and pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. Even at this level more extreme weather events and significant increases in sea levels are predicted, resulting in permanent flooding of land, destruction of coral reefs, mass species extinction and huge carbon releases from melting Arctic ice, impacting on food security and ultimately peace.
At the present trajectory we are heading for a 3° + increase at the end of the century which would be catastrophic. Global CO2 emissions have been increasing since 2017 after 3 years of relative stabilization.
Figure 1: https://ourworldindata.org/future-emissions
In declaring a climate and ecological emergency, this Council is not opting for business as usual, we are opting to pledge to play our part in reducing emissions and to aim to become carbon neutral by 2030.
We will be concentrating on making our community buildings more energy efficient and managing our land to restore nature and provide wildlife corridors. Covid-19 has emphasised the importance of locally accessible green space for residents as well as providing space for nature.
We will also be working with the Cranleigh Community and other stakeholders to encourage actions and to provide information that will help residents to move towards a sustainable future for everyone.
2 How could climate change affect Cranleigh?
Cranleigh is exposed to the impact of climate change through:
- Increase in extreme weather events:
- Risk of wildfires
- Localised flooding
- Drought resulting in water stress for residents, wildlife and agriculture
- Impact on air quality
- Spread of infectious human and animal diseases
- Reduction in biodiversity
3 How can national and local planning policy help reduce the impact of climate change?
There is huge pressure from the Government to accommodate more housing in the south east including in Waverley, as highlighted in the recent Government consultations on ‘Changes to the current Planning system’\(^2\) and ‘Planning for the future’\(^3\). If the new method of housing numbers is adopted we could see the numbers for new housing in Cranleigh doubled. Surrey County Council also has identified Cranleigh as a ‘growth’ area in its “Surrey’s 2050 Place Ambition”, although a consultation on this has not been undertaken. This housing growth would have a catastrophic impact on our countryside, on local biodiversity and on our climate change targets.
---
\(^2\) https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/changes-to-the-current-planning-system
\(^3\) https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/planning-for-the-future
There are some policies within the national planning framework and through local and neighbourhood plans that attempt to help to support biodiversity and to mitigate the impact of development on the environment:
- National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) policies 148 and 149
- Waverley Borough Council Local Plan Parts 1 and 2
- Cranleigh Neighbourhood Plan (emerging)
There is also the delayed Environment Bill working its way through Parliament which should it become law requires developers to ensure habitats for wildlife are enhanced and left in a measurably better state than they were pre-development. Broadly, this “biodiversity net gain”, as set out in the Bill, requires development to deliver at least a 10 per cent improvement in “biodiversity value”. Without Government commitment through legislation to protect the environment it will be difficult for it to keep its commitment to bring all UK greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050.
4 Waverley Borough Council Climate Emergency
Waverley Borough Council declared a climate emergency on 18 September 2019 and this set out the council’s aim to become carbon-neutral by 2030. The Council has produced a Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan\(^4\) which went out to public consultation in September 2020.
Friends of the Earth has analysed\(^5\) how different local authority areas across England and Wales are taking action to cut greenhouse gas emissions. They have identified what needs to be achieved by 2030 in each area compared to the progress made so far.
Their summary states that the Waverley area has made average progress compared to other local authority areas on addressing climate change and is lower than the average for the south east. The CO\(^2\) emissions for the borough have reduced from 6.6 kt to 4.3 kt over the last 12 years, but we need to do much more in the following areas:
- renewable energy,
- home insulation
- public transport.
In Waverley 38% of emissions come from housing, 44% from transport, and 18% from industrial and commercial activity. According to the detailed carbon report for every local authority published by the Tyndall Centre\(^6\), Waverley should reduce its emissions by at least 13% per year to achieve the 2030 target.
4.1 Waverley Borough Council’s Local Plan Part 1
Local Plan Part 1 was found sound by a government inspector on 01 February 2018 and includes the following policies on climate change:
**Policy CC1 – Climate Change**
Development will be supported where it contributes to mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change, including measures that –
1. use renewable and low carbon energy supply systems;
2. provide appropriate flood storage capacity;
---
\(^4\) https://www.waverley.gov.uk/info/200287/council_policies_and_strategies/2191/climate_change_strategy_and_action_plan
\(^5\) https://takeclimateaction.uk/climate-action/how-climate-friendly-your-area
\(^6\) https://carbonbudget.manchester.ac.uk/reports/
3. address issues of flood risk through the application of Policy CC4;
4. provide high standards of sustainable design and construction with built-in resilience to climate change (e.g. from flood risk, storms, higher temperatures and drought); or
5. use green infrastructure and SuDS to help absorb heat, reduce surface water runoff and support habitat networks.
**Policy CC2 – Sustainable Construction and Design**
The Council will seek to promote sustainable patterns of development and reduce the level of greenhouse gas emissions by:
1. ensuring all new development, including residential extensions, include measures to minimise energy and water use through its design, layout, landscape and orientation;
2. encouraging the use of natural lighting and ventilation;
3. being designed to encourage walking, cycling and access to sustainable forms of transport;
4. building at higher densities where appropriate and supporting mixed-use development;
5. incorporating measures that protect and, where possible, enhance the biodiversity value of the development;
6. minimising construction and demolition waste and promoting the reuse and recycling of building materials; or
7. requiring the design of new development to facilitate the recycling and composting of waste;
8. ensuring that new dwellings shall meet the requirement of 110 litres of water per person per day; and
9. requiring that all new buildings are provided with the highest available speed broadband infrastructure.
**Policy CC3 – Renewable Energy Development**
Renewable energy development should be located and designed to avoid significant adverse impacts on landscape, wildlife, heritage assets and amenity. Appropriate steps should be taken to mitigate any adverse impacts, such as noise nuisance, flood risk, shadow flicker and interference with telecommunications, through careful consideration of location, scale, design and other measures. The Council particularly encourages applications from community-led projects. Development in the Green Belt will be considered in accordance with advice in the NPPF.
**Policy CC4 – Flood Risk Management**
Flood Zones in Waverley are defined as contained within National Planning Practice Guidance and the Council’s Level 2 Strategic Flood Risk Assessment. In order to reduce the overall and local risk of flooding in the Borough:
1. Development must be located, designed and laid out to ensure that it is safe; that the risk from flooding is minimised whilst not increasing the risk of flooding elsewhere; and that residual risks are safely managed. In locations identified as being at risk of flooding, planning permission will only be granted, or land allocated for development, where it can be demonstrated that:
a. where sequential and exceptions tests have been undertaken and passed, any development that takes place where there is a risk of flooding will need to ensure that flood mitigation measures, including a site specific flood evacuation plan, are integrated into the design both on-site and off-site, to minimise the risk to property and life should flooding occur;
b. through a sequential approach, it is located in the lowest appropriate flood risk location in accordance with the NPPF and the Waverley Strategic Flood Risk Assessment (SFRA); and
c. it would not constrain the natural function of the flood plain, either by impeding flood flow or reducing storage capacity.
2. Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) will be required on major developments (10 or more dwellings or equivalent) and encouraged for smaller schemes. A site specific Flood Risk Assessment will be required for sites within or adjacent to areas at risk of surface water flooding as identified in the SFRA. There should be no increase in either the volume or rate of surface water runoff leaving the site. Proposed development on brownfield sites should aim to reduce run off rates to those on greenfield sites where feasible. There should be no property or highway flooding, off site, for up to the 1 in 100 year storm return period, including an allowance for climate change.
4.2 Cranleigh Neighbourhood Plan
Cranleigh Neighbourhood Plan is at the Regulation 14 consultation stage. It contains the following climate change policies which are still currently in draft format:
**Policy CRAN13: Air Quality**
A. Development should not cause unacceptable risks to air quality, including that arising from the storage and use of hazardous substances, and should seek opportunities to improve air quality where possible.
B. Major development proposals will be expected to assess the impact of the development on air quality via an Air Quality Assessment and propose appropriate mitigation measures having regard to existing local policies, strategies or Air Quality Action Plans, where the development has the potential to impact on air quality, where there is the possibility that an air quality objective may be exceeded, either on its own or having regard to cumulative planned developments.
**Policy CRAN14: Water Quality**
Development should not cause:
A. a deterioration to water quality and water quality elements as outlined in the Water Framework Directive or updated legislation and should seek to improve water quality where possible;
B. unacceptable risks to water quality arising from the storage and use of hazardous substances.
**Policy CRAN15: Soil Quality and Contamination**
A. Development should not cause a deterioration to soil quality or increase the risk of soil erosion of retained agricultural land, including that arising from the storage and use of hazardous substances, and should seek opportunities to improve soil quality where possible.
B. In areas where contamination is known or likely to be found, development proposals should be the subject of a desk-based assessment of the likelihood and extent of land contamination, followed by an intrusive investigation where appropriate, together with the provision of any appropriate remediation measures.
Policy CRAN16: Energy Efficiency and Design
A. Development proposals are encouraged to achieve the highest levels of sustainable design. In particular this relates to the following:
a. Siting and orientation of buildings to optimise passive solar gain; and
b. The provision of renewable and low carbon energy solutions as part of development or by ensuring that development is designed to maximise the potential for renewable energy if retrofitted at a later date. Efforts should be taken to integrate such equipment neatly into the design of the building.
c. Maximising the energy resilience of individual buildings through the provision of battery technology to store on-site energy generation from renewable sources such as solar panels. Efforts should be taken to avoid damage to the fabric, appearance, or setting of the building.
d. The use of high quality, thermally efficient building materials, with the use of those required to achieve Passivhaus standard being particularly strongly encouraged.
e. Reducing water consumption to at least the requirement in Local Plan Part One Policy CC2 (Sustainable Construction and Design) of 110 litres per person per day through the installation of infrastructure such as grey water systems.
f. Maximising electricity usage over other forms of energy generation that contribute more significantly to climate change and the reduction in air quality.
g. Ensuring that domestic electrical systems in residential properties are sufficient to support electric vehicle charging to serve that dwelling (where off-street parking provision is made).
h. Alterations to existing buildings should be designed with energy reduction in mind and comply with current sustainable design and construction standards.
B. The retrofitting of heritage properties/assets is encouraged to reduce energy demand and to generate renewable energy where appropriate, providing it safeguards historic characteristics and development is done with engagement and permissions of relevant organisations. Efforts should be taken to avoid damage to the fabric, appearance, or setting of the building.
Policy CRAN17: Local Green Spaces
The following areas shown on the Policies Map are designated as Local Green Spaces:
a. The Showground
b. Summerlands
c. Snoxhall
d. Queensway
e. Park Mead
f. Cranleigh Mead
g. Cranleigh Arts Centre
h. Lucks Green
i. Parkhouse Green
j. Elmbridge Allotments
k. Beryl Harvey Field
l. Lashmere
m. Cranleigh Sports and Social Club
n. Cranleigh Ponds
o. Cranleigh Common
p. Bruce McKenzie Field
q. Acres Platt & Rydelands
r. Knowle Parkland
s. Roberts Way
t. St Nicolas Church and Rectory
u. Elmbridge Road (Vine Cottages)
Policy CRAN18: Residential Gardens and Amenity Space
In recognising the importance of residential gardens to the character of Cranleigh and its local biodiversity, new developments should:
A. Provide private gardens for individual dwelling houses that should be at least 10m in depth and the width of the dwelling.
B. Take opportunities to incorporate design features which encourage wildlife and biodiversity to thrive.
C. Ensure that all dwellings, including blocks of flats, have an area of landscaping including traditional hedging or shrubs to the front of the property to encourage wildlife and to screen the boundaries of car parking areas.
D. Provide hedging consisting of indigenous species at the rear boundary of all dwellings and in particular where the boundary is adjacent to open countryside.
Policy CRAN19: Flood Risk and Drainage
Development must ensure that the risk of flooding (in terms of severity, frequency and area) is minimised. In order to demonstrate this, development proposals must:
A. Be accompanied by full details of the proposed surface water drainage scheme including gully maintenance and clearance (including details of its route, design and specification, how consideration has been given to the use of Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS), and details of its ongoing management and maintenance for the lifetime of the development) as part of their planning application.
B. Use natural flood risk alleviation methods, including floodplain woodland, wetlands and other ‘soft engineering’ techniques.
C. Ensure that existing drainage ditches and culverts are retained and, where possible and necessary, enhanced.
Figure 3: Flooding Elmbridge Road December 2013
Policy CRAN23: Water Supply and Wastewater Infrastructure
A. Where appropriate, planning permission for developments which result in the need for offsite upgrades, will be subject to conditions to ensure the occupation is aligned with the delivery of necessary infrastructure upgrades.
B. Drainage on the site must maintain separation of foul and surface flows.
C. On-site pumping stations should be avoided where possible. Where no reasonable alternative exists, they should be sited away from existing and new residential development and be surrounded by an appropriate exclusion zone to avoid odour and noise nuisance and include plans for their ongoing monitoring and maintenance.
Figure 4: Water shortages Summer
5 How Energy Efficient is our Community?
Cranleigh is located in the borough of Waverley. Energy Performance Certificates for the borough of Waverley are available from the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government. These figures show us that there is much that can be done to improve the energy efficiency of our existing domestic properties in Waverley.
An Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) indicates the energy efficiency of a building. The assessments are banded from A to G, where A (or A+ for non-domestic properties) is the most efficient in terms of likely fuel costs and carbon dioxide emissions. An EPC is required when a building is newly constructed, sold or let. The purpose of an EPC is to show prospective tenants or buyers the energy efficiency of the property. The requirement for EPCs was fully implemented for domestic properties in autumn 2008. EPCs are valid for 10 years.
Waverley’s current energy efficiency of domestic properties rated from A to G is:
Figure 5: Waverley’s current energy efficiency of domestic properties rated A to G from MHCLG EPC of Buildings for Waverley
With investment, our domestic properties could greatly improve their energy efficiency rating:
Figure 6: Waverley potential energy efficiency improvements from MHCLG EPC of Buildings for Waverley
Waverley compared with the EPC statistics for existing dwellings in the UK:
Figure 7: Waverley compared with the EPC statistics for existing dwellings in UK from MHCLG EPC of Buildings for Waverley
Referring to the latest statistics available from the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, only 978 properties of 38,550 properties in Waverley are recorded as having solar panels.
6 How sustainable is our transport system?
Cranleigh is surrounded by a rural road network which is under pressure from the increasing number of vehicles that now use it. The main single carriageway A281 runs north to Guildford and south to Horsham. Cranleigh has a half hourly bus service week day time to Guildford with the first bus at 0625 and last bus home at 2245 hours. There are currently no
electric buses on this route. Whilst this service may suit London commuters connecting to the railway station at Guildford, it does not reflect the shift working pattern of many professions in this modern day. Thus Cranleigh is in an area of high car ownership recorded at 1.62 per household in the 2011 Census with 48.7% of households having two or more cars. There is currently one electric vehicle charging point available in Cranleigh in Stockland Square car park suitable for the rapid charge of three vehicles. There is also an additional charging point in Queensway.
The village is well connected east – west for pedestrian, cyclists and equestrians via the Downs Link public bridleway. In particular it provides a safe link connecting the housing estates on the eastern and western boundaries of the village with the village centre for shopping, schools, library, leisure centre and access to healthcare.
The nearest railway stations are located some nine miles away in Godalming and Guildford. Horsham main line station is some 11 miles away, although another station is proposed in North Horsham alongside further major development.
7 What can we do as a community to tackle Climate Change?
7.1 IMPACT Community Carbon Calculator
Cranleigh Parish Council was included on the pilot and launch of the carbon calculator tool\(^7\). This tool was developed by the Centre for Sustainable Energy as part of their Climate Emergency Support Programme, working jointly with the University of Exeter’s Centre for Energy & the Environment as part of their South West Environment and Climate Action Network.
Impact provides a visual representation of each local community’s carbon footprint and identifies the main carbon impact areas. It also has a facility to compare the parish footprint to another community.
Cranleigh Parish’s carbon footprint can be viewed in two ways. ‘Territorial’ emissions only show the emissions that are directly produced from our parish (from heating buildings, transport, any industry or agricultural operations within your boundary, for example). This follows the same methodology as national emissions data sets, but largely ignores what we buy and what we eat and where that is imported from. ‘Consumption’ emissions, on the other hand, include upstream and downstream emissions from our residents’ consumption of manufactured goods, food and their own transport activity, regardless of where the emissions occur. Both territorial and consumption emissions can be viewed per household or in total.
CO\(_2\)e stands for ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’ and is a standard unit of measurement in carbon accounting, it expresses the impact of a number of different greenhouse gases as a common unit.
---
\(^7\) https://impact-tool.org.uk
Territorial annual figures for the average household within the parish:
Cranleigh
11.4t CO₂e*
per-household territorial footprint (p.a.)
EMISSIONS BREAKDOWN (t CO₂e)
- Housing: 4.35
- Road transport: 2.78
- Industrial and commercial: 1.75
- Aviation: 1.38
- Shipping: 0.95
- F-gases: 0.29
- Agriculture: 0.25
- Waste management: 0.24
- Other Transport: 0.02
- Diesel-fuelled railways: 0
*CO₂e stands for “carbon dioxide equivalent” and is a standard unit of measurement in carbon accounting; it expresses the impact of a number of different gases collectively as a common unit.
Figure 8: Impact Territorial per Household Data for Cranleigh Parish
This identifies that housing, transport, industrial and commerce, followed by aviation are the highest contributors to our carbon footprint.
Territorial annual figures for the total household within the parish:
Cranleigh
59,486t CO₂e*
total territorial footprint (p.a.)
EMISSIONS BREAKDOWN (t CO₂e)
- Housing: 21,626
- Road Transport: 14,403
- Industrial and commercial: 9,023
- Aviation: 7,023
- Shipping: 2,085
- F-gases: 1,503
- Agriculture: 1,239
- Waste management: 1,264
- Other Transport: 125
- Diesel-fuelled railways: 0
*CO₂e stands for “carbon dioxide equivalent” and is a standard unit of measurement in carbon accounting; it expresses the impact of a number of different gases collectively as a common unit.
Figure 9: Figure 10: Impact Territorial total Household Data for Cranleigh Parish
Consumption annual figures for the average household within the parish:
Cranleigh
18.3t CO₂e*
per-household consumption footprint (p.a.)
EMISSIONS BREAKDOWN (t CO₂e)
- Consumption of goods and services: 6.01
- Housing: 4.35
- Food and diet: 3.88
- Travel: 3.01
- Waste: 0.07
*CO₂e stands for “carbon dioxide equivalent” and is a standard unit of measurement in carbon accounting; it expresses the impact of a number of different gases collectively as a common unit.
Figure 11: Impact Consumption per Household Data for Cranleigh Parish
This identifies that consumption of goods and services followed by housing and food and diet are the highest contributors to our carbon footprint. According to the Committee on Climate Change we need to reduce our household territorial emissions to approximately 4.5t of CO$_2$e by 2030\(^8\).
**Consumption annual figures for the total household within the parish:**
**Territorial annual figures per household compared to England average:**
Whilst our territorial figures are 2.3t CO$_2$e below England's national average with 11.4t of CO$_2$e compared to 13.7t CO$_2$e per household, our consumption figures are considerably above with 18.3t of CO$_2$e compared to 13.1t CO$_2$e. Our consumption of goods and services alone account for an additional 2.07t CO$_2$e.
---
\(^8\) https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/5CB-Infographic-FINAL-.pdf
As well as reducing what we consume, reusing what we can and increased recycling, there are six key areas in which the community can reduce their carbon footprint as outlined by the Committee on Climate Change\(^9\)
1. **Heating** - 1 in 20 homes with a gas boiler could join a heat network, saving 2 tonnes of CO2e per year. 1 in 4 homes currently using oil heating, and 1 in 3 homes using electric heating could switch to a heat pump, saving 3.2 tonnes of CO2 per year and 0.8 tonnes of CO2 per year respectively.
2. **Electricity** - Low-carbon generation could reduce emissions by 79%, saving 1.25 tonnes of CO2 per year for the average home.
3. **Transport** - By using a more efficient petrol or diesel car, the average home could save 0.9 tonnes of CO2 per year. A fully electric vehicle could save 2 tonnes per year.
4. **Energy Efficiency** - …the average household could reduce its emissions by 0.6 tonnes of CO2 per year. These measures could also save the average gas heated home £184 per year.
5. **Aviation** - CO2 emissions per household from flying could stay the same because, although there are more journeys, aircraft are more efficient.
6. **Waste** - By reducing and sorting waste, emissions from the average home could fall by 0.25 tonnes of CO2 per year.
---
\(^9\) Sources: Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), the Office of National Statistics (ONS), Committee on Climate Change (CCC). For more information about the Fifth Carbon Budget and the Committee on Climate Change go to www.theccc.org.uk:
8 What can we do as a Parish Council to tackle Climate Change?
Cranleigh Parish Council is a land owner in Cranleigh:
- Dewlands Lane cemetery
- Land at Village Way
- Snoxhall Fields
- Bruce McKenzie Field
- Beryl Harvey Field and allotments
- Elmbridge allotments
- Amlets Lane Allotments
Cranleigh Parish Council is responsible for the following buildings:
- Council Office
- Public Conveniences in Village Way and at the Common
- Snoxhall Fields Pavilion
- Cranleigh Youth Centre
- Cranleigh Village Hall
- Cemetery Machine Shed
8.1 What have we done so far?
- Prepared a Neighbourhood Plan for Cranleigh with environmental policies.
- Placed Snoxhall Fields, the Beryl Harvey Field and the Bruce McKenzie Field in Fields in Trust to maintain them for the community as green spaces in perpetuity.
- Increasing provision of allotments to enable parishioners to grow their own food
- Organise a three yearly basic tree survey to care for our trees.
- Use of composting to reduce green waste.
- Removal of scrap metal to scrap metal recycling.
- Installed double glazing in the Council Office and Snoxhall Pavilion.
- Installed new gas radiant heaters with de-stratification fans to circulate the heat in the Sports Hall.
- Replaced the ageing ceiling lights in the Sports Hall with low energy LED fittings.
- Worked with the Conservation Volunteers and adopted a Conservation Plan for the Beryl Harvey Field.
- Installed eco-shield water conservation in the Village Way public conveniences.
- Replaced the ageing street column lamps in Snoxhall Fields with low energy LED fittings.
- Reduced the use of pesticides on all or our greenspaces.
- Transferred to a renewable energy provider.
8.2 What can we do in the future?
Our proposals to address Climate Change at Cranleigh Parish Council can be split into three separate areas, this will form the basis of our action plan:
1. Community
2. Landowner
3. Building owner
8.2.1 Community:
Leadership
Councils have an important leadership role in creating low carbon and climate-resilient communities.
Some of the other areas that the Council can work with the community to reduce its carbon footprint:
- Investigate funding to carry out an energy audit.\(^{10}\)
- Create a walking and cycle route map for the parish.
- Encourage the use and improvement of local bus routes and the introduction of electric buses.
- Encourage the formation of and work with local Climate Action groups and wildlife conservation groups.
- Working with local businesses to promote shop local and local produce campaigns, together with opportunities to reduce and recycle waste.
- Fight to keep the Cranleigh Recycling Centre open
- Become a Plastic Free Community\(^{11}\)
- Promote the services provided at the Cranleigh Recycling Centre and campaign to retain this facility.
- Encourage local car share schemes\(^{12}\).
- Encourage the use of Smart meters.
- Investigate opportunities for renewable energy usage and production
- Work with the Youth Council on sustainability awareness and projects.
- Reduce, monitor, and recycle waste and where available use recyclable and environmentally friendly products.
- Consider community bulk purchasing arrangements for installing solar PV, or other renewable technologies such as heat pumps.
- Ensure any council funds are invested safely in low-risk sustainable banks or investment funds.
Well-being
- Promote active healthy lifestyles by enhancing and protecting our green spaces for local recreation.
- Encourage walking and cycling to school.
- Maintain our section of the Downs Link to provide a safe walking, cycling and bridleway route into the centre of the village.
- Lobby Surrey County Council for a reduction in speed limit to 20mph in our high street and outside our schools.
\(^{10}\) https://www.salixfinance.co.uk/loans/england-loans/local-authorities
\(^{11}\) https://www.sas.org.uk/plastic-free-communities/
\(^{12}\) Car sharing schemes like https://liftshare.com/uk
8.2.2 Land:
The Parish Council as a landowner can seek to protect, improve and enhance biodiversity and seek to share and encourage good practice within the Cranleigh community. As a consultee on planning application we can also highlight impacts of development on the environment and request the principal planning authority to secure mitigation in addition to a net gain in biodiversity on all new development sites.
- Annual maintenance of land drainage ditches to ensure water flows freely through Parish Council land.
- Composting of green waste from the cemetery and recreation grounds. Investigate opportunities for community composting schemes.
- Reduction in and phasing out of the use of pesticides and chemicals on Council owned grounds.
- Recycling of Council waste where possible through bespoke collections such as scrap metal, paint cans, electrical equipment.
- Consider the purchase of rechargeable machine tools to replace petrol engines.
- Consider the purchase of electric ride on vehicles when replacing petrol engine machines.
- Consider the replacement of the Council’s tractor with an electric vehicle.
- Investigate the installation of solar panels and/or wind turbines for the generation of our own electricity. Consider a purchase power agreement to fund the installation.
- Develop a tree planting action plan to increase tree cover and diversity species.
- Invite local bee keepers to install bee hives in the Beryl Harvey Field Conservation Field to assist with pollination at our allotment sites.
- Plant more wild flower mixes in our open spaces.
- Reduce grass cutting on verges and other unused areas.
- Install hedgehog boxes on all Council land.
- Install bird boxes on all Council land.
- Investigate the provision of plastic bottle recycling in our play park.
- Becoming a milk bottle top recycling point for charity. Investigate options to recycle tetra packs as Surrey no longer recycle these.
- Use FSC certified products and recycled/recyclable products where available.
- Reduce the use of water consumption and investigate options for grey water storage.
Planning
- Consider the climate change impact of all planning applications considered by our Planning Committee.
- Request mitigation measures on all new development sites and evidence of the net gain in biodiversity.
- Fight to prevent the loss of trees on development sites and highways projects.
- Scrutinise the strategic environmental impact of Waverley’s Local Plan through public consultations.
- Encourage the local planning authority to support the building of more eco homes (Passivhaus principles\textsuperscript{13})
- Call for more electric vehicle charging points in the village car parks.
- Apply for CIL money to upgrade the Downs Link for walking, cycling and a bridleway, as well as for additional safe walking and cycling infrastructure projects.
- Include policies to reduce climate change in the Cranleigh Neighbourhood Plan.
- Support applications where appropriate for renewable energy consumption.
\textsuperscript{13} http://www.passivhaustrust.org.uk/
Flood Risk
- Be an active member of the Cranleigh Flood Forum
- Maintain local flood map data to provide evidence base for the Environment Agency
- Work with the Environment Agency and Surrey Wildlife Trust to encourage volunteer working parties to monitor and maintain Cranleigh Waters and its tributaries.
- Promote riparian ownership obligations.
8.2.3 Buildings:
- Install sensors to community building lights to reduce energy consumption.
- Install sensors to extractor fans to reduce their energy consumption.
- Replace ageing light fittings with LED light fittings.
- Replace single glazed windows with double glazing where possible.
- Consider ways to reduce further building heat loss including improved insulation in Council buildings.
- Investigate the Renewable Heat Incentive to replace ageing gas boilers.
- Improve the energy performance rating on the Village Hall.
- Compare the energy usage of our buildings pre and post energy efficiency improvements by monitoring electricity, gas and water usage.
- Set minimum environmental credentials for companies that work on our grounds and buildings as well as supplier of goods and services to the Council.
Council Buildings Baseline Data
Only one of our commercial buildings is required to have a Display Energy Certificate. Cranleigh Village Hall is rated D:
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WELCOME ABOARD
Welcome to the second newsletter of 2020 which, hopefully, sees us emerging from the current health crisis as we certainly have been living in strange times since our last newsletter was published in February.
In this edition we have a number of articles to peak your interest. Dave Hoqueard’s brief history of the Huelin Renouf company highlights a number of vessels which were frequent visitors to our shores and for so long were a feature of St Helier Harbour. Terry Brown has provided a short history of the Roman Catholic seafarers’ charity the Apostleship of the Sea which for my generation was simply referred to as Stella Maris. Jon Carter of Jersey Heritage highlights a fascinating new project being undertaken by La Société Jersiaise - the Jersey Rock and Coastal Names Project and in Counting Jersey’s Ships Mike Dunn has gathered together the numbers of vessels registered in the Island between 1768 and the 1820s - the years before Jersey’s merchant fleet really exploded. I have written a couple of articles associated with the Jersey fleet - the first concerns a couple of shadow box dioramas featuring what may be Jersey ships and the second is an appeal for an image of a Jersey ship that was wrecked in Australia in 1863. This edition’s Dog Watch item is written by Environmental Consultant Sheena Brockie of The Good Jersey Life. All in all, I believe this edition of the Newsletter has something of interest for all our members.
Finally, if anyone has an article of maritime interest or if you feel that you would like to contribute to Dog Watch then please get in touch with me via e-mail at firstname.lastname@example.org or drop me a line - my address is on the back page of this newsletter. Remember Dog Watch can simply be an expression of concern relating to the maritime environment/world, posing questions not necessarily giving answers, the idea is to spark debate. As a guide I reckon a comment should be about 300 words.
Doug Ford
Editor
DOG WATCH
One of my morning rituals is a walk from home with my dog, through the streets of Georgetown to the Dieq, along the beach to Greve d’Azette and through the roads to home again. The whole process normally takes just 30 minutes but earlier this month, frustrated by the amount of rubbish that had been building up, I decided to carry out a litter survey.
It took me 4 hours.
Traditional litter wasn’t really the problem; yes, there were plastic bottles, straws and wrappers but what actually took the time was picking up 2,385 individual cigarette butts from the road. The lack of rain means that for now these are collecting on the surface of roads, rather than being washed down the nearest drain and straight to the ocean which conveniently hides the pollution from view. No screening; no filter to capture the waste; just straight to the ocean where their toxins and carcinogens are released into the maritime habitat, polluting the entire ecosystem. It’s only when there is very little rain that we see the real extent of the issue. The question I ask is how do we stop it from happening in the first place? I know many responsible smokers, so we can’t tar them all with the same brush. It’s illegal to litter in Jersey but has there ever been a prosecution? Do we fight to have the filters removed from cigarettes at source? This would make for a less pleasant experience to the smoker, but a safer outcome for our living planet. Do we add a clean-up tax to the cost of cigarettes, commensurate with the damage caused? I think we might struggle to put a price on that.
I’m not sure what the solution is, I just know that something must be done. The time is now.
Sheena Brockie of The Good Jersey Life Environmental Consultant
NEWS FROM THE BRIDGE
I hope all of you have kept well during these difficult times and that you are now adapting to the “new normal”. At the time our last newsletter little did we know what lay ahead and it has indeed been an extraordinary time for us all.
I think this pandemic has shown us just how reliant we are as an island on our sea links being maintained. In addition to the front line workers who we rightly applauded over the weeks we should not forget the thanks we owe to the crews of the ships which kept us supplied throughout with food and other essential items, and also the many people involved shore side who too make this possible.
During normal times it is noticeable how just one missed sailing leaves some of the supermarket shelves bare so without their dedication during the height of the pandemic we would undoubtedly have gone without some of the things we take for granted.
Congratulations to the crew of FIONA for taking part in the parade of boats organised by St Helier Yacht Club to celebrate the 80th Anniversary of the evacuation of St Malo in 1940. From my vantage point at Mount Bingham the boats dressed overall made an impressive sight as they snaked their way across St Aubins Bay, before entering the harbour to pass before St Helier Yacht Club prior to dispersal. Although it was not the way the Club had originally planned to celebrate this anniversary it probably made the public more aware of the history behind their special Battle Honour.
As we are unsure of what the next few months will bring and bearing in mind that some members may still be cautious about venturing out, the committee have decided to cancel the talks we had planned for October and November of this year. We will review the situation at the end of the year to decide whether or not to go ahead with the talks planned for early next year.
We are fortunate to have technology to keep us well connected and informed and perhaps during lockdown you have listened or watched talks and films on websites such as that of Jersey Heritage. One film clip I came across recently of particular interest was the inauguration of the HOWARD D. This can be found on YouTube by entering your search as “Inauguration of the “HOWARD D.” RNLI lifeboat Jersey 1937”. It was filmed by Arthur Guiton Harrison, CBE and this along with other cine film taken by him was digitised in 2019.
Until we have the opportunity to meet again keep well and stay safe.
Robert Le Maistre
Chairman
MODEL
In the Maritime Museum there are a couple of shadow box dioramas which are creating a bit of confusion.
In the first of the shadow box dioramas, sometimes also referred to as picture models or sailor’s pictures, an un-named barquentine flies the red ensign from the peak of the gaff on the mizzen mast and the Jersey flag from the mizzen mast head, a blue pennant from the main mast head and, intriguingly, the Le Boutillier house flag from the head of the foremast. The only other clue I can pick up is that the topsails are split into upper and lower sails which would date the model to after the 1850s. As yet I can’t find any Le Boutillier vessel registered in Jersey that carried three masts. The blue pennant is interesting as if it was supposed to be a name pennant it might suggest that the model maker hadn’t quite finished the job.
The second of the dioramas shows two vessels off a rocky coast. The main vessel is a full rigged ship which, like the first shadow box model, flies the red ensign from the peak of the gaff on the mizzen mast and the Jersey flag from the mizzen mast head suggesting she is from Jersey. At her foremast she flies the pilot Jack and on the head of her main mast she flies a name pennant which quite clearly states that she is the FROWNING BEAUTY. The name is also quite clearly painted on the bows of the ship as well.
Unfortunately, there was only one vessel of that name registered in the entire British Empire, and she was (ON 24397), built in North Hylton on the River Weir in 1846 and registered in London the following year in 1847. In 1860 she was bought and transferred to Sydney, Australia in 1860 and then sold to Newcastle, New South Wales in 1870. She was wrecked about 1878 - perhaps the diorama is a case of wishful thinking on behalf of its maker.
The second vessel, a barque, in the background also flies the red ensign from the peak of the gaff on the mizzen mast and the Jersey flag from the mizzen mast. At her foremast she flies the pilot Jack and she is flying a name pennant on the mainmast with the letters FOR visible. The only vessels on the Jersey Shipping Register that begin with the letters FOR are FORTITUDE, FOREMAN, FOREST GIRL, FOREST LAD, FORT REGENT and FORTUNE; of these only the FORT REGENT had three masts, she was a 655-ton ship built by the Le Vesconte yard for Peter Briard & Co in 1863.
Doug Ford
A SHORT HISTORY OF STELLA MARIS (APOSTLESHP OF THE SEA)
The Apostleship of the Sea, STELLA MARIS as it is now known world wide, was founded in Glasgow in 1920. At this time Britain had one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, employing many thousands of British seafarers. The Apostleship of the Sea ran large seafarers hostels in all the major port towns where seafarers could stay while their ships were in port, often weeks at a time. Hundreds of volunteers from local Catholic parishes were involved in providing hospitality and entertainment for seafarers in these hostels, which were always full.
Then globalisation and the drive for greater profit margins, combined with technological advancements changed the face of international shipping forever. Ships became larger, ports moved down river away from port towns and turnaround times for ships in port were reduced dramatically. Crews also became smaller and were increasingly recruited from developing world countries where wages were lower. Ship owners registered their ships under so called flags of convenience to avoid stringent regulatory controls.
Today’s seafarer is no longer in port for a few nights, but often only for a few hours. In these changed circumstances they no longer need the reactive welcome of a hostel, but the pro-active outreach of a ship visit to assess practical needs, backed up by a modern drop-in centre inside the docks.
These centres are equipped with e-mail terminals and telephones to facilitate contact with loved ones back home whom they may not have seen for nine or even twelve months. During this Covid 19 pandemic they are now confined to their ships even longer, unable to travel home due to restrictions on travel by various countries and replacement crews cannot replace them for the same reasons. This has led in some cases to a seafarer committing suicide, a very sad state of affairs which governments need to resolve urgently. These centres are a place to relax for an hour or so, to have a drink and have a chat with other seafarers who may be using the centre. They provide a chance to stock up on essential needs for their next stretch at sea.
A presence of the organisation was established in Jersey in 2008 with Volunteer Ship Welfare Visitors making contact with the crews of ships that visit the island, offering our founding belief that every seafarer deserves fair working conditions, respect for their human rights and the very best we can offer remains at the heart of what Stella Maris can do. At Christmas and Easter time we combine our crew visits with our sister organisation the Mission to Seafarers.
Terry Brown
Between the two World Wars J.W.Huelin Ltd were one of the largest companies in the Channel Islands and operated as timber, and builders’ merchants also glass house owners and manufacturers, travel agents, coal merchants, etc., with head offices at 44, The Esplanade, St Helier and were also Consuls or Vice Consuls for a number of European countries and always flew their national flags from the office flagpoles. They also had extensive businesses in Guernsey, mainly as timber and builders’ merchants.
In the early 1930s the company looked towards chartering or shipowning to bring their goods into both Jersey and Guernsey from UK ports and in 1935 set up Channel Island Services Ltd. as their own stevedoring company. In a series of articles in the Guernsey Evening Press in the 1950s on local shipping the Rev. H.J. Le Page mentions that Huelin had bought two small steam coasters the TEIGN and the TOWY from Spillers SS Co Ltd of Cardiff each 204 gross tons built in Southampton in 1914 but resold them almost immediately. However the shipping records suggest a different story - the 1935 Mercantile Navy List shows the TEIGN (ON 135680) to be newly registered in Jersey in 1933 and owned by J.W. Huelin, 44 Esplanade, St Helier. She was then sold by Llewellyn & Co, Jersey in March 1935 to John Taylor & Sons of Sunderland for £975 and re-registered in Sunderland and her name was changed to TAYLOR. The TOWY (ON 135675), on the other hand, is shown in the 1929 Mercantile Navy List, as owned by Spillers but sold to the Whiteabbey Shipping Co Ltd of Whiteabbey in Co. Antrim on 19 March 1929 and sank outside Portrush, Co. Antrim, on 30 June the following year.
During this period Huelin’s had a number of steamers on fairly long-term charter, one that comes to mind is the Norwegian TOMMELITEN 434-gross tons built in Holland in 1916 and owned in Bergen by A/S D/S Tommeliten (Tomas Maaren, manager) she mainly carried anthracite and house coal to the islands.
Soon after the start of World War II with the possibility of difficulties in getting supplies J.W. Huelin purchased two steam coasters the largest of which was the Dutch-built CREEK FISHER of 734 gross-tons built in 1918 from James Fisher & Sons Ltd of Barrow in Furness she was renamed ROSEHILL. The second vessel was DIAMOND of 626 gross tons from Wm Robinson (Shipowners) Ltd of Glasgow. A rather newer steamer built at Burntisland (Scotland) in 1927 in late 1939 she was renamed THORNHILL sadly she only lasted about 6 months with the company as on 27 April 1940 while bound from Barry with a full cargo of anthracite for Caen collided with another larger ship off the Casquets, west of Alderney, and sank although all her crew were saved.
ROSEHILL survived the war being managed by an English company during the Occupation and after the Liberation she became a familiar sight in both St Helier and St Sampson Harbours bringing in mainly anthracite from South Wales, house coal from Blyth, Northumberland, cement from London but also other building materials and fertilisers. She also brought other cargoes like glass house framing, which had been manufactured in the company workshops in Jersey for Guernsey growers.
For many years Huelin’s had their own company of stevedores known as Channel Island Services Ltd and occupied E Store on the New North Quay where the Occupation Tapestry is now housed as part of the Maritime Museum until disbanded sometime in the 1980s. A new venture started at the end of May 1953 with a regular daily service from Jersey to Portsmouth during the Jersey Royal potato season with two Dutch owned coasters BILL S 499/47 and the Honduran flagged MAYMERE 499/46 each ship ran on alternative days for a month from 25 May but with small cargoes. The 1954 season was more successful and needed three ships for the service, all British, MAGRIX 454/38, SAINT BEDAN 452/37 and STEVONIA 384/48. J. Wharton of Goole, South Yorkshire owned the last named vessel and so started a long association between the two companies which lasted until 1972. 1954 also saw Huelin charter STEVONIA and GLADONIA 368/39
from 4 September until 9 October to carry tomatoes to Portsmouth.
From November 1957 the STEVONIA was also chartered for the cauliflower export season from 25 November until 12 March 1958 a trade which lasted many years. The 1958 potato season also saw a service start to Shoreham with the chartered MYTONGATE 410/38 and LADY SYLVIA 370/52 which was never really successful and was discontinued after the 1961 season. But the Portsmouth service expanded to two sailings each evening with much larger ships plus some return cargoes of hay and straw also building materials were being carried on the return sailings to Jersey. Ships now being employed were modern single deck coasters TRENTONIA II 604/64, BRENDONIA 604/66, ECCTONIA 658/63 and GLADONIA 658/63 and potatoes were being exported on pallets for a quicker turn around and less damage.
January 1970 saw the introduction of the German-owned shelter decked M.V. BIANCA owned by Dietrich Sander of Bremen, a vessel better suited for the carriage of palleted cargoes and also containers now being increasingly used on the route. She was joined by her near sister ship HERMY for the tomato season. Wharton’s single deck coasters as their charter finished were not renewed. By 1972 Sander’s BIANCA, EVI, GITTA, HERMY, ILKA and THERESA shared the service with TRENTONIA only helping out with a couple of round trips in November in the cauliflower season. It was also in 1972 that Huelin’s amalgamated with J.G. Renouf, the Jersey shipping agents, brokers and road hauliers to operate as Huelin-Renouf.
The mid-1970s saw a dramatic downturn in produce exports from Jersey in particular outdoor tomatoes and cauliflower. The company chartered the container vessel SALRIX 598/65 and then increased the size of their fleet in the potato season by chartering extra container type coasters such as the KORA 499/67, DONUA, etc. The SALRIX remained on service until mid January 1983 when she was replaced by the larger German-owned and flagged CORINNA. Sadly CORINNA was not to last long on the route for on Monday 11 January she ran onto rocks on the eastern side of Alderney while bound from Portsmouth to St Peter Port with containers. She was later refloated but was declared a constructive total loss and sold to be broken up.
CORINNA’s place was taken by the similar sized HEINRICH KNUPPEL which was later renamed LAUTONIA and she remained on charter until August 1989. She was joined on 5 July by the Irish-owned Panamanian flagged OWENGLAS 763/70 which had previously been on charter with their Channel Island rivals Commodore Shipping. LAUTONIA then had a short spell with Commodore. The next big step for Huelin Renouf came in October 1990 when they purchased ISLAND COMMODORE from Commodore and renamed her HUELIN DISPATCH(1): she arrived in St Helier Harbour for the first time under her new name on 2 October 1990. In April 1996 the name Huelin was dropped from her name to make way for her replacement a larger container vessel built in the J.J. Seitas yard in Hamburg which became the second HUELIN DISPATCH and remained in service until just before Christmas 2008. Meanwhile it was found that there was enough trade for two vessels so an order was placed with a German shipyard for a new vessel of 2778 gross tons but this vessel, launched as the third HUELIN DISPATCH, was never delivered.
In September 2009 the company bought another German-built second-hand vessel and renamed her HUELIN ENDEAVOUR. Meanwhile trade was building up so a second vessel was needed and the 2528 gross ton PAAPSAND built in 1990 was purchased and became the HUELIN DISPATCH (4). The two large deck cranes were found to be of little use on the Channel Islands route so she moved on to make way for HUELIN DISPATCH (5) in 2012. Sadly, on her maiden voyage, the £8.8m vessel ran aground and holed herself on rocks one and a half miles south-west of Alderney and was taken into dry dock in Falmouth to be repaired.
Back in service she remained on the Channel Islands route calling into Alderney and Cherbourg operating from Huelin Renouf’s new UK terminal in Southampton but neither move was a success and so, after 80 years of trading, Huelin Renouf ceased trading in August 2013.
David Hoequard
With many UK museums reopening only now, Jersey Heritage can count itself fortunate to have been able to open sites over the best part of the summer. Local support has been very strong with resident footfall around a third higher than normal while we have been open. But it is the outdoor sites, the Castles and Hamptonne, rather than the museums that have been most popular and it is likely that indoor attractions everywhere, including the Maritime Museum, will continue to face difficulties well into next year and perhaps beyond.
So an important part of our challenge during that time will be to present aspects of heritage, including maritime heritage, that can be experienced beyond the walls of the museum. Even in a normal year more people visit the free-to-access heritage sites, the dolmens, bunkers, forts and towers and heritage harbours around the Island than the indoor attractions and in the immediate future that will probably be even more the case.
More and more Islanders and tourists over recent years have been introduced to our amazing coastal scenery through the growth in RIB trips, kayaking and coasteering. The importance of preserving seascape as well as landscape character is being recognised in the current revision of the Island Plan. The significance of intertidal areas as a drowned prehistoric landscape rich in archaeological stories is being explored by a new generation of archaeologists interested in these important records of past climate change. The value of the biodiversity in the shallow seas around us may soon be recognised in plans for a substantial marine park and possible extensions to the Jersey National Park. These are all important developments for the future direction of the Maritime Museum as ideas of heritage increasingly merge landscape, wildlife and cultural aspects.
Those complex layers of landscape, wildlife and human heritage are captured in the place names around our coast, part of the intangible maritime heritage of our Island. Many of these ancient rock and coastal names have never been formally recorded and new ones are appearing - I live at La Crabière for example but if I get a taxi home it’s mostly easier to say drop me off at Secrets. Paul Chambers is leading the Jersey Rock and Coastal Names Project which aims to capture the names of rocks, sandbanks, gutters, caves, bays headlands and other coastal features essential in the past to sailors and fishers for safe navigation and finding fishing spots. In many cases these names survived only in oral tradition and were never recorded. It is hoped that the project can capture the transition that is occurring from traditional French/Jerriais names to names (usually English) that are now more commonly used. Drawing on sources ranging from medieval documentation to contemporary interviews this excellent project has already captured around 8,000 names of about 1,900 features. The surfing and shore angling communities have been particularly interesting in this respect as they have around 50 or 60 names for coastal areas/rocks the derivation of which may shed light on the naming process as it has occurred in the past. One of the more unusual names recorded so far is a gully at La Pulente known to fishermen as Tesco because for many years there was supermarket trolley dumped in it. A draft atlas has been issued in an effort to seek feedback and additional information. When the research is complete it is hoped that a complete atlas and list of Jersey’s rock and coastal names will be published along with a study of their origin, history and evolution.
The project website is http://www.jerseycoast.co.uk/Rock_Name_Atlas_Web.pdf
I wish this project every success and if you can help please do contact Paul via the project e-mail: email@example.com. These layers of information about our maritime heritage, both traditional and evolving, are crucial as we look to every opportunity to connect the work of the museum with the interpretation of the Island at a more holistic level in support of the growing number of ways in which heritage can be experienced and enjoyed around the Island.
Jon Carter
Chief Executive, Jersey Heritage
Due to Covid-19 restrictions, work to the boats in the first six/seven months of this year has been very limited with both the Maritime Museum and workshop being closed.
That said, in June we were invited by St Helier Yacht Club to take part with Fiona in the 80th Anniversary of the Evacuation of St Malo which, again due to the Global Pandemic, was scheduled to take place in St Aubins Bay. It was only fitting that the now ‘retired’ Captain Bob Asplet was at the helm for the event with both myself and Dave Hooguard ably manning the decks. This was to be Dave’s swansong and we thank him for so many years voluntary service and wish him well in his second retirement.
We have for some time now been searching for a replacement for Bob Asplet to the point where we have advertised not only locally but also nationally. The rather unique position also attracted much media attention and I am pleased to say that the results have been positive with a number of applications being received from as far as Scotland. We will be looking at all these applications with a view to appointing the right person by the end of September. This will come as good news to Bob who is adamant that he will not leave until such time as he knows the boats are in good hands.
Chris O’Connor
SEARCHING FOR THE AMAZON
In our last newsletter I mentioned the 363-ton Jersey-built barque AMAZON which ran aground on the coast of Victoria, Australia during a severe gale on the morning of Tuesday, 15 December 1863. With no hope of being able to claw his way back to the open sea to save his vessel, Captain Ogier ran her straight onto the shore and then had his crew cut away the fore and mizzen masts to prevent her breaking up.
By 3:00pm all the crew were safely ashore and the AMAZON lay abandoned on the shore about eight miles east of Cape Paterson. For the next 150 years or so she lay hidden beneath the sands, occasionally and tantalisingly poking a wooden rib or two through the sand. She even gave her name to the area of the beach - Wreck Creek; and then during the Autumn storms in March and April 2015 more of the wreck surfaced including rare and delicate organic artefacts such as a deadeye with a knot still tied at one end.
Since then the situation has worsened and the wreck site has been at risk of further degradation due to its location in the intertidal zone and this has been exacerbated by human interference - reports were received of people taking copper bolts from the wreck and jumping on the timbers. In July 2018 a team from the Maritime Archaeology Association of Victoria (MAAV) found evidence of both environmental and human degradation to the remaining timber structure.
Reburying the wreck would be too costly and, given its position, unlikely to be a long-term solution and so it became a priority, to record the current site before the archaeological record degrades further.
The maritime archaeology team at Heritage Victoria was called in and they identified the AMAZON as the most significant historic shipwreck in Victoria at risk. For the Australians AMAZON is historically significant because she is an example of a mid-19th century wooden international
trading vessel of the type that contributed so much to the country’s growing economy in the 1800s. But for Jersey she is important as she is a tangible link to our Island’s industrial heritage and the preservation and study of timbers and rigging material would reveal a significant amount of information about the Jersey shipbuilding industry.
Lacking the resources, Heritage Victoria reached out to the Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Program to see if they would be interested in running a field school to properly locate, record and identify the remaining wreck site and, happily, Flinders accepted.
Excavations took place in November/December 2018; AMAZON’s position made the excavation tricky, as at the end of each day, the trenches had to be covered and back filled to prevent further loss and, as the beach was open to the public, it was an essential safety measure.
Since then a considerable amount of sand has been lost from the beach and the AMAZON can be seen lying on her starboard side with her port side having been lost completely and features such as the knight head, hawse pipe, handrail, deadeyes with ropes, hanging knees, chains, beams with trenails and bronze fastenings were all exposed. In January 2020 a section of the ornately carved trail board was uncovered and taken away to be conserved. Sadly, around the same time, a lead scupper pipe and a couple of copper bolts were removed using an angle grinder within hours of being uncovered.
A group of local people passionate about preserving the wreck and finding out about the AMAZON have formed an organisation - The AMAZON 1863 Project - and are in the process of creating a dedicated website and have created a small display about the ship and their ambitions. As yet there have been no images of the AMAZON found. Neither Jersey Heritage nor the Société have a painting or photograph in their collections. Hence the title of this piece “Searching for the AMAZON”, we would like your help to find a photograph or ship portrait of the AMAZON. It was common for the owners of a new ship to have a painting made of her, so our hope is that somewhere in the Island a portrait of the AMAZON is hanging on someone’s wall. She will be a three masted barque and will possibly have a name pennant on her main mast and Carrel’s blue and white house flag flying on the foremast. If you have seen anything that fits this description then please get in touch with me at either firstname.lastname@example.org or email@example.com
Doug Ford
With the foreshore and the legality/illegality of building on it in the news at the moment, I thought it might be interesting to show this image of St Aubin before the French Revolution.
This detail from George Heriot’s hand coloured print shows the village of St Aubin about 1788 before the Bulwarks was built. Although the first reference to a boat using St Aubin was in 1533 when a Spanish barque took on a cargo of wheat and there was mention of a ‘docque’ or wharf somewhere in the village as early as 1553, work on the short stone jetty built out from Le Rocher aux Anres (in front of what is now the Old Court House) only began in 1754 and was completed in 1765.
“St Aubin is a town of merchants and masters of ships, who first settled in the place …for the sake of the adjoining port, the best and the most frequented in the island.”
Philip Falle (1656-1742)
Trade from St Aubin grew rapidly from the mid 16th century and as St Helier Harbour did not exist and Gorey was mainly involved with the coastal and French trade, St Aubin could claim to be the Island’s main port. In 1602 the States even appointed Edouard Le Porq Superviseur pour les costumes des Etats au Havre de St Aubin. One of his tasks was to prevent the illegal re-export to France of custom-free goods from England such as wool and leather to the detriment of ports such as Southampton. Despite having no real permanent structure in the village the States appointed Thomas Denton as the first Harbour master for St Aubin about 1720.
In the 1670s Henry and John Le Cras and Nicolas Bailhache were trading in the Gaspé at Bonaventure and by the end of the century they had been joined by fellow St Aubinais John Mahie & Francois Messervy, Jean Le Cras who worked for Edward Touzel and Philip & Jean Orange. By 1718 other Jersey firms operating in the Newfoundland area were Carteret Dean, De Carteret & Co, Thomas Denton, Marett and Thomas Seale and by the 1760s and 1770s they were joined by what was to become most famous of these Jersey firms Charles Robin & Co.
When St Aubin looked like this, it was the centre of the Island’s involvement with La Terre Neuve/Newfoundland - in Jersey this term covered what is now referred to as Newfoundland, Labrador, the Maritimes, Gaspé and the North Shore.
Of course, ships from other parts of the world came into St Aubin to trade as well; in December 1788 St Aubin harbour was the destination 6 ships from Spain - the KINGFISHER and the MARIE from St Sebastian, the AIGLE from Bilbao, the BEAVER and the DAUPHIN from Santander, the BETSEY from Gijón, - and the MERCURE from the German port of Cologne.
In 1790 the merchants who owned property along the shoreline began work on a ‘30 feet wide’ public quay. They did this by stabilising the coastline by building a wall and then backfilling the reclaimed land to provide a decent harbour frontage with slips at each end. This landward faced bulwarks or boulevard was completed by 1795.
Prior to this there had been a number of small wharves or ‘quais’ attached to individual buildings. These would possibly have been light wooden structures at which vessels could load and discharge at high tide. A Quai Aubert was mentioned in 1646 and Quai Bisson still exists as a road name. This meant that at high tide all horse traffic had to use the steep Rue du Moestre (Market Hill) to access the new pier.
The northern arm (now occupied by the Parish Hall) was built in 1810 and the final enclosing arm in 1819 but by then St Aubin was in decline as a port due to the growing importance and effectiveness of St Helier’s harbours. In 1840 the Constable of St Brelade complained that the improvements in St Helier harbour were having a drastic effect on trade in St Aubin; however, this was an oversimplification of the case as St Helier at that time was handling 1,466 ships totalling 112,433 tons compared to St Aubin’s 56 vessels totalling 3,651 tons.
The headland in the foreground on the right of the image is Le Croquet which separated La Haule and St Aubin hence La Rue du Croquet, the old name for St Aubin High Street. It was quarried away in the early 1840s to allow the new road to be built and more of the foreshore to be reclaimed…
Doug Ford
The Jersey Shipping Register, which started in 1796, survives only from 1803 (now in the Jersey Archives). No such early Registers exist for Guernsey because they were destroyed by German bombing at the start of the Occupation.
During the years 1803 until 1820 about 265 vessels were registered in Jersey. These were;
44 brigantines, 38 brigs, 36 schooners, 31 cutters, 29 sloops, 23 ships, 23 smacks, 13 luggers, 8 chasse marées, 7 snows, 4 schooner-brigs, 1 barque, 1 yawl, 1 ketch, 1 dogger and others unidentified.
Of these at least 56 were sunk or lost, 36 transferred out of the Island, 34 taken by the enemy, 22 broken up and 12 seized for smuggling. The fate of some was uncertain.
During the period 1803 until 1815, out of 206 vessels registered, only 74 remained on the Register in 1815. There were 239 vessels registered in 1835.
Many vessels were armed but such details are not recorded in the register. Other sources such as the High Court of Admiralty records in the National Archives (at Kew), Lloyds Lists and Registers, Custom House Letter Books etc. indicate if vessels were privateers or licensed with “Letters of Marque”.
When the Jersey Chamber of Commerce was formed in 1768, the subscribing members listed just 51 vessels; 14 brigs, 9 ships, 6 schooners, 6 sloops and 2 snows besides 14 others which were not named or clearly identified. The largest vessel was the old CHARMING NANCY, a ship of 225 tons. The smallest was the NEPTUNE, a schooner at 17 tons.
William Plees in his “Island of Jersey” booklet (published 1817) claimed that in 1812 about 440 vessels were entered out in ballast plus 373 laden and 734 were entered inwards (excluding packets, privateers and captured prizes which did not need to clear customs).
John Bechervaise, a Jersey mariner, wrote in his memoirs about shipping in Jersey around the year 1810 “The winter in Jersey was in those days invariably dull, nothing on the move, shipping topmasts struck, unemployed...only in spring could seamen look forward to employment”. Although he served many years in the Royal Navy he also observed that “The dread of a ship of war was next to a French prison.”
His half-brother worked for Robin and Co at Gaspé in 1808 when their father wrote advising him to stay there for the next ten years because there were no prospects in Jersey...“you would be twenty years in Jersey before you would make the money you do now in a year.” Sadly, he ignored the advice, was captured sailing back to Jersey and spent ten years in a dreaded French jail. Their father, himself a seaman, died from plague in command of the Guernsey owned Newfoundland trader AMAZON at Messina in 1812.
During 1785, the Jersey Newfoundland fleet consisted of 58 vessels.
According to the Magasin de Jersey there were 40 arrivals in Jersey during December 1784 of which at least 25 were evidently Jersey vessels. Four of these seemed to be included in the Newfoundland fleet so at least twenty-one others were active during the early winter period and there was little overlap of declared masters. Several of the arrivals were packets and would not count in Plees’ 1812 figure of 734 - about sixty arrivals per month or just two per day.
During January 1785 there were just twenty five arrivals - less than one per day.
After the American War (1775-1783), shipbuilding developed in the Channel Islands partly because access to “non-British” American built vessels was restricted.
Thirty-one of the vessels registered in Jersey from 1803 until 1820 were Jersey built. The ROWCLIFFE was the largest of this generation. Launched in 1798 at 344 tons and 100 feet long she was tough enough to survive striking the Stoney Banks reef off Hull in 1815 returning from Honduras dismasted, with no bowsprit, she was towed into port and repaired to sail again.
Although 38 brigs were registered, very few were built in Jersey. Locally constructed vessels were usually of less than 100 tons burthen and those in the sloop/cutter/smack class below 50 tons most numerous being best suited to local tidal/harbour conditions.
The JANE, a rare Sark built cutter in 1816 of just 13 tons survived until 1864 being lost sailing from Swanage to Jersey “and not heard of since.” Was she used for small time smuggling?
Canadian built vessels were popular. John Bechervaise’s half-brother became a successful shipbuilder at Gaspé after he was released from the French prison. Other shipbuilding centres featured in the Jersey Register include Arichat, Bay Chaleurs, Prince Edward Island, Paspébiac, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Fortune Bay and Bonaventure. About thirty schooners, brigantines and ships from these places were registered, mostly after 1815.
Many Jersey owned vessels were not registered in Jersey at all but can be found, for example, in the surviving Register for Weymouth. These will be considered in a future article...
Mike Dunn
DATES FOR YOUR DIARY
The Maritime Museum will close for the season at 5pm on Sunday 1 November this year and then will be operating its winter schedule opening every Sunday from 10am to 4pm until the 2021 season begins in late March.
TALKS
Due to the uncertainty surrounding the current COVID-19 pandemic the committee has decided to cancel the winter series of talks. Details of the 2021 programme will feature in the next newsletter.
EVENTS
SUNDAY 15 NOVEMBER
Save our Seas’ Discovery Day at the Maritime Museum in partnership with Sheena Brookie from Plastic Free Jersey (www.plasticfreejersey.com).
At present this is being planned as an event in the museum, however, if the situation hasn’t changed for the better, the activities will be available online at www.jerseyheritage.org
FORT REGENT SIGNAL STATION
The T flag will be flying from the yard as a warning that the tides will be over 11.55m (38ft) and, therefore, present a danger of waves coming over the seawalls on the south coast.
THURSDAY TO SUNDAY 17 TO 20 SEPTEMBER
FRIDAY TO MONDAY 16 TO 19 OCTOBER
SUNDAY TO MONDAY 15 TO 16 NOVEMBER
DRESSED OVERALL TO MARK OFFICIAL FLAG DAYS
SUNDAY 8 NOVEMBER
Remembrance Day
SATURDAY 14 NOVEMBER
Birthday of the Prince of Wales
FRIDAY 20 NOVEMBER
Her Majesty’s Wedding Day
2021
SATURDAY 9 JANUARY
Birthday of the Duchess of Cambridge
WEDNESDAY 20 JANUARY
Birthday of the Countess of Wessex
OTHER FLAG DAYS
WEDNESDAY 21 OCTOBER
Trafalgar Day - Union Flag
WEDNESDAY 11 NOVEMBER
Armistice Day YZ PEACE
WEDNESDAY 16 DECEMBER, 2020 - WEDNESDAY 6 JANUARY, 2020
Christmas Message YZ SEASONS GREETINGS
The Friends of the Jersey Maritime Museum is a voluntary society with charitable status set up in 1989 to help Jersey Heritage establish and maintain a Maritime Museum, to encourage its use by the public, and to provide a Learned Society role in maritime subjects
Contact: firstname.lastname@example.org
Details of membership of the Friends can be obtained from Mrs Mary Minmack,
c/o The Maritime Museum, New North Quay, St Helier, Jersey
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Henri Caro-Delvaille, a Frenchman of Spanish origin, was an important painter in the social life of the early 20th century. His real name was Delvaille ("de la Vallée" in Spanish) but he signed Caro-Delvaille because his mother, with whom he had a close relationship, was called Caroline. From childhood, Henry Caro-Delvaille was curious about art, observed his surroundings and drew. His mother, a writer and poet, was his first guide.
After studying from 1895 to 1897 at the Bayonne School of Fine Arts, Henry Caro-Delvaille became a student of Léon Bonnat at the Paris School of Fine Arts. He exhibited for the first time at the Salon de la Société des artistes français in Paris in 1899. A member of the Société nationale des beaux-arts from 1903, he became its secretary in 1904. In 1905, he won the great gold medal at the Munich International Exhibition. The same year, his friend Edmond Rostand entrusted him with the decoration of his villa in Cambo. He then made a name for himself as a portrait painter and received numerous commissions. He was made a knight of the Legion of Honour in 1910. His painting can be compared to that of Carolus Duran (1837-1917), a famous painter of the belle époque.
Henri Caro-Delvaille emigrated to the United States in 1913 and settled in New York, moving towards a more Art Deco style. He was a central figure in artistic, literary and musical circles on both sides of the Atlantic, from Paris to New York. Much of his work can be found across the Atlantic today.
Our painting is an important work by Caro Delvaille. It is a very large format, probably commissioned to decorate a literary salon. The posture of the very elegant young woman is superb: the line of the body draws a diagonal which allows a perfect composition. It is also worth noting the care taken with the skin tone and the details of the hands and face. Finally, the transparencies of the clothes are much more...
accomplished than in Caro-Delvaille’s classical family portraits. This picture was painted by Henry Caro-Delvaille on the eve of his departure for the United States, most probably in Paris.
The provenance:
This painting decorated a mythical bar-restaurant, “Le Mathis”, run by Gérald Nanty. Along with Castel and Régine, Nanty was the third king of Parisian nights from the 1960s to 2010. He frequented the fashion designers Valentino, Saint-Laurent and Gaultier, writers like Sagan, artists like Bernard Buffet, and showbiz stars from Amanda Lear to Manouche or Thierry le Luron. Its fashionable clubs were the “Club 65”, the “Bronx”, the “Colony” and finally the “Mathis” on rue de Ponthieu where, until its closure in 2017, people, actors and the French audio-visual landscape met.
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The land that is present-day Southwest Idaho was once inhabited by Indigenous Peoples and the tribes of the Great Basin. Descendants of the Western Shoshone and the Northern Paiute occupy the Duck Valley Indian Reservation today, located on the border of Idaho and Nevada.
**THE OREGON TRAIL**
The Oregon Trail passed directly through Southwest Idaho, and in 1834, Fort Boise was established where Parma is today. Follow the dusty trail along the **Main Oregon Trail Backcountry Byway** from Three Island Crossing State Park to the **Old Fort Boise Replica and Museum**, or hike the wagon ruts in the **Oregon Trail Reserve**.
**DOWNTOWN HISTORY AND ART**
In downtown Boise, just off Capitol Boulevard, walk through the **Idaho Anne Frank Human Rights Memorial**, see the latest exhibit at the **Boise Art Museum**, and retrace much of the state’s history at the **Idaho Black History Museum** and the **Idaho State Museum**, which was entirely renovated in 2019.
**THE BOISE BASQUE BLOCK**
Boise is home to the largest community of Basque people outside of Spain. Visit the **Basque Block** in downtown Boise for a history lesson at the Basque Museum and Cultural Center, then indulge in traditional food and drink at Bar Gernika or The Basque Market. **Jaialdí**, a celebration of all things Basque, happens every five years on the Basque Block.
**HISTORIC GHOST TOWNS OF SOUTHWEST IDAHO**
Step back in time visiting the historic ghost towns of Southwest Idaho like Silver City, Atlanta, Idaho City and Roseberry. Idaho’s Gold Rush began in the early 1860s and was one of the largest since California’s rush. By 1864, Idaho City was the largest city in the Pacific Northwest — bigger than Portland, Oregon. Learn more about the Gem State at the **Idaho Museum of Mining and Geology** in Boise.
HISTORY TAKES FLIGHT
Learn about American flight history through personal accounts at the Warhawk Air Museum in Nampa. The museum is filled with personal memorabilia from WWI, WWII, Vietnam and Korea, as well as 11 historic and replica aircraft made famous by war. Several planes within the museum have flown in Hollywood films like Death Race, Pearl Harbor and Valkyrie.
A GROWING MUSIC SCENE
Catch a local live band most nights of the week or grab tickets to an annual festival, like Treefort Music Fest in downtown Boise, Yellow Pine Harmonica Festival, and the National Old Time Fiddler’s Contest & Festival in Weiser.
THEATER OUTDOORS
Idaho Shakespeare Festival is a beloved summer tradition in Boise. Pack a picnic and enjoy a live play in the festival’s world-class outdoor amphitheater, tucked in a stunning habitat reserve. In the mountains of Garden Valley is Starlight Mountain Theatre, an outdoor summer playhouse on the bank of the middle fork of the Payette River.
TO BROWSE MORE, VISIT
visitsouthwestidaho.org/travel-guides
VISIT SOUTHWEST IDAHO MEDIA KIT
visitsouthwestidaho.org/media
@southwestidaho
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Department of Distance and Continuing Education
University of Delhi
All UG Courses
Semester - I
Course Credits - 2
Skill Enhancement Course (SEC) - English
COMMUNICATION IN EVERYDAY LIFE
As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020
Editor
Nalini Prabhakar
Content Writer
Deb Dulal Halder
© Department of Distance and Continuing Education
1st edition: 2022
E-mail: email@example.com
firstname.lastname@example.org
Published by:
Department of Distance and Continuing Education under the aegis of Campus of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Printed by:
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
# Table of Contents
| S. No. | Title | Pg. No. |
|--------|------------------------------|---------|
| 1 | Theory of Communication | 01 |
| 2 | Reading Skills | 22 |
| 3 | Writing Skills | 38 |
| | For Practice Sessions: | |
| | Speaking Skills | 62 |
Prepared by:
Deb Dulal Halder
Edited by:
Nalini Prabhakar
© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word “communication” is used to mean any activity in which information, emotions and feelings are conveyed from one to another. The word “communication” is derived from the Latin word “communicare” which means ‘to share’, that is, to share information, ideas, emotions, knowledge amongst people - to share meaning. It is also thought that the Latin word “communis” which means ‘commonness’ is another root word for communication. Communication is the commonest thing that each of us share with fellow human beings. So from that perspective both words “communicare” and “communis” are significant in providing meaning to the idea of communication.
Whether we communicate or miscommunicate, communication has a significant role in our everyday life as we spend a lot of time communicating. We communicate with our friends, family, relatives, colleagues, employers, and with many people we may not know very well and even with perfect strangers. It is only through communication that we fulfill
our different needs - whether they are personal, emotional, psychological, educational, social, financial, professional or cultural. We cannot think of our lives without communication. It is essential to our existence. Hence, we should be able to communicate effectively in a coherent, clear and concise manner as success in our life depends on effective communication.
Even in our professional life, our success depends on effective communication. It is through communication that information is disseminated, distributed, shared among people; it is through communication that important decisions are taken, shared and made known to people within and outside organizations. Moreover, companies communicate about their products or services to consumers through advertisements. Thus, without communication no business organization can survive. But communication in general and communication in professional world are different as the objectives are different. For example, in today’s world, we communicate a lot over our mobile phones. When we talk to our friends, relatives and near and dear ones, we communicate for hours where the communication is not that of need, but of everyday things which make the bonding between the communicators strong. But in case of a professional world, it is diametrically opposite, as we need to talk sense in a clear, concise, logical and coherent manner if we want to make a mark. Suppose you are in an office meeting, if you are not able to present your thoughts in a coherent, logical manner then the chances are that your ideas will not have any audience.
1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This unit will enable you to understand:
- The concept of Communication
- Functions of Communication
- Effective Communication
- Barriers to Communication
- 7 C’s of Communication
1.3 DEFINING COMMUNICATION
The word “Communication” has many definitions. In 1970, communication theorist Frank Dance counted more than a hundred distinct definitions of communication proposed by experts in the field. In the years since that survey, even more definitions have surfaced. By
drawing from these multiple definitions, we can define communication as a systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.
Generally, we define communication as the process of transfer of information between two sources with the information being understood by both.
- According to MT Myers and GE Myers, “Communication refers to special kind of patterning, which is expressed in a symbolic form. For communication to take place between or among people, two requirements must be met:
1. A symbolic system must be shared by the people involved (we need to speak the same language or jargon or dialects); and
2. The associations between the symbols and their referents must be shared.”
- According to Fearing, “It is a two-way process which cannot be adequately understood in terms of simple engineering or mechanical analogies. It is uniquely a human relationship from which, emerge all civilizations and culture without which, man as we know him, could not survive”.
**Check Your Progress**
1. Define Communication.
2. Explain the importance of effective communication.
3. What are the two essential requirements for any kind of communication.
### 1.4 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Communication is a process in which at least two individuals are involved – **Sender or the encoder of the message** and the **receiver or the decoder**. The sender has an idea/ need/ motivation / desire to communicate to the listener/s and s/he encodes the message in language (it can even be a gesture or paralanguage) and sends the message using a **particular medium/channel** (such as oral or written or electronic) to the receiver/s. The receiver tries to decode so that s/he comprehends what the encoder means/ intends. If the encoder and the decoder share the same basis of encoding and decoding the sounds and symbols, then the communication succeeds. But if the **semantic base** of the sender and the receiver is different, then it leads to miscommunication. Miscommunication or hampered communication can also happen if appropriate channel or media is not used or if the **communication environment** is noisy (we will deal with Noise at greater length while discussing Communication Barriers). This is only one aspect of communication. Communication is complete only when the decoder sends **feedback** to the encoder which tells the sender whether her/his message has been grasped or not.
**Check Your Progress**
1. Explain the process of communication with the help of a diagram.
### 1.5 FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION
The function of communication differs from context to context:
1. **In the individual context:**
- It provides knowledge
- It gives way to commercial success.
- It enforces and adjusts behavioral patterns.
- It helps in socialization and building relationships.
- It creates legends.
2. **In the social context:**
- It educates people and makes them capable on various fronts.
- It persuades the targeted subjects to buy products and/or services.
- It generates enthusiasm in the minds of the targeted subjects to develop or modify views on particular issues.
Communication in Everyday Life
- It dissuades them from eschewing some habits, products or services that are harmful to them or to the society in general.
- It provides in social revolution and transformation.
- It helps in social revolution and transformation.
- It performs incidental neutral functions.
- It builds an image of individuals or of non-business organisations in the minds of the masses.
3. In the organisational context:
- It serves as an essential tool.
- It assists in decision making.
- It keeps the employees enlightened.
- It informs the employees informed about their obligations.
- It builds good employer-employee relations.
- It facilitates the basic management process.
- It directs with finesse.
- It interacts with the members of the external environments.
- It co-ordinates employees’ actions.
- It promotes leadership effectiveness.
- It gives feedback of the lower cadres.
- It evaluates performances for control.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the function of communication in the social context?
2. What function does communication fulfil in the context of an organization?
1.6 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
To be an effective communicator, certain significant things should be kept in mind –
- We must know what the objective of our communication is. Without an aim, we can be good at saying things in an informal setting (like talking to our friends or relatives), but for formal communication, such as in an office meeting or in a seminar or while talking to
the boss in office, we cannot merely blabber for no reason at all, we need to have a concrete aim or objective in mind.
- When the objective is set, then the next step is to present our thoughts, emotions, feelings, etc. with clarity and integrity. If we are not able to present our thoughts clearly, then how can we expect the listener/s to understand and respond?
- The medium chosen for communication should be one both the parties are conversant with. For example, we must make sure that we communicate in a language in which the listener/s is/are comfortable. Moreover, we should also choose the medium depending on whether it is written or oral communication.
- An appropriate environment is also necessary for proper delivery of message. Without a proper environment there is always a chance that the message will be misunderstood or not properly understood.
- Paralinguistic features such as tone, pitch voice, pronunciation, appropriate gestures and postures, facial expressions, eye contact, dressing, etc. affect the oral communication process.
No communication is complete without a feedback. Only when we receive a feedback we know whether whatever we intended has been comprehended by the listener/s or not. Feedback may not always be in the form of a verbal response. If you are presenting a paper and see your listeners nodding their head then you understand that they are agreeing to what you are saying, but if a majority of them are yawning or fidgeting with something or the other, then it is evident that they are bored. The nodding of the head and yawning are examples of body language through which we get feedback of how effective we are in communicating our ideas orally.
**Check Your Progress**
1. If you wish to be an effective communicator, what are the things you should pay attention to?
2. What do you understand by ‘feedback’? Why is it important?
### 1.7 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication can be classified into the following kinds –
- Verbal and non-verbal
Communication in Everyday Life
- Formal and informal
- Oral and written
1.7.1 Verbal and Non-verbal Communication
Communication can also be divided into categories like verbal and non-verbal. Whereas verbal communication includes both oral and written communication, non-verbal communication includes any communication which is neither oral nor written, and includes modes such as postures, gestures, dressing, etc.
Verbal Communication
In verbal communication, language is used according to the established rules of grammar/syntax to communicate emotions and feelings, and to share information and meaning. Depending on the way we use words, by speaking or by writing, verbal communication is divided into two categories – Oral and Written.
Oral communication or speech is the more frequently used medium of communication. There are reasons for it to be so. Some of these reasons are:
- We need not be literate to speak as is needed in written communication. All human beings have the competence to speak one or more languages. And to achieve it, he or she does not need to be taught in a formal educational environment.
- Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) which disposes them to learn a language when they grow up in a socio-cultural environment. A child learns spoken language naturally just by imitating the elders around him or her.
- We speak more than we write as it is a faster, and a more spontaneous and economical medium of communication.
Non-Verbal Communication
In many cases, no words are exchanged, yet communication happens as we can also communicate through our body language which is a non-verbal communication. It is perceived that non-verbal cues form a major part of communication process (93%) therefore it is significant that we focus our attention to this aspect of communication. The non-verbal cues are Kinesics, Proxemics, Chronemics, Haptics, Paralanguage, Silence and Sign language.
Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body’s physical movements for the purposes of communication, that is, the way our body communicates without words, through various movements of its parts. For example, nodding one’s head communicates acceptance. Some body movements during communication are conscious, whereas others we do unconsciously. The unconscious body movements are very significant pointers in interpreting messages.
(i) **Personal Appearance**: Our first impression matters a lot. Before someone starts communicating, others form an opinion about her/him just by perceiving how the person has tried to present herself/ himself. Appearance includes clothes, hair, accessories, and cosmetics and so on. In today’s context, the purpose of clothing has changed from fulfilling a basic need to expressing oneself.
(ii) **Posture**: Posture refers to the way we hold ourselves when we stand, sit, walk, talk or choose not to talk. Our postures change according to circumstances. When one is nervous, one usually starts fidgeting with something or the other like mobile phones.
(iii) **Gestures**: Gestures are movements made by hands, head or face. Appropriate gestures supplement verbal communication and are also communication in their own right.
(iv) **Facial Expressions**: Facial expressions communicate to the receiver the intent of the message.
(v) **Eye contact**: Often our eyes communicate better than the words we utter. Words become more powerful when the speaker makes eye contact with the listener/receiver of the message.
**Proxemics**: Space or lack of it between the sender and the receiver of the message also speak volumes. When one hugs someone, though no words are exchanged but the warmth of the relationship can be felt by both. This is communication. The study of physical space in
interpersonal relations is called Proxemics. Edward T. Hall (1966) divides the communication space into four distinct zones –
- **Intimate**: The Intimate zone extends just to 18 inches (one and a half feet). Members of family, lovers, spouses, relatives, and parents usually communicate in this zone. A handshake, a pat on the back or a hug are some of the examples of communication in the Intimate zone.
- **Personal**: The Personal zone stretches from 18 inches (one and half feet) to 4 feet. Close friends, colleagues, peers, communicate in this zone. This zone is personal and is quite a relaxed and casual place.
- **Social**: Social zone is in the radius of 4 feet to 12 feet. In this zone, relationships are more formal and official. The distance between you and the interviewers in an interview is an example of social zone.
- **Public**: Public zone starts from 12 feet and may extend to 25 feet or to the range of eyesight and hearing. Events are formal in this zone. For example, When the Prime
minister or the President of India addresses the masses, they usually keep a distance from them for security reasons. It is an example of public zone.
**Chronemics:** How we manage our time communicates a lot about the kind of person we are. The study of the use of time to communicate is known as Chronemics. In the professional world, time is a valuable resource. When we are late for an appointment, people react negatively. If we arrive early, we are considered over-eager.
**Haptics: Language of Touch:** We also communicate with our sense of touch, which is known as Haptics. The way we communicate by our physical contact or by touching the other person is known as Haptics. Kissing, slapping, or shaking hands are ways of Haptics.
**Paralanguage:** Paralanguage is the way meaning is conveyed by how we say things while speaking. When a telephone bell rings and you pick up the receiver and hear the word “hello” it not only greets you, but also tells you about the gender of the person, the voice is of someone familiar, and the sociolinguistic and educational background of the person calling. All these are not contained in the word “hello” but are manifest in the way the word is spoken. Paralanguage consists of various aspects – Vocalizations of Words. There are different dimensions of it based on –
a) **Volume Variation**
b) **Speed of Speaking**
c) **Pauses**
d) **Word Stress**
e) **Inflections** (Inflections are the small bits of sounds that are attached to utterances.)
f) **Non-fluencies** (sounds such as “ummm” or “err”. These sounds are called non-fluencies.)
**Sign Language**
Sign language refers to symbols which are commonly used within a particular community or communicative group to mean something that is constant for all the members of that community. For example, Traffic signals are signs or symbols that are common all over the world. These signs are abstractions which people agree on the meanings to make it work. Other examples of signs are road signals, graphs, maps, alarms, sirens, etc.
- **Audio Signs**
• Visual Signs
• Audio-visual signs
Check Your Progress
1. Explain Kinesics, Haptics, Para-language and Sign language.
1.7.2 Formal and Informal Communication
Depending on the circumstance and the person/s one is interacting with, one chooses whether to communicate formally or informally. In that sense, communication can be categorized into formal and informal. *Grapevine* is the other name for informal communication. Mostly in the professional world, we tend to communicate formally as the occasion demands it; but in our personal life we are usually informal.
**Informal Communication or Grapevine** Though members of an organization communicate at a formal level, but that does not satisfy the human hunger for interaction and building interpersonal relationships. We all tend to communicate personally with some members of our organization beyond our professional obligations. Hence, there is a need for informal communication, also known as Grapevine.
Grapevine Chain
Keith Davis (1980) points out that there can be four possible configurations of Grapevine—
- **Single Strand Chain** – where information passes from A to B and then B from C and so on. In this case there is very little chance of verification of information.
- **Gossip Chain** – where person A sends information to all others in the group.
- **Probability Chain** – where person A sends information randomly without specifically choosing a recipient of the message.
- **Cluster Chain** – Person A sends message to B and C and each of them then conveys it to a cluster of others. The sender is selective about the receiver when s/he sends the message, and then the receiver takes up the role of the sender and sends it to multiple people.
As mentioned, the Grapevine can be misused in the following ways –
The information passed on or circulated can be inaccurate and sometimes can have a malafide intention.
Messages can easily be distorted as there is no written document for reference.
It is usually difficult to find out the origin of the message as information is anonymous, often leading to spread of rumours.
Grapevine can also be effectively used by organizations as –
- The channel is speedy and spontaneous.
- It is primarily an oral medium and consequently inexpensive.
- The network is multidirectional and therefore the flow of information is flexible.
- It can be used as an important feedback channel.
- Grapevine can also help in participatory decision-making.
- It can be used as a parallel channel by organizations to complement the formal channel.
- It can help in building interpersonal relationships within an organization and hence can create a harmonious work environment.
**Check Your Progress**
1. What is Grapevine communication?
2. How can it be misused?
### 1.8 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Communication is a smooth transmission of information, ideas, emotions and feelings (and more importantly transmission of meaning) from one to another where the intended message encoded by the sender is grasped by the receiver and s/he responds accordingly. But in many cases we fail to communicate the desired information, knowledge or emotion as some barrier crops up between the sender and the receiver which prevents successful communication, distorts the message or hampers the process and makes communication meaningless. For example, when we are communicating orally it may happen that the communication environment is noisy and consequently the receiver of the message is not able to hear us clearly. The noisy environment is a barrier to communication. It may also happen that two unknown persons accidentally meet and want to communicate but do not have a common
language that can be the medium in which they can communicate. Or maybe when we are writing if our handwriting is illegible or we use very subject-specific jargon which the receiver has no knowledge of, then the communication would not achieve its desired goal. In these cases, illegible handwriting or the highly-specialized-jargonized language are barriers to communication. In short, it can be said that barriers to communication can simply be defined as anything that prevents the smooth exchange of meaning between a sender and receiver.
In the field of business communication, the communication barrier or any unwanted interference between the speaker/encoder and the receiver/decoder which hampers the communication flow is termed as Noise. Noise here does not merely refer to the physical noise but to any barrier that prevents the flow of communication. If the barrier or the noise is of a technological nature then it can easily be avoided as technical snags can be corrected easily. Suppose, you are in a basement of a building where the reception of a mobile network is not very good and you receive a call, it is always advised that you move out of the basement to let the communication be smooth. But if the noise or the barrier is due to some human error, then it takes a long time and sustained effort to correct as the human errors are linked to one’s habits and psychology. For example, if one has a problem of always assuming a sense of superiority whenever communicating, then it can easily become a deterrent for others to be attentive to her or his thoughts and emotions. The person’s sense of superiority can lead others to feel that they are deliberately and consciously being underrated, leading them to be detached or indifferent to the message being communicated.
1.8.1 Classification of Barriers to Communication
Noise or barriers can be of two kinds:
1. **Channel Noise**
2. **Semantic Noise**
The difference between the Channel Noise and Semantic noise can be summarized as – Channel Noise develops externally (that is, external to the message) whereas the Semantic Noise is internal to the message.
**Channel Noise**
When there is any unwanted interference or snag in the medium of communication process it is termed as channel noise, for example, a noisy market place and illegible handwriting can be termed as channel noise as in both the cases the factors that create communication failure are not an intrinsic part of the message – in one case it is the communication environment
which is not suitable for communication and in the other the medium of communication, i.e., writing, is not readable. There can be many kinds of channel noise.
Below are some of the causes with examples of Channel Noise:
- **Physical Noise in the Channel**: Undesirable physical noise is a great barrier to communication. Any physical noise which is not related to the communication process can cause a barrier.
- **Use of Inappropriate Media**: Inappropriate selection of media to communicate messages can lead to miscommunication or may not have the desired result. For example, you are the manager of a company which is bidding for a tender; will it be possible to bid for tender using oral communication? Oral communication is an inappropriate media for a bid for tender.
- **Multiple Transfer Stations**: If a clerical staff of an organization figures out a mistake in some document and wants to communicate it to the Director and informs her/his higher official who then informs her/his superior and then her/his superior to the Director, then it may happen that because of the Multiple Transfer Stations, the content of the message is lost. It may also happen that the message changes in its tone and meaning because of it being transferred too many times which hampers the communication.
- **Information Overload**: A message should only provide that much information as is required to understand it. Too much of information can lead to a situation where the intended message is lost.
- **Fear of Superiors**: It often happens that one wants to pass on some information to one’s superior, but s/he cannot do it as s/he feels that the senior/superior would get offended. Often the way superior would react makes us not to communicate what we truly feel or think which can be a major barrier to smooth functioning of an organization.
- **Negative Presuppositions**: One usually has a feeling that a memo is always issued to seek clarification or to warn or to inform, whereas a memo can also be issued to congratulate someone. People have a negative presupposition about memos. So when someone gets news that her or his friend got a memo, s/he starts feeling bad without any reason.
- **Communication Selectivity**: When we are selective in our listening, it can be a barrier to communication. It also can be a significant barrier when one decides to read only parts of a document.
Poor Listening: If one is a poor listener than it can itself be a barrier to communication. Listening is a significant thing in the process of communication.
Semantic Noise
Semantic Noise can be defined as noise or barrier that is generated from within a message. As language is connotative, that is, meaning of a word is not always stated directly and can also be implied; therefore the communication process fails many times as the same word is interpreted differently by different people. For example, if someone says that ‘the bark is strong’ then the meaning of the sentence will depend on the context in which it is spoken. In one context it may mean a dog’s bark and in another the bark of a tree. So if the context is not given to us then the meaning becomes inaccessible. Sometimes ambiguity in the language may also cause semantic noise, for example, if one says – “I saw Ravi going with some old men and women”, one is not sure whether the adjective ‘old’ applies only to the men or also to the women. There can be numerous such examples of semantic noise.
Below are some of the causes with examples of Semantic Noise.
- **Limited Vocabulary**: Limited vocabulary can become a significant barrier to communication as it can create not only a problem in understanding things, but also may lead to a situation where the person is not able to express what s/he intends to express. One also has to keep in mind that having an extensive vocabulary does not always ensure that one would be a good communicator. For effective communication, one should know which words to use in which circumstances. Moreover, words have their literal meaning (denotative) as well as symbolic (connotative) meaning. One should have knowledge about both to use them in right situations and also to comprehend them when they are used by others.
- **Incompatibility between Verbal and Non-verbal Language**: We communicate not only with our words, but also with non-verbal cues – dress, eye contact, physical touch, facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc. Often we use non-verbal cues or body language consciously, but many a times the non-verbal cues are unconscious. It is essential that our gestures and postures are compatible with our words. Whenever it is not so, we are misinterpreted or misunderstood.
- **Varied Perception due to Different Backgrounds, such as Cultural**: Each one of us perceives the same incident or entity in a different way which can lead to communication failure. For example, the librarian of your college called a library committee meeting to discuss the issue of books being stolen from the library. The chairperson of the committee came to the meeting and pointed out that stealing of books suggests that the students are
interested in gaining knowledge and recommended that all books to be replaced and at the most security measures can be tightened. Many others in the meeting felt that this was not the solution, yet they did not say anything as they did not dare to oppose the Chair. This is an example of varied perception because of the ways in which we try to look at the world. Our background decides the way we interpret a message. To a poor person who is suffering from hunger, the beauty of a full moon does not appeal. Our social, cultural, financial, educational and psychological background decides the way we try to make sense of the things around us, including words. Thus while one communicates, if s/he does not keep in mind the background of the audience or the receiver and communicate accordingly, then there is always a chance that s/he will be misunderstood or misinterpreted.
- **Wrong Assumptions and Inferences**: Wrong Assumptions can often lead to miscommunication. Suppose there is a string of letters that are written by two departments regarding a certain issue and one department writes a letter to the other department without referring to the earlier communications in this regard when the Head of the other department has changed. There is always a chance that the letter would not serve its purpose.
- **Blocked Categories/Categorical Thinking**: In general, we react positively to an information only if it is in consonance with our own views and attitudes. Conversely, when we receive information that does not conform to our personal views, habits, and attitudes, or appears unfavorable to us, we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve it. Rejection, distortion, and avoidance are three common, undesirable, and negative reactions to unfavorable information. For example, you think that you can never deal with matters related to accounts as you are very poor in that field. So whenever any document reaches you from the Accounts section, you immediately pass on the work to someone else thinking that you will not be able to handle it. This is an example of blocked categories.
- **Emotional, Psycho-social Unsettled State**: It is true that none of us can be unemotional, as emotions are an integral part of human life, but when emotions are not moderated, they can become a barrier to communication. It can lead to a situation where one reacts negatively to situations which can act as barriers to communication.
1.8.2 Strategies to overcome Barriers to Communication
If one desires to be an effective communicator then one needs to learn ways to avoid barriers or noise so that communication failures do not happen. When a particular communication fails to evoke any response or the desired response because of some noise or barrier to communication, then the following steps can help solve the problem:
*Identify the problem – Find the cause or barrier – Work on alternative solutions – Opt for the best solution – Follow up rigorously*
The first step is to identify the problem. When we can identify the problem, then we can find a solution for it. To identify the problem, it is necessary that one analyzes the feedback or the lack of it carefully. Once the barrier is located, then one can figure out easily the cause of the barrier and can look for all possible solutions. The best solution should then be opted for and then followed consciously so that the barrier does not crop up again.
1.9 7 CS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
It is thought that for effective communication there is a need to follow certain norms which are known as “7 Cs of Effective Communication.”
These norms apply both in written as well as oral communication.
The 7 Cs of communication are—
1. **Completeness** - Any communication must be complete, in the sense that a message should convey all the facts required for the comprehension of the message.
2. **Conciseness** – Conciseness refers to the fact that while communicating one should try to make a message as short as possible to make it effective. Conciseness in communication not only saves time but is also cost effective and highlights the message making it more appealing and comprehensible for the audience/reader.
3. **Consideration** – Consideration in communication implies that the sender of message steps into the shoes of the audience/readers in terms of their viewpoints, background,
mind-set, education level, etc. to ensure that the message sent is comprehended properly by the receiver(s).
4. **Clarity** – Clarity in communication implies that the message should be as clutter free as possible and that it is easily understandable. To put a message across with clarity, one needs clarity of thought. And when one has clarity of thought one can use exact, appropriate and specific words to express oneself.
5. **Concreteness** – Concreteness in communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy and general. One should be specific in terms of quoting figures and facts as it makes communication effective and trustworthy and there is less chance of the message being misinterpreted.
6. **Courtesy** – Courtesy in communication implies that the sender should respect the receiver/s in terms of being polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. It creates a positive atmosphere for communication and leads to effective communication.
7. **Correctness** – Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors, no dubiousness in facts and figures. Correctness in communication builds up trust between the sender and the receiver and makes communication effective.
**Check Your Progress**
1. Explain in brief the 7 C’s of effective communication.
### 1.10 EXERCISE
- Read the passage carefully and answer the questions below:
From *A Long Walk for Bina*, by Ruskin Bond
Bina had been going to school in her own village of Koli, on the other side of the mountain. But it had been a Primary School, finishing at Class Five. Now, in order to study in the Sixth, she would have to walk several miles every day to Nauti, where there was a High School going up to the Eighth. It has been decided that Sonu, her younger brother, would also shift to the new school, to give Bina company. Prakash, their neighbour in Koli, was already a pupil at the Nauti School. The children spoke often about the fun they would have walking to and fro.
Pranab has mischievous nature, which sometimes got him into trouble, had resulted in his having to repeat a year. But this didn’t seem to bother him. ‘What’s the hurry?’ he shrugged as he spoke, his tone careless and carefree. He had told his indignant parents, ‘You’re not sending me to a foreign land when I finish school. And our cows aren’t
running away, are they?’ They are still angry about what he had said, but his voice rose in amusement as he told Bina about the conversation.
‘You would prefer to look after the cows, wouldn’t you?’ asked Bina seriously, with concern in her eyes, as they got up to continue their walk.
“Oh, school’s all right. But there’s more to life … Hey! Do you know, there’s a new teacher this year, Miss Ramola. She’s very young, they say, just out of college. Everyone in school is talking about her – I wonder what she’ll be like.”
Bina looked up, excited at this new piece of information. Her eyes shone as she thought about all the questions she wanted to ask, all the new things she might learn.
Bina walked faster and Sonu had some trouble keeping with them. She took his hand and helped him along, walking close to him, her hand on his shoulder often. She was thrilled about the new school and the prospect of different surroundings. She had seldom been outside her own village, with its small school and single ration shop. The day’s routine never varied – helping her mother in the fields or with household task like fetching water from the spring or cutting grass and fodder for the cattle. Her father, who was a soldier, was away for nine months in the year and Sonu was still too small for the heavier tasks.
As they neared Nauti village, they were joined by other children coming from different directions. Even where there were no major roads, the mountains were full of little lanes and short cuts. Like a game of snakes and ladders, these narrow paths zigzagged around the hills and villages, cutting through fields and crossing narrow ravines until they came together to form a fairly busy road along which mules, cattle and goats joined the throng.
(a) Find examples of non-verbal communication in the passage.
(b) Find examples of effective communication by the pitch of the voice in this speech.
(c) Where do we find feedback to the speech in this passage? What is the feedback?
(d) Listening is as important as speaking. List examples from the above passage to show that the children are alert listeners.
(e) Define ‘Grapevine’ and locate relevant example(s) in the passage.
(f) Define ‘Social Space’ and locate relevant example(s) in the passage.
(g) Semantic noise is defined as barrier that is generated within a message, and is caused by factors such as limited vocabulary, cultural differences, and blocked categories. Find an example of semantic noise in the passage and explain why you think it occurs here.
(h) The 7 Cs of effective communication are Completeness, Conciseness, Consideration, Clarity, Concreteness, Courtesy and Correctness. Find examples of any three of these in the passage above.
1.11 FURTHER READINGS
- Malhotra Prerna, Deb Dulal Halder, (2019) *Communication Skills: Theory and Practice*, Eighth Edition, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
- Halder, Deb Dulal, Anjana Neira Dev, Prerna Malhotra, (2012) *Technical Writing: Theory and Practice*, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
- Kaul, Asha, (2012) *Effective Business Communication*, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading is a process which one acquires as soon as one tries to get literate, but reading is not an easy task, as reading simultaneously involves understanding and interpretation. What you are reading is written by you or someone and therefore a communication is taking place in your act of reading. This communication can be successful and effective only when one reads properly and understands what the writer of the piece you are reading has tried to mean or hint at. So, understanding what you are reading is a very significant process which we will be dealing with in this chapter.
2.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should have learnt about:
- Reading Skills
- Reading techniques: skimming, scanning, intensive reading, extensive reading
2.3 READING
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are the four main skills required to master a language. Those good at reading, become good listeners, speakers and writers. Nonetheless, the fact remains that no single skill is learnt in isolation, most of the times it is a combination and integration of skills. Why do you read and how to read - these are the two significant parts to be discussed in detail for attaining a good proficiency in reading. One must know the purpose of reading a piece (literary or non-literary) before plunging into it and after knowing the purpose, a strategy of reading should be evolved.
Reading is for Pleasure, examination, general information, specific knowledge, problem solving, draw logic, etc.
2.3.1 Reading Techniques
In the age of Internet and information overload, what to read and what not to read is a big question and some clarity about it is extremely crucial. Reading techniques help in dealing with such situations.
It is pertinent to know WHY one is reading before going into the details of HOW (Reading Techniques). Is the target common, is it specific? Once this question is answered, only then the reading strategies can be decided for particular cases.
There are four main reading techniques which are used for specific situations:
1. **Scanning** is reading with a specific purpose in mind for specific information. When one reads an entire text/document quickly while looking for specific information, it is called scanning. For example: Going through an entire newspaper and looking for specific news related to India-Pakistan cricket match. You scanned to get specific information about Delhi University admissions and cut-offs.
2. **Skimming** is speed reading for cursory overview for general information. Going through an entire newspaper quickly through the headlines is an example of skimming. Going through a data-table quickly to elicit an overall idea of the topic on which data is presented is an example of skimming technique of reading. Do not expect a deep comprehension of the written text after skimming. Reading only the headings of chapters is skimming.
3. **Intensive/close reading** is of a specific written piece for a specific purpose. It is going into the minutest details of a particular word/phrase/line/para, etc. For example,
“The woods are lovely, dark and deep
But I have promises to keep
And miles to go before I sleep
And miles to go before I sleep”
*Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening* by Robert Frost
To answer a question like, ‘what is the meaning of woods’ in the poem, one will adopt intensive reading technique.
Intensive reading is very crucial for language learners as they pick up vocabulary, focus on structure and syntax while doing intensive reading.
4. **Extensive reading** is a kind of general reading for general information. Generally, this technique is used for pleasure reading, like reading a novel for pleasure. One does not mind certain difficult terms or expressions and goes on without stopping for their clarification until they become a hindrance in overall understanding.
For example, if one is asked to read a chapter before discussing it in class, one goes for extensive reading to get a general idea of the piece. Unlike intensive reading which is for specific purpose, it is for a generalized understanding of a piece of writing. For example, while doing an unseen passage for comprehension, one does extensive and intensive reading both. For dealing with specific vocabulary related or other specific questions, intensive reading is required, but the initial first reading is taken for general idea of the passage.
**Check Your Progress**
1. Briefly explain the four reading techniques commonly used.
2. In what situations and to achieve what target are these techniques employed?
### 2.3.2 Reading Skills
**Process of Reading**
Effective reading involves proper planning of reading so that the objectives of reading are successfully met. First of all, a reader must know her/his purpose of reading, specific or general, and then accordingly choose the appropriate strategy for the same.
A. **Pre-reading Activities**: Pre-reading activities work better at the initial stages of learning a language, but nevertheless, they are fruitful otherwise at later stages of reading too. For
example, before reading a story/essay, talking about the title, sub-title, sections, subsections and guessing the main idea and sub-ideas of it; warming up readers by asking them questions related to the theme, writer, writing technique, genre and past knowledge of the topic, etc. prepare a reader well for the main reading. Vocabulary and basic questions related to the topic also work effectively.
B. **While-reading**: Multiple readings and in between stopping by a reader to check whether the purpose of reading is being fulfilled: if it is for pleasure, is s/he getting the story line properly; if for a specific purpose like getting the main idea of the content, has s/he got it; is s/he able to comprehend what was expected after a reading, etc.
C. **Post-reading Activities**: After reading, a reader may ask oneself certain questions or some questions may be posed by a teacher in case of guided reading so that the reader is able to form an opinion about the content and can rewrite or present it.
**Process of Analysis**
A careful analysis of any literary text would involve looking at multiple aspects of the text.
Let us look at these briefly. Analysis of **Grammatical meaning** would be entirely linguistic in nature. This would involve carefully looking at the different sub-parts constituting a sentence, the word order and other grammatical signals. For instance: the difference in meaning of the following three phrases - ‘Throw in’, ‘Throw a ball’, ‘A good throw’ - is not lexical in nature, but a result of grammatical structure. Now to look at **Referential meaning**, which pertains to extra-linguistic features, let us consider a specific reference to an event. “The Home Minister wrote to the Defense Minister about the recent spate in terrorist activities in Mumbai. He stressed on the need for improving patrolling around sensitive areas there.” “He” in the second sentence refers to the Home minister and not the other; ‘there’ refers to a specific location in Mumbai. **Connotative meaning** would refer to the abstract value associated with a certain word. For instance, the word “fire” while actually standing for a physical event that burns, might be used to connote the ideas of “intensity” or “ambition”. Similarly, the color “white” may connote “innocence, purity or peace” depending upon its context. Finally looking at the **Socio-cultural meaning**, which is basically social and cultural
significance attached to a certain word or expression, for instance, the color “white” (discussed above) when used to describe a Hindu woman’s clothing would refer to her state of being a widow. This meaning will not be available to, say, a person from western culture where a woman gets married wearing white attire.
Hence, we can say that a careful observation and analysis of words/phrases/expressions is of primary importance in the analysis of a text.
**Check Your Progress**
1. What aspects should you pay attention to while analyzing a literary text?
### 2.4 AN APPROACH TO DEAL WITH COMPREHENSION
One of the main objectives of learning English is to understand the language. What we call ‘comprehension’ exercises are, in fact, a test of this understanding. A comprehension exercise consists of a passage on which questions are set to test a pupil’s ability to understand the content of a given text and to infer information and meanings from it.
Here are a few points to be kept in mind while attempting a comprehension exercise:
1. **Read the passage quickly once to get a general idea of the theme.** When you do this do not be preoccupied with answering particular questions.
2. **Read the passage again slowly and carefully, so to know the details.** If you come across a word you don’t know, try to work out its meaning through the context.
3. **After reading the questions read the passage again.** Look at the questions and work out mentally the location in the passage where the information required for each answer lies. Do not start writing immediately. The most useful work is done while you make yourself familiar with the passage and the questions.
4. **Make sure that you understand the questions.** Re-phrase the questions in simple terms. Very often the students just glance through the questions without trying to understand their full implication. Consequently, they fail to give complete answers to the questions.
5. **Make sure what you write is relevant.** Answer to the point and then stop. Refer back to the question to make sure that your answer contains the information that is asked for and nothing more.
6. Use your own words as far as possible. However, it may not be always possible to use completely different words when technical terms are involved or words used in the passage are simple enough. But, as far as possible, use your own words and structures. The purpose of setting a comprehension exercise is to find out whether a student understands the passage or not. If you merely copy the exact set of words from the passage you do not show that you understand the passage.
7. Keep to the facts given in the passage. You may have a lot of information from various sources on the theme of the passage set for comprehension. Your answer must be based on the facts given in the passage, unless you are directed to give information which is not given in the passage, like giving your opinion, arguments, etc. To emphasise once again, the purpose of comprehension exercises is to show that you understand the given passage and not to show how much you know about the theme from other sources.
8. Answer in complete sentences unless you are told not to do so. Sometimes, you could present the information in a single word; but you are required to express yourself clearly in good English, that is in a complete sentence.
9. Answer in the same tense as that of the question; e.g.,
What does he see? = He sees ……
What did he see? = He saw …….
10. When you have written your answer, you should always refer back to the question and check whether your answer is relevant and complete in all respects.
2.5 Comprehension Passage Analysis
The suggestions given at the end of the following comprehension exercise should serve as guidelines while answering questions.
Read the following passage carefully and then answer, as far as possible, in your own words, questions that follow. Before reading the suggested answers given at the end of the exercise, you should answer the questions yourself. Then compare your own response with the suggested answers.
My life was fulfilled on my fourth birthday. By which I mean everything that has happened since has been an anticlimax and has failed to match the joy and satisfaction I experienced on that day. My mother had taken me for a holiday to Bishop’s Hull, a small village outside Taunton. A farm labourer, who lived in an adjoining cottage and who had lost
an arm in the war offered to take me fishing. I had been fishing before but only for sharks from the upturned kitchen-table. I had never held a real rod or had my hook dangling in genuine water. Now, the prospect alone of this expedition made me so excited that I ran a temperature and did not sleep at all the night before. I even forgot the grey hunter which I had discovered stabled in a pub opposite. The shutter of my mind must have been full open that day, for every detail of the river still remains in sharp focus. My cousin and I followed the man along the river-bank. It was my first river, then he stopped at a deep pool by a weir; it was my first pool; deep, bottomless. Branches of ash reached out so that half was in the shade; the sunlight shone on the other half, and on the whole it was so still that flies could walk upon the invisible skin of the water.
I watched the fisherman take from his pocket a small tobacco-tin full of worms. Then breathlessly I saw him hold his rod against his body with his iron arm and watched him dexterously fix a worm on the hook with the other. Then he cast his line, and for the next half-hour I sat too excited to speak, my eyes riveted on the scarlet float almost unmoving on the still water. But we caught nothing.
That evening, I could not even eat my supper; I was too possessed. My mind was completely filled with the images of fish swimming beneath the water. I felt resentment against them for avoiding being caught. I lay in bed imagining I was a fish to find out how long it would be before hunger made me take the temptation of the hook.
That problem was promptly resolved the next morning by my mother who took me into Taunton to buy me a fishing line and one or two other pieces of necessary equipment. As soon as she got off the bus, I raced her towards the pool, found a worm and cast the float on to the water. Then I closed my eyes and prayed ‘Dear God, please make the trout hungry. Dear God, please make them like worms, not any worms, but my worm which I’ve put on that hook, for Thine is the Kingdom forever and ever, Amen.’
I have never prayed so fervently or succinctly. It was not a particularly odd prayer. As a child, I always imagined God as a grocer, order-book and pencil in hand, giving me the courtesy due to a customer. I sat willing the fish towards the worm. My whole soul was screwed up into my eyes riveted on the float. I did this for half an hour or so, till my mother asked me to go and pick her some cowslips from the meadow behind her. Grudgingly I complied, running back with the flowers.
‘Why don’t you see now if you’ve caught a fish,’ my mother suggested casually. ‘It seems to me your float’s quite low in the water.’
‘Yes, it is,’ I cried, hauling in, nearly falling into the water.
I can state, but I cannot express the pleasure I felt as a great fish broke the water.
‘You’ve never seen a trout as big as that, have you?’ I asked my mother confidently.
‘Never,’ she said truthfully.
‘I shall eat it for supper,’ I said, ‘and perhaps I’ll give you a bit for buying me the line. But tomorrow you can have all the fish. There’s bound to be another tomorrow.’
That evening I broke my fast and ate the whole of the fish. There was another fish on my hook the next day. And for everyday that week. I never suspected that there was any coincidence in the fact that the fishes took my bait only while I was off picking flowers.
No doubt my mother’s subterfuge was justifiable. I never suspected it and was seventeen before she punctured my boast about the trout I used to catch, by telling me they were herrings. But it was too late then. Consequently, I have gone through life always sublimely confident that wherever I flung my hook an obliging fish would swallow it. And the incident has had other psychic repercussions.(RONALD DUNCAN, *All Men are Islands*)
**Questions**
(a) How old was the author when he first fished in genuine water?
(b) The fisherman with whom the author had gone for fishing is said to have an *iron arm*. What do you understand by *an iron arm*?
(c) How did the fisherman come to have an *iron arm*?
(d) What were the feelings of the author towards God?
(e) Carefully explain in your own words the exact meaning of the following phrases or words as they are used in the passage:
(i) an anticlimax (line 2)
(ii) dexterously (line 17)
(iii) too possessed (line 20)
(iv) fervently (line 30)
(v) complied (line 35)
(vi) repercussions (line 51)
(f) What were the feelings of the author when he had caught the fish for the first time?
(g) Write a paragraph of not more than 70 words to make clear what the mother’s plan was, why she considered it to be justifiable, and what effect, the author feels, it has had upon him.
**Suggested Answers**
*Question (a)* This question requires from you a fact that is mentioned in the passage. It is a simple question to begin with so that it puts you at ease to go ahead with self-confidence.
(i) The author was four years old when he first fished in genuine water.
*Question (b)*
(i) “By iron-arm I understand that the fisherman did not have a real arm.” This answer is negative and vague. What type of an arm did he have?
(ii) Therefore the correct answer is: “By an iron arm, I understand that the farm-labourer had a false arm made of some metal. Furthermore, I understand that his false arm was very strong as it is compared to iron.”
*Question (c)* Here you are required to find the fact from the passage.
(i) A candidate may just answer this question in the following way:
“The fisherman lost his arm during the war.” Many lose arms during the war. Though this candidate has the correct clue to the answer, he does not answer the question.
(ii) A second candidate may answer:
“Since during the war, the fisherman lost his arm, it was replaced by an iron arm in the hospital.” This answer brings in the “army” and the “hospital” which are not in the passage.
(iii) The correct answer is:
“The fisherman came to have an iron arm because he had lost his real arm in the war.”
*Question (d)* Here are three possible answers.
(i) He thought that God was like a grocery man with an order book and pencil ready to note down anything he wanted and get it from him.
(ii) He believed in God as anything or anyone who could help him.
(iii) He considered God as a convenience who should serve him (the boy). He thinks of God as a shopkeeper who should always keep him (the customer) happy by doing what he wants.
The two important ideas to be contained in the answer are the prayer and the image of God as a grocer. Answer (i) above has too many of the original words from the passage; and thus it does not prove to be the candidate’s own answer. Answer (ii) is very much confused. Answer (iii) is the correct one expressing both the key ideas involved.
**Question (e)**
(i) an anticlimax is something that does not match up to previous expectation.
(ii) dexterously means with great skill in the use of the hands. In the context, it means that he fixed the worm with great expertise.
(iii) too possessed means involved to an excessive extent.
(iv) fervently means marked by a great warmth of feeling.
(v) complied means acted in accordance with someone’s wishes.
(vi) repercussions means indirect effects of an act.
**Question (f)** Answer to this question is not directly found in the passage; therefore you have to read between the lines to deduce feelings and attitudes from actions and comments. Some of the possible answers are given below:
(i) The boy considered the trout as a reward for his work and fulfilment of his ambition. When he catches the fish he feels he got the reward for the day and therefore he can stop fishing for the day.
(ii) He regards that the purpose of trout’s existence is to be caught by fishermen. He also thought that since he had prayed to God the trout should take the bait.
(iii) The boy’s attitude towards the trout is selfish. He thinks that the purpose of the trout’s existence is to be caught by him; and he tries hard by prayer and will-power to lure the trout on to his hook.
The main ideas of the answer are the boy’s prayer to God and his wish that the fish should be caught in his hook. (“I sat willing the fish towards the worm.”) Against this background, answer (i) is vague and (ii) is more or less satisfactory; but it is not related to the boy himself. Answer (iii) is the best answer, because it refers to the clues in the passage.
**Question (g)** This question again demands looking for facts and interpreting them.
The trick played by the mother was that she put a herring on the fishing line when her son was picking flowers. She did this to save her son from being disappointed if he did not catch
a fish. The author considers that these events made him to expect to be lucky and always to get what he wanted. This incident has also caused other differences in his outlook towards life.
2.6 EXERCISES
1. Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow.
With eager anticipation we awaited the next stage. A tailor was called in to measure us, five boys and one girl, Mary Lila Rao, for the sports kits. I was filled with happiness, just like a child who had been given a bag full of candy. After all, I would be fulfilling my dream to wear a blazer with INDIA written on it!
A week later, we left for Australia. The night before we left I could not sleep. My small suitcase has been packed with my kit and bedding and I waited for the sun to rise. Excited by the prospect of what lay ahead, we boarded the train to Bombay, the first lap or our long journey across the seas to far-off Australia. When we reached Bombay’s Churchgate station, we were taken by bus to the Astoria Hotel. It was the first time that I had seen such a grand place, and I could barely believe my eyes. What was I, a simple village boy doing in such a different world? While we were at the Astoria, Commander Rekhi, our manager, showed us how to knot a tie and gave us lessons on table manners.
When we reached Santa Cruz, the entire atmosphere at the terminal seemed unreal its bright lights, the strange sounds, the rush of people. Except for Mary Lila Rao, none of us had flown before. I was scared and confused. I had no bedding and no food. Where would I sleep? What would I eat? How would the plane take off with so many people, their luggage and other cargo? Would it crash under so much weight? I followed my companions towards the huge monster that awaited us, and blindly climbed up the ramp into the cabin. I was asked to fasten my seatbelt, but naturally I did not know what to do and was fumbling with the straps when the air-hostess kindly helped me.
When the plane started to taxi along the runway, I closed my eyes and prayed to my God. I had butterflies in my stomach as the plane ascended. And then we were airborne. When I looked out of the window I saw smoke pouring out of the engines, and raised an alarm, thinking that the plane was on fire. The air-hostess calmed me down, patiently explaining that it was only the fuel burning. I felt very foolish and laughed with relief.
(Adapted from the Autobiography of Milkha Singh)
Attempt the following questions on the basis of the passage you have read.
a) Why couldn’t Milkha Singh sleep a night before they left?
b) How many people had flown earlier?
c) What made the atmosphere of Santa Cruz seem unreal?
d) Give any two reasons responsible for Milkha’s worry or confusion?
e) According to him what was a huge monster?
f) Why was he fascinated by the hotel?
g) Why did the air-hostess need to help him?
h) Why did he pray to his God?
i) Identify and name the figure of speech in para-1?
2. Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow.
The news media are in crisis across the developed world. Journalism as we know it is being described, obviously with some exaggeration, as ‘collapsing’, ‘disintegrating’, in ‘meltdown’. In this digital age, there is gloom in most developed country, or ‘mature’, media markets over the future of newspapers and also broadcast television. Two decades after a call issued from a conference in Windhoek, Namibia for the establishment of World Press Freedom Day, ‘the arrival of the digital revolution – the evolution of the Internet, the emergence of new forms of media, and the rise of online social networks – has reshaped the media landscape and made “the press” of 2011 something that those gathered in Windhoek in 1991 could not have imagined’. There is a strong sense that ‘the news industry is no longer in control of its own future’ and that it is technology companies like Google and the social media that lead the way and look set to hegemonize the public space that once belonged to the news media.
The global financial crisis and economic slowdown of 2008-2009 sent several western media organizations into a tailspin. Advertising revenues, the lifeline of the newspaper industry, took a body blow during this period. Many big newspapers, whose strengths had been sapped and whose situational advantages had been undermined over the years, went into bankruptcy or protection against bankruptcy. *The New York Times* was bailed out by an emergency loan of US $250 million from Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim: ‘to help the newspaper company finance its business.’ Tens of thousands of journalists lost their jobs in the United States, where newsrooms are 30 per cent smaller than in 2000 (Rosenstiel and Mitchell 2011), and across Europe.
There has been some recovery, or to be more precise, a slowdown in the decline beginning mid-2010. But printed newspaper circulation and readership are in irreversible decline across the developed world; they have been in steady, longterm, secular decline much before the recent recession hit these countries and their news media. ‘Circulation is like the sun. It continues to rise in the East and decline in the West’, Christoph Riess, chief executive officer of the World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA), told those assembled at the World Newspaper Congress and World Editors Forum in Vienna in October 2011. His presentation of *World Press Trends 2011*, the annual survey done by WAN-IFRA, focused on ‘six key areas’: the media consumption shift; economic developments; newspaper circulation and number of titles; advertising expenditure by media; newspaper revenue; and internet versus mobile.
There was a clear sense in the Vienna gathering that a historical era for the news media was coming to an end and they had entered, even if differentially across the world, an indeterminate period of uncertainty. With the changes in audience behaviour and news consumption accompanying the migration to the web and to mobile platforms gathering pace, the big challenge for the traditional news business is *engagement* of the audience that is getting away, with grim financial implications. ‘We have always been extremely efficient in using the time of our readers’, Riess told his audience in Vienna. ‘But now we are in a more challenging environment, because readers are more promiscuous, they have more choices, they read newspapers with less frequency. We have to do more to attract them find new ways to garner loyalty.’
These industry-wide trends, and the accompanying stresses, pessimism, and disarray, have already taken a big toll of independent and resourceful journalism in the developed world. According to a report titled *The Reconstruction of American Journalism*, commissioned and published by the Journalism School of Columbia University, New York, ‘the era of dominant newspapers and influential network news divisions is giving way to one in which the gathering and distribution of news is more widely dispersed’ and the economic foundation of U.S. newspapers is ‘collapsing’. Newspapers, ‘the country’s chief source of independent reporting, are shrinking – literally’, with fewer journalists ‘reporting less news in fewer pages’. The situation and prospects of broadcast television, which still commands a big audience across the world and remains the world’s premier advertising medium, do not seem much brighter.
1. The word “hegemonize” means –
(a) Dominate
(b) Overturn
(c) Lack
(d) None of the above.
2. Which of the following statements are true –
(i) Economic slowdown impacted news room.
(ii) Social media has taken over public space.
(iii) Rise of online social networks have helped the news media.
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii)
(d) All of them
3. According to Christopher Riess, what has impacted the media most?
(a) Economic Slowdown
(b) Impact of Cyber Media
(c) Loss of Advertizing Revenue
(d) All of them.
4. Which of the following statements are true?
(i) The developing world also saw similar fate of media as the developed world.
(ii) Internet has made it possible for the media to reach larger number of people.
(iii) The economic foundation of the US media is collapsing.
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii)
(d) All of them.
5. The state of the Audio-visual media, especially television, is similar to that of the other traditional media.
(a) True
(b) False
(c) The passage does not give any concrete detail for the same.
(d) Television is one of the audio-visual media under threat.
1. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow:
Is Anybody Inside?
(Author and publication details unknown)
The old man pressed his granddaughter’s face against the chest.
‘Quiet’, he whispered urgently, ‘Don’t move. If you do, we are lost.’
The mob came rushing down the road, shouting slogans.
The Old man drew his arm protectively around the little girl’s shoulders. ‘Don’t cry,’ he whispered, ‘They will not find us here.’
Suddenly someone kicked the door open. It banged against the cement wall. Framed in the open doorway, against a red sky, stood two men. Behind them houses burned and the sky was thick with smoke.
‘Can you see anyone?’ asked the shorter of the two. ‘Not yet,’ was the reply.
A torch flashed. Its beam pierced the semi-darkness of the shed. The old man shrank back against the stacks of firewood, hoping that the empty drums in front would hide them from the searching light. Eyes wide with terror, he watched the light sweep over the piles of wood. Probing the piles of charcoal, drawing closer and closer, the powerful beam hit him in the eyes. His eyes caught the face of the tall, dark man. For a moment, their eyes met and held. He knew the man, he knew him very well. His neighbour’s son, his friend. But that didn’t seem to matter. Not now, not any more. What mattered now was religion. To share the same belief in the same God. The old man closed his eyes, and turned his face away. Trapped! Caught! Too late to run. Too late to pray. Too late for anything. Time to die.
‘Do you see anything?’ The shorter pushed past. ‘Is anybody inside?’
The old man held his breath. With his eyes shut, his heart thumping wildly under his sweat-stained shirt, he waited. After what seemed an eternity, the tall man’s words reached him, They came from far away. ‘No, let’s go. There is nobody here.’ And the shed plunged into darkness once again.
1. At the beginning of the story, what makes the old man feel that he and his granddaughter are safe?
1. How does the grandfather comfort his granddaughter?
2. In your own words, describe the atmosphere of fear in the story.
3. What is the significance of the ‘red sky’, burning house, and a sky that was ‘thick with smoke’?
4. Why does the old man not feel any relief when he recognizes his best friend, who is also his neighbour’s son?
5. What is the significance of the last paragraph of the story? What does it suggest about human relations?
6. Use any 5 of the words given to write a descriptive paragraph of 50 -80 words.
Mob, light, eyes, charcoal, powerful, closer, eternity, stained.
2.6 FURTHER READINGS
- Malhotra Prerna, Deb Dulal Halder, (2019) *Communication Skills: Theory and Practice*, Eighth Edition, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
- Halder, Deb Dulal, Anjana Neira Dev, Prerna Malhotra, (2012) *Technical Writing: Theory and Practice*, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
- Kaul, Asha, (2012) *Effective Business Communication*, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi.
- Bassnett, Susan and Trivedi, Harish (Eds.) (1998) *Post-colonial Translation: Theory and Practice*. Routledge, London.
- Bell, Roger T. (1991) *Translation and translating: Theory and Practice*. Longman Group, UK.
- Gargesh, Ravinder and Goswami, Krishna Kumar (Eds.) (2007) *Translation and Interpreting: Reader and Workbook*. Orient Blackswan, New Delhi.
3.1 WRITING: AN INTRODUCTION
As has been discussed in the initial units, writing is an essential human activity which came into existence much later than speech as writing is a graphical representation of speech, though the rules of writing are often different from that of speech. We also need to remember that speech is a distinguishing characteristic of every human being, but it is only the literates who can write. In other words, literacy is a prerequisite for writing. In this Unit, the focus is on various aspects of writing – such as Note-making, Letter Writing and Report writing. It is not that writing is limited to only these activities. There are various other kinds of writings such as academic writing, technical writing, writing for the media, creative writing, official writing, etc. But for the present purpose, that is, according to the scope of the syllabus, we will limit ourselves to only specific kinds of writing practices.
3.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This unit will help you in the following writing skills:
- Academic writing
- Taking notes
- Writing letters
- Writing short reports
3.3 THE WRITING PROCESS
Writing is a competence which can be inculcated with practice. When one writes an assignment or a term paper, one does it because of an academic necessity. While writing an assignment or an academic paper not only you should know about the subject on which you are asked to write on or have chosen to write, but should also have some basic idea about the format of how to write an assignment or academic paper. In Academic writing, it is necessary that we approach it as a craft and learn it. Academic writing is a response to a necessity; therefore writing should be approached as a process.
As writing is a process, therefore it usually follows a particular sequence:
Prewrite → Write → Rewrite
1. Prewrite – Prewriting is a process which comes before the actual writing begins. While writing any assignment or term paper, it is presumed that there must be something very significant that needs to be written. Therefore, one must ponder over certain significant aspects before one begins writing. They are:
- One should figure out the aims and goals of writing. In other words, one must make sure that one knows why one is writing. If you are writing an assignment, your approach will be different from that of an answer you are preparing for the examination.
- One should gather all the available information and data on the subject one decides to write on, that is, one needs to do the required research on the topic and figure out the available literature on that topic.
- One should then determine the style, that is, the way one arranges one’s words and
sentences into a cohesive piece of writing. The same data can be used by different individuals to produce different arguments even though they may intend to write for the same audience. Therefore, before getting into writing one should also decide on and choose one’s style of writing.
- Moreover, while writing an assignment or a project, there is a deadline that is given to us and we need to plan our writing in such a way so as to meet the deadline. It is assumed that during our college or university days, there is not a single assignment or project to be done, but many. Therefore one needs to plan all assignments together and make sure that deadlines for each of them are met. Therefore, it is significant that we chalk out a plan.
- Very often, in writing assignments and projects for academic purposes, a word limit is also set by the instructors / teachers / evaluators. One should limit oneself within the word limit and therefore while arranging the facts and arguments, give more importance to the facts and arguments which are primary to support your topic. Thus, one needs to plan or chalk out a rough plan or structure of how one will progress with the process of writing.
2. Write – Once the relevant information and data has been gathered and a rough structure of the argument is decided; it is the time to launch oneself into the actual process of writing. In this phase of writing, one should organize the writing in such a manner that it is easily comprehensible. Therefore, it is very important to ascertain a logical sequence in writing.
3. Rewrite – Rewriting is the final step of the writing process, and one that is essential to successful writing. This step requires that one revises the rough draft and edits it. Revision allows you to perfect your assignment, project or any other writing.
**Check Your Progress**
1. How is writing different from speech?
2. What is the process you should follow to write a term paper or an assignment?
### 3.3.1 Features of Academic Writing
If you are reading a newspaper or a magazine, would you carry on reading any news item even if you find the first sentence or the first paragraph boring, providing you with no new detail, idea, information or news and views that you are not already familiar with. In most cases, the answer would be no. Many a times we tend to overlook or not take a person
seriously if s/he is not dressed according to the occasion. Looks, dresses, etc. – the first impression, matters.
In the same way in most kinds of writing, a good introduction is a must since
- It gives reader(s) an idea / suggestion / scheme of what the rest of the writing will be dealing with.
- It provides a reason for readers to keep reading, in the sense; it evokes the interest in the reader(s).
This is why journalists are so worried about writing the perfect lead sentence (the first sentence), because if the lead sentence is not interesting, no one will bother to read or listen to the news. Therefore, there is not only a focus on writing the perfect lead sentence, but a good introductory paragraph. It is not always true that the introduction should be a single paragraph. There are cases where there are introductions which run into several pages. If you are writing a report, the introduction can run into several pages.
The introduction of any writing usually includes –
- A background or history for the topic
- Definition of the term, phrase, or central concept to the writing
- A clear and specific thesis statement, which usually comes at the end of the introduction. If the introduction is of one paragraph, usually the thesis statement comes as the last sentence of the first paragraph.
**Ways of Writing an Introduction:**
- Formulate a question which will evoke readers’ interest and engage them
- Provide data, statistics, etc. that will surprise the reader or unsettles their common beliefs
- Provide an interesting anecdote or story related to the topic
- Start with an interesting and relevant quotation
- Provide an unusual or unexpected comparison and contrast
**What Not to Do in an Introduction:**
- Avoid stereotypes, clichés, jargons and boring constructions
- Avoid dictionary and encyclopedia definitions if possible and explain in your own words
- Avoid writing the introduction till you have finished writing the draft.
Make sure that the readers now know enough to follow your paper, but not too much that
they lose the focus of your paper.
**Paragraph**
A paragraph can be defined as a group of sentences that expresses a single idea, supported by facts, evidences, examples, anecdotes, quotations, etc. Paragraphs primarily indicate the beginning and end of a new idea to the reader(s). Thus it helps the reader(s) in assimilating the contents in an organized manner without much difficulty. In paragraph writing, therefore the writer can develop just one idea. When one is writing something longer like an essay or a report, each paragraph explains or demonstrates a key point or thought of the central idea, usually to inform or persuade.
Writing good paragraphs is essential for two reasons:
1. It helps one as a writer, as one remains focused while writing.
2. It makes the writing more readable, and the reader can easily figure out that a new idea has been introduced.
**Body Paragraphs**
Body paragraphs can be written in many ways, depending on your purpose. However, each paragraph should have one point which supports the thesis statement. Most body paragraphs will have:
1. **A Topic Sentence**
The first sentence in a paragraph is usually known as the *Topic Sentence* and it introduces the main idea of the paragraph. In other words, it is a sentence in which the main idea of a paragraph is summarized so that the readers can figure out what they can expect in the rest of the paragraph. Though this may not always be true, as the Topic Sentence can also be elsewhere in the paragraph, depending upon the demand of the writing. One should keep in mind here that the topic sentence should relate to the thesis statement and in some way should uphold the thesis.
The following points should be kept in mind while writing the topic sentence –
- The topic sentence should connect to the previous paragraph, so that the readers do not lose focus.
- The topic sentence is not about just stating a fact; but it is about a point of view. A point of view that the writer is about to develop in the rest of the paragraph.
- Every sentence in the paragraph should aim to support the topic sentence.
2. Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences are sentences which support or uphold the topic sentence and make the body of a paragraph. The supporting sentences support by providing facts, details and examples to logically present the argument.
One should keep in mind to provide specific details to show how the ideas are valid.
- While stating facts, examples, studies, experts’ opinions, etc. be specific.
- Use the experts’ names and other details.
- Examples should also be specific in terms of their names, places, dates, etc.
- Use specific numbers and dates.
- In case of scientific studies, explain in short how the study was done.
- Use vivid descriptions to provide details.
- One should make sure that all the details provided in the supporting sentences are relevant; otherwise, the reader may lose interest and focus with unnecessary digressions.
- Try to explain things in detail so that the readers do not have to think too hard to figure out the significance.
- Supporting sentences should not be used to merely repeat your topic sentences, but they should be the explanations, justifications, interpretations and analyses of the topic sentence.
- One should also make sure that all the supporting sentences are in a logical order.
3. Concluding sentence
The last sentence of the paragraph is termed as the concluding sentence which is usually a review of the paragraph. It should emphasize on the main point or the topic sentence. It is advisable not to end the paragraph therefore with a quotation, but to end with your own
words and ideas.
An illustrative example
The Right to Information Act
Before getting into the writing about The Right to Information Act one needs to get all the required information regarding The Right to Information Act, such as the historical and the legal background to such an act, the need for such an act, the history of the enactment of the Act, the details of the act, the use of the act for the benefit of the citizens, etc. When all these details are collected then one needs to put them in proper logical perspective so that when the readers read it they can have a clear notion about what the act is all about.
The following outline was made before the actual writing –
**The Thesis statement** – The Right to Information Act opened up the door of information for the individual citizens and in the process empowered them.
**The Body paragraphs** –
Paragraph I – the factors that impaired free flow of information,
Paragraph II – legislation of the Act,
Paragraph III – some important provisions of the act.
**The Conclusion** – the needs and benefits of the Right to Information Act.
The Right to Information is one of the basic human rights in a democratic society and is indispensable for free flow of information. If a democratic society has to function properly then it is essential that it has informed citizens. But many a times it happens that the government does not share all the information with the citizens in the name of Official Secrets Act and such other legal provisions. In such a situation what was necessary was to bring about a legal provision which would make citizen’s access to information easier. **The Right to Information Act opened up the door of information for the individual citizens and in the process empowered them.**
But before one goes into the ways in which the Right to Information Act has enabled free access to information what **one needs to know the factors that impaired free flow of information**. It is usually thought that there are three factors –
a. The legislative framework includes several pieces of restrictive legislation,
such as the Official Secrets Act, 1923;
b. The pervasive culture of secrecy and arrogance within the bureaucracy; and
c. The low levels of literacy and rights awareness amongst India’s people.
(http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/rti_dh.htm)
The Right to Information Act came into effect only after a lot of pressure was given to the government to legislate such an act. The demand for the right to information gained momentum in India in the last three decades. The pressure from the mass led to the draft bill of Right to Information being introduced to the Indian Parliament in July 2000. It came into effect on 12th October 2005. Under this law, information has become a fundamental right of the citizen.
According to the act, the government bodies and government funded agencies are liable to share any information that the citizens ask for. Under this law all government bodies or government funded agencies have to designate a Public Information Officer (PIO) whose role would be to ensure that information sought for is disclosed to the petitioner within thirty days. Information means any material in any form, including records, documents, memos, e-mails, opinions, advices, press releases, circulars, orders, logbooks, contracts, reports, papers, samples, models, data material held in any electronic form, etc. According to this act citizen also has firstly, the right to inspection of work, documents, records; secondly to take notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records; thirdly to take certified samples of material; and finally to obtain information in the form of diskettes, floppies, tapes, video cassettes or in any other electronic mode or through printouts where such information is stored in a computer or in any other device.
In conclusion, it can be said that any healthy democracy requires an informed citizenry and transparency of information which are vital to its functioning and also to contain corruption and to hold governments and their instrumentalities accountable to the governed. Consequently, it can be said that Right to Information is essential as it gives citizens the chance to get any information (barring some which are official secrets for various reasons) and help them make political, social and financial decisions.
- The first paragraph is the Introduction which provides the necessary background for Right to Information Act. The last line of the first paragraph is the Thesis Statement – “The Right to Information Act opened up the door of information for the individual citizens and in the process
• Each paragraph starts with a **Topic sentence** which sums up the theme of that paragraph. For example, in the second paragraph the topic sentence is “one needs to know the factors that impaired free flow of information.” All the other sentences after the topic sentence go on to support the topic sentence. These sentences are known as **the Supporting sentences**.
### Check Your Progress
1. Briefly explain the main components of Academic writing.
2. What is body paragraph? What does body paragraph consist of? Explain in detail.
### 3.3 NOTE MAKING
Note making is an exercise that we need to do as it is a key to success in academic as well as professional fields. Suppose you are given a topic to research and write on. As you do your research a plethora of information comes to you – some of them are useful, some very significant, some rubbish and some which you can neglect. While gathering all the information if we do not keep proper notes and think that you will be able to retain everything in your mind, then you are mistaken as it may happen that you may miss some important information while writing or may miss an important argument. Therefore, it is always better that we make notes, which can then be used while we start writing or preparing for the examination or use for future reference. Therefore, note making is an essential part of many English language syllabus as it helps us in our writing process.
#### 3.4.1 Why Note-Making?
Note-Making is significant academic exercise for the following reasons –
(a) Today when there is plethora of information available on any topic because of the spread of digital information therefore it is significant that one takes down notes of whatever one reads so that it can be used in future; otherwise the person may have the tendency to forget many things that he or she has read.
(b) The notes can be used for future reference.
(c) By note making on can filter the key ideas from what one has read and can do away with information and analyses that are not so useful.
(d) It can be helpful in revision work.
3.4.2 Techniques of Note-Making or How to make notes?
- The first significant thing about Note-making is that the reader should read or go through the reading or the passage very carefully and try to figure out the key ideas, main theme, key arguments of the reading / passage.
- The Note-maker should them put the main idea of the passage as heading of the passage – the heading should be short and easy to understand (usually of three to four words) and usually written on the top middle of the page. Moreover, it should be so that it evokes the interest of the other readers and also makes you again go through it.
- Under the heading of the passage, the sub-headings should come in. Sub-headings are the subordinate or associated ideas that come under the heading, that are used to develop the heading or the main idea of the reading or passage.
- Once we are through with the subheading it is essential to write the points under each subheading which goes on in support/ against/ to uphold/ to argue in favour or against/ to provide the details/ etc. of the sub-heading. It should be kept in mind to properly indent (space suitably and provide them numbers of put them in bullet form) the points.
- Other significant things –
- There is no need to write full sentences in Note-making – one can just write in the form of just the necessary words which can be understandable.
- Abbreviations should be used as much as possible (and a list of abbreviations should be provided at the end of Note-Making for other readers)
| Abbreviations |
|---------------|
| Some Popular and standard Abbreviations |
| a. Capitalized first letters of words |
| U.S.A., U.K., U.S.S.R., W.B., U.P., etc. |
| b. Common abbreviations |
| c. Sc. (for science), Mr., Mrs., Dr., Govt., etc |
| d. Common symbols e.g., : \, ∴ , +ve, -ve, ® (leading to), ↑ (rising), ↓ (falling), =, etc. |
| e. Measurements and Figures |
| 100’, 100”, 100 kg, 1000 mm, 100ml, etc. |
Making own abbreviations
Such as, edn. (education), progm. (programme), prog’ve (progressive).
We are all accustomed to doing it as we use such abbreviations usually when we write SMS or while writing informally WhatsApp messages.
Since notes are prepared for one’s own use, one has the flexibility to use a format which suits the most, yet the following format may be conveniently used by all, though there could be other customized formats according to one’s needs and preference.
Heading: ............
Point 1. ...............
1.a Sub-point. ............
1.b Sub point. ...............
Point 2. ...............
2.a Sub point. ............
2.b Sub point. ...............
Abbr. used
Check Your Progress
1. Why is Note Making important?
2. Write a short note on essential Note Making techniques.
3.5 Paraphrasing and Summarising
Summarising and Paraphrasing are very useful skills because they allow us to use the work of authors whom we wish to cite, while using our own words and thus not turning our paper into a copy-and-paste from other works. These skills help us demonstrate our understanding of a text, and showcase our original analysis and use of what we have read.
Paraphrasing means putting a piece of writing in new words, so that most of the language or expression is different, while the content or idea is retained.
Summarising means reproducing the main points of a piece of writing while substantially cutting down its length.
Paraphrasing means changing the words in which something you have read has been expressed. The result of paraphrasing should be significantly different from the original source, so that as far as the expression goes, it counts as your original writing. At the same time, because you will be giving credit to the original author of the text you have read, s/he must not be misquoted. Therefore, the meaning must NOT be changed.
Consider the following sentence: “There has been much debate about the reasons for the industrial revolution happening in eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany.”
This could be paraphrased: “Why the industrial revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion.” (Bailey, 50)
The above paraphrase is a good example because it:
- Uses a different sentence structure than the original,
- Mostly uses different words,
- BUT retains the same meaning as the original, and
- Does not try to forcibly replace the words or phrases that are in common use, or have no effective substitute, or whose replacement would make the statement clumsy or unclear, e.g. ‘industrial revolution’ or ‘eighteenth century’.
**Passage for Paraphrasing:**
The information that Columbus wanted most was: Where is the gold? He had persuaded the king and queen of Spain to finance an expedition to the lands, the wealth, he expected would be on the other side of the Atlantic – the Indies and Asia, gold and spices. Spain was recently unified, one of the new modern nation-states, like France, England, and Portugal. Its population, mostly poor peasants, worked for the nobility, who were 2 percent of the
population and owned 95 percent of the land. Like other states of the modern world, Spain sought gold, which was becoming the new mark of wealth, more useful than land because it could buy anything.
**Paraphrased Passage:**
According to Howard Zinn, the rise of modern nation-states like France, England, and Portugal created a demand for gold because it had the advantage of being usable for exchange. Spain, which had been recently unified, was one of these new countries in which gold was replacing land as the symbol of prosperity. Most Spaniards were impoverished and worked for the nobles, who despite being a tiny minority owned most of the land. Against this backdrop of economic change and inequality, the rulers of Spain funded Columbus’ transatlantic voyage in the hope of gold and spices from the Indies and Asia. Therefore, for Columbus, finding gold was the most pressing task. (Zinn, *A People’s History of the United States*)
Taken from book on *Academic Writing*, edited by Deb Dulal Halder from the chapter on ‘Summarizing and Paraphrasing” by Sumati Dwivedi.
Summarising means giving a brief statement of the main points of a text, in one’s own words, while maintaining the meaning of the original.
As you can see, summarising has two key characteristics in common with paraphrasing: **originality of expression**, and **preservation of content**. In practice, the two techniques are typically used together, though this Chapter is discussing them separately for clarity. In summarising something you’ve read, you will probably find yourself using all the paraphrasing skills you developed in section 3 of the Chapter. In this section, the aim is to add a further skill – that of **brevity**, i.e., compressing your paraphrase into fewer words than the original. This must be done without losing essential information.
You have most likely summarised things often in your daily life – such as a conversation, the plot of a film or novel, instructions you are asked to pass on to a third person, etc. For instance, after watching a three-hour film, you may tell your friend something like: “It’s basically a love story in which the hero is involved in a gang war which is only resolved in the last scene in the courtroom, after which he marries the heroine and lives happily ever after”. Or when asked by a family member how a meeting with a friend went, you may condense a long conversation into: “I told her all about my summer job, but she hadn’t done anything much over the vacations so she told me her plans for the winter
holidays, when she might do an NGO internship or study music. I told her why I preferred the music idea, and we finished by catching up on the books we’ve each read.”
You may also have performed similar operations at school if a question or assignment asked you to sum up, condense, write a *précis*, encapsulate, outline, make a synopsis, briefly discuss, etc.
### 3.5.1 Step by Step Paraphrasing and Summarizing:
1. Read the original text for a cursory reading. The second reading can be specific and close, looking for better understanding of the text.
2. You can underline the main thoughts. Also mark the supporting arguments.
3. Make note of the important points. While making notes try not to copy words from the original until there is no substitute for them.
4. Now keep aside the original matter and write on all the important points of the original in your own language.
5. Compare your version with the original to see whether all important points have been included.
6. If you find any unique word in the original which you wish to retain, then you can also use it in quotes to show the borrowing from the original.
**Check Your Progress**
1. What is the difference between Paraphrasing and Summarizing?
2. What steps should you follow in both these activities?
### 3.6 LETTER WRITING
Letters can be broadly classified into formal, semi-formal and informal letters. As the name itself suggests, formal letters are used for formal purposes and situations like those at the workplace, etc. whereas informal letters are personal letters used in informal situations, like letters sent to friends, relatives, etc. The examples of formal letters are applications, letters to editors, job related correspondence, letters to editors, complaint letters, suggestion letters, persuasive letters and many other types of official letters.
3.6.1 Example of a Formal Letter
Needles.com
Industrial City, Delhi
Ph. 1234 567 890; Website: www.needles.com
Email: email@example.com
Ref. No. MC/Admn/2019/702
Date: 10 December 2019
The Insurance Manager
State Insurance Company
Rajendra Place, New Delhi
Subject: Request to Get Annual Car Insurance Renewed vide Policy No. 15456977
Sir/Madam
Our Company had purchased Maruti Ertiga Petrol Version (DL 14CH 2435) on 21 December 2018 and had got the insurance done through your company vide Policy No. 15456977. The policy is expiring on the 21st December 2019. We wish to get the policy renewed by your Company only as we are satisfied with the services.
Please let us know the details of the Terms and Conditions of Insurance, the premium liability, the insurance cover, the no claim bonus and the documents required for insurance. Please send an insurance representative to our office on any working day between 2:00 PM to 3:00 PM during this week to explain the related details with required documents.
Please feel free to contact us for any query.
Looking forward to an early response.
Sincerely
Rajinder Kumar
Director
3.6.2 Format: Parts of a Formal Letter
1. **Heading**: The name and address of the sender comes at the top of the letter whether it is an individual or an organisation. In the case of organization’s name and address, generally printed letter-heads are used where this part is printed in the centre. This part is also termed as ‘Return Address’ which means the receiver of letter knows whom and where to respond.
2. **Reference No.**: It is the number which is specific to a letter. It helps in locating the letter at a later stage. This number, along with date, makes it a very specific identity of a letter.
3. **Date**: In the age of global businesses and multi-national communications between companies, different formats of date writing are used in various countries but for our context in normal usage we follow ‘dd/mm/yyyy’ format of date but for official purpose we adopt any one of the following styles for date writing:
- 28 September 2019
- September 28, 2019
- 28th September 2019
All these styles are correct but the first one is more prevalent these days.
It can be left aligned or right aligned as per the format chosen.
4. **Inside Address**: It is the name and address of the receiver of the letter. These days organizations use cover envelops with cuts at the place of inside address and the paper is folded in such a way that the inside address becomes the outside address also.
5. **Subject line**: It is a brief one line about the subject of the letter whether it is applying for a job or complaint of a damaged product or submission of a proposal. The subject line should convey the purpose of the letter at the first glance.
6. **Salutation**: Commonly used ‘Sir/ Madam’ (when there is no previous interaction) or ‘Dear Sir/Dear Madam (when there is previous interaction) (No ‘mam’ please).
If the writer knows the receiver, then the address like ‘Dear Mr. Khanna’ or ‘Dear Ms. Malik’ can be used for Rajiv Khanna and Namya Malik respectively. When you are using the name of the addressee, please address by the first name (Surname) only as given in the examples. Do not write as ‘Dear Mr. Rajiv’ or ‘Dear Ms. Namya’.
**Note**: These days it is more customary to use ‘Ms.’ for any woman—married or unmarried—in place of the distinct address ‘Miss’ and ‘Mrs.’
7. **Body of the Letter**: In fact, the body of any letter can be divided in three parts:
a. **Introduction or Opening Para**: Where you write about the context/background of the letter and introduce the topic of correspondence.
b. **Details of Body or Main Para**: This is the main part of the body where the writer can give the details of the content to be conveyed. This is also the part where the writer has the maximum choice to showcase his/her talent of writing.
c. **Conclusion or Closing Para**: This is the section of body where the writer focuses on the action required from the recipient of the letter—early reply, meeting in
person, consider as a candidate, sanction the leave, and approve the proposal and so forth. Closing should be very effective to get the desired action done.
8. **Complimentary Close:** After the closing para, the letter does not end abruptly rather the phrases like ‘yours sincerely’, ‘yours truly’ are used before the signature slot. Salutation and Complimentary Close are related. If the salutation has been at a more personal level, like Mr. Jacob’ the complimentary close will also be more personal like ‘Truly’ or ‘Yours truly’. (Only the first letter of the first word is written capital.)
9. **Signature Slot:** This part carries the signature, name and designation of the sender. This part provides authenticity to the content and fixes accountability on the writer. The parts after ‘Signature Slot’ are not compulsory parts of a letter. They can be used, if required.
10. **Reference Initials:** Some organizations prefer the signatures of other personnel involved in dictating or typing of a letter which helps them to locate easily in future who typed, etc. It increases accountability.
11. **Enclosures (Encl.):** They are just like attachments in e-mails. Any additional documents attached with the main letter are listed in this part.
12. **Courtesy Copies (C.C.):** When copies of letter are sent to more than one recipient (the addressee), it is detailed in this part. The name and designation of the person is written. In the days of use of carbon papers for making copies, they used to be carbon copies. Sometimes the word ‘Distribution’ is also used followed by ‘To’ in the next line and then the names and designations of other recipients like the following:
**Distribution**
i. Mr. Kamal Nagpal, Administrative Officer
ii. Mr. Pankaj Dua, Accounts Officer
13. **Post Script (P.S.):** As the words indicate, it is the ‘script’ written after the letter has been completed. When the writer of the letter realises that s/he has completed the body but some vital information is left out, it can be written in P.S. as is in the following example:
P.S.: The timing of the meeting has changed from 11:00 AM to 03:00 PM on 17 November 2015.
3.7 REPORT WRITING
Although reports can be of various types, yet when it comes to writing there are two broad categories under which reports are written - a short report and a long report. All Project Reports, Field and Visit to industries and business concerns are long reports. First we begin with the format of short report writing and then will move on to long reports, including field and visit reports:
Writing a Short Report
A short report can be submitted in a letter or a memorandum format whereas a long report can be submitted in a combined structure.
1. Memorandum Format
Here is an example of a periodic quarterly report of a company:
MYIDEA.COM
New Delhi
No.: MIC.ACC./2020/02
Date: 15 January 2020
To: Ms. Gayatri Singh, Accounts Manager
From: Tanmay Chaudhary, Accounts Officer
Subject: Submission of Quarterly Expenditure Report
As per your instructions given in the meeting of 7th January 2020, following is the detail of the expenditure incurred on research related activities under the non-plan head during the quarter September-December 2019:
| S. No. | Name of Head | Amount Spent in Rs. |
|--------|--------------------------------------------------|---------------------|
| 1. | Expenditure under the head 'Salaries' | 81,24,350 |
| 2 | Expenditure incurred on maintenance of building and infrastructure | 3,25,987 |
| 3 | Conveyance, TA to staff | 94,250 |
| 4 | Contingency | 1,45,000 |
2. Letter Format
As Director of MYIDEA.com, you were working on the idea of opening a subsidiary company at Ludhiana, Punjab. You assigned the task of finding an appropriate location to Mr. Raj Kumar, the HR Head of your company. Mr. Kumar prepared the following feasibility report and submitted it to you.
MYIDEA.COM
New Delhi
No.: MIC.ACC./2020/02
Date: 15 January 2020
Dear Ms. Gayatri Singh,
Subject: Submission of Quarterly Expenditure Report
As per your instructions given in the meeting of 7th January 2020, following is the detail of the expenditure incurred on research related activities under the non-plan head during the quarter September-December 2019:
| S. No. | Name of Head | Amount Spent in Rs. |
|--------|--------------------------------------------------|-----------------------|
| 1. | Expenditure under the head 'Salaries' | 81,24,350 |
| 2 | Expenditure incurred on maintenance of building and infrastructure | 3,25,987 |
| 3 | Conveyance, TA to staff | 94,250 |
| 4 | Contingency | 1,45,000 |
Grand Total= Rs.86,89,537/-
The report is submitted for information and further action.
I would be happy to provide more details if required.
Yours sincerely
Signature
Tanmay Chaudhary
Report Writing: Some Preliminary Facts
• While writing a report, one must read the instructions carefully on the basis of which the report is to be prepared. It is like reading a question paper thoroughly before writing an answer in an examination. Instructions set the design and content of the whole structure of the report.
• Next step is to collect appropriate material required including facts and data to prepare a report. Even in a short report, one must plan for the report and give a thought to the supporting document/s or argument/s.
• Then the outline of report is prepared. Once the outline is ready, one has to fill the relevant details.
• After the writing task is done, still much needs to be done. Reviewing and editing is as crucial as writing. Keeping the purpose and reader/s of a report in mind, review it for the content.
• The next thing is to look for grammar, spelling and expression accuracy and organization of content. Finally the formatting and the report is ready.
Step by Step Writing of a Report
Writing mainly consists of three steps: Planning, Writing and Completing. The general three steps of writing can be put to best use for report and proposal writing as well:
• Stage-1 Planning
Planning is a crucial stage of writing even if writing involves a short message as one must know about what to write, whom to write to and how to write. In a formal piece of writing like that of a report, specifically a long report, planning becomes all the more significant. One should not have to keep going to the purpose of the report after writing some pages of the same. Similarly while writing an essay, it would be very tedious if one had to keep referring to the thesis statement.
1. Be clear about the **purpose of report writing**. Once what, for whom and how of a report are understood by the writer, s/he is able to prepare the work plan.
2. Once one knows the target audience, one can gather information according to the needs of the audience. Relevant information in the form of facts, data or case studies can be gathered and studied beforehand.
3. Once the basic material has been collected one must think about the medium rather than media of presentation since a combination of various media can make the presentation more effective.
4. Next stage is the organisation of information. One must prepare an outline in the form of an appropriate structure so that at the actual writing stage one knows how to structure the material collected.
• Stage-2 Writing
1. Following the format of a short report or a long report, write the report with the specific purpose and specific audience in one’s mind.
2. Choose simple words over jargon and complex words.
3. Proper headings and sub-headings with short simple paragraphs make a report more effective.
4. Check it for proper citations for the resources used.
5. Objectivity is the key to report writing. Logically driven facts and figures can lead to logical conclusions.
6. Do not include anything irrelevant. It will make the report incoherent. Be specific.
7. The selection of words, tone and voice must be audience and purpose specific.
8. Incomplete reports will not serve their purpose. Make them authentic and complete.
• Stage-3 Completing
By now the first draft is ready but it will not be presentable. Only after editing and revision, can one get the final presentable report.
1. Time to go back and revise the content. Is the content appropriate, is it presented appropriately, is the sequence fine, is it readable, is it serving the purpose etc. should be your questions to assess the content and the medium. You can review and reframe accordingly.
2. Are the graphics and other media used appropriately, are they adding to the effectiveness of the report. Re-look at the whole for writing as well as other media.
3. Language and grammar accuracy cannot be underestimated. Go through the whole presentation again to check for errors of spelling, structure or mechanics. One wrong spelling at the beginning is enough to play game spoiler. Proofread and correct.
4. For the delivery of the report choose the appropriate medium.
### 3.8 EXERCISES
1. Write a letter to your mother explaining to her why you did not expect good results in the exams you have just given.
2. Write a letter to the Chief Minister stating the ways in which he should try to deal with Air Pollution in Delhi.
3. As the President of the Students’ Union of your College, write a Report to the Principal of your college providing details of the present state of the canteen and the suggestions for improvement. (Report in Letter Format)
4. Write a short report of the field visit to a factory that your team has recently undertaken.
5. Make notes and then paraphrase the following passage.
Punctuality is a most important characteristic that everyone must have to be a successful person. It makes a person capable enough to complete all the required tasks at already decided time. The word meaning of punctual is ‘on time’. It is very necessary for everyone to be on time. What will happen if a doctor gets late to the operation theatre, student gets late to the examination hall, etc. Everything will get messed up, a student can be out of examination hall and a patient can be dead.
It is very necessary for a student to be punctual all time in order to achieve what he/she wants in life. It is one of the noblest virtues which make students more civilized and cultured. Students need this quality to develop as a habit to do things in correct time. Being punctual proves this proverb ‘A stitch in time saves nine’ means doing tasks within time saves time and unnecessary troubles.
Punctuality is of great values to the students as it teaches them discipline also. Using this, students can be on right time everywhere such as in school, in lab, in class, in library, at home, in examination hall, in project, etc. They can perform better at both place home and school. It helps in removing laziness and negative attitudes of the students. A disciplined and punctual student always gets respect, recognition and
social acceptance in the school and society. They appreciated a lot by the teachers and parents.
Punctuality is the key to success for all the punctual students. Students should follow all the great world leaders to achieve fame and success. It provides students various golden opportunities to do better in life in many areas. No one of us has been born with the virtue of punctuality; everyone has to develop it on their own. It makes certain the path of success.
Punctuality is a necessary trait for all. It needs to be developed by all especially youths of the nation as they are future and have to lead their country. The rate of development in any country depends on how people of that country are punctual and disciplined to their job. So, punctuality is a key to success for everyone.
6. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow:
Chief Seathl’s Letter
In 1855, the Native American Chief Seathl of the Suquamish people wrote a letter to the President of the United States of America in response to the President’s demand to forcibly buy the tribal land.
How can you buy or sell the sky – the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us. We do not own the freshness of the air or the sparkle of the water. How can you buy them from us? … Every part of this earth is sacred to my people. Every shining needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods, every humming insect is holy in the memory and experience of my people. We know that the White man does not understand our ways … The earth is not his brother, but his enemy, and when he has conquered it, he moves on. He leaves his father’s graves behind and he does not care. He kidnaps the earth from his children. He does not care. His fathers’ graves and his children’s birth right is forgotten. His appetite will devour the earth and leave behind only a desert.
One thing we know, which the white man may one day discover. Our God is the same God. You may think now that you own him as you wish to own our land. But you cannot. He is the God of all men. This earth is precious to him. And to harm the earth is to heap contempt on its creator. The whites shall pass – perhaps sooner than other tribes, Continue to contaminate your bed and you will one night suffocate in your own waste. When the buffalo are all slaughtered, the wild horses all tamed, the sacred corner of the forest heavy with scent of many men, and the view of the ripe hills blotted by talking wires, where is the thicket?
Gone. Where is the eagle? Gone. And what is it to say goodbye to the swift and the hunt – the end of the living and the beginning of the dying.
Answer the following questions:
(1) Analyse the difference between the ideas of the white man and the native/tribal people as seen through Chief Seathl’s letter. Can you propose a middle path between the two contrasting views of how the earth should be used?
(2) Chief Seathl wrote this letter 165 years ago, using terms and a style that are not used in our time. Paraphrase the above passage in not more than 75 words in contemporary language and style.
(3) Expository writing calls for logical analysis. Using material from Chief Seathl’s letter, write an expository essay on the following topic: Europeans’ (the white men’s) idea of development was completely different from that of the tribal people, and it has ultimately led to the destruction of the planet as the Chief predicted.
(4) What kind of person do you think Chief Seathl is based on this letter? How would you interpret his value and goals?
(5) The above passage is an extract from Chief Seathl’s letter to the President of the United States. Based on this letter, write a letter from Chief Seathl to his children in which he explains to them what will happen to their way of life once their land is gone.
3.9 FURTHER READINGS
- Halder, Deb Dulal, Ed. *Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook* (2016) Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
- Malhotra Prerna, Deb Dulal Halder, (2019) *Communication Skills: Theory and Practice*, Eighth Edition, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
- Halder, Deb Dulal, Anjana Neira Dev, Prerna Malhotra, (2012) *Technical Writing: Theory and Practice*, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
- Kaul, Asha, (2012) *Effective Business Communication*, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi.
We communicate orally all the time along with some nonverbal cues, unlike written communication for which one needs to be literate. Literacy is a prerequisite for writing (though if paintings and carvings are taken to be writing, then it is not so), but each one of us are born with LAD (Language Acquisition Device) which makes us acquire language and use it orally. Whereas for writing one needs to put in conscious effort; but for acquiring the first language (usually one’s mother tongue), we do not need to put in any such conscious effort; as we learn our mother tongue quite instinctively.
| Some forms of Oral Communication |
|----------------------------------|
| - Face-to-face conversation |
| - Telephonic conversation |
| - Meetings |
| - Seminars |
| - Conferences |
Though oral communication has been one of the most used means of communication; but it is not true that oral communication is always informal. Often oral communication is formal – such as public speech, interview, presentation, group discussion, etc. which are as formal as written communication. Though at the same time, it can also be said that written communication sometimes is not so formal, such as when you write messages in WhatsApp or when you wrote some posts in Facebook or make others posts in Social Media sites. In this chapter we will focus on the formal oral communication though before doing so let us focus on the general features of speech or oral communication. Again, parts of this chapter are taken from the book *Communication Skills: Theory and Practice*. This Unit has shortened the chapters and it is advised that you consult the book to have an enhanced understanding of the different oral communication needs and practices.
### 1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This unit deals exclusively with Oral communication which by its very definition is meant for practice. It will help you in preparing for oral presentations, group discussions, interviews etc. The following topics have been dealt with in this unit:
- Oral Communication – its strengths and weaknesses
- Monologues and Dialogues
- Participating in Group Discussions
- Facing Interviews
- Giving Public Speech / Presentations
1.3 FEATURES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
Before going further in our understanding of what is Oral communication, It is essential that we understand the specific features of Oral Communication so as to make ourselves thorough with our understanding of Oral Communication.
- Oral Communication is mostly spontaneous, though there are oral communications that are well thought out. It is a saying that one should think before speaking. But if one thinks too much then s/he will not be able to speak at all. Therefore there is a need to strike a balance between spontaneity and planning. Most good speakers plan their speeches and yet they appear to be spontaneous in their speech.
- As Oral Communication is mostly spontaneous, therefore it has its corollary effects such as – the communication is faster and dynamic; and feedback instant in comparison to written communication.
- As there is a pressure of thinking faster in Oral Communication therefore there are lots of hesitations, fillers and repetitions. There are lots of “ummm” and “eerrr” sounds between words and sentences spoken (Non-fluencies). Often we repeat words and clauses while communicating orally as it gives us time to organize our thoughts.
- No two persons speak a language in the same way. Oral Communication or Speech varies across gender, class, region, economic and educational background, etc. Moreover, the same person does not always speak in the same way. With different people and differing circumstances, the speech of a person varies as s/he adapts to the situation and modifies her/his speech.
- Oral communication is usually thought to be casual or informal in the sense that most casual communication happens in the oral mode. In that sense, Oral Communication or speech is very significant in forming interpersonal relationships. In other words, it serves the phatic function in terms of chit-chats, casual conversations, etc.
- Oral communication or speech is loosely structured in the sense that while speaking we do not tend to follow the grammatical rules all the time as the main objective of oral communication is no to present the thoughts in a structural and grammatical way, but to put across the information, idea, emotion of the speaker to the listener in an effective way so that it is easily understood by the listener(s).
- In speech or oral communication, the non-verbal cues are very significant. The meaning of what we say also depends on the tone, pitch, rhythm, tempo, volume, gestures, postures
and other body movements accompanying speech. These non-verbal elements become significant in adding meaning to the words that we speak.
- It is a great advantage of oral communication that the listener can interrupt, if required, and clarify her/his doubt whenever he wants to.
- Pauses and silences are pregnant with meaning in oral communication. When one pauses in speech, s/he pauses either to organize her or his thoughts, or to provide the listeners adequate time to assimilate / comprehend whatever s/he is saying. Timely pauses make speech dramatic and persuasive, enhancing the effect of communication.
- In informal oral communication slang is acceptable. In all our communication with friends and peer group it comprises a significant part as it helps in building interpersonal relationships.
- In oral communication we use lot of elisions and contractions, such as “wanna” for “want to”, “don’t” for “do not”, etc.
- Oral communication is ‘time bound’, in the sense that the sounds we produce during speech fade away rapidly (if not recorded electronically). Before it fades away the listener must grasp the sound to figure out what is being said.
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
|-----------|------------|
| Faster and spontaneous | Cannot be documented (except electronically) and therefore does not have legal validity. |
| Feedback instant | There is limited time for formulation of ideas |
| Clarification can be asked immediately | Success depends on the listening and attentiveness of the decoder. |
| Can be used with Non-verbal language to facilitate communication. | One can get diverted from the topic |
| Can be corrected mid-way to take a different approach. | One needs to have good memory for retention of messages. |
| Economical and less time consuming | |
| Helps in building interpersonal relationships. | |
As mentioned earlier, oral communication we do all the time; but when it comes to communicate orally for the public or to address a mass, many find it hard to do as it makes them conscious of their own communicative means and makes them fail miserably. But one has to remember that oral communication is the way to deal with the world and moreover, the professional world. Without sound oral communication competence, one cannot think of excelling academically and professionally in today’s world. Therefore it is essential that along with other things we also focus on bettering our oral communication proficiency. Which are the areas do you think you should focus on for developing your oral communication skills? Let us delve into it for the time being, in short.
1.4 MONOLOGUE AND DIALOGUE
Conversation is a part and parcel of our everyday life. In the last chapter we have figured out how communication has been an integral part of our life. We have also read how there are different kinds of communication. In this section we will focus on Monologue and Dialogue as means of communication and emphasize on the significance of each of these and the differences between them.
A monologue, as the term suggests, is an oral communication which is conveyed by one person, or it may also be a long one-sided conversation. The Greek origin of the word means “speaking alone” in the sense when one person does all the talking. It can be said that when a speaker monopolizes any conversation because of his or her ideas and knowledge or for any other reason which puts him or her in a privileged position of making others listen to her or him, then it is a monologue. Usually it is thought that monologue is boring in nature as it is a kind of communication when the person speaking is in some way superior to the listeners – either in age, or in rank, or in knowledge, etc.; but it is not always true. Think about your classroom situation when a teacher enters a class and gives a lecture on a new topic. What s/he may do is to give a lecture where there is no space for the students to put up questions to him or her as it may be a very large class where there is no scope for dialogues or for any other reason. Or think about a video lecture in which there is no scope for interaction where the lecturer speaks and others just listen. Or think about a situation when the Prime minister of a country gives a speech in radio or television, it is a monologue where the citizens listen to it to get information or some directive. Similarly in an office set up, a boss in an office may give some instructions in the form of monologue. In all these above examples we see that the speaker has some privileged position which makes him or her say things which others just listen.
As a monologue is when a single person does all the talking, therefore it is essential that the monologist or the speaker is well prepared, logical, coherent and listener-friendly in what s/he says, otherwise it will tend to be boring. When we speak, it fades away fast; therefore it is important that the speaker keeps in mind that he or she is not very fast and uses vocabulary which is easily understandable and links ideas in such a manner that the listeners find it logical.
In many of Shakespearean plays we see him using a lot of soliloquies and they are of immense dramatic value as they not only present the inner dilemma of the protagonist, but at the same time are immensely rhetorical and poetic. When one is rhetorical in the right sense of the term, half the work is already done as how one says things is more significant than what one says. So the style of expression is of supreme significance for a speaker when s/he is engaging in a monologue.
Whereas certain occasions make it inevitable that a speaker enters into a monologue; but often the means of communication is dialogue where two or more people take turns to put forward their points of view, along with non-verbal cues, to often reach a conclusion. Think about a class room situation when the teacher enters the class and starts a topic with few general questions for the students. Students respond to the question and then the teacher sums up the discussion along with his or her point of view. It is an example of a dialogue. Or you are going for an interview and there you are asked questions on your subject, on general topics, on your strengths, your career plan, etc. It is a dialogue between you and the panelists in the interview board. Or think about a Board Meeting, where different members are discussing things according to the agenda of the meeting so as to reach a conclusion, it is an example of dialogue. Or as you finish your classes, two of you are discussing about going for a movie, it is also an example of a dialogue. Or suppose the President of a nation has visited India and is engaging with some bilateral treaties with the Indian counterpart, then it can only be possible through dialogues.
Thus dialogues can be of various kinds depending on the context. But what is significant in a dialogue is that each party that enters into the field of communication in a dialogue has the space and time to put forward his or her point of view. In that sense, dialogues are democratic in nature, where individuals get chance to have their say unlike a monologue where a single person takes over the talking because of his or her privileged position and others are mere receptors of the communication.
The most important facet of a dialogue is to taking turns – that is, the speaker is not always a speaker; but speaks for a while and then let the other person come up with his or her ideas, queries, responses, etc. Dialogue is a democratic means to come to a conclusion. These
days we see that a lot of emphasis is also put forward by different institutions and companies to initiate dialogues with their customers / prospective customers as it is beneficial for a company or an institution to do so.
1.5 GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Group Discussion is used extensively these days along with personal interviews for the selection of candidates for jobs. Written test, experience, qualification and academic credentials often are not the only criterion that the employers are looking for in today’s competitive world. What they want is that the applicant should have leadership qualities, can handle problems easily and can manage human resources. Academic credentials are required, but all these are also of consequence in the professional world. Therefore in many occasions, Group Discussion (GD) is an integral part of the selection process.
One can say that GD is nothing but a test of personality, in the sense that whether a person applying for a job will be able to handle the professional situations or not. It is to be remembered here that one of the significant ways in which human resources can be managed is through effective communication and therefore any employer will like to have effective communicators in his or her institution / company. Leadership is a pre-requisite; but all leaders are at the same time effective communicators. Group Discussion is a significant device to test the communication skills and the leadership qualities of applicants, as well as how well one can manage others’ views.
As in a GD, all the participants, are vying for the post therefore unlike an interview, therefore there is a spirit of competition when one is trying to prove himself or herself better than the rest. In a personal interview, one’s personality is assessed through questions, but in a GD, the candidates are observed in action and thus it is a very significant way to figure out the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. Therefore it is essential that while one is preparing to be employed one prepares oneself mentally and psychologically for a GD. The following are the aspects that the participant of a GD should keep in mind --
- Leadership is a must in a professional world. Leadership does not only mean that one is ahead of the others; but it suggests how one can accommodate the interests of as many people as possible and steer the boat forward.
➢ In a GD, in most cases, the participants would be eager to create the right initiative. It is true that a leader initiates the discussion. But along with speaking what you think on the given topic, it is also important to listen to what others have to say about the topic so that discussion continues. It is not that one needs to be always speaking. One
should say things in clear, concise and straightforward manner and then look for others’ responses and opinions on your view and if necessary, ready to defend your point.
➢ In a GD, it is evident that there will be many views which will be diametrically opposite to each other; and the leader will be the one who will be able to comprehend these views together to come up with a possible direction for the discussion.
➢ There may be some participant(s) in a GD who is/are not so vocal as the rest, a leader would also ask for their opinion(s), so as to make them a part of the discussion.
➢ In other words, a leader’s role in a GD is to control the discussion and give it a direction by accommodating others’ views and reach a conclusion.
**Some Suggestions for Group Discussion Topics**
- Secularism and communalism in our country
- Population explosion is the biggest problem of our country but given less attention than corruption
- Can Google replace teacher?
• It is true that one needs to lead a group of participants in a GD, but that can happen only when one has a thorough knowledge about the subject on which the discussion is taking place. It is true that with one’s rhetorical power one can conceal one’s lack of knowledge; but that can happen for few moments. Rhetoric is an important ally in oral communication but it can help only when one has thorough knowledge about the subject. Usually in a GD, the topic is of general nature and/or about the recent happenings around the world. If one is acquainted with the general knowledge about recent happenings then one would not have to think too much to initiate a discussion on the topic. One should do the following –
➢ Think and speak rationally / logically
➢ Able to think instantly
➢ Speak in a simple, straightforward language.
➢ Clarity of ideas and presentation skills is a must in a GD. One should be able to quickly make a distinction between core and non-core ideas/issues in the discussion and focus on the core issues.
➢ Analytical abilities are also looked for in a GD. One should be able to analyse a topic in its minutest details. Theoretical knowledge is good; but till the time it cannot be
applied to practical use then it is not of any use. Often topics in GD are such that it is expected that participants are able to instantly analyse the topic in detail.
Non-verbal communication is also significant in a GD. Our body speaks more than our speech. How one maintains oneself in a GD through his or her body language is of concern as it is the body language which will show one’s conviction in what s/he is speaking, how attentive one is to others’ views, how flexible one is to others’ opinions and views, etc.
1.6 FACING INTERVIEWS
The term “Interviews” probably rings the prospect of employment to our minds. But apart from that there are many other kinds of interviews, interviews for getting in premier academic institutions, interviews that we read in newspapers or watch in television or internet, etc. But for the present context we will restrict ourselves to facing interview for academic and professional excellence. Interviews can be termed as an oral tool to test the academic and non-academic credentials for employment or entry to an academic institution. Usually any employer would like to figure out before employing anyone whether the person is suitable for employment and whether he or she will serve the purpose for which s/he will be recruited. Similarly, an academic interview tries to find out if the applicant is suitable for pursuing a particular course or if the student has put in efforts to get the diploma or degree for a particular course, if the interview is for the purpose of evaluation. Thus whatever be the purpose of the interview, the interviewer purports to find out your competence about your subject, your communicative competence, your excellence in fields related to the job, your personality, your attitude and aptitude, etc. Usually interviews are taken by a panel of experts and it is essential that one maintains an eye contact with almost all members of the panel.
It is to be kept in mind here that in an interview it is essential to focus on your positive areas so as to create an impact on the people interviewing you. Following things should be kept in mind while facing an interview.
(a) We all know that we should attire ourselves according to the occasion. Similar holds true for interviews too. As interview is a formal occasion, therefore you must try to put forward attire which is formal and give a nice impression about you.
(b) It is essential to have the etiquette to wish the people in the interview board / panel and not to do anything that would make them feel that you are rude or over-confident or a fool.
(c) Mostly, the questions in an interview are related to your subject of specialization; therefore it is a prerequisite that you know your subject well and are able to deliver responses to the questions put forward by the interviewer(s).
(d) Often interviewers ask you questions about your personal life which should be answered tactfully without divulging much of your personal life, and at the same time, by not ....
(e) Questions which are of general nature need to be answered with confidence and it is essential as interviewers try to figure out if you are aware about things apart from your subject.
(f) Your communication should show your confidence and conviction in what you speak.
(g) Your non-verbal cues should match your words and at no time you should show with your gestures or facial expressions that you are getting irritated or bored or aloof to what the interviewers are enquiring about. Moreover, your non-verbal communication should reflect your enthusiasm and interest in the prospective job.
(h) Before facing the panelists of an interview for employment, you should ask yourself three things which would be helpful in your performance. They are –
(1) Do you know yourself?
(2) Do you know about the company / institution?
(3) Do you know the Job Profile?
Do you know yourself? – Before going for an interview you should determine your strengths and weaknesses as it is a topic that you may not only be asked on; but also the panelists on the interview board will be eager to figure out. So you should do a self-evaluation before you walk in for an interview; so that you are not faced with an embarrassing situation or are jolted by questions from the panelists.
Do you know about the company / institution? – It is important to know about the company or the institution for which you have made up your mind to work for and is facing the interview. A little bit of work norms and ethics, their business and other concerns, their opportunities, etc. will help you to answer questions in a much more definite way.
Do you know the Job Profile? – It is also important to know the job profile as that would make you justify why you want to join for such a job. In other words, how your career goal matches with the profile of the job and how both you and the institution will benefit if you are given a chance to serve the institution or company.
1.7 PUBLIC SPEECH / PRESENTATION
Public speech or Presentation is one such form of mass communication where one addresses a (large) gathering of people. Giving a speech is a craft that one needs to inculcate in oneself so in professional life it may come to much use. It is not that only a political leader needs to know the craft of addressing large audiences, but there are various kinds of jobs throughout the world where the art of addressing masses is a prerequisite. Think about a situation when you are heading an institution or you are the Public Relations officer or the media coordinator of an institution, it becomes essential for you to address large audiences. Moreover, think about you making a presentation for a company, aren’t you addressing public? So, public Speech / presentation are significant in our professional life.
Public Speech is different from Presentations in the sense that in Public Speech one is speaking to divergent masses whose background one is not aware of, whereas in presentations one is speaking to a select group of people whose academic and professional backgrounds are more or less similar to you and who have (more or less) similar interests. So a presentation is of a different nature than that of a Public Speech, but in both forms of oral communication what is needed is to catch the attention of the people which can be done either by speaking something new which the audience is not aware of or by saying things in such a manner which catches the attention of people. New ideas, new information is something that makes people attentive to the listener, but in all contexts it is essential that one needs to use a language which is the audience will be accustomed with. For a presentation one can and one should use a subject-specific language (register), as the select group of audience is aware of such subject-specific terminologies; but when it comes to a Public Speech it is essential that one uses as simple and straightforward language as possible.
In Public Speech, one has to be rhetorical to catch the attention of the audience. It is very important to gauge the pulse of the audience as soon as possible and then react according to it. When one is a public leader, one has to figure out what are the expectations of the audience and one needs to present oneself according to those expectations. But at the same time one needs to go beyond those expectations to mark oneself as a good speaker.
In a presentation whether in a classroom or an office or a boardroom, etc., one has to keep in mind various things. They are–
- **Time Limit:** Usually in a presentation there is a time limit given and one should try to wrap up one’s presentation within that time as there should be a discussion post-presentation about what you presented. Moreover, keeping within the time limit is necessary as the audience’s time should be valued.
• Prepare yourself by writing: though in a presentation one speaks as one does in an extempore, but it is to be kept in mind that presentations are to be prepared beforehand and if possible even rehearsed so that you do not miss anything. Often it is good to write down the presentation and if not write down the whole thing then at least make a structure in a piece of paper so that you have a framework ready. Examples, anecdotes, etc. should also be noted so that it is helpful during the presentation and one does not miss anything.
• Often the framework of the presentation is circulated within the audience so that they are aware of the framework one is following during presentation. These days, people often take help of multimedia devices during presentation to make things clear.
• Non-verbal cues are very important during presentations as one’s body language, facial expressions, postures, etc. speaks a lot about what one intends to say. The conviction and confidence in what one is saying is brought forward in one’s presentation through the body language. Moreover, keeping an eye contact with the audience is a must as it ensures that your words are meant for them and it also helps in understanding their responses so as to mould the presentation accordingly. If one’s gaze is constantly fixed at the written document from where you are presenting, then it may cause boredom in your audience. Never read the presentation, but speak from it.
• It is important often to provide an overview about what you are presenting as it makes it easier for the audience to follow it.
• It is also important that you emphasize what your main points are and where you are digressing as well as give them a summary of your presentation as the end of the talk.
• A presentation ending with a bang always is significant as it makes the audience have a strong impression about you as well as your presentation. At the end it is also important to ask audience for their comments, queries, suggestions, etc.
1.8 FURTHER READINGS
• Malhotra Prerna, Deb Dulal Halder, (2019) *Communication Skills: Theory and Practice*, Eighth Edition, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
• Halder, Deb Dulal, Anjana Neira Dev, Prerna Malhotra, (2012) *Technical Writing: Theory and Practice*, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
• Kaul, Asha, (2012) *Effective Business Communication*, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi.
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Teaching Grade 9 Geography Through a Sustainability Lens
2009
# TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................. 2
THE LEARNING FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE STORY ................................................. 3
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT ........................................................................... 4
Ontario Curriculum Expectations .......................................................................................... 4
Planning the Semester ........................................................................................................... 14
WHAT IS FAIR? MODULE ....................................................................................................... 17
Activity 1: What is Fair? ...................................................................................................... 17
SENSE OF PLACE MODULE ..................................................................................................... 24
Place Activity 1: Defining Place ............................................................................................ 25
Place Activity 2: Introductory Sense of Place Questions .................................................... 32
Place Activity 3: Town/Local Area Walk and Map .............................................................. 33
LENS FOUNDATION MODULE ............................................................................................... 32
Lens Activity 1: Do We See the World Through a Particular Lens? .................................... 32
Lens Activity 2: Examining an Alternate Lens ..................................................................... 46
Lens Activity 3: Creating Your Own Lens .......................................................................... 48
PHYSICAL UNIT MODULE ....................................................................................................... 50
Physical Activity 1: Sensory Scavenger Hunt and Interconnections Hike ......................... 50
Physical Activity 2: Interconnections of Features Mind Map Activity ................................ 54
HUMAN SYSTEMS UNIT MODULE: IMMIGRATION SYSTEM ........................................ 57
Human Activity 1: Analysing Commercials ......................................................................... 58
Human Activity 2: Apply to Immigrate to Canada .............................................................. 60
Human Activity 3: Canadian Citizenship Test ..................................................................... 64
Human Activity 4: A Look at the Lives of Real Canadian Immigrants ............................... 65
Human Activity 5: Culminating Task .................................................................................. 66
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS UNIT MODULE ............................................. 68
Human Environment Activity 1: The Lorax ......................................................................... 70
Human Environment Activity 2: Examining Human Use of a Natural Resource—Focus on Water .... 70
Human Environment Activity 3: Using our Natural Resources ........................................... 75
Human Environment Activity 4: Class Examination of a Product: Example –Bottled Water ........ 80
Human Environment Activity 5: A Closer Look at the Products We Use ............................ 84
Alternate Activity: .............................................................................................................. 85
Human Environment Activity 6: Making a Change Challenge ............................................ 89
Human Environment Activity 7: Field Trip ......................................................................... 94
Human Environment Activity 8: Culminating Task ............................................................. 94
GLOBAL UNIT MODULE ........................................................................................................ 95
Global Activity 1: Where does our Stuff Come From? ....................................................... 96
Global Activity 2: The Kiva Approach to Building Fair, ‘Persistable’ Relationships--Microloans .... 97
Global Mini-Activity 3: Revisit Peer Challenge .................................................................... 99
COURSE CULMINATING ACTIVITY—Revisit Interconnections and Five Focusing Questions .... 100
APPENDIX A: LISTENING AND FACILITATION SKILLS ACTIVITIES ................................ 99
Acknowledgments
Through a joint project of the York Region District School Board (YRDSB) and Learning for a Sustainable Future (LSF), a team of geographers from YRDSB and a facilitator from LSF were assembled to create resources that would help students to examine the ministry-mandated concepts in grade nine geography from a sustainability perspective. The team met for a week in August to identify the central theme of the project and to begin to develop the specific resources. The teachers continued to develop materials and to pilot test them with their students in the fall semester. The team met on a number of evenings throughout the semester to reflect upon and revise the materials. This guide is the compilation of the piloted materials and is a result of the hard work, commitment and creativity of the writing team:
- Rob Aurich, King City Secondary School, York Region District School Board
- Teri Burgess, Learning for a Sustainable Future
- Amanda Ellis, Sutton District High School, York Region District School Board
- Bill Havercroft, Huron Heights Secondary School, York Region District School Board
- Sarah Langendoen, Stouffville District Secondary School, York Region District School Board
- Drea Latford Westmount Collegiate Institute, York Region District School Board
- Melinda Pike, Thornlea Secondary School, York Region District School Board
This project was made possible through the support of the York Region District School Board and Learning for a Sustainable Future. Thank you to Cecil Roach, Superintendent, York Region District School Board and Pam Schwartzberg, Learning for a Sustainable Future, for your support of this project.
The Learning for a Sustainable Future Story
LSF’s mission is to promote, through education, the knowledge, skills, perspectives and practices essential to a sustainable future.
Who We Are
Founded in 1991 by a diverse group of youth, educators, business leaders, government and community members, Learning for a Sustainable Future (LSF) is a non-profit Canadian organization that was created to implement sustainable development education (SDE) into Canada’s education system.
Our Goal Is Simple!
LSF’s goal is to work together with educators, students, parents, government, community and business to integrate the concepts and principles of sustainable development into education policy, school curricula, teacher education and lifelong learning across Canada!
The Secret to our Success
LSF believes that building comprehensive programs starts with building a solid base. LSF's core program strengths are linked in an Integrated Framework that includes five areas:
1. Advancing education for sustainable development through strategic education policies and curricula enhancements;
2. Supporting education for sustainable development for youth and educators;
3. Fostering sustainable communities that link formal, informal and non-formal education to informed actions;
4. Initiating innovative education, public awareness and training programs through strategic partnerships;
5. Supporting Canada as a leader in the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.
For more information on LSF programs, please contact us at:
Learning for a Sustainable Future
343 York Lanes, York University
4700 Keele Street, North York, ON M3J 1P3
Phone: (416) 327-2032
Fax: (416) 736-5837
Email: email@example.com
http://www.lsf-lst.ca
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT
Through a joint project of the York Region District School Board (YRDSB) and Learning for a Sustainable Future (LSF), a team of geographers from YRDSB and a facilitator from LSF were assembled to create resources that would help students to examine the ministry-mandated concepts in grade nine geography from a sustainability perspective (for an explanation of ‘sustainability’, please see the Lorax Student Sheet question #10 in HE Activity 1 on page 70). To guide the project, the team considered ‘big questions’ that grade nine students should consider throughout grade nine geography if we are to encourage the students to be responsible citizens. The five questions shaped all of the resources in this guide. They are:
1. How is everything interconnected?
2. Should you care about others and/or your place?
3. Are the current ‘relationships’ (between humans, between humans and the ‘environment’, etc.) ‘continue-able’? ie. able to persist?
4. Are the ‘relationships’ fair?
5. Can you change the ‘relationships’?
Ontario Curriculum Expectations
The general shape of the project is that, with the exception of the What is Fair activity (item 1 below) and the Lens Activity (item 3 below), the modules below integrate with the conventional units in grade nine geography. We have designed one module (3-5 days) for each conventional unit of study to encourage the examination of the unit content from a sustainability perspective. All of the modules help students to attain the ministry ‘outcomes’ (ie curriculum expectations); none of them are ‘add-ons’.
The modules build upon one another however you can choose to use only those you have time for as they have been designed to work independently as well.
The strength of the project is not just in the individual modules (they are well-developed and ready-to-use), but also in the effort to thread the five focusing questions throughout the course to add meaning to all of the activities in the course and to help students to understand the purpose of the course. The concepts in the two foundation modules, What is Fair? and the Lens Module, are revisited again and again through the five focusing questions. This helps the students to approach all of the issues in the course from a critical perspective—it allows them to entertain possibilities beyond the status quo.
| Component | Big Questions Addressed | Ontario Curriculum Expectations | Description | Approx. Timeline |
|----------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|
| What is Fair? | #4. Are the relationships fair? | Seminal Activity | Students are put into an unfair situation to provoke them to reflect on their own definition of what is fair. | 1 period. Revisited throughout the course. |
| Sense of Place Module | #1. How is everything interconnected? | **Foundations** | This module includes a walk of the local area, the development of a map of the local area (including where water comes from, where sewage and waste go, etc.) and an assignment in which students need to take photos of 3 places they ‘like’ and 3 places they ‘dislike’ (in their local area) and justify their choices. | 4-5 periods |
| | #2. Should you care about your place? | **Understanding and Managing Change** | | |
| | | Explain how natural systems change over time and from place to place | | |
| | | Methods of Inquiry and Communication | | |
| | | Locate, analyse and interpret data | | |
| | | Communicate the results of inquiries | | |
| Lens Activity | | Seminal Activity | This foundational activity helps students to: | 3 periods |
| | | | • Understand that we see the world through a certain lens/paradigm and that there is a conventional way of | |
| | | | • Identify the lens/paradigm that we use to understand the world and the conventional way of | |
| | | | • Identify the lens/paradigm that we use to understand the world and the conventional way of | |
| Component | Big Questions Addressed | Ontario Curriculum Expectations | Description | Approx. Timeline |
|-----------|-------------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|
| | | | seeing the world that is dominant in Canada. | |
| | | | • Understand that this lens colours the way we see things. | |
| | | | • Examine alternative lenses (for example, the traditional aboriginal lens).| |
| | | | • Analyse different lenses and choose features that they would like to have for their own lens. | |
| Component | Big Questions Addressed | Ontario Curriculum Connections | Description | Approximate Timeline |
|--------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------|
| Physical Unit Module | #1. How is everything interconnected?
#2. Should you care about your place? | **Foundations:** Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Understanding and Managing Change:** Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place | This module involves a field trip to a local, significant, natural place. The students use the field trip experience to see more concretely how the physical features they learned about in the conventional unit (geology, soil, vegetation, etc.) are interconnected in a real setting (e.g., why do evening primrose flowers grow there but not here?). The students demonstrate their learning through a mind map which they build upon in later units of study. The students also do some sensory activities at school and at the special site to encourage their appreciation for the natural site. | 2 periods plus ½ day field trip |
| Human Unit Module | #1. How is everything interconnected?
#2. Should you care about others?
#3. Are the current ‘relationships’ ‘continue-able’?
#4. Are the | **Foundations:** Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Global Connections** Analyse connections between Canada | Students participate in a simulation of applying to immigrate to Canada. They experience other peoples’ genuine stories of moving to Canada. These opportunities enrich students’ analysis of the Canadian immigration system in the context of the four focusing questions. | Four to five periods. |
| ‘relationships’ fair? | and other countries |
|----------------------|---------------------|
| **Understanding and Managing Change** | |
| Explain how human systems change over time and from place to place | |
| Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being | |
| Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices | |
| **Methods of Geographic Inquiry and communication** | |
| Use methods and tools to gather and analyse data about natural and human systems | |
| Communicate the results of geographic inquiries | |
| Component | Big Questions Addressed | Ontario Curriculum Expectations | Description | Approximate Timeline |
|---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Human-Environment Unit Module | #1. How is everything interconnected?
#2. Should you care about others? Your place?
#3. Are the current ‘relationships’ ‘continue-able’?
#4. Are the ‘relationships’ fair?
#5. Can you change the relationships? | **Geographic Foundations**
Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Human Environment Interactions**
Explain the relationship of Canada’s renewable and non-renewable resources to the Canadian economy
Analyze the ways in which natural systems interact with human systems and make predictions about the outcomes of these interactions
Evaluate various ways of ensuring resource sustainability in Canada | Students examine the environmental, social and economic consequences of the *resources* we use. Water is used as an example. Students then examine the consequences of certain *products* that *they* use. They take on a structured challenge to examine their use of a particular product and reflect on the opportunities to use it differently. Students examine the interconnections among the physical features of the world and our human impact upon them. | These activities can be used separately. Alternatively, taken as a whole, this module could be used to address the curriculum outcomes for the whole unit. 10-11 periods plus field trip |
| **Global Connections** | Analyse connections between Canada and other countries |
|------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
| **Understanding and Managing Change** | Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being
Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices |
| **Methods of Geographic Inquiry and** |
| Global Unit Module | #1. How is everything interconnected?
#2. Should you care about others? Your place?
#3. Are the current ‘relationships’ ‘continue-able’?
#4. Are the ‘relationships’ fair? #5. Can you change the relationships? | **communication**
Use methods and tools to gather and analyse data about natural and human systems
Communicate the results of geographic inquiries | **Global Connections**
Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
**Understanding and Managing Change**
Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and | Students examine the interconnected nature of our world through mapping the origins of the products studied in the Human-Environment Module.
Students are given an opportunity to examine an alternative way of aspiring to make the relationships fair and ‘persistable’ through a micro-loan project. They are given an opportunity to act to change the status quo. | 2 periods |
| Culminating Activity | All five focusing questions | Students use their (previously-created) mind map which illustrates the interconnections between the physical and human characteristics of the world. They place this mind map on a big piece of chart paper to reflect on the interconnections using the five focusing questions of the course. | 1 period |
Assessment Plan
At the beginning of each module, the curriculum expectations that can be assessed within that module are listed. Suggestions are given for formative assessment opportunities and for summative assessment opportunities. As suggested by Shirley Clarke, in *Formative Assessment in the Secondary Classroom*, it is important to:
- Provide students with information about which expectations will be assessed **before** the task is begun.
- Provide students with specific, detailed feedback about their performance before they do a task that ‘counts’ for ‘marks’. Therefore, **formative** assessment opportunities can be used to provide specific, written comments, perhaps without a grade attached.
- Provide students with an opportunity, in class, to clarify and grow their understanding **before** the summative assessment opportunity.
In *Checking for Understanding, Formative Assessment for Your Classroom*, Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey discuss several strategies for quickly checking in with your students. Examples of strategies include:
- Model for students how to `retell` what they have read and then provide opportunities for them to practice this skill (see p. 29-31).
- Establish hand signals:
- Thumbs up (I understand), thumb sideways (I kind of understand, but…) and thumbs down.
- Hold up fingers (1=I don’t understand, 5=I understand perfectly)
Shirley Clarke’s *Formative Assessment in the Secondary Classroom* provides detailed, practical information about how to effectively and efficiently provide feedback that improves students’ learning.
Planning the Semester
Plan these Trips:
- Town walk: sense of place module
- Visit to local natural area with opportunity to take note of physical attributes of the place. Ideally with local naturalist who can highlight some of the interconnections (e.g., why does this plant grow here [e.g., sandy soil] but not here [e.g., clay soil])—physical unit module.
- Visit to local natural area with opportunity to take note of interconnections between humans and natural area.
Model the Themes of the Course
Please try to ‘walk the talk’ with respect to the spirit of this guide. For example:
- Bring/use reusable water bottles/mugs
- Collect/provide/use paper that has been used on one side for your students to use on the other side
- Turn off anything that does not need to be on (computer screens, some classroom lights, etc.)
Your actions will speak louder than your words (and louder than these activities)!
Cultivate Good Communication Skills
In the high school years, group work and communication skills are often taken for granted; students are assumed to have them or not. It is often presumed that it is not within the high school teacher’s purview to deal with these skills. We believe that good communication skills are something that all of us, at any age, need to continue to develop. We need these in all areas of our lives, most notably here, we need them to be able to address the very complex environmental and social issues facing our communities. For this reason, we have developed some straight-forward, student-ready, communication skills development activities. We have included these in Appendix 1 and we hope that you will revisit these throughout your course.
Order This Video:
You may wish to order a free video about immigrant students’ experiences of moving to Canada which is used in the human module activity 4 by visiting http://newmoves.ca/
Book a Guest Speaker:
You may wish to arrange for a guest speaker to come to your class to talk about her/his immigration experience and immigrants’ contributions to Canada. You can do this through www.passagestocanada.com
Reflect on the Importance of Taking Action
The study of environmental problems is an exercise in despair unless it is regarded as only a preface to the study, design, and implementation of solutions.
- Stapp, Wals, & Stankorb 1996, 94
According to David Selby, “opportunities for practical involvement in projects and initiatives to effect change, with ongoing critical reflection back in the classroom, are essential if young people are to develop the confidence and competence for active and responsible citizenship” (1995, 55). An action project is distinct from an activity because it moves beyond investigation of an issue to identifying solutions and working towards a desired change—in personal lifestyle, in school, in the community, and on the planet (Laing, 170). The goal is to move students from “passive detachment” to “active involvement” in issues that affect us all (Stapp, Wals, and Stankorb 1996, i).
Some of the benefits of action projects are:
- Action projects can transform feelings of apathy and powerlessness into genuine interest and a sense of personal agency.
- Action projects are experiential; they cater to different learning styles.
- Action projects offer authentic, relevant, meaningful opportunities for learning and for taking responsibility. This is motivating for students.
- Action projects illuminate the trans-disciplinary and deeply interconnected nature of real problems.
- Action projects that involve being outdoors provide students with opportunities to fall in love with Earth—which then becomes its own motivator to act.
- Using the environment as an integrating context for learning has been linked to improved test scores on standardized tests in the United States.
- Action projects create a natural relationship between the people in the school and the wider community.
- Action projects model for students and for the wider community what active citizenship looks, sounds and feels like; this increases the likelihood that participants will engage in future action projects.
- The outcomes of action projects can have substantial, positive, consequences for all of us.
- Action projects cultivate skills, knowledge, attitudes necessary for active citizenship and that are transferable to many other applications.
Action projects can help students to appreciate complexity and to learn how to think from a systems perspective.
In this guide, students are provided with at least three opportunities to take meaningful action. The opportunities are:
1. Making a Change Challenge—**Human Environment Module**, Activity 6
2. Advocacy Letter
3. Supporting a global small business venture through Kiva—Global Module Activity
We cannot stress enough the importance of giving students these opportunities to do something important and constructive. For more resources related to supporting student action projects, visit [www.resources4rethinking.ca/toolbox](http://www.resources4rethinking.ca/toolbox)
**Ask Us How We Can Help**
Contact us with any of your questions, big or small. For example, we can email you MS Word versions of the student worksheets so that you can easily modify them for your own use. Email us at firstname.lastname@example.org.
Activity 1: What is Fair?
Focusing Question:
#4: Are the relationships fair?
Purpose
- To expose students to a potentially ‘unfair’ situation to provoke an emotional response to the issue of fairness.
- To provide students with an opportunity to reflect on their own definition of ‘fairness’ so as to be able to apply this definition to various concepts within the course.
Note: Below are two different ideas for a ‘what is fair?’ activity. It is important to try to bring in an emotional dimension at the beginning through some type of ‘experience’ so as to avoid one-dimensional responses to the reflection questions. Without the emotional component, some students may be able to create cognitively-driven answers, perhaps answers that they think you ‘want’, that may not capture the whole story.
Part I: Choose one of the following activities (A or B)
Option A:
Description
Students get into groups to do some standard group work. At their tables, some students have luxurious ‘treats’ and some students have scarcely enough water and soda crackers. After some time has passed, students are asked to reflect on the ‘fairness’ of the situation.
Materials
Crackers, water, cups, plates, nice treats, cloth napkins, wine glasses, etc.
Time
30 minutes
Instructions
Before the class, sort students into two groups: students with three or more syllables in their first name and students with two or fewer syllables in their first name (of course, you can rework this to get a distribution that you are happy with). Calculate the percentage of students in each group. Put the students with three or more syllables into groups of 3-4 with other students with the same number of
syllables in their name. Put the students with two or fewer syllables into groups of 2-4 students with other students who have 2-4 students in their name. Set up desk groupings with snacks. On the appropriate number of tables/desk groupings, put water and soda crackers. Provide a small enough amount that there is not quite enough to go around. On the other tables/desk groupings (enough for the groups of students with 3+ syllables in their names), provide yummy treats and other benefits (perhaps cloth napkins, plastic wine glasses, etc.). Provide an amount that is ample for these students. Set up a task for the students to do in their groups (e.g., discuss yesterday’s homework, discuss an issue in the news, review for an upcoming test, etc.); this will take some of the attention away from the food so that the simulation seems a little more real. Direct students to the appropriate table by calling out their names and pointing to the appropriate tables (*you may wish to ask students to stay in the hall or stay standing by the door while you direct the groups to the appropriate seating*). Do this for the students with 3+ syllables first so that the tables with the yummy snacks are all claimed before the 2-syllables students get a chance to sit down. Ask students to go ahead and do the assigned activity. Feign disinterest in the snack situation for as long as possible.
Follow-up with individual reflection questions below.
**Option B:**
All or part of the free trade/fair trade activity found below.
**Part II: Reflection Questions (to be done individually):**
1. How did the activity feel? Explain.
2. In the activity, were you someone who benefited *more* than some people or *less* than some people?
3. Choose a person that you know benefited *more* than most people in the activity. Picture that person in your mind. How do you think this activity felt for her/him?
4. Choose a person that you know benefited *less* than most people in the activity. Picture that person in your mind. How do you think this activity felt for her/him?
5. Do you think this activity was *fair*? Explain.
6. A) If you did *not* think the activity was fair, what would need to happen in order to make the activity *fair*? Please be as specific and thorough as you can.
B) If you did think the activity was fair, describe a situation that you have been in that you felt was *not* fair. What specific aspects of the situation made it *un*fair?
7. Create your own definition of what it means for a situation to be *fair*.
8. On your own, try out your definition by applying it to the situations below. Revise your definition as necessary.
a. A soccer game
b. An election for school ‘president’
Part III: Debrief
In pairs, have students discuss their answers to the reflection questions. Ask them to come up with a definition of ‘fairness’ that they can agree upon. Have each pair join another pair. Have the four students come up with a definition of ‘fairness’ that they can agree upon.
Directions for Option B: Fair Trade Chocolate Bar Activity
Description
Students guess which stakeholders get which proportion of the profits in the sale of some common products (coffee, chocolate, jeans). Students share the product among their group in the manner that the real profits are shared (i.e. unfairly). Students reflect on: the ‘real world’ profit sharing scenario, the principles of the conventional trade system, the principles of the ‘fair trade’ system.
Materials
- 1 ‘Fair Trade’ chocolate bar for each group of 4 students (you can purchase these in many large grocery stores and you can mail order ‘Just Us’ Chocolate from Mountain Equipment Co-op at www.mec.ca or from Just Us at http://justuscoffee.com/Ordering.aspx)
- 1 pair of fake (made from chart paper)/real (from goodwill/lost and found) jeans for each group of four
- 1 small jar labelled ‘coffee’ (but preferably full of a few candies for a group of four to share)
- 3 (previously used) envelopes for each group of four: 1 with the coffee cards cut up, 1 with the chocolate cards cut up, 1 with the jeans cards cut up
Time
60 minutes
Instructions
1. Provide each student with a copy of the Fair Trade/Free Trade Continuum worksheet #F1a found below.
2. As a class, review each of the glossary terms at the top of the worksheet. Provide a working definition for each term on the blackboard. Have each student write the definitions on the worksheet.
3. Ask students to get into groups of four (this would be a good opportunity for students to choose their groups as it is not academically demanding and it requires a reserve of trust and [potentially] benevolence!). Provide each group with the following things: 1 life-size pair of jeans (made out of paper, from the lost and found…); 1 small jar of “coffee beans” (the jar should have a fake label that says coffee beans, but it would be wonderful if the jar was full of inexpensive candies for the students to later share); 1 chocolate bar that is easily broken into shareable
pieces; 3 envelopes—1 labeled “jeans”, 1 labeled “coffee” and 1 labeled “chocolate”. Inside each envelope, put the precut player cards on.
4. The students should carefully follow the instructions on the worksheet. The students are asked to guess the share each player gets in the trade of the products they have been given and then to actually break up the symbols in the guessed proportions and divvy them out. Students must wait for you to do the next step before they consume any of the treats!
5. Solicit guesses about the share each player gets in the trade of chocolate bars. Once you have heard a number of responses, put the overhead “Who Gets What?” on the overhead projector.
6. Have students redistribute the “revenues” to the people to reflect the actual distribution displayed on the overhead.
7. Invite students to go ahead and eat the treats. Listen for grumbling. If students ask you if they should share them more evenly or stick to the ‘real’ proportions, I would suggest you encourage them to decide (after all, the purpose of the activity is to have the students have an emotional response to the issue of fairness).
8. Ask students to quietly reflect on the actual distribution.
9. Repeat the guessing with the jeans and the coffee.
10. Give students a short amount of time in their groups to discuss the simulation.
11. As a class, discuss the simulation.
12. Ask students to think of the “rules of the game” of our current economic system. For example, sell at whatever price the market will bear, companies try to cut production costs as much as possible, consumers generally buy the item that costs the least, etc. Explain that these are the “rules” of free trade.
13. Use the Rules of Fair Trade student worksheet below to give a brief lesson on fair trade (the version with the “answers” is below.) Explain that free trade and fair trade are different sides of a spectrum rather than two different types of system (we will probably never have a system that is completely true to one set of rules or the other). Ask students to reflect on what side of the spectrum they would like the world economic system to lean toward. Ask them to explain their choice and then to explain how they can work toward achieving it or maintaining it.
RULES OF FAIR TRADE
(Teacher Version)
What does it mean if a company says that it offers “fair trade” products?
- Producers receive a **FAIR** price
- **FORCED** labour and exploitive **CHILD** labour are not allowed
- Buyers and producers trade under direct, **LONG-TERM** relationships
- Producers have access to financial and technical **HELP**
- **SUSTAINABLE** production methods are encouraged
- Working conditions are **HEALTHY** and **SAFE**.
- **EQUITABLE** employment opportunities are provided for all
- All aspects of the business are open to public **VIEWING**
Fair Trade/Free Trade Continuum: Envelope Cards
Coffee
Growers of Coffee Beans
Company that Roasts and Bottles the Coffee
Store that Sells the Coffee
Exporters= People who ship the Coffee to Roasters
JEANS
Manufacturing Company
Retail Store
Government (Taxes)
People who Sew the Jeans
Chocolate Bar
Manufacturing Company
Supermarket
Governments (taxes)
Farmers (cocoa, milk)
A. Glossary:
Retail ____________________________________________________________
Mark-up_________________________________________________________
Overhead _________________________________________________________
Revenue _________________________________________________________
Profit ___________________________________________________________
B. Who Gets What?
1. Open the cards in the envelope marked “chocolate”. Have each person in the group pick a card without looking at the words on the card.
2. The words on the card represent the various roles of the people involved in the process of growing cocoa and milk and selling it to people here in Canada. Imagine that your family buys a chocolate bar at the grocery store. As a group, discuss what percentage of the price of the chocolate goes to each group of people represented on the cards.
3. In the table below, write down your guess of the percentage of the price that goes to each person or group of people in the selling of chocolate.
4. Break the bar into pieces that are in the proportions that you guessed in step 2. Give the appropriate proportion of the chocolate to the person with the appropriate card (for example, if the farmer gets 50% of the profits, she/he should get 50% of the chocolate bar. DO NOT EAT the chocolate until you have had a chance to discuss the actual percentages.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for the envelope marked “jeans”.
6. Use chalk to divide the jeans into four parts based on your guesses regarding the revenue is shared.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for the coffee jar.
8. Empty the contents of your “coffee jar” onto a clean surface. Divide the contents into four piles, reflecting the percentage of the jar each person in your group should get according to your guesses from step three and the role card each person picked. Simply keep the piles as they are until you have had a chance to see the actual percentages.
C. Drum Roll Please...The Actual Percentages
1. Your teacher will share the actual percentages with you.
2. Redistribute the “revenue” to reflect the actual percentages.
3. On the back of the second sheet, use words or pictures to reflect on your reaction to the actual percentages.
4. As a group, decide how you will distribute the “revenue”.
Table 1: Recording the Percentages
Chocolate Bar
| | Your Guess (%) | Actual (%) |
|----------------------|----------------|------------|
| Farmers | | |
| Manufacturers | | |
| Retail store | | |
| Government (taxes) | | |
| Coffee | Your Guess (%) | Actual (%) |
|--------|----------------|------------|
| Farmers | | |
| Roasters/Bottlers | | |
| Retail Store | | |
| Exporters=People who ship the Coffee to Roasters | | |
| Jeans | Your Guess (%) | Actual (%) |
|-------|----------------|------------|
| Manufacturing Company | | |
| Labourers (people who sew) | | |
| Retail Store | | |
| Government (taxes) | | |
| Coffee | Actual (%) |
|--------|------------|
| Growers | 10 |
| Exporters | 10 |
| Roasters/Bottlers | 55 |
| Retail Store Owners | 25 |
| Jeans | Actual (%) |
|-------|------------|
| Manufacturing Company | 34 (Materials 18% + overhead and profits 16%) |
| Labourers | 12 |
| Retail Store Owners | 54 |
| Taxes | These jeans were made in a maquiladora. No corporate taxes were paid. |
| Chocolate Bar | Actual (%) |
|---------------|------------|
| Manufacturing Company | 47.2 |
| Retail Stores | 34.1 |
| Farmers | 3.9 |
| Taxes | 14.8 |
Rules of Fair Trade
What does it mean if a company says that it offers “fair trade” products?
- Producers receive a f__________ price
- F__________ labour and exploitive c__________ labour are not allowed
- Buyers and producers trade under direct, l__________-t__________ relationships
- Producers have access to financial and technical h__________
- S_______________ production methods are encouraged
- Working conditions are h_____________ and s_____________________
- E_______________ employment opportunities are provided for all
- All aspects of the business are open to public v_______________
Examples of Fair Trade Organizations
- Ten Thousand Villages
http://www.tenthousandvillages.ca
- Bridgehead/Oxfam
http://bridgehead.ca/
- International Federation for Alternative Trade
http://IFAT.org/
- Fair Trade Federation
http://fairtradefederation.com
Sense of Place Assessment
Sustainability Focusing Questions
#1. How is everything interconnected?
#2. Should you care about your place?
Ontario Curriculum Outcomes
Foundations
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems [–look for interconnections](formative and summative)
- Diagnostic: Place Activity 1, Part II
- Formative: Place Activity 1, Part III (Place description and guessing game)
- Summative: Place Activity 3, Part II (Map)
Understanding and Managing Change
- Explain how natural systems change over time and from place to place
- Diagnostic: Place Activity 1, Part II
Methods of Inquiry and Communication
- Locate, analyse and interpret data
- Formative: Activity 4
Place Activity 1: Defining Place
Focusing Questions:
1. How is everything interconnected?
2. Should you care about your place?
Purpose:
Students are given several opportunities to reflect upon the nature of place so as to consider whether or not people, theoretically, should care about their place. Students then take a closer look at their own place to reflect on whether they care about their own place and to identify interconnections in their place.
Part I: Defining Place Jigsaw
Description
Students visit four different stations that appeal to different learning styles to consider the meaning of ‘place’.
Time:
45-60 minutes
Materials:
- Photos of the prairies (images can be found at http://www.flickr.com/ or www.fotosearch.com)
- Copy of poems identified below
- CD player/computer to play songs identified below
- Map of your school
- Student worksheet SP1a below
Instructions:
1. This activity relies on group work. Consider cultivating students’ group work skills by using the short activity and assessment tools in Appendix A.
2. This is a jigsaw activity. Students get into groups of 4. Assign each group a “Home Group Number”. Each student within a group gets assigned a different station letter.
3. Each student goes to a different Station to start (according to the letter she/he was assigned).
4. The students are to rotate around the room from Station to Station recording 6 observations about the concept of “Place” from each station on Student worksheet SP1a (below).
5. Each student should attempt to identify the location of each place found at each Station.
6. After each student has had a chance to visit all of the stations, the students should gather in their original ‘home groups’. Students should discuss their responses to each station.
7. In their home groups, students should try to come up with a definition of the concept of ‘place’.
8. Discuss as a class. An example of a definition of place is:
All places have characteristics that give them meaning and distinguish them from other places on earth. Geographers describe places by their physical and human characteristics.
**Physical** characteristics include such elements as animal life, landforms, soil, climate and vegetation.
**Human** characteristics of the landscape can be architecture, patterns of livelihood, land use and ownership, town planning, and communication and transportation networks.
**Together**, the physical and human characteristics of places provide clues to understand the nature of places on the earth.
From: www.nationalgeographic.com
**Stations can be organized as follows:**
**Station 1**
Several images or photographs of the Prairies in Canada. (photos can be found http://www.flickr.com/ or www.fotosearch.com)
**Station 2**
Play a song with a good description of place. For example:
- “North Country” by the Rankin Family (www.therankinfamily.com)
- “Rolling Thunder” by Rita MacNeil (www.ritamacneil.com)
- “The Lonely End of the Rink” by the Tragically Hip
**Station 3**
A map of the school
**Station 4**
Poems concerning place from a First Nations’ perspective:
- “Not Just a Platform for My Dance” by Marilyn Dumont (which can be found in the *Geographic Perspectives* text book or at http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/resources/elaA30-SKED/module1/lesson2c.html)
- “No I do not live in a tepee” by Emily Big Canoe which can be found at: http://www.citizenship.gov.on.ca/english/honours/bartleman/poems/Emily.pdf
Part II: Diagnostic Assessment
Ask students to respond to the questions below. File the responses to consult at the end of the course.
1. What factors affect our local, natural place?
2. Name some human systems in our community.
3. What factors affect these human systems?
4. Provide examples of feedback—ways in which one thing affects another which, in turn, affects another.
5. How was our local, natural place different 300 years ago? 50 years ago? 10 years ago?
6. How do you feel about the changes that have happened?
7. Do you think it will stay the same from now on or will it change?
8. If the local, natural system will change in the future, how will it be different 10 years from now? 50 years from now?
9. How do you feel about the changes that you described?
10. If you could determine what the local, natural system would be like 50 years from now, what would you like it to be like?
Part III: Personal Descriptions of a Place
1. On a scrap piece of paper, ask students to describe a place without naming it.
2. Collect the descriptions and redistribute them randomly. Ask students to try to guess the place.
3. Post the descriptions and the guesses and invite other students to add their guesses throughout the unit.
4. Ask students to respond to the following questions:
a) Did most people seem to concentrate more on physical/natural aspects of place or on human aspects of place or both?
b) List several ways in which the physical and human aspects of the place you described are interconnected. For example, the Holland River runs through my town. The river provides water for the farmers to use to water their crops. The farmers use pesticides on the crops. The pesticides go into the river. The pesticides harm the fish, birds, insects and amphibians in the river.
5. Formative Assessment Opportunity:
Have each student carefully describe one of the interconnections that they listed in question 4b above on a piece of paper. Collect the interconnections and provide written feedback for the students concerning how close they are to an understanding of ‘interconnectedness’. Provide written prompts to help all students to create an accurate description of an interconnection. Provide students with time in class to improve their descriptions as needed. Ask students to post
the description of the ‘interconnection’ beside their description of the place. Provide students with time to tour the descriptions of the interconnections to deepen their understanding of the depth and breadth of the interconnections. Choose a few to discuss as a class.
6. Toward the end of the unit, have the author reveal the name of the place and post it above the description. Provide students with time to tour the names of the places.
Station Observations: Student Worksheet SP1a
STATION 1:
PLACE_____________________
What aspects of ‘place’ does the material at the station describe?
What is your reaction to the materials at this station?
STATION 2:
PLACE_____________________
What aspects of ‘place’ does the material at the station describe?
What is your reaction to the materials at this station?
Your Concept/Definition of Place:
STATION 3:
PLACE_____________________
What aspects of ‘place’ does the material at the station describe?
What is your reaction to the materials at this station?
STATION 4:
PLACE_____________________
What aspects of ‘place’ does the material at the station describe?
What is your reaction to the materials at this station?
Place Activity 2: Introductory Sense of Place Questions
Description
Students attempt to answer questions in a brief quiz about the place that they live to identify what they know and what they do not know about their home.
Time
20-30 minutes
Materials
- Overhead/handouts with questions below
- Scrap paper (2 pieces per student)
Instructions
1. On a scrap piece of paper, ask students to try to answer the questions below (individually or with a partner):
a. Where does your drinking water come from?
b. Where does the water from the storm drain nearest your house go first?
c. What is the name of the closest creek, river, lake, etc. to your house?
d. What direction does the current run?
e. What is the source of the water?
f. Where does the water drain into?
g. Where does the water from your toilet go?
h. Name 5 species of plants (other than trees) that are native to your area.
i. Name 5 reptiles that are native to your area.
j. What is the name of the people that lived in your area before Europeans arrived?
k. What names were used by local First Nations people to describe the area in which you live?
l. How was the electricity in your house generated?
m. Are there homeless people in your community?
n. What types of jobs/sources of income are most important in supporting the local economy?
o. Another question people should ask themselves about their community is:
2. After attempting to answer the questions, ask students to write written reflections or discuss these questions:
a. Which questions do you think residents of your place should know the answer to?
b. Which questions do you think most residents will know the answer to?
c. Which questions do you think most residents will not know the answer to?
d. Which questions would you like to know the answer to?
Place Activity 3: Town/Local Area Walk and Map
Part I: Town/Local Area Walk
Description
Students go for a walk in their local area to identify important economic, social and environmental aspects of their place. They look for and photograph features that they like and that they do not like and justify their choice. Finally, they reflect on their findings, considering different perspectives people might have about their place and the interconnected nature of some of the features.
Time
Walk 60-120 minutes; Reflection 20-30 minutes
Materials
- digital cameras or sketching materials (one per group)
- permission form for walk
**Note:** It is essential to walk the route before you take your class out. Look for potential safety concerns and time the walk.
Instructions
If possible, prior to your tour get a simple road map of the area in which you will be walking. You may wish to consider printing a map from: maps.google.ca
1. Teacher or students should plan out your route to include a variety of sights including (if possible):
- transportation networks (roads, train tracks, etc.)
- banks and other places of commercial interest
- religious meeting places
- natural areas
- waterways (if applicable)
- residential areas (new and old)
- agricultural areas
- Places of historical interest
- Places of future ‘development’
2. Students should be placed into groups of 3-4, with a digital camera or cell phone in each group (to be provided by students if possible). With at least one of the students in the photo, each group should take photos of:
a. Each of the sights of interest as determined by the teacher and/or the class
b. Three additional places that are of particular interest to the students—students should choose these sites individually
c. Three places that the students do not like—students should choose these sites individually
*These photos will be used in the next assignment – a town map
3. Post-walk reflection questions (to be done individually)
a. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY: Describe at least 3 ‘interconnections’ among some of the places/systems (natural or human made) in your community/town. [Note: consider providing detailed written feedback for students as they will be assessed on this outcome again in the Physical unit].
b. For three of your favourite places on your walk, describe why you like these particular places.
c. For three of the places on your walk that you did not like, describe why you did not like these particular places.
d. Do you think that someone who is very concerned about the plants and animals in your area would agree with your likes and dislikes? Why or why not?
e. Do you think that someone who is very concerned about the economy would agree with your choices of likes and dislikes? Why or why not?
f. Do you think that someone who is very concerned with the health of the humans in your community would agree with your likes and dislikes? Why or why not?
g. In general, do you care about the place that you walked? Why or why not?
**Part II: Local area/Town Map**
**Description**
Students create a map to use to display the significant features of their local area, as identified on their walk.
**Time**
60-75 minutes
Materials:
1. Foundation map (optional) from municipal office, google maps, etc., one per student
2. Writing materials and crafting materials for maps (including yarn)
3. Chart paper or large piece of construction paper for each student (preferably used on one side)
4. Printed photos from town walk
Instructions:
1. Students should do this activity individually so as to allow for creative expression regarding the places they like and do not like.
2. Choose a foundation for the maps that the students will make. You may want to:
- Have the students sketch their own maps
- Use a map from google maps
- Use a map available through your local municipal office and/or chamber of commerce.
3. Have the students add the features to the map as follows:
- Create symbols for each of the features you photographed and mark those features in the correct location on your map of the town.
- Place your map on a large piece of chart paper. Paste your photographs around your map. Use yarn or markers to connect your photographs to the appropriate places on the map.
- Creatively integrate your responses to the post-walk reflection questions into your poster.
Place Activity 4: Locating and Analysing Data
Description
Students develop skills required to find pertinent information in their community.
Time
30 minutes now plus 30 minutes two weeks after the activity
Materials
Internet access
1. Identify the desired outcome of this activity: students are developing skills related to locating and analyzing data.
2. At the beginning of the unit, students were asked the following questions:
- What factors affect our local, natural place?
- Name some human systems in our community.
- What factors affect these human systems?
- Provide examples of feedback—ways in which one thing affects another which, in turn, affects another.
- How was our local, natural place different 300 years ago? 50 years ago? 10?
- How do you feel about the changes that have happened?
- Do you think it will stay the same from now on or will it change?
- If the local, natural system will change in the future, how will it be different 10 years from now? 50 years from now?
3. With a partner, identify and discuss people/organizations in your community who may have answers to the questions above that you would find interesting. For example, the oldest person in your community, the person responsible for ‘planning in your town’, a First Nations person, a person from an environmental committee/organization, etc.
4. With their partners, ask students to discuss methods of identifying, contacting, and questioning the people/organizations they listed. For example, an environmental organization could be found by contacting the local conservation authority to ask for help. A First Nations person may be found by contacting the band office of the nearest First Nation and asking if they have a public outreach person, an elder or someone else who may participate. The town planner could be located by calling the municipal office and asking for the name and contact information of the person in charge of planning.
5. Ask students to write clear responses to question 3&4 above and submit them to you for formative feedback. Return the feedback and discuss all of the ideas as a class. Ask students with promising ideas to share them (ie. those ideas that are likely to ‘work’).
6. Ask each student to contact someone using a promising strategy identified by the class.
7. After 1-2 weeks, have students that received a response share the response with the class. In small groups, ask students to take a closer look at and discuss one of the received responses.
LENS FOUNDATION MODULE
Purpose:
The lens activity is intended to create a thread that can be woven throughout the course. It challenges students to:
- Understand that we see the world through a certain lens/paradigm and that there is a conventional way of seeing the world that is dominant in Ontario.
- Understand that this lens impacts the way we see things.
- Examine alternative lenses (for example, traditional aboriginal lens).
- Analyse different lenses and choose features that they would like to have for their own lens.
- Understand that certain facets of the lens help us to move to a more sustainable way of being in the world (for example, seeing things as deeply interconnected instead of seeing things as separate parts that can be manipulated separately without consequences for the whole).
Lens Idea Adapted from: Yuka Takahashi. (2004) *Learning Toward Ecological Consciousness*, New York, Palgrave (ed. Edmund O’Sullivan and Marilyn Taylor)
Lens Activity 1: Do We See the World Through a Particular Lens?
Description
Students respond to provocative photos. Groups sort all of the responses into themes to see if there is a particular way that people ‘saw’ the photo. Then students analyse different characteristics of the lens that, we propose, many people in Canada use to see the world. The characteristics of the conventional paradigm in Ontario are offered to the students for discussion. (Note: we are not proposing that ‘this is the way it is’; we are proposing that many people think that this is ‘the way it is’ and the students are invited to comment.)
Part I:
Materials
- Pieces of scrap paper
- Six provocative photos (We used photos of: George W. Bush, a swastika, a celebrity, a landscape photo, etc. Many photos can be found at http://www.flickr.com/ or www.fotosearch.com)
- Bins or shoe boxes under each photo for collecting the pieces of paper
Time Required
30 minutes
Instructions:
1. This activity relies on group work. Consider cultivating students’ group work skills by using the short activity and assessment tools in Appendix A.
2. Post six provocative pictures around the room. For each picture, have students write down a single word or phrase about the picture—whatever comes to her/his mind.
3. Place a box or basket under each photo (a ‘ballot box’ or something which prevents students from seeing other responses is best.) Have each student put her/his piece of paper in the box under each photo.
4. Divide students into six groups. Assign each group one of the photographs. In each group, have students sort the words/phrases relevant to their designated photograph into categories. Tell the students that you are intentionally being vague; they can sort the words/phrases into any categories they like.
5. Have each group present its results. As a class, discuss. Were there any patterns? (For example, did some people always look at the aesthetic/physical attributes in the photo?)
Part II: The Characteristics of the Conventional Paradigm in Ontario
Materials
- Copies of worksheet L1a (below) for each student or for each pair of students
Time
75 minutes
Instructions
Before you begin, consider the differentiated instruction suggestion provided below.
1. Present the characteristics below to the students and present the proposed description of how many people in Canada view this characteristic of our society.
Table 1 – Characteristics of Conventional Lens
| Characteristic | Description of the way Many People in Ontario Perceive this Characteristic of Society |
|----------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Economics | Economic growth is always good and there is no limit to human progress |
| Relationships | People act as individuals |
| | Relationships are based on hierarchies |
| Knowledge | Valid knowledge is based on rational scientific thinking |
| | We can understand anything by breaking it down into parts |
| Nature | Nature exists for human convenience |
| Success | Success is measured by levels of wealth |
2. Provide the students with the picture matching worksheet below (worksheet L1a) to allow them to check their understanding of the characteristics of our society and the conventional lens (ie the lens many people use) that was proposed in step 1.
3. Provide the students with worksheet L1b and help them to work through it.
Content-Based Differentiated Instruction Idea:
If you could start the lens activity on a day after a test/assignment was being taken up, you could provide all of the students who demonstrated a solid understanding of the material on the test/assignment with an opportunity to get a jump start on/do some free-er thinking about the lens activity. This relieves the high achieving students from walking through an assignment/test that they got of material that they already understand. This provides you with more time to support the students who do not yet understand the material, while giving the high achieving students something interesting to chew on. These students could have a sneak preview of the different characteristics in the lens chart (for example: nature, risk, time, relationships, etc.) and they could try to come up with a bunch of
statements (as many as possible) that they think describes the dominant/conventional way of looking at these characteristics. That is, *you are effectively giving the high achieving students the chart above with the second column blank and asking them to fill in the second column*. You could have them do this electronically so that you could collate all of their ideas, omit the duplicates, and use these as a starting point for a whole class discussion (next day) about the features of the dominant culture. This might be more illuminating for you and for the students than providing the responses to column two yourself since the whole class will get to see what the students’ perception is of the dominant culture. This will also help the students to consider whether or not they ‘buy into’ the whole idea of a dominant/conventional paradigm (ie. that it actually exists) before we ask them to rethink it.
Of course, if you move the students into small groups for the next step (the step outlined in Activity1, Part II above), you could spread the high achieving students among the different groups because they will be a little more familiar with the ideas in the lens activity and therefore a little more able to help their group along.
STUDENT SHEET L1a: PICTURE MATCHING ACTIVITY
Picture sets: Your task is to look over the five picture sets and link them to the following characteristics:
- economics
- relationships
- knowledge
- nature
- success
| Picture | Which Characteristic Matches the Picture? |
|---------|----------------------------------------|
|  |  |
|  |  |
|  |  |
| Picture | Which Characteristic Matches the Picture? |
|---------|----------------------------------------|
|  |  |
|  |  |
STUDENT ANALYSIS SHEET L1b: WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT THE CONVENTIONAL LENS?
Some people believe that in Canada, humans are brought up to see the world in a particular way. It is like we are all wearing a pair of sunglasses with a lens that `colours` the way we see things. I want you to examine this `lens` that (perhaps) most people wear to see if you think it actually exists. Also, you will be asked to decide which features of the lens you like and which ones you don’t like.
CHARACTERISTIC: ECONOMICS (Some parts of this chart have been provided as an example...)
| FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | IN MY OPINION THIS _______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE... |
|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Economic growth is always good and there is no limit to human progress. | Humans are always progressing. For example, in Ontario, first humans learnt to farm, then created industry, and recently they have advanced communication through the internet. ‘Progress’ is always good. | |
| POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS: | NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS: |
|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| Because of developments in communication, many people from around the world can now easily learn from each other. | Many people now spend too much time on the computer and not enough time outdoors. The consequences of this include: increased obesity and a lack of connection with the natural world. Increased obesity has health consequences and economic consequences. A lack of connection with the natural world may be one of the root causes of the damage that many humans are causing to the natural world. |
I ___________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
| Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Economics” Characteristic: | Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
STUDENT ANALYSIS SHEET L1b: WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT THE CONVENTIONAL LENS?
CHARACTERISTIC: KNOWLEDGE #1
FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
Valid knowledge is based on rational, scientific thinking. If it is not based on scientific thinking, it is probably not true.
EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
IN MY OPINION THIS ________ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE...
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
I _______________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Knowledge” Characteristic
Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens
CHARACTERISTIC: KNOWLEDGE #2
FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
We can understand anything by breaking it down into parts.
EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
IN MY OPINION THIS _______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE...
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
I ______________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Knowledge” Characteristic
Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens
CHARACTERISTIC: NATURE
FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
Nature exists for humans to use
EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
IN MY OPINION THIS ______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE...
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
I ____________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Nature” Characteristic:
Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens
CHARACTERISTIC: SUCCESS
| FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | IN MY OPINION THIS _______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE... |
|----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| A person’s success is measured by how much money she/he makes. | | |
| POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS: | NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS: |
|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| | |
I ________________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
| Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Success” Characteristic | Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
STUDENT ANALYSIS SHEET L1b: WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT THE CONVENTIONAL LENS?
CHARACTERISTIC: TIME
FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
It is important to consider the present and the near future. The past and the distant future are less important.
EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
IN MY OPINION THIS _______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE...
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
I ____________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Time” Characteristic
Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens
CHARACTERISTIC: RISK
FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
It is almost always better to take a risk rather than not to take a risk. If we are not sure if there will be negative consequences, we can go ahead with our plan and if negative consequences arise, we can deal with them.
EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS:
IN MY OPINION THIS ______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE...
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
I _______________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “RISK” Characteristic
Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens
CHARACTERISTIC: TECHNOLOGY
| FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | IN MY OPINION THIS _______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE... |
|----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Technology can fix any problem. | | |
POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS:
I ____________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE...
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
| Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Technology” Characteristic | Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
STUDENT ANALYSIS SHEET L1b: WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT THE CONVENTIONAL LENS?
CHARACTERISTIC: RELATIONSHIPS
| FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | EXPLANATION or EVIDENCE THAT THIS IS A FEATURE OF THE CONVENTIONAL LENS: | IN MY OPINION THIS _______ (is or is not) A FEATURE OF THE LENS MANY PEOPLE IN CANADA WEAR. I BELIEVE THIS BECAUSE... |
|----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Human relationships are based on hierarchies. | | |
| POSITIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS: | NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTE OF THIS FEATURE OF THE LENS: |
|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| | |
| I ________________ (like / don’t like) THIS FEATURE BECAUSE... |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
Traditional Aboriginal Lens (This section will be done later, after you have gone through all of the features of the Conventional Lens...)
| Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens that Matches the “Relationships” Characteristic | Compare and Contrast the Feature of the Conventional Lens with the Matching Feature of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | |
Lens Activity 2: Examining an Alternate Lens
Description
Students are exposed to the idea that although many people in Canada may wear a similar lens, alternatives certainly do exist. One alternative lens is the traditional aboriginal lens. The students are asked to examine this lens and compare it to the conventional lens that was proposed in activity 1. They do this by searching through ‘cards’ with features of the traditional aboriginal lens written on them and matching them to the related features in the conventional lens that were explored in the previous activity.
Materials:
- Copies of worksheet L1b that students worked on in activity 1 (partially completed)
- A copy of worksheet L2a (below) for each student. (fyi: there are supposed to be duplicates of each of the characteristics on the sheet in case students decide that one particular feature of the traditional aboriginal lens matches two of the features from the conventional lens).
- Scissors
- Glue/tape for each pair of students
Time:
30 minutes
Instructions:
1. Invite students to share their knowledge about the aboriginal people in your area. Compare and contrast their perceptions of traditional lifestyles for aboriginal people in your area to modern lifestyles for aboriginal people in your area.
2. Have students get into groups of two or three students. Have them bring with them the worksheets L1b that they worked on in the previous activity.
3. Give each group an envelope with the aspects of the traditional aboriginal lens already cut up inside it. Ask students to try to match the features of the traditional aboriginal lens to the features of the conventional lens proposed in activity 1 (ie. the lens that most people in Canada currently wear). Two copies of each feature of the aboriginal lens have been provided in case students want to apply one traditional aboriginal feature to more than one feature of the conventional lens.
4. Discuss.
Student Sheet L2a: Some Features of the Traditional Aboriginal Lens
Cut out these features of the traditional aboriginal lens and place them in the appropriate boxes on your lens sheets. (There are two copies of each one in case you feel that it applies to more than one characteristic of the conventional lens).
| Successful people are those people who have balance among different aspects of their lives: work, family, spiritual well-being and physical well-being. | Successful people are those people who have balance among different aspects of their lives: work, family, spiritual well-being and physical well-being. |
| --- | --- |
| The natural world is viewed as holy, spiritual and alive. Resources taken from the natural world are done so with respect. | The natural world is viewed as holy, spiritual and alive. Resources taken from the natural world are done so with respect. |
| Humans are equal to, but not more important than other living things. | Humans are equal to, but not more important than other living things. |
| When making decisions, we must consider the impact these decisions have on the next seven generations of people. | When making decisions, we must consider the impact these decisions have on the next seven generations of people. |
| Everything in the world is deeply interconnected. You cannot understand something without understanding how it relates to everything else | Everything in the world is deeply interconnected. You cannot understand something without understanding how it relates to everything else |
| There is a continual communication that occurs between humans and the natural world. | There is a continual communication that occurs between humans and the natural world. |
| Valid knowledge is derived from careful observation of the world around us and from listening to the wisdom of our elders. | Valid knowledge is derived from careful observation of the world around us and from listening to the wisdom of our elders. |
©Learning for a Sustainable Future www.lsf-lst.ca
Lens Activity 3: Creating Your Own Lens
**Description**
Now that students have reflected on the conventional lens people in Canada use to view the world and have reflected on an alternative lens, it is their turn to create their own ‘preferred lens’. Throughout the course students will be challenged to view issues/concepts through both the conventional lens and through the lens that they created.
**Time**
30-45 minutes
**Materials**
- Copies of student worksheet L3a below for each student
**Instructions**
1. Ask students to work through the worksheet and the reflection questions below.
2. Discuss.
3. Ask students to keep their lens in a prominent/safe place as they will be asked to revisit their lens throughout the course.
Student Worksheet L3a: Creating your own lens!
Now it is time to create your own lens. Think of what you would like for the world!
| Characteristic | Features of your own lens (Explain) |
|----------------|------------------------------------|
| Economy | |
| Success | |
| Knowledge | |
| Nature | |
| Relationships | |
| Time | |
| Technology | |
Debriefing – Please answer the following questions
1. Are the features of your lens interconnected? Why or why not?
2. Are the features of your lens fair? Why or why not?
3. Can the features of your lens continue into the future? Why or why not?
4. Do you care about the features you have constructed? Why or why not?
5. Can the features of your lens change over time? Why or why not?
PHYSICAL UNIT MODULE
Focusing Questions:
1. How is everything interconnected?
2. Should you care about your place?
Ontario Curriculum Expectations
Foundations:
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems [and identify interconnections]
- Summative Assessment Opportunity: Physical Activity 2 (Mind Map) {This is a summative assessment opportunity if the formative assessment opportunity in the Sense of Place Module was done}.
Understanding and Managing Change
- Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
- Formative Assessment Opportunity: Physical Activity 1
Purpose:
Students are encouraged to experience a natural place with all of their senses in the hope that this may cultivate a sense of connection and ‘care’. In the natural place, students draw upon their knowledge from the conventional ‘physical’ unit to identify real-world interconnections between: vegetation, animals, water, land forms, etc.
Physical Activity 1: Sensory Scavenger Hunt and Interconnections Hike
Description
Students are encouraged to experience a natural place with all of their senses in the hope that this may cultivate a sense of connection and ‘care’. In the natural place, students draw upon their knowledge
from the conventional ‘physical’ unit to identify real-world interconnections between: vegetation, animals, water, land forms, etc.
**Time**
- School yard exploration: 30-45 minutes
- Field trip: ½ day to full day
**Materials:**
- Clipboards
- Cameras and/or sketching tools
- Trip permission forms
**Instructions**
1. Plan a trip to a local natural area. Create a trip that will provide students with an opportunity to take note of physical attributes of the place. If at all possible, invite a local naturalist who can highlight some of the interconnections (eg. why does this plant grow here [eg. sandy soil] but not here [eg. clay soil]). Check the web for local naturalist groups in your area. If this is not possible, create a worksheet for students to use to make some guesses about interconnections in the natural area (eg. why is it wet here, but not here? Why do these plants grow here. but not here? Etc.).
2. **FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY:** Before the trip, take students outdoors **on your school property** and/or very close natural area. Ask students to complete the appropriate column of the Sensory Scavenger Hunt sheet P1a below (collect these sheets and bring them on the field trip to the special natural area).
3. On the field trip to the natural area, split the trip into three main parts:
- A short period of unguided exploration so that students can enjoy the area and prepare to settle into more structured activities.
- Complete the appropriate column of the Sensory Scavenger Hunt sheet P1a.
**FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY:** Collect the Sensory Scavenger Hunt Sheets. Assess the students ability to... “explain how natural and human systems change ...from place to place”.
c. Go on a hike to look for and/or learn about interconnections among:
i. Soil type
ii. Landforms
iii. Vegetation
iv. Animals other than humans
v. Water
vi. Other non-human attributes of the place
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY: Ask students to record their hypotheses about these interconnections (or information that they learn from a guide) using photos, sketches and/or words. Tell them that they will need them for the next assignment.
Field trip Planning Tips
1. Visit the site on your own before the field trip with the students to:
a. Identify special areas of interest
b. Identify special areas of safety concern (eg. poison ivy, loose trail boards, etc.)
c. Time how long any planned hikes may take (goading students into forced marching is no fun, especially for you!)
2. Allow enough time at the beginning of the trip for students to explore on their own so that they are more ready to focus for other aspects of the trip.
3. Try to put students into small groups. Large noisy groups are not conducive to gaining an appreciation for a natural place.
4. Review the brief guide to taking students outdoors that can be found at www.resourcesforrethinking.ca/toolbox
SENSORY SCAVENGER HUNT: Student Sheet P1a
| What is the first thing you notice here? | At School (day before trip) | At Site (at beginning of trip) |
|----------------------------------------|----------------------------|-------------------------------|
| What do you see? (brightness, sizes, shapes, colours, etc.) | | |
| What do you hear? (loud, quiet, pitch, etc.) | | |
| How do things feel to your touch? (smooth, rough, soft, temperature, windy, etc.) | | |
| What do you smell? (sweet, earthy, etc.) | | |
| What is your mood—how do you feel here? | | |
| Do you care about this place? | | |
©Learning for a Sustainable Future www.lsf-lst.ca
Physical Activity 2: Interconnections of Features Mind Map Activity
Description
Students create a mind map to demonstrate their understanding of the interconnections among the various physical features of their place.
Time
60 minutes
Materials:
- 8 1/2 x 11 paper
- Optional: photo of field trip location to place in centre of mind map
- Optional: additional photos and/or sketching materials
Instructions:
This activity relies on group work. Consider cultivating students’ group work skills by using the short activity and assessment tools in Appendix A.
After the trip, ask students to create a mind map that illustrates the interconnections among the non-human features of the physical area. Encourage students to use as many photos/sketches to complement their mind map as possible.
It is important to have students do this on a piece of paper that is 8 ½ x 11 if possible as the mind map continues to build throughout the course (in the human-environment module, students place the physical interconnections mind map onto a piece of 11x17 paper to add the human interconnections; at the global unit, students place their human/physical interconnections mind map onto a piece of chart paper to look for connections between the two mind maps and the five focusing questions in the course). See Figure 2 below.
You may wish to ask one student/pair of students to do her/his/their mind map on much larger paper so that it can be used for a class discussion (i.e. it will be big enough for everyone to see from their desks).
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY:
An example of a mind map (Figure 2) and an example of a rubric for assessing a mind map (Figure 3) are provided below. If your students are unfamiliar with the concept of mind mapping, you may wish to do an example together on a different topic that most students in the class can relate to (for an example of a mind map about music, see page 34 of the resource found at http://techloop.ca/guide.pdf).
Note: After students have completed their mind maps, collect them and save them for Activity 8 in the human-environment module on page 92.
Sample (Simplified) Mind Map: Figure 2
| Knowledge | Level 4 | Level 3 | Level 2 | Level 1 |
|-----------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| Lines of thought away from the central image reflect an understanding of the various non human aspects of the natural area. | Diagram shows a thorough understanding of the various non human aspects of the natural area. | Diagram shows considerable understanding of the various non human aspects of the natural area. | Diagram shows some understanding of the various non human aspects of the natural area. | Diagram shows limited understanding of the various non human aspects of the natural area. |
| Thinking and Inquiry Relationships / interconnections among the various aspects are depicted. | Diagram indicates a thorough understanding of interconnections/relationships. | Diagram indicates considerable understanding of interconnections/relationships. | Diagram indicates some understanding of interconnections/relationships. | Diagram indicates limited understanding of interconnections/relationships. |
| Communication | Level 4 | Level 3 | Level 2 | Level 1 |
|---------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| Spelling, Colour, Neatness, Graphics enhance the message | Information is communicated thoroughly. | Information is communicated with considerable effectiveness. | Information is communicated with some effectiveness. | Information is communicated with limited effectiveness. |
HUMAN SYSTEMS UNIT MODULE: IMMIGRATION SYSTEM
Focusing Questions
1. How is everything interconnected?
2. Should you care about others?
3. Are the current ‘relationships’ ‘continue-able’?
4. Are the ‘relationships’ fair?
Ontario Curriculum Expectations
Foundations
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
- Formative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 1 (responses to commercials)
Global Connections
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
- Formative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 1 (responses to commercials)
- Summative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 5
Understanding and Managing Change
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being
- Formative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 1 (responses to commercials)
- Summative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 5
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices
- Formative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 1 (responses to commercials)
- Summative Assessment Opportunity—Human Activity 5
Purpose:
Students participate in a simulation of applying to Canada and examine other peoples’ genuine experiences of immigrating to Canada. These opportunities allow students to analyse the Canadian immigration system with respect to the four focusing questions above.
Human Activity 1: Analysing Commercials
Description:
Students analyse two provocative commercials.
Time:
30 minutes
Materials:
- Immigration T.V. commercials and hardware to share them with the class
- Engineer being interviewed for a McDonald’s job (youtube.com/watch?v=y4Gd4vqFpmc)
- Indian CEO discussing Canadian hiring: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xO2To3-wQec
Instructions:
1. **DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY**: Discuss the focusing questions for this unit with your students. Acknowledge that the following question is, perhaps, an initial impression, to be mulled over throughout the module and then ask them to discuss this question with a partner: *Is the Canadian immigration system fair?*
2. Share with students the learning expectations that will be formatively assessed through this activity. They are:
**Foundations**
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Global Connections**
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
Understanding and Managing Change
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being.
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices.
3. Show the McDonalds commercial to your students.
4. In pairs, ask students to respond to the following questions:
a. The interviewee has just immigrated to Canada from Iran. How do you think he feels about the situation he is in?
b. Is this situation fair?
c. What are the economic consequences for the man being interviewed?
d. What are the economic consequences for our community if skilled people who move here are working in jobs that are not suited to their skills?
e. What are the social (eg. health, justice, education, etc.) consequences for the man being interviewed?
f. What are the social consequences for our community if skilled people who move here are working in jobs that are not suited to their skills?
g. How might this situation affect you or your family?
h. What will happen if this situation continues into the future?
5. Show the Indian CEO commercial to your students.
6. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT OPPORTUNITY: Individually, ask students to respond to the questions below. Collect the answers and provide written feedback.
a. How do the people in India seem to view potential workers from Canada?
b. Is this situation fair?
c. What are the economic consequences for the man that they are talking about who applied for the job?
d. What are the economic consequences for Canadians if Canadian academic and work credentials are not respected by other countries?
e. What are the social (eg. health, justice, education, etc.) consequences for the man being interviewed?
f. How might this situation affect you or your family?
g. What will happen if this situation continues into the future?
The outcomes being assessed are:
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries.
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being.
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices.
**Human Activity 2: Apply to Immigrate to Canada**
**Description**
Students create a profile of themselves as they expect themselves to be 10 years from now. These profiles are then used to “apply” to immigrate to Canada.
**Time**
75 minutes
**Materials**
- Copies of the profile Student Sheet H2a below for each student (we have used this to simplify the application scenario. You may wish to use an official Canadian immigration application form for each student. There are different forms for skilled workers and for business people. You will need a selection of both from which your students can choose depending on their future plans. You can find both applications at [http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/information/applications/menu-outside.asp](http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/information/applications/menu-outside.asp))
- Copies of the immigration point system Student Reference Sheet H2b below. Make hard copies and collect for reuse.
**Part 1: Apply to Immigrate**
1. Ask students to reflect on what they would like to do in the future. Ask them to use these ideas to project what they will be doing in 10 years. Ask students to complete the profile sheet H2a below with this in mind.
**Part II: Score Someone Else’s application**
1. Review immigration concepts (i.e. how and why do people qualify entrance to Canada?).
2. Briefly explain that Canada follows particular guidelines (point system) in order to determine who is fitting to live in Canada.
3. Provide students with a copy of the point system (Student Reference Sheet H2b below). Have the students read through the point system and view the six factors that determine an
applicant’s eligibility to pass through one of the steps of immigrating to Canada. (I.e. education, age, work experience, language, arranged employment, and adaptability).
4. Allow students to ask any questions that they may have regarding the point system.
5. Randomly distribute the completed profile forms (H2a below) from Part I and ask students to score the form that they received using the point system.
**Part III: Return Scored Applications and Reflect**
1. Return scored applications to their proper owner.
2. Ask students to reflect on their own results using the following guiding questions:
a. Do you agree or disagree with your outcome?
b. Is it fair? Explain.
3. Students who were accepted should partner up with an applicant who was denied. Together the two should go over their application and reflections to compare and contrast their experiences.
Who are You 10 Years From Now?
Student Sheet H2a
Complete this application as if it is 10 years from today.
Age:
Education: How much schooling do you have? List all diplomas obtained and courses completed.
| Degree or Diploma Earned | Number of Years Required (full time study) | Location of School (country) |
|--------------------------|-------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Language Ability
| Language Spoken | How Did You Learn to Speak this Language? | Level of Ability (High, moderate, basic) |
|-----------------|------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
©Learning for a Sustainable Future www.lsf-lst.ca
Employment:
1. How many years experience did you have before you decided to come to Canada?
2. What sort of work did you do?
3. Do you have a job already arranged for you here in Canada?
4. Do you need to find a job when you get here?
5. Have you worked in Canada before? If so, how long?
Adaptability:
1. Are you married?
a. If yes, what kind of education does your spouse have?
b. What sort of work experience does your spouse have?
2. Do you have any family already living here?
## Canadian Points System for Immigration Applicants—Student Reference Sheet H2b
### Overview of Selection Factors
| Factor | Maximum Points |
|-------------------------------|----------------|
| Education | 25 |
| Ability in English and/or French | 24 |
| Experience | 21 |
| Age | 10 |
| Arranged employment in Canada | 10 |
| Adaptability | 10 |
| Total | 100 |
| Pass mark | 67 |
### Point System Details
#### Education
| Level and Duration | Max Points |
|--------------------|------------|
| Master’s degree or PhD, at least 17 years of study | 25 |
| Two university degrees, at least 15 years of study | 22 |
| Three-year diploma, trade certificate, apprenticeship, at least 15 years of study | 22 |
| University degree of two years or more, at least 14 years of study | 20 |
| Two-year diploma, trade certificate, apprenticeship, at least 14 years of study | 20 |
| One-year university degree, at least 13 years of study | 15 |
| One-year diploma, trade certificate, apprenticeship, at least 13 years of study | 15 |
| One-year diploma, trade certificate, apprenticeship, at least 12 years of study | 12 |
| High school completion | 5 |
## Language Factor: Maximum 24 points
### First Official Language – English
| Level | Speaking | Listening | Reading | Writing |
|----------------|----------|-----------|---------|---------|
| High level | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| Moderate level | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Basic level | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| No proficiency | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
### Second Official Language – French
| Level | Speaking | Listening | Reading | Writing |
|----------------|----------|-----------|---------|---------|
| High level | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Moderate level | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Basic level | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| No proficiency | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
## Age factor (max. 10 points)
| Age | Points |
|-------|--------|
| 16 or under | 0 |
| 17 | 2 |
| 18 | 4 |
| 19 | 6 |
| 20 | 8 |
| 21–49 | 10 |
| 50 | 8 |
| 51 | 6 |
| 52 | 4 |
| 53 | 2 |
| 54+ | 0 |
## Work Experience factor
| Experience | Maximum 21 points |
|-----------------------------|-------------------|
| 1 year (full-time) | 15 |
| 2 years (full-time) | 17 |
| 3 years (full-time) | 19 |
| 4 years (full-time) | 21 |
## Arranged Employment Factor (Maximum 10 points)
| Employment | Points |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|
| Arranged employment in Canada approved by Human Resources and Development Canada (Federal Government Department) | 10 |
| If you currently work in Canada on a working visa and your employer has made an offer to employ you on an indeterminate basis if your permanent resident visa is issued. | 5 |
### Adaptability
| Spouse or common-law partner's level of education | Maximum 10 points |
|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------|
| -Secondary school (high school) diploma or less: 0 points | |
| -A one-year diploma, trade certificate, apprenticeship or university degree, and at least 12 years of full-time or full-time equivalent studies: 3 points | 3–5 |
| -A two or three-year diploma, trade certificate, apprenticeship or university degree, and at least 14 years of full-time or full-time equivalent studies: 4 points | |
| -A master’s degree or PhD and at least 17 years of full-time or full-time equivalent studies: 5 points | |
| Previous work in Canada | 5 |
|-------------------------|---|
| Minimum of one year full-time work in Canada on a valid work permit. | |
| Previous study in Canada | 5 |
|--------------------------|---|
| Minimum of 2 years full time post-secondary study in Canada | |
| Arranged Employment in Canada | 5 |
|-------------------------------|---|
| If you have arranged employment in Canada as described in the Arranged Employment selection factor. | |
| Relatives in Canada | 5 |
|--------------------|---|
| You, or your partner, have a relative (parent, grandparent, child, grandchild, sibling, aunt, uncle, niece or nephew) who is residing in Canada and is a Canadian citizen or permanent resident. | |
Human Activity 3: Canadian Citizenship Test
Description
Students complete a practice Canadian Citizenship test and reflect on the results.
Time
30-45 minutes
Materials:
- Internet access to all students so that they can do one of the following practice citizenship tests:
a. You can tailor this quiz to be the length that you would like it to be: http://www.yourlibrary.ca/citizenship/
b. Short quiz: http://www.cbc.ca/news/becomingcanadian/self_citizen_quiz.html#
c. Long practice test: http://www.apnatoronto.com/canadian-citizenship-quiz.html
Instructions:
1. Explain to students the role of the Canadian Citizenship Test in the immigration process (for information, see http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/citizenship/cit-test.asp)
2. Using one of the links above, ask students to complete a simulated Canadian Citizenship test online.
3. In pairs, ask students to reflect on the following questions:
a. What are your general impressions of the test?
b. Do you think the test is fair?
c. Are there other questions that you think citizens should need to know the answer to? If not, why not? If yes, what are the questions?
d. Do you think that people born in Canada should have to take and pass the citizenship test? Why or why not?
Human Activity 4: A Look at the Lives of Real Canadian Immigrants
Description:
Students watch a video to learn about the experiences of real young people who have immigrated to Canada and reflect on these experiences. Teachers may wish to invite a guest speaker to visit their class through the “Passages to Canada” program.
Time:
75 minutes
Materials:
- New Moves video and hardware with which to show it to the class (free at newmoves.ca)
- Overhead of the reflection questions
- Guest speaker appointment arranged through passagestocanada.com (optional)
Instructions:
Show the New Moves video to your class (it can be ordered for free from newmoves.ca) and ask them to respond to the questions below. In addition or as an alternative, invite a guest speaker to come to speak to your class to share her/his immigration experience. Guest speakers can be arranged through passagestocanada.com.
New Moves Video Reflection Questions:
1. What “push-pull factors” are identified by those interviewed?
2. What are some strategies that a new immigrant might use to adapt to a new life in Canada?
3. As expressed by those interviewed, what are some of the major differences between life in Canada and their home nations?
4. Identify ONE comment made in the video that seemed interesting and/or important to you. Why do you think the comment made an impression?
5. In what ways is being a grade 9 student comparable to being a new immigrant?
6. In what ways is being a grade 9 student different from being a new immigrant?
7. Is there something that you would like to change regarding the experiences of people moving to Canada? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
Human Activity 5: Culminating Task/Summative Assessment Opportunity--Individual Analysis of Canadian Immigration System
**Description**
Students reflect on the Canadian immigration system using the themes of the course. Students are provided with a choice of vehicles for demonstrating their understanding.
**Time**
- 15 minutes to introduce the project
- Can be completed in class in 1-2 periods or assigned as an independent project
**Materials:**
- A copy of the reflection questions below for each student (with your own addition of the parameters of the project).
**Instructions**
Given all that students have learned about the immigration process, ask them to create a reflection that responds to the questions below. Provide students with the opportunity to respond using: a detailed visual project, a simulated radio interview, or a written response (for information and tools regarding the importance of differentiated instruction and differentiated assessment, visit www.resources4rethinking.ca/toolbox).
Tell students that their response will be used for a summative assessment of the following expectations:
**Foundations**
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Global Connections**
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
**Understanding and Managing Change**
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices
Reflection questions to be used to guide students’ response:
1. What happens to Canada as a result of immigrants moving here?
a. What are the positive and negative social consequences (health, justice, entertainment, education)?
b. What are the positive and negative environmental implications for Canada?
c. What are the positive and negative economic implications for Canada?
2. What happens to the immigrants as a result of moving here?
a. What are the positive and negative social consequences (health, justice, entertainment, education) for the immigrants and their families?
b. What are the positive and negative economic implications for the immigrants and their families?
3. What happens to the home countries as a result of immigrants moving to Canada?
a. What are the positive and negative social consequences (health, justice, entertainment, education) for the home countries?
b. What are the positive and negative economic consequences for the home countries?
c. What are the positive and negative environmental consequences for the home countries?
4. Revisit the lens: which aspects of the conventional lens have influenced the development of the point system for getting into Canada.
5. If the Canadian immigration system was revised while looking through the lens that you created, how might it be different?
6. What happens if certain types of people are allowed to move to Canada and others are not?
a. What does this mean for the home countries?
b. How does this affect you (for example, if there is an incredible ‘brain drain’ in countries like Haiti and Haiti (and other countries) remain deeply impoverished (and therefore deeply unstable) what are the implications for everyone here in Canada?)
7. Do you think the Canadian immigration system is fair? Why or why not?
8. Do you think the Canadian immigration system is continuable/persistable? Why or why not?
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS and GLOBAL CONNECTIONS UNITS MODULE
Focusing Questions
- How is everything interconnected?
- Are the relationships between people and the environment able to persist?
- Are the relationships between people and the environment fair?
- How can you make a change?
ONTARIO CURRICULUM EXPECTATIONS
Geographic Foundations
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
- Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part II, Canada’s Water
- Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
- Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 4, Bottled Water
Human Environment Interactions
- Explain the relationship of Canada’s renewable and non-renewable resources to the Canadian economy
- Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part II, Canada’s Water
- Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
- Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 4, Bottled Water
- Analyse the ways in which natural systems interact with human systems and make predictions about the outcomes of these interactions
- Formative assessment opportunity: Activity One (The Lorax)
- Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
• Evaluate various ways of ensuring resource sustainability in Canada
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity One (The Lorax)
**Global Connections**
• Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part I, Cochabamba
o Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part II (Canada’s water)
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 4, Bottled Water
**Understanding and Managing Change**
• Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part I, Cochabamba
o Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part II (Canada’s water)
o Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 4, Bottled Water
• Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 4, Bottled Water
o Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 5, The Products I Use
• Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices
o Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 4, Bottled Water
o Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 6, Challenge
Methods of Geographic Inquiry and Communication
- Use methods and tools to gather and analyse data about natural and human systems
- Formative or Summative (depending on previous experiences in your course):
- Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
- Communicate the results of geographic inquiries
- Formative or Summative (depending on previous experiences in your course):
- Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
Purpose:
The purpose of the Human Environment Module is to deeply explore the interrelated social, economic and environmental consequences, positive and negative, of the choices the students make regarding their use of natural resources. Furthermore, the module provides students with a structured opportunity to change a personal practice for a concrete period of time and to reflect on that change. Students visit a local area to analyse the impact that human choices are having on a local area. Finally, students have an opportunity to examine and demonstrate their understanding of the interconnections among the concepts in the course to date.
Human Environment Activity 1: The Lorax
Description
Share the story of *The Lorax* and ask students to respond.
Time
Depends on your choice of using the book or the film.
Materials:
- a conventional TV/DVD and the film *The Lorax* OR a copy of the book
- copies of the student sheet HE1a below (these can be collected for teacher reuse)
Instructions
1. Tell students that this activity will be used to provide formative feedback regarding the outcomes listed below.
Human Environment Interactions
- Analyse the ways in which natural systems interact with human systems and make predictions about the outcomes of these interactions
- Evaluate various ways of ensuring resource sustainability in Canada
2. Share *The Lorax* video/book and have students discuss the questions on worksheet HE1a below in small groups.
3. Collect the responses to the final question and provide detailed feedback.
Student Sheet HE1a: The Lorax
Answer the questions below on a separate piece of paper.
1. Who/what is the Lorax intended to represent (in our world)?
2. Who/what is the Once-ler intended to represent (in our world)?
3. Do people “Need a Thneed”? Explain.
4. Describe the relationship between the economy and the natural environment in the situation described in the Lorax.
5. The book is commonly recognized as a parable. A **parable** is a brief, succinct story, in prose or verse, that illustrates a moral or religious lesson. What is the lesson in *The Lorax*?
6. *The Lorax* is Seuss’ most controversial work, having been banned in some schools and libraries. Do you think that this book should be banned? Why or why not?
7. Throughout the course, we have been asking the question about whether or not certain things are able to ‘persist’=‘continue to go on for a long, long time”. Another way to frame this question is to ask whether or not something is ‘sustainable’. A **sustainable community** is one that:
- Recognizes that growth occurs within some limits
- Values cultural diversity
- Respects other life forms
- Works toward some shared values amongst the members of the community
- Makes decisions and plans in a manner that includes the perspectives from the social, health, economic and environmental sectors of the community
- Makes best use of local efforts and resources
- Uses renewable sources of energy
- Fosters activities which use materials in continuous cycles
- Does not compromise the sustainability of other communities (human or non-human)
- Does not compromise the sustainability of future generations
- Has a stable, dependable and diversified economic base
- Provides a range of opportunities for rewarding work
- Satisfies the basic needs of every one of its members including the opportunity to fill her or his potential
In detail, describe what would need to happen in the community in *The Lorax* to help it to become ‘sustainable’.
©Learning for a Sustainable Future www.lsf-lst.ca
---
1 Adapted from: Nigel Richardson, (1994) *Making our communities sustainable. The central issue is will*, Ontario Round Table on Environment and Economy in Readings on Sustainability, LSF, (2000) pp. 21 and 22.
Human Environment Activity 2: Examining Human Use of a Natural Resource—Focus on Water
**Description**
Students view a short video clip to learn about a real situation in which the municipal water rights in Cochabamba, Bolivia were privatized and the people could no longer afford to purchase the water. Students reflect on this situation and try to imagine it happening in their own community. Then, students read an article about different perspectives regarding the sale of Canada’s bulk water. They analyse the situation from an environmental, economic and social situation.
**Time**
75 minutes
**Materials:**
- Internet access and LCD projector to show youtube clip or rent the film ‘The Corporation’ and show a 5 minute segment (“Expansion Plan”) on a conventional TV/DVD
**Part I: Municipal Water Rights**
1. Preview the video and article to identify some terms you may wish to discuss and post around your room in preparation for the video. For example:
- World Bank
- Privatization: the process of transferring ownership of industries, resources and services (eg. health care, education, etc.) from the public sector (government) to the private sector (business).
2. Tell students that this is an opportunity to receive formative feedback concerning the following expectations:
**Global Connections**
Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
**Understanding and Managing Change**
Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
3. In Cochabamba, Bolivia, a San Francisco corporation bought rights to all the municipal water as well as all the rainwater then they sold it back to the people at inflated costs. The people rioted. Show the movie clip about the situation (less than 5 minutes long) from the movie “The
Corporation”. In the DVD version, the clip is called ‘Expansion Plan’. Alternatively, you can find the clip at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UwbdetTT3ws
4. After the clip, ask students to join with a partner to discuss and respond to the questions on the student sheet HE2a below.
5. Collect the responses and provide detailed feedback regarding the outcomes listed above.
1. Who determined that Bolivia’s water supply must be privatized?
2. a) What aspects of the Bolivian water supply did the Bechtel Corporation own?
b) Is that fair? Why or why not?
3. a) What could the company do if people did not pay their bills?
b) Is that fair? Why or why not?
4. What choices were the people of Bolivia faced with as a result of the privatization of their water?
5. What would you do if you lived in Cochabamba during this time?
6. Revisit the lens: which aspects of the conventional lens (ie. the lens that many people in Canada wear) have influenced the Cochabamba situation?
7. If the Cochabamba situation was originally approached while looking through the lens that you created, how might it be the same? How might it be different?
8. a) What would you do if your community’s water was ‘privatized’ (ie. sold to a private company to manage and sell to you)?
b) Do you think that could ever happen?
Part II: Canada’s Water
1. Review the article provided below entitled ‘Selling Canada’s Water’ to identify terms that should be discussed with your students before they read it (eg. NAFTA, GATT, etc.).
2. Ask students to read the article.
3. Ask students to discuss the questions below with a partner and then to write their own, personal responses. Collect the responses to provide **formative** feedback for the following expectations:
**Geographic Foundations**
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Human Environment Interactions**
- Explain the relationship of Canada’s renewable and non-renewable resources to the Canadian economy
...And **summative** feedback for the following expectations:
**Human Environment Interactions**
- Analyse the ways in which natural systems interact with human systems and make predictions about the outcomes of these interactions
**Global Connections**
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
**Understanding and Managing Change**
- Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
Reflection questions:
a. Did anything in the article surprise you? Explain.
b. How are social (eg. health, justice, education, etc.), environmental and economic aspects of this issue inter-related?
c. Is the privatization and sale of Canada’s water fair?
d. Is the privatization and sale of Canada’s water persistable/sustainable?
e. How do you think someone wearing the conventional lens would view this issue?
f. How would someone wearing the lens you created view this issue?
g. What else would you like to know about this issue?
h. Do you care about this issue? Why or why not?
i. What would you like to happen next regarding this issue?
Selling Canada's water
Canada lucked out in the global water sweeps. We are near the top of water-rich nations, trailing only Brazil, Russia and China.
Thanks to the replenishing cycle of rain and evaporation, the amount of water on Earth has remained the same over the past four billion years. Only in this generation has there been concern that we may be ruining our water supply. Of all the water on our planet, 97.5 per cent is sea water and three-quarters of the remaining 2.5 per cent is locked in polar ice caps. The tiny bit left over is drinkable.
Estimates of Canada's supply of fresh water vary from 5.6 per cent to nine per cent to 20 per cent of the world's supply, depending on how one defines "fresh water" – whether it means "available," "usable," or merely "existing." One study says Canada has 20 per cent of the world's fresh water – ranking it at the top – but only nine per cent of "renewable" fresh water.
Whatever the case, Canadians consume 350 litres of water a day per capita, second only to the Americans as the most profligate wasters of water in the world. The average global citizen needs only between 20 and 40 litres of water a day for drinking and sanitation.
It has been said that water will be "the oil of the 21st century," or "liquid gold," and that it will cause wars between nations. Whatever happens with regard to global water, and the environmental, economic and political fallout, Canada will be a major player. Talks have intensified during the past few years on whether Canada should take advantage of its bountiful supply of water by selling it for profit – like gas, oil and timber.
The House of Commons intends to hold televised hearings starting in September 2001 on "freshwater security" to examine the pros and cons of selling Canada's water to other countries. Canada sells bottled water to other countries, but shipments of bulk water are not allowed.
There is also the issue of whether, under the terms of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), water is a "vital resource" like the air we breathe, or a "commodity" to be sold and traded.
Water as a commodity
Gerry White is an entrepreneur who wants to sell Canada's water to the world and sees no reason why he should be prevented from doing so.
Specifically, he wants to sell water from Gisborne Lake in Newfoundland. The lake is 16 kilometres long and 10 kilometres wide, near the south coast of Newfoundland. White flew over Lake Gisborne one summer day in 1996 and nearly didn't notice it because the water is so clear.
White quickly developed a plan to skim 500,000 cubic metres from Gisborne Lake each week and ship it in bulk to overseas customers. He argued that draining 500,000 cubic metres of water would lower the lake an inch, but this would be replenished naturally within 10 hours.
He also argued it would be a godsend to jobs-poor Newfoundland, especially the small community of Grand Le Pierre, 30 kilometres down the hill on the Atlantic shore. Grand Le Pierre used to be a thriving cod-fishing town, then the cod disappeared and now the unemployment rate is more than 40 per cent.
White convinced the town's mayor, Edward Fizzard, to back the plan. Fizzard imagined a water pipeline from Gisborne Lake, a bottling plant in Grand Le Pierre, work for locals loading tankers to take the water to distant ports.
When environmentalists got wind of this, White's grand plan was scrapped. The environmentalists successfully argued that allowing Gisborne Lake water to be sold in bulk would make Canadian water a "commodity" and thus subject to the terms and conditions of GATT and NAFTA.
The same thing happened two years earlier when the province of Ontario issued a permit to a private company to collect Great Lakes water and ship it in bulk to Asia. The permit was issued to Nova Group, a company in Sault Ste. Marie, allowing it to ship up to 600 million litres of Lake Superior water to Asia by 2002. There was such a public outcry – on both sides of the border – that the permit was withdrawn.
Early in 2001, Roger Grimes, the new premier of Newfoundland, revived the plan to sell water from Gisborne Lake. He has called for a review of Gerry White's Gisborne Lake plan and thinks there is a good chance Newfoundland may go it alone and damn the federal torpedoes. Mayor Fizzard of Grand Le Pierre couldn't be happier. "The water is just running into the Atlantic Ocean, no one is getting one nickel out of it," he told a visiting Toronto Star reporter in May 2001. "Why shouldn't it help us? It just seems like other parts of Canada want to keep Newfoundland down."
**Belongs to everyone and to no one**
Maude Barlow is chair of the Council of Canadians, a citizens' group with 100,000 members. She is the Joan of Arc of those opposed to the sale of Canadian water.
"There is a common assumption that the world's water supply is huge and infinite," Barlow has said. "This assumption is false. At some time in the near future, water bankruptcy will result." She cites a United Nations study that says by the year 2025 – less than 25 years – two-thirds of the world will be "water-poor." "The wars of the future are going to be fought over water," Barlow has declared.
She endorses a 1999 paper from the Canadian Environmental Law Association (CELA) that says: "Water is an essential need, a public trust, not a commodity. It belongs to everyone and to no one." The CELA paper continues:
"Even large-scale water exports cannot possibly satisfy the social and economic needs of distant societies. Water shipped halfway around the world will only be affordable to the privileged and will deepen inequities between rich and poor. International trade in bulk water will allow elites to assure the quality of their own drinking water supplies, while permitting them to ignore the pollution of their local waters and the waste of their water management systems."
Commenting specifically on the Great Lakes Basin, CELA says: "Changing water levels and flows will have unpredictable and harmful consequences to basin habitat, biodiversity, shorelines, jobs and culture, particularly to First Nations. Lower water levels will mean greater disturbance of highly contaminated sediments in shallow harbours and connecting channels and less dilution of polluted waters."
Barlow maintains that if Newfoundland is allowed to export bulk water, it becomes, ipso facto, a "good" under NAFTA, which would allow any other company in Canada to do the same. "The prime minister can't blame it on the provinces or the Constitution," Barlow says. "The federal government has jurisdiction over trade and could ban (water) exports tomorrow. Sadly, Jean Chrétien doesn't seem prepared to do that."
http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/water/
Human Environment Activity 3: Using our Natural Resources
**Description**
In a jigsaw activity, individual students become experts about the social, environmental and economic consequences (both positive and negative) of certain natural resource industries. Students share their findings with their home groups. Students are provided with note-taking organizers with which they can record what they learn from their peers.
Note: this is not intended to be a large project. The purpose of this investigation is to find the background information that students will need to understand the positive and negative consequences of making/using the product they study in Human Environment Activity Five.
**Curriculum Expectations**
Summative feedback regarding:
**Geographic Foundations**
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
**Human Environment Interactions**
- Explain the relationship of Canada’s renewable and non-renewable resources to the Canadian economy
- Analyse the ways in which natural systems interact with human systems and make predictions about the outcomes of these interactions
**Understanding and Managing Change**
- Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place
**Methods of Geographic Inquiry and Communication (*formative or summative—will depend on what you have done prior to this project)***
- Use methods and tools to gather and analyse data about natural and human systems
- Communicate the results of geographic inquiries
**Time**
2-3 periods
**Materials**
- For each student: student sheets HE3a, HE3b,
- Access to research tools (eg. library, internet, etc.)
**Part I: Finding Out about the Consequences of Using Natural Resources**
1. This activity relies on group work. Consider cultivating students’ group work skills by using the short activity and assessment tools in Appendix A.
2. Have pairs of students choose one of the following parts of the day to examine, for example: waking up and getting ready to go out, lunch time, at paid job, a fun evening, etc. For each part of the day, have students brainstorm the natural resources that they use (not a theoretical person, but they themselves).
3. Have a pair present one mind map from each part of the day to the whole class.
4. This is a jigsaw activity. Put students into ‘home groups’ of 6. Have each student choose a particular natural resource industry upon which to focus for the next activity:
- Metal mining
- Forestry
- Large scale farming
- Fisheries
- Oil/natural gas extraction
- Hydroelectricity generation
5. Each student will become an expert about the natural resource industry she/he chose (you may wish to have students do this part individually or with someone from another home group that chose the same natural resource industry). See student sheet HE3a below for details.
**Part II: Sharing the Findings**
1. After the students have gathered their research, the students need to share their findings with the other students in their home groups (hearing 15-30 different presentations may kill any interest in the topics students had; hearing 5 presentations works well). Tell students that this will be their peers’ only opportunity to learn about the consequences of other industries—they are depending on their peers to share good information in an effective manner. As a class, discuss some examples of effective and enjoyable ways to share information (games, activities, presentations from knowledgeable and engaging presenters [perhaps with Power Point slides for visual learners, etc.]).
2. The ‘experts’ present to the home group. The listeners take notes about the other industries using a note-taking organizer. You may want to develop the note-taking organizer as a class to
help students to develop the skill about how to take notes. An example of a note-taking organizer is below (student sheet HE3b).
3. After all of the presentations, in their small groups, ask students to discuss:
a. The interconnections among the consequences of using the resources.
b. How would someone wearing the conventional lens view your findings?
c. How would someone wearing the traditional native lens view your findings?
d. How would someone wearing your lens view your findings?
Student Sheet HE3a: What are the Consequences of our Natural Resource Industries?
Industry chosen: ________________________________
Content
You must teach your peers about your industry. The information that you share with your peers must address the following questions:
1. What are the consequences of the industry for:
a. Water
b. Air
c. Soil
d. Plant and animal biodiversity
2. What are the positive and negative consequences of the industry for the economy?
3. What are the positive and negative social consequences of the industry (eg. physical health, mental health, justice, education, etc.)?
4. What is the short-term forecast for this industry?
5. What is the long-term forecast for this industry?
Methods of Sharing the Information
1. What are some methods that you find are an interesting/effective way for you to learn about something?
2. What are some ways that you could share this information with your peers?
Suggested Sources Of Information:
General searching tips:
1. When using different search engines, try phrases like:
- “mining environment”
- “mining health”
- “mining justice”
- “mining economy”
2. When choosing which of the ‘hits’ to read, consider:
- Is this a paid ad?
- Is this a source I respect? Quick clues regarding the nature of the source:
a. An industry (ie. business) source will usually end in “.com”
b. An educational institution will usually have “edu” in the url
c. A non-profit organization (ie. a charity) will usually be “.org” or in Canada sometimes “.ca”
d. A government source will usually have “gov” in the url
- Do I have a wide variety of sources (ie from the different types listed above)?
Listening to Presentations: Note Organizer Sheet HE3b (Use 1 page per industry)
Industry: ______
Natural Environment
Air
Water
Soil
Plants and Animals
[Blank]
[Blank]
Short term:
Long Term
Forecast
Economy
Social
Physical health
Mental health
Justice
[Blank]
[Blank]
Human Environment/Global Connections Activity 4: Class Examination of a Product: Example –Bottled Water
Description
As a class, students investigate a ‘product’—bottled water. An anticipation guide and ‘taste test’ helps to make the issue personal for students. Through discussion, short videos and a short article, students examine the social, environmental and economic aspects of the issue. This in-depth examination of a product will help the students to prepare for their own, individual examination of a product of their choice in Human Environment Activity Five.
Time
75 minutes
Materials:
- Copies of student worksheet HE4a
- Plastic water bottle
- Reusable cups for each student
- Samples of tap water and bottled water—disguise which sample is which
- Information about bottled water. You may wish to use:
- These short videos:
- http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21134540/vp/20000613#20000613 on Jan 04, 2009
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFDEjipNjlc
- This bullet-point article:
- http://www.kairoscanada.org/en/ecojustice/water/waterfacts/bottledwaterconcerns/
Curriculum Expectations
You may wish to use this activity as an opportunity to provide formative feedback on the following expectations. The next activity (Activity 6) will provide a summative assessment opportunity.
Geographic Foundations
- Analyse local and regional factors that affect Canada’s natural and human systems
- Formative assessment opportunity: Activity 2, Part II, Canada’s Water
- Summative assessment opportunity: Activity 3, Using Natural Resources
Human Environment Interactions
- Explain the relationship of Canada’s renewable and non-renewable resources to the Canadian economy.
- Analyse the ways in which natural systems interact with human systems and make predictions about the outcomes of these interactions.
Global Connections
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries.
Understanding and Managing Change
- Explain how natural and human systems change over time and from place to place.
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being.
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices.
Instructions:
1. Have students complete the bottled water worksheet HE4a below.
2. Recap some of the issues related to selling water as discussed in Human Environment Activity 2.
3. In addition, other natural resources go into the sale of a bottle of water. As a class, ask students to look at the sale of a bottle of water from the perspective of the whole lifecycle of the ‘product’. Brainstorm what resources go into the sale of the bottle.
For example:
- Oil (plastic bottle)
- Paper
- label
- Packaging of multiple bottles (e.g., cardboard case with plastic wrap)
- Water source
- Energy to:
- mine the oil
- pump it from its source
- shape and construct the bottle
- transport the bottles to the place of purchase
o recycle into other products
(For more info see http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Soda-Bottle.html This can also tie in how a water bottle fits into Primary, Secondary and Tertiary industries.)
4. Challenge students to consider the interrelated social (health, justice, etc.), economic and environmental aspects of this issue. After the students have had some time to do their own thinking, share the pieces below and then give them more time to record ideas:
a. These short videos (1-5 minutes each):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lfDEjiipNjlc
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21134540/vp/20000613#20000613 on Jan 04, 2009
b. This bullet point article:
http://www.kairoscanada.org/en/ecojustice/water/waterfacts/bottledwaterconcerns/
5. In pairs, ask students discuss the questions below. After an appropriate amount of time, ask each student to write an important point about their discussion on a piece of scrap paper. Collect the papers and share them with the whole group. Post the papers around the room.
a. What are the differences between bottled water and tap water?
b. What are the similarities between bottled water and tap water?
c. What alternatives exist to buying bottled water?
d. What are the consequences (positive and negative) of using bottled water for:
i. The natural environment
ii. The local economy
iii. The global economy
iv. Human health
v. Human justice
e. Can we persist in our use of bottled water? Explain.
f. In general, do you care if the relationships between the natural environment and humans are fair? Why or why not?
1. Complete the Anticipation Guide below as directed.
| Statement | Agree/Disagree | Response |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------|----------|
| Bottled water is better than tap water. | Agree | |
| Bottled water is from natural springs. | Disagree | |
| The bottled water industry is a high profit industry. | Agree | |
| We use bottled water because it is safer and more convenient than tap water. | Disagree | |
| It is not harmful to the natural world to use water bottles if we recycle them after use. | Agree | |
| Water bottles waste other resources besides water. | Disagree | |
2. Taste Test
a. Complete the chart below after sampling the two types of water.
| Initial reaction to each sample | Sample #1 | Sample #2 |
|---------------------------------|-----------|-----------|
b. Which sample tasted the best? 1 2
c. What percentage of the class like sample 1 best?
_______________
d. What percentage of the class like sample 2 best?
_______________
e. The bottled water was sample _______.
f. Your class picked sample _______.
Comments?
3. The bottled water industry:
a. How much cost difference was there between Samples 1 and 2?
b. Where do you think the bottled water came from?
c. Where did it actually come from?
d. Do you drink bottled water? If yes, why? If no, why not?
Human Environment/Global Connections Activity 5: A Closer Look at the Products I Use
Description
Students examine the social, environmental and economic consequences of some of the products that they use and teach their peers about them.
Time
4 periods
Materials:
- A copy of the quiz found at http://www.sightline.org/publications/books/stuff/stuff_quiz one per student or on overhead
- Copies of student worksheet HE5a below
Curriculum Expectations
PART I:
If you have been explicitly teaching research skills (not just ‘using’ existing research skills--see worksheet), then this is a summative assessment opportunity for:
Methods of Geographic Inquiry and Communication
- Use methods and tools to gather and analyse data about natural and human systems
- Communicate the results of geographic inquiries
PART II AND III:
Part II is a formative assessment opportunity and part III is a summative assessment opportunity for any/all of the expectations addressed in this module (see first page of module), particularly:
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being
Instructions
Part I: Investigating the Products that We Use
1. Have your students take the quiz found at http://www.sightline.org/publications/books/stuff/stuff_quiz
2. For discussion (pairs and/or whole class):
a. If someone was using the conventional lens, what things would she/he feel she/he would like to know about the products she/he uses?
b. If someone was using the lens that you created, what things would she/he feel that she/he would like to know about the products she/he uses?
c. What would you like to know about the products you use?
3. Have each student choose one product to focus on. Individually, ask students to do a more in-depth analysis of the entire lifecycle of that product and the role of natural resources in that product. See student worksheet HE5a below.
Notes:
- It is important that students choose a product that they themselves actually use.
- It is important that students consider the entire life cycle of the product (extracting resources for product itself, the package, the fuel required to transport and perhaps use the product, etc.).
- It is important that students consider social (health, justice, etc.), environmental and economic consequences of using the product.
Some products that are fairly easy to find information about (see resources listed on student sheet):
- Pop
- Plastic bags
- Food (eg. distance travelled, pesticides, etc.; particularly meat and coffee)
- Newspapers
- Clothing (particularly t-shirts and running shoes)
- Cars (eg. alternative transportation choices, etc.)
- Computers
- Water-using appliances (eg shower, toilet)
- Television
Alternate Activity:
If you think that your students will have difficulty researching a product themselves, you can have your students do puzzles related to the consequences of using the natural resources that go into making a computer. The puzzles and related analysis sheets can be found on pages 7-13 in the teacher guide that can be found at http://techloop.ca/guide.pdf
Note: if you are not doing the alternate activity above, you may wish to add http://techloop.ca/guide.pdf (p7-13) as a potential resource on the student worksheet.
Part II: Students Share their Findings
This activity relies on group work. Consider cultivating students’ group work skills by using the short activity and assessment tools in Appendix A.
Ideally, each student would learn about 4-6 different products (hearing 20-30 different presentations may kill any interest in the topics students had). One organizational idea is to have students who studied different products get into groups of 4-6. The students teach one another about their findings. The listeners take notes about the other products using a note-taking organizer. You may want to develop the note-taking organizer as a class to help students to develop the skill about how to take notes. An example of a note-taking organizer can be found in the Human Environment Activity 3 above (worksheet #HE3b). You will have an opportunity to assess your students’ learning about the products that their peers studied in the So What? Activity in Part III below and/or through a quiz.
Part III: So What? Activity and Assessment Opportunity
Description
Students create a mind map to depict their understanding of the interrelated consequences of using different products. Each line away from the central picture asks the question “so what?” At the end of each line is a new picture which tries to address the “so what?” question.
Materials
- Chart paper (preferably already used on one side)
- Crayons, pencil crayons, etc.
- Old magazines, glue, scissors (not essential but very helpful)
Time Required
45-75 minutes
Instructions
1. Model the activity described below using an appropriate topic that your students will not be using for their own assignment.
a. In the centre of a piece of chart paper, draw a square, circle, squiggly shape. Inside that shape, draw a picture (or use pictures from a magazine) that represents something that bugs you. NOTE: trying to use pictures rather than words can help students to try to think about the issue in a more holistic way (eg. Lots of roads are being built in the area in which I live).
b. Draw a line away from the picture. On top of the line, write the question, “so what?”.
c. Connect the line to a new shape.
d. Inside the shape, draw a picture of one of the consequences of the thing that bugs you (eg more roads means more cars on the roads).
e. Draw a line away from the picture of the cars. On top of the line, write the question, “so what?”
f. Connect the line to a new shape. In the shape, draw a picture of the consequences of the situation in the previous picture (eg. more cars means more air pollution).
g. Continue with this one line of thinking until you no longer have an answer to the question so what (for example, my next picture would be of my grandfather dead because older people and very young people are very vulnerable to air pollution.)
h. Start a new spoke from the central picture with a new line of thinking (eg. more roads also bother me because they take habitat away from animals. So what?—fewer animals. So what?—fewer animals for me to see. So what?—less happiness for me.
i. Etc.
TIPS:
- Incorporate environmental, social (eg. justice, health, etc.), economic consequences
- Incorporate consequences for humans and non-humans
- Incorporate consequences for humans and other animals near and far, now and in the future
- Try to use emotional reactions as well as logical ‘reasons’
- Try to use pictures as well as words
- Try to bring each branch of the diagram into as many different directions as possible
- Ask ‘so what’ for as many steps as possible…keep going…!
1. Have the students create their own “So What?” maps using the central theme of ‘using products has diverse consequences’. The mind map should incorporate the information that they learned from all of the presentations from their peers (not just their own projects).
2. Have the students post their maps around the room and invite everyone to look at everyone else’s.
1. Choose any product that **you** (yes you) **commonly** use. Some products that are fairly easy to find information about are:
- Pop
- Plastic bags
- Food (eg. distance travelled, pesticides, etc.; particularly meat and coffee)
- Newspapers
- Clothing (particularly t-shirts and running shoes)
- Cars (eg. alternative transportation choices, etc.)
- Computers
- Water-using appliances (eg shower, toilet)
- Television
2. For this project, you can choose to:
a. Create a detailed mind map
b. Write a short essay
c. Create an electronic or paper visual display with **detailed** information (much more elaborate than your grade eight poster projects!)
d. Your suggestion______________________ (to be approved by your teacher)
3. Whatever option you choose to create, your final project must thoroughly answer the following questions:
a. What natural resources go into:
i. making the product you have chosen?
ii. using the product
iii. disposing of the product
b. Where did the components of the product come from?
c. Where did the finished product come from?
d. What are the positive and negative consequences of manufacturing, using and disposing of the product with respect to:
i. The natural environment (near-by)
ii. The natural environment (far away)
iii. The local economy
iv. The global economy
v. People near-by (consider: health, justice, education, etc.)
vi. People far away (consider: health, justice, education, etc.)
e. How much of this product do you consume in a year?
f. How much of this product do you think is consumed in a year by:
i. everyone in the school?
ii. everyone in town?
iii. everyone in Canada?
g. Is it possible to continue to harvest all of the natural resources needed for this product:
i. in the short-term?
ii. in the long-term?
h. Do you care about the positive and negative consequences of harvesting the natural resources for this project? Why or why not?
4. What else do you want to know about your product?
Some resources that you may wish to consult are listed below:
- Otesha book: [http://otesha.ca/files/the_otesha_book.pdf](http://otesha.ca/files/the_otesha_book.pdf) (Tip: the book is long; print/read only the chapter that is relevant to your project).
- Book: *The Secret Life of Everyday Things* by John Ryan and Alan Durning [http://www.sightline.org/publications/books/stuff](http://www.sightline.org/publications/books/stuff)
- Howstuffismade.org
- Consult the search tips on the sheet that you used to investigate natural resources
Human Environment/Global Connections Activity 6: Making a Change Challenge
Description
Students choose a product and track, for 2-3 weeks, all of the opportunities that they have to use the product. For each opportunity, students record whether they used the product the way they normally do or whether they made a change to the way they used the product (eg. used less, used an alternative, etc.). After the tracking period, students reflect on the experience. Finally, they challenge a peer to take on the challenge that they just completed.
Time
- 45 minutes to introduce the project and investigate alternatives
- 2-3 weeks of personal time to try out the experiment
- 15-30 minutes to reflect on the experience at the end and to challenge a peer
Materials:
- Optional: LCD projector, computer and internet access OR printed photos from chrisjordan.com
- Copies of Student sheet HE6a for each student
Curriculum Expectations:
Summative assessment opportunity for:
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices
Instructions:
1. Optional: Use an LCD projector and internet access (or print some photos) to show students some of the photos found at Chrisjordan.com
2. The challenge: ask students to choose a product (not a resource) that they use. It can be a product that they studied, one that their peers taught them about, or a different one (to be approved by you). For two or three weeks, students are to track every opportunity that they had to use the product and to record any opportunity they had to use the resource differently in light of the consequences they learned about (see Student Sheet HE6a below).
For each opportunity, students note whether they used the product the way they usually do or whether they made a change in their practice (for example, students may walk by the pop
machine and choose to fill up a refillable water bottle instead of purchasing a pop; students may go to the store and be offered a plastic bag for their purchases but choose to put the purchase in a reusable bag [eg. knapsack] instead of a plastic bag, etc.).
3. Create a list of the products that the students are examining. For that list of products, as a class, come up with a list of ways to use the product in a manner that is more environmentally and socially responsible (eg. to use less of it, to use an alternative, etc.). You may wish to consider:
a. Can you use less of the product (eg. tap water instead of a pop, avoiding the urge to have a pop, shorter showers, collecting and using paper that has already been used on one side, flushing the toilet less frequently, etc.)?
b. Can you avoid the product (eg. tap water instead of bottled water, reusable bags instead of plastic bags, etc.)
c. Can you purchase a *used* product instead of a new one (eg. Goodwill, Salvation Army, Value village, clothing ‘swaps’ with friends’, etc.)?
d. Can you purchase products that have been made with certifiably good practices? For example:
i. chocolate/coffee that is ‘fair trade’
ii. sweatshop-free clothing
iii. food that is organic/local
iv. paper that is made from old, recycled paper or that has been certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
e. Can you purchase the product from vendors which have good practices? For example:
i. Mountain Equipment Co-op [www.mec.ca](http://www.mec.ca)
ii. Ten Thousand Villages [www.tenthousandvillages.com](http://www.tenthousandvillages.com)
4. Reflection questions following the product challenge:
a. How often did you change your usual way of using the product?
i. If you tried out a change at least once: how did it feel to try out the change?
ii. If you did not try out a change, why not?
b. Do you think you will change your practices beyond these two weeks? Why or why not?
c. How do you think your peers would do with the challenge that you chose? Explain.
d. How do you think someone wearing the conventional lens would view her/his use of resources?
e. How do you think someone wearing the lens that you created would view her/his use of resources?
f. Is it fair for people to continue to use the product the way it is currently being used by many people?
g. Is it ‘‘persistable’’/sustainable to use the product the way it is currently being used by many people?
h. Explain how global economic and environmental factors can affect individual choices.
i. Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect your choices.
5. At the end of the experiment, students are to choose a partner and to swap challenges with the partner. At the end of each week, ask students to check in with each other to see how they are doing with their challenges.
| The Great Canadian Product Challenge | Morning | Afternoon | Evening |
|-------------------------------------|---------|-----------|---------|
| Resource Chosen: ___________________ | | | |
| **Day 1** | | | |
| Describe the opportunity you had to use the product. | | | |
| Did you do things the way you usually do or did you do something differently? Explain. | | | |
| **Day 2** | | | |
| Describe the opportunity you had to use the product. | | | |
| Did you do things the way you usually do or did you do something differently? Explain. | | | |
| **Day 3** | | | |
| Describe the opportunity you had to use the product. | | | |
| Did you do things the way you usually do or did you do something differently? Explain. | | | |
| **Day 4** | | | |
| Describe the opportunity you had to use the product. | | | |
| Did you do things the way you usually do or did you do something differently? Explain. | | | |
| **Day 5** | | | |
| Describe the opportunity you had to use the product. | | | |
| Did you do things the way you usually do or did you do something differently? Explain. | | | |
Human Environment Activity 7: Field Trip
Description
On the field trip in the Physical Unit Module, students looked for interconnections among the features of their local place. The students considered: vegetation, animals, soil, landforms, water, etc. In this field trip, to the same place or a new place with similar physical features, students are encouraged to look for evidence of human influences on the land.
Time
- ½ day or full day
- Materials
- Clip boards
- Permission forms
Instructions
Encourage students to look for evidence of human influences on the land. You may wish to revisit some of the sensory tasks from the Physical Activity 1.
Human Environment Activity 8: Culminating Task
Description
In Physical Module Activity 2, students created a mind map to illustrate the interconnections among the physical features in the place that they visited on their field trip. This time, students paste their mind maps from the physical unit module onto an 11x17 piece of paper to create room to explore the human interconnections with the physical features of the local place.
Time
45-60 minutes or as an independent assignment
Materials
- 11x17 paper
- Optional: photographs from field trip and/or sketching materials
Assessment
You may wish to use this activity as a culminating task for the course or as review for an exam.
Instructions
1. Students place the physical interconnections mind map (Activity 2 of Physical Module) onto a piece of 11x17 paper to add the human interconnections.
2. In pairs, ask students to consult their mind maps to generate a list of criteria to use to evaluate land use policy in the region.
Notes:
- You may wish to ask one student/pair of students to do her/his/their mind map on much larger paper so that it can be used for a class discussion (ie. it will be big enough for everyone to see from their desks.
- A simplified example of a mind map (Figure 4) is provided below.
- An example of a rubric for assessing a mind map (Figure 3) is provided in the Physical Module on page 56.
- After students have completed their mind maps, collect them and save them for the course culminating activity after the global unit module.
Sample Human Environment Mind Map (Simplified): Figure
GLOBAL UNIT MODULE
Focusing Questions
1. How is everything interconnected?
2. Should you care about others? your place?
3. Are the current ‘relationships’ (between humans, between humans and the ‘environment’, etc.) ‘continue-able’? ie. able to persist?
4. Are the ‘relationships’ fair?
5. Can you change the ‘relationships’?
Assessment Opportunities
Global Activity 1 provides a summative assessment opportunity for the following expectations:
**Global Connections**
- Analyse connections between Canada and other countries
**Understanding and Managing Change**
- Predict how current or anticipated changes in the geography of Canada will affect the country’s future economic, social, and environmental well-being
- Explain how global economic and environmental factors affect individual choices
Global Activity 1: Where does our Stuff Come From?
Description
As a class, students identify where the products that they studied in the Human Environment Module Activity 6 came from. They reflect on the interconnections and the patterns.
Time
20-30 minutes
Materials:
- world map
- yarn
- tape or pins
- scrap pieces of paper
Instructions:
1. Revisit projects about products from Human Environment Module Activity 6.
2. Create a map that reflects where the components and finished products came from.
3. Discuss:
a. What patterns do you see?
b. Why do these patterns exist?
c. What does the map indicate regarding the relationships between people in this class and other people in the world?
d. Do you care about the relationships between you and other people in the world? Why or why not?
e. Are the relationships persistable/sustainable?
Global Activity 2: The Kiva Approach to Building Fair, ‘Persistable’ Relationships--Microloans
Description
Students learn about an alternative to aid and trade: the micro loan. After the lesson on microloans, students have the choice to either a) select and contribute to a micro loan, or b) write a short, persuasive response on why micro loans are ineffective and/or inappropriate.
Time
1 period
Materials
- Internet access (for all students) and LCD projector
- Dots for dotmocracy process [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dotmocracy](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dotmocracy)
- Scrap paper for small group list of criteria
Instructions
Part I: Learn about Microcredit
Share some information about microcredit with your students. A definition is provided below as well as a link to further information on the Kiva site.
“Microcredit is the extension of very small loans (microloans) to the unemployed, to poor entrepreneurs and to others living in poverty. These individuals lack collateral, steady employment and a verifiable credit history and therefore cannot meet even the most minimal qualifications to gain access to traditional credit. Microcredit is a part of microfinance, which is the provision of a wider range of financial services to the very poor.
Microcredit is a financial innovation that is generally considered to have originated with the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.\[1\] In that country, it has successfully enabled extremely impoverished people to engage in self-employment projects that allow them to generate an income and, in many cases, begin to build wealth and exit poverty. Due to the success of microcredit, many in the traditional banking industry have begun to realize that these microcredit borrowers should more correctly be categorized as pre-bankable; thus, microcredit is increasingly gaining credibility in the mainstream finance industry, and many traditional large finance organizations are contemplating microcredit projects as a source of future growth, even though almost everyone in larger development organizations discounted the likelihood of success of microcredit when it was begun. The
United Nations declared 2005 the International Year of Microcredit.” Viewed February 6, 2009 at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcredit
Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank he created won the Nobel Peace Prize on Friday for leveraging small loans into major social change for impoverished families. Viewed February 6, 2009 at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/13/AR2006101300211.html
More information about microcredit can be found at http://www.kiva.org/about/microfinance/
Part II: Investigate Kiva and Consider Choosing Someone in Whom to Invest
1. Introduce the idea of Kiva. If possible, allow students to check out Kiva for themselves at www.kiva.org and to follow the links to ‘what we do’ and ‘how Kiva works’.
2. Individually, create a list of criteria that your class would look for if you were to choose an individual or group in whom/which to invest. Think about social, geographic, economic and environmental components of your loan.
3. In small groups, ask students to come up with ONE list of criteria that the small group can agree on.
4. As a class, decide upon and record the list of the most important criteria that your class would like to use to choose a potential individual/group in whom/which to invest.
5. As a class (on the projector), visit Kiva.org and follow the link to ‘lend’ to see profiles of people awaiting loans. You may also wish to visit the ‘journals’ page to read feedback from people who have already received loans. By browsing the loans that are available to make, and using the criteria selected by the class, make a short list of possible loan recipients.
6. Ask students to take some time to decide:
a. Would they like to make a small investment in one of the entrepreneurs (they can get repaid at the end of the loan cycle or leave the money to be reinvested in someone else)?
b. Would they like to abstain from the loan initiative and instead write a short persuasive piece about why it is inappropriate and/or ineffective to invest in the entrepreneurs through kiva?
7. Divide students into two groups based on their responses to question 6. Those students who wish to invest in an entrepreneur should be given an opportunity to vote on the entrepreneur that will be chosen. You may wish to use a dot-mocracy process. Dot-mocracy is a form of each student having one vote. On the board, record the short list of selections. Each student is encouraged to ‘vote’ (sticker, initial, etc) on one recipient.
Part III: Individual Reflection Questions
1. What do you think someone who is wearing the conventional lens would think about microloans?
2. What do you think that someone who is wearing the lens that you created would think about microloans?
3. In general, what do you think about microloans?
Global Mini-Activity 3: Revisit Peer Challenge
Have the students reconnect with their partner from the last unit to re-visit their experiment in the human environment unit in which they challenged a peer to take on the challenge that they tried. Have them discuss the outcomes and make predictions about the future.
COURSE CULMINATING ACTIVITY—Revisit Interconnections and Five Focusing Questions
**Description**
In Activity 2 in the Physical Module, students created a mind map that illustrated interconnections among the physical features of a local place. In Activity 8 of the Human Environment Module, students added the human interconnections. In this activity, we ask students to revisit the 5 focusing questions of the course and add responses to these questions as they relate to the various points on their mind maps.
**Time**
30-45 minutes
**Materials**
- Chart paper for each student
- Optional: Photographs/magazines for cutting up and/or sketching materials
- Poster/overhead of 5 focusing questions in course
**Assessment**
You may wish to use this activity as a culminating task for the course or as review for an exam.
**Instructions**
Students put their mind map from Activity 8 in the Human-Environment Module onto a piece of chart paper. Ask students to use the chart paper to explore the interconnections among their points on the mind map and their personal answers to the five focusing questions from the course:
1. How is everything interconnected?
2. Should you care about others/your place?
3. Are the current ‘relationships’ (between humans, between humans and the ‘environment’, etc.) ‘continue-able’? ie. able to persist?
4. Are the ‘relationships’ fair?
5. Can you change the ‘relationships’?
APPENDIX A: LISTENING AND FACILITATION SKILLS ACTIVITIES
Active Listening
1. What are some things that you can do to convey to the speaker that you are listening?
(Examples: nod your head, repeat what you just heard, eye contact, ‘interested’ facial expression, encouraging noises [uh huh, right, etc.]).
2. What are some things that you can do to help you to understand and remember what is being said?
(Examples: retell what has been said in your own words; make written notes; repeat important information in your head; in your head, try to relate what has been said to your own experiences, etc.)
Example Assessment Checklist
| Listening Cue | Self Assessment (never, sometimes, mostly) | Other Assessment (peer, teacher) |
|---------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| 1. Nodded my head | | |
| 2. Repeated what I heard | | |
| 3. Looked directly at the speaker | | |
| 4. Had an ‘interested’ facial expression | | |
| 5. Made encouraging comments/noises (uh huh, right, etc.) | | |
| 6. Retold what had been said in my own words | | |
| 7. Made written notes | | |
| 8. Repeated important information in my head | | |
| 9. In my head, tried to relate what had been said to my own experiences | | |
| 10. ___________________________________________ | | |
Sharing Air Time
Materials
Bags of some type of token, for example: pennies, dried beans, etc. (approximately 5 per student)
Before the activity:
1. After students have worked in a group (on any given geography topic without any particular direction about sharing air time), ask each student to privately address questions on the student sheet below.
2. Provide each student with approximately 5 tokens. Tell students that each time they speak they must spend a token. Rules:
a. Once all of your tokens are spent, you may not speak again until everyone’s tokens have been spent, but you must listen actively to each of your peers.
b. You must spend all of your tokens.
3. After the token experiment, ask students to answer the appropriate questions on the student sheet. In their journal, have students reflect on the similarities and differences between the free form group work and the token experiment group work.
4. In order to work toward not needing the tokens, participants need strategies regarding how to share the air time in a group situation. Teacher and students model the scenarios below.
a. A person is speaking more than her/his fair share. Other group members can help to share the air time by saying things like:
Examples:
“Sarah, I really like what you’ve said, but I would like to hear what the others think…”
“Nasim, we’ve heard how you feel about this, what do you think Farah?”
“Christian (who is taking up a lot of air time), would you please listen to Ayesia’s idea”
a. A person is speaking less than her/his fair share. Other group members can help to share the air time by saying things like:
“Kiyoka, we haven’t heard from you; would you please share what you think?”
“Jacob, would you please elaborate on Tomer’s idea?”
(make cue cards with these phrases on them)
Initial Self Assessment of Personal Air Time
1. Of all of the talking that was done, sketch a pie graph to illustrate how much each person in the group talked. For example:
2. Do you think that you spoke:
- a lot more than your share
- a little more than your share
- an appropriate amount
- a little less than your share
- a lot less than your share
3. Did the amount that you spoke (circle the most honest response):
a. Enhance your understanding of the topic?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
b. Help you to feel welcome/included in the group?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
c. Help you to get to know the other people in the group?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
d. Help you to learn new ideas/perspectives?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
4. If someone in your group spoke *more* than her/his share, what could you have done to try to have the air time in the group shared more equally?
5. If someone in your group spoke *less* than her/his share, what could you have done to try to have the air time in the group shared more equally?
After the Token Experiment
1. Do you think that you spoke:
- a lot more than your share
- a little more than your share
- an appropriate amount
- a little less than your share
- a lot less than your share
2. Did the amount that you spoke (circle the most honest response):
a. Enhance your understanding of the topic?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
b. Help you to feel welcome/included in the group?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
c. Help you to get to know the other people in the group?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
d. Help you to learn new ideas/perspectives?
□ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
Sharing Responsibility for Learning in Groups
(Assessment Sheet to be used throughout the Course)
1. Of all of the talking that was done, sketch a pie graph to illustrate how much each person in the group talked. For example:
2. Do you think that you spoke (circle the answer that is most true):
- a lot more than your share
- a little more than your share
- an appropriate amount
- a little less than your share
- a lot less than your share
3. Did the amount that you spoke (circle the most honest response):
a. Enhance your understanding of the topic? □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
b. Help you to feel welcome/included in the group? □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
c. Help you to get to know the other people in the group? □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
d. Help you to learn new ideas/perspectives? □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
4. I used a phrase to encourage someone to listen more actively (circle the most honest response).
□ never □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
EXPLAIN:
5. I used a phrase to encourage someone to speak less (circle the most honest response).
□ never □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
EXPLAIN:
6. I used a phrase to encourage someone to speak more (circle the most honest response).
□ never □ not a lot □ a little □ quite a bit
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50 CREATIVE WAYS TO USE CLASSVR
Sharing Best Practice
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- Engaging virtual theme park
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TRIP THROUGH TIME LAND
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SUPER SCIENCE LAND
Visit Super Science Land and meet amazing animals in their habitats, take a trip through our incredible human body and find out all about materials and properties.
ENGAGING EARTH LAND
Explore our remarkable planet from pole to pole. Delve into Earth’s beautiful biomes and experience some of its most extreme climates like never before.
LITERACY LAND
Take your students on a journey through some of the world’s best known authors & stories. Let them walk through key locations in their most famous works.
BOOK YOUR FREE VR TOUR TODAY
To start your adventure today or to find out more about Avantis World contact us on:
+44 (0)845 862 0390, email email@example.com or visit www.avantisworld.com
Since we launched ClassVR in 2017, it’s been incredible to see how teachers all around the world have taken the technology and made it their own. This guide provides 50 creative and exciting ways you can use VR and AR in the classroom and is designed to not only inspire, but show you the practicalities of ClassVR as a teaching tool.
Providing best practice examples for students of all ages, you’ll discover how different lessons used 360 degree images, videos and explorable scenes to create truly immersive lessons across the curriculum, from Antarctica to Ancient Maya and the Maldives to the Moon! Others use augmented reality and 3D models to examine things up close such as holding a snowy owl, a Roman sword or a distant planet in your hands!
It’s not just the ClassVR created resources that you’ll see in this book. Many teachers and students have begun capturing their own immersive content using 360 cameras, building 3D models, and crafting interactive worlds. They may have been built with a range of tools, but they’ve all been sent to the school’s headsets using ClassVR’s online portal, as you’ll read in the following pages.
We hope that you enjoy reading about the ways VR and AR are having an impact in classrooms across the globe; it may even spark a learning opportunity in your own setting. We’ve certainly enjoyed the process of supporting this community of schools to grow – and of course, we’d like to extend a massive thank you to the teachers who made this possible.
| Title | Subject | Age Range |
|--------------------------------------------|--------------------------|-------------|
| Return to Bude | English | 10-11 |
| Digital Cell Models | Science | 6-12 |
| The Moon Field Trip | Science | 5-11 |
| The Future is History | History and Computing | 12-13 |
| Cave Exploration | Kindergarten | 5-6 |
| Mary’s Escape from Lochleven | History | 10-11 |
| Experiencing the Trenches | History | 10-11 |
| Generation Ocean: Coral Reefs | Geography and Science | 11+ |
| Introduction to Microbes | Science and History | 10-11 |
| Spanish Vocabulary | Spanish | 9-10 |
| Exploring Spain | Spanish | 14-18 |
| Biological Systems | Biology | 10-11 |
| Making Connections to Current Events | Social Studies | 10-11 |
| Sharks VR | English | 10-11 |
| Descriptive Writing | English | 10-11 |
| Student-created 360 Videos | Social Studies | 10-11 |
| Interconnected Systems | Science | 10-11 |
| Creating 3D Shapes | Mathematics | 9-10 |
| Minecraft Meets ClassVR | Computing | 7-11 |
| VR Worlds | Computing | 9-10 |
| Weather & The Seasons | Geography | 5-6 |
| Happy Places | Reading Intervention | 11-14 |
| Jacobites | History | 9-10 |
| Virtual Reality Tour of Our School | Cross-Curricular | 10-11 |
| Inside “El Quijote” | Spanish | 15-18 |
| Polar Exploration | Science and Computing | 9-11 |
| Creating in CoSpaces | Computing | 5-7 |
| Lines and Angles | Mathematics | 14-15 |
| The Science of Flight | Physics | 11-13 |
| Fairy Tales | Language and Literacy | 5-6 |
| Lesson Title | Subject | Age Range | Page |
|------------------------------------|------------------|-------------|------|
| The Human Body | Biology | 10–11 | 36 |
| Out of This World Writing | English | 9–11 | 46 |
| Submarine Inquiry | Kindergarten | 5–6 | 37 |
| Space | Science | 9–10 | 47 |
| Estimation and Prediction | Mathematics | 5–7 | 38 |
| Seasonal Change | Science | 5–6 | 48 |
| Fly, Eagle, Fly | English | 7–8 | 39 |
| Comprehension Skills | English | 9–11 | 49 |
| Early Communication | Early Years | 3–4 | 40 |
| Comparing Australia | Geography | 14–15 | 50 |
| Bringing History to Life | History | 8–9 | 41 |
| Under the Sea | Creative Writing | 9–11 | 51 |
| Investigating Cells | Science | 14–16 | 42 |
| Battle of Britain | History | 15–18 | 52 |
| Underwater Exploration | Geography | 6–7 | 43 |
| The Plight of Refugees | Social Studies | 10–11 | 53 |
| Magnificent Desolation | Physics | 9–13 | 44 |
| Sense the Scene | Science | 8–10 | 54 |
| Print 3D Spinning Tops with AR | Design and Technology | 10–12 | 45 |
| Elements & Components | Chemistry | 16–17 | 55 |
CONTACT OUR EDUCATIONAL SERVICES TEAM TODAY TO SHARE YOUR BEST CLASSVR LESSON IDEA - firstname.lastname@example.org
Our Year Six pupils had recently spent four nights on a residential trip to Bude. We wanted to harness their exhilaration from this experience to generate some fantastic descriptive writing which needed to have a factual grounding that would build on their previous learning about geographical features. Our Year Six pupils have been travelling to Bude for their residential trip for years now and it is always used as a stimulus for writing but with our ClassVR headsets and 360° camera, we’ve captured the moments that our children remember, so their VR experience was personal to them.
The children worked in two groups for their ClassVR experience. Half of the group were given ordinary photographs taken during the trip, whilst the other half had on the headsets showing a playlist of our 360° photos taken whilst in Bude. The two groups swapped over half way through. The children were enthusiastic about the opportunity to use the new VR technology and spotting themselves in the images brought a real thrill to the session. After the initial delight, the children were expected to note down the geographical features that they had encountered and this was to be done during and after viewing the photos. This was achievable using the VR images, but it was the descriptive phrases that they produced after reliving their days in Bude that were so impressive and really stood out after the lesson finished.
The writing outcomes were fantastic! Despite returning from Bude several weeks earlier, the finer details that the children had seemingly forgotten were uncovered using the ClassVR headsets. The children managed to organise their ‘memories’ and write in much greater detail having viewed the 360° photos. Not only did the photos have a positive impact on their writing, the joy it brought to the children to reminisce about such a wonderful experience was priceless!
The Bude trip is a highly valued tradition in our school and the younger children look forward to it with great anticipation but also a degree of anxiety. We plan to use ClassVR in coming years to prepare our Year Sixes for their adventure.
Digital Cell Models
SCIENCE Age 6-12
Hartwell Elementary, CPS, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Learning Aims:
• Students will apply their knowledge of cells to create 3D models using digital software.
• Students will convert their files (.stl to .glb) and test their cell models using the headsets.
CONTEXT
This lesson can be done as enrichment or as a technology extension within the science curriculum. It is used to support the visual and conceptual understanding of cells and their organelles while adding a tech and design element. Students should have or receive background information on cells, plant and animal, as well as the organelles. The quantity of organelles and functions can be chosen according to the curriculum. Students should also have a basic understanding of CoSpaces or Tinkercad in order to design the cell digitally.
PRACTICAL SESSION
CoSpaces
I outlined the objective of creating a digital 3D model of a plant or animal cell with five identifiable organelles. Next, I led a digital software tutorial, in which I gave a brief demonstration of how to use the digital design software, including how to add shapes, remove sections and modify size. We focused on 3D cell model creation, whereby the students used the digital software to create their individual cell models that meet the project requirements.
Following on from the students submitting their .stl files, I converted them to .glb format and then uploaded the files to the ClassVR playlist. I was able to provide an AR/VR ‘cell experience’, where the students viewed their completed cell models using the ClassVR headsets. The students were able to then identify any imperfections in their models in order to make modifications/edits to their original files. As an extension, students could then send edited .stl files to a 3D printer, as well as adding informational tags to the organelles when clicked (which can be done in CoSpaces).
IMPACT ON LEARNING
This lesson allowed students to gain a better understanding of the cell and its organelles. By applying their content knowledge to a digital format, they were solidifying their content understanding and gaining technological skills necessary for thriving in a 21st century environment.
The Moon Field Trip
SCIENCE Age 5-11
Oh Jeong Elementary, Gwangju City, South Korea
Learning Aims:
• To visit the Moon and go on a virtual field trip.
• To empathise with the astronauts’ experiences on the Moon.
• To understand the vast nature of space.
CONTEXT
2019 is the 50th anniversary of the lunar landing and as a result, I wanted the students to have an experience of seeing the Moon. These experiences were part of our work exploring space and understanding how vast our solar system and universe are.
PRACTICAL SESSION
The Moon Playlist
The lesson started with the students viewing news videos about the lunar landing. We then watched the VR lunar lander experience, where the rocket touches down on the Moon – this prompted the children to consider how humans would reach the Moon and the features of a vehicle to get us from Earth to the Moon. We also viewed the moon news, together with the ClassVR videos and talked about what the students might want to do on the moon. We then investigated the various 3D models within the Moon playlist, such as the Apollo command module and another model showing the Moon’s position from the Earth – the students held these models in their hands!
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The students experienced the feeling of going to the moon in virtual reality. I was able to provide an immersive experience of the Earth and the Moon and this helped the students to experience and understand the astronauts’ feelings. It was an amazing class that brought a teleporting experience from the classroom to the Moon. ClassVR’s incredible controls make it possible to conduct lessons while controlling the eyes of the students, making the class more enriching.
The Future is History
HISTORY & COMPUTING
Age 12-13
The Mosslands School, Merseyside, UK
Learning Aims:
• To be able to understand and explain significant events of the Holocaust.
• To be able to design and create a 3D world.
• To use computational language to improve the usability of the 3D world.
CONTEXT
After meeting with several departments, I developed a cross-curricular project between history and computing. By using ‘CoSpaces’, alongside the ClassVR headsets, pupils were able to create their own virtual world. A piece of work by which they could demonstrate both their understanding of a historical concept, and the effective use of coding and design to create an engaging digital space. After initially creating worlds to explore the coding, the students were given their brief for the creation of a Virtual Holocaust Museum: a space that a visitor could explore, that not only conveyed the creator’s understanding of the topic material but also engaged the viewer through effective use of CoSpaces.
PRACTICAL SESSION
In pairs, the students built their worlds using CoSpaces. Over the course of six weeks, students had a range of both history and computing lessons to embed the depth of historical knowledge and learn the technicalities involved with the computer science aspect of creating a fully-functioning 3D world on CoSpaces. In week three, students learnt about the rise of Nazism and the final solution, as well as starting to create their space which reflected this series of chronological events. In week four, we introduced the headsets: this involved the students pulling together the various worlds they had created on CoSpaces to then test, trial and debug any coding or design errors. The final week involved sharing the spaces and providing peer feedback – evaluating both the technical computing elements and the historical accuracy of their content.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The work the students produced was not only of an excellent standard but also of an incredible variety. Some students had chosen to create a traditional “gallery” with information adorning the walls of the space, while others had chosen to create enclosed spaces to simulate the conditions of the transport and accommodation of the camps involved in the events of the time period. After six weeks and approximately 8–10 hours working on the projects, the final session allowed pupils to explore each other’s spaces. Many students commented on how they had effectively used the VR setting to create a sense of immersion, particularly long corridors and cramped train compartments.
Cave Exploration
KINDERGARTEN Age 5-6
Brittany Korstanje
Kinnwood Central Public School, Forest, Ontario, Canada
Learning Aims:
• To use language to communicate thinking, reflect and solve problems.
• To ask questions for a variety of purposes.
CONTEXT
Our students first practiced using the VR headsets to explore hot air balloons. This was sparked after reading the story “Not a Box”. After heavily investigating what a hot air balloon looked like up close, and how it moves, our class ended up building a hot air balloon and encouraging school community members to come and experience hot air balloon expeditions. The students learned lots of scientific language and how to operate the VR headsets. Next, they expressed interest in caves and requested that we look up various cave expeditions.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Rocks and Caves Playlist
We started by using 360-degree cave images, which provoked a wide variety of questioning, researching, discovering, creating, and writing. After exploring a cave with the headsets, our students had many questions: Why are there icicles hanging? How do caves form? How could animals live in the dark? When they went on the expedition a second time, they were excited to talk about stalactites, stalagmites and columns which they were seeing and eagerly searched for troglobites inside the cave. They recreated many of their own findings by building a large cave inside our classroom and creating paper and digital books. This extended to investigating water and ice caves, and researching animals that may live inside or on top of ice caves such as penguins. Students measured their height and compared it to these animals. Finally, they produced educational videos and provided QR codes to attach to the cave to add to this interactive experience when visitors arrived.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
We approach learning concepts by providing fun, interactive, authentic and rich experiences based on the interests and needs of our students. We are educators who listen, ask open-ended questions, wonder, problem-solve and discover with our students. We believe VR technology was the perfect learning tool to extend our students’ ideas and promote analytical thinking. ClassVR engaged and inspired every student in our learning community. It added a third dimension to their learning experience that they could connect with and become inspired by.
Mary’s Escape from Lochleven Castle
HISTORY Age 10-11
ESMS Junior School, Edinburgh, UK
Learning Aims:
• To describe the events surrounding Mary, Queen of Scots’ imprisonment in Scotland and the support that led to her escape from Lochleven Castle.
CONTEXT
Following Mary’s arrest, after the death of Lord Darnley, she was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle and forced to sign her abdication under threat of death. With the help of Willie and George Douglas she escaped during a masque May Day celebration from her third floor room. Children study the events surrounding her imprisonment and escape, looking at sources of evidence and completing a recount of her diary entry.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Lochleven Castle - Community Library
Following the lesson and prior to beginning Mary’s diary entry, which details the plan of her escape, children experience the Lochleven Castle footage. Taken in the rain, it is incredibly atmospheric, and shows the outside of the castle walls down to the shore from which Mary escaped in a rowing boat. Back in 1568, the loch had a higher water level and reached the edge of the castle walls on one side. The extent of the water receding is highlighted beautifully in this footage which could, in itself, promote discussion about climate change. There is also still and video footage of inside the bailey of the castle showing the extent of Mary’s freedom to walk the grounds. The pivotal footage is on the inside of the castle. Textbooks and websites often depict Lochleven Castle as quite grand and the idea of being able to hold a masque ball implies a large banquet hall. In reality, Lochleven Castle is very small and this makes Mary’s escape all the more incredible and daring. Children are always impressed and amazed at the difference in size of what they imagine from printed textbooks to seeing, for themselves, the smaller reality. Best used as part of the plenary of a lesson to highlight the stark contrast of the site to the learners.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Children experience the place of Mary’s imprisonment and, due to the weather at the time of filming, develop an understanding of the ‘feel’ to her conditions on a tiny little island in Lochleven, Perthshire. This can be used beyond a historical context and is ideal for developing a piece of writing surrounding Mary’s imprisonment. The playlist allows for the development of first-person emotional vocabulary to be discussed and used in written work.
Experiencing the Trenches
HISTORY Age 10-11
Anthony Isaac
Crowlands Primary School, Essex, UK
Learning Aims:
• To understand and explain some of the major events during World War One.
• To write in first person from the perspective of a soldier.
CONTEXT
This year marked the 100th anniversary of the ending of World War One, and Year 6 pupils at Crowlands Primary School marked the occasion by writing a piece from the point of view of those brave soldiers in the cold, unforgiving trenches. The anniversary is a hugely symbolic time and as such, we wanted this topic to be made even more personal, immersive and experiential. Most children started the unit of work with a limited conceptual understanding about life in the trenches and how a typical day would be; we therefore wanted to provide a learning experience to broaden and deepen their understanding and appreciation of the conditions and expectations which soldiers endured.
PRACTICAL SESSION
WW1 Trenches Experience
Firstly, the children had to come up with emotions of the soldiers and an outline of the settings using all five senses. To provide the most real, tangible experience possible, the children were given the headsets with the WW1 Trenches Experience loaded up; they then explored the 360 video, focusing on the grime, mud, rain and sobering surroundings. As the video has background audio projecting distant battlefield cries and war zone explosions, the children were given further food for thought and this fed nicely into expanding their choice of language and vocabulary. Whilst viewing the video, pupils were able to ask and pose questions to each other and raise further points to explore in groups and as a class. To codify and bring together this experiential learning, the pupils then removed the headsets and decorated a silhouette of a soldier with words and phrases that could describe what it might have been like to fight in the trenches.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
As 10-11 year olds, they really struggled to step into the footsteps of people that lived over 100 years ago. ClassVR helped the children to engage with the task and gave them inspiration for how to describe the sights, sounds and smells of the trenches. The children were astonished at what the soldiers had to go through even though we had already covered trench life as part of our World War Topic and had a brand new understanding and empathy for the millions of courageous soldiers that gave their lives to fight for this country. This immersive nature of VR helped them think more creatively and their work was imaginative and detailed.
Generation Ocean: Coral Reefs
GEOGRAPHY & SCIENCE Age 11+
Dr Amanda Waite Megan Hendrickson
ANGARI Foundation & Academy of the Holy Names, Florida, USA
Learning Aims:
• To identify corals as animals and recognize their common forms.
• To describe how corals form reefs and understand reef composition and features.
• To explain a coral reef’s geographical, societal, and scientific importance.
CONTEXT
Using virtual reality and 360 film, 3D printed and fossil coral specimens and related lessons, students were introduced to corals and reef ecosystems in preparation for a field trip to the Florida Keys. This served as important pre-learning and pre-exposure to these concepts, as it was the majority of students’ first exposure to the topic. It helped students understand what to expect in the field, provided a solid foundation for deeper learning, and served as a springboard for discussions about the subject area.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Generation Ocean Video: Coral Reefs Underwater Playlist
First, students were introduced to corals, the reefs they form, and their local reef tract. The students were then given the opportunity to explore corals and reefs independently through a series of observation-oriented stations. At one station, the students accompanied coral scientists on a research expedition, both above and below water, via viewing of the 360 film Generation Ocean: Coral Reefs in virtual reality. The remaining stations asked the students to examine, draw/describe, and identify modern and fossil coral skeletons. The students were asked to compare what they learned of ancient and modern corals and the environmental history of Florida to better understand how Florida coral reefs have changed through time.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The students were engaged, asked thoughtful questions, and readily drew connections to other topics that they’d covered in their courses. Their lab notebook pages demonstrated a strong attention to detail and accurate application of the introduced coral vocabulary. The virtual reality expedition helped the students understand and anticipate what they would see and experience underwater on the reef. This alleviated student apprehension about entering the water and resulted in a cohort of students that was eager to get into the field and apply what they’d learned. Once in the field, the students were immediately engaged and were able to make coral identifications while snorkelling in an unfamiliar environment.
Introduction to Microbes
SCIENCE/HISTORY Age 10-11
Stephen Coyne
CONTEXT
We work here at BSB with Integrated Learning Themes (ILT) which link all of the traditional foundation subject in a thematic learning approach. This term, Year Six were looking at ‘Peace and Conflict’, with a focus on World War One and Two, but also with the need to cover the main scientific concepts from the micro-organisms unit of work. These on the surface may not seem to have an obvious link, but with the application of a little VR magic an interesting and exciting bridge between the two can be formed.
PRACTICAL SESSION
WW1 Trench Experience
We had worked a lot with the ideas and themes behind war and peace, looking at various conflicts over the ages including a visit to the site of the historic battle of Waterloo and an investigation into the world’s main peace making individuals, but it was difficult to imagine the conditions the soldiers in the trenches of WW1 had to endure. This was where ClassVR came into its own. With one headset per group of three and ClassView on the interactive whiteboard for those without, the children could become immersed in ‘World War One Trenches Experience’. After investigating the truly terrible conditions the soldiers had to live through, we turned to the idea that many of soldiers got very sick in these terrible conditions. This was the way we could link the ideas of this conflict with that of our science topic. We discussed that the soldiers were very open to infection from a range of bacteria and viruses in these very unsanitary conditions. Of course, we could not see these microscope creatures so again we used the VR biology section to get close to these tiny creatures, rotating each cell in turn to study its structure.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The children were very excited and engaged with the system as they felt they were actually in the trench system itself. When they went to work on the task identifying the features of the various micro-organisms in their books they had a renewed enthusiasm for a topic that could have been very dry, if approached in a different more traditional method. The fact that we used this technology as our first lesson on these creatures acted as a great hook on which to hang all our future learning on this topic.
The idea of this lesson is to allow students to read, speak and familiarise themselves with Spanish vocabulary. As part of our Spanish scheme of work, the children studied a unit called ‘La Casa’. In this unit, the children explored objects in the house and how to describe a room; ask questions about a room; and explain and describe the objects. I taught this lesson at the beginning of the ‘La Casa’ unit to introduce the children to new vocabulary that they would come across. They then used this experience to generate a word bank in their books, which they annotated in English, adding pictures to represent the words.
**PRACTICAL SESSION**
**CoSpaces**
I created a CoSpaces world based on our current unit of work; we created a house with everyday objects that the students might come across. The objects in the CoSpaces world were labelled with both the English and the Spanish. Students worked in groups of three in order to collect, share and use new vocabulary. It also meant that the person using the headset had someone to help guide them around the classroom. The children were free to explore the CoSpaces world at their own leisure. They shared the new vocabulary they discovered with each other and compiled a list of new vocabulary. I encouraged the students to say the Spanish words aloud to their partners. Their partner could then give the English translation (if they’ve been taught it); guess what the English might be (if they have yet to learn the vocabulary) and/or check the pronunciation.
**IMPACT ON LEARNING**
Learning a foreign language can be off-putting for some children so this immersive, hands-on approach removed those barriers through an exciting stimulus. They all wanted to take part, have a go and share their new vocabulary with their peers. The children were willing to share what they’d learnt and were excited to support others in saying their new vocabulary. When we did say the words altogether as a class, it wasn’t as challenging as the children had seen the words before and attempted to say them. The vocabulary was understood at a deeper level and the children were able to embed and use these words more effectively in following lessons and pieces of work. To be able to put pictures to the Spanish (both written and spoken) meant that all of my students were able to access the lesson and were engaged from the start.
Exploring Spain
SPANISH Age 14-18
Stoughton High School, Massachusetts, USA
Learning Aims:
• To use virtual reality to enable students to explore Spain and its culture.
• To communicate in Spanish with ClassVR.
• To analyze Spanish landmarks and locations.
CONTEXT
Over the semester, we have been learning about various cultural topics of Spain and trying to embrace as much of the local culture as possible. Throughout this, we have used 2D items and photographs, but it isn’t as engaging or realistic as 3D models and 360 imagery. Language acquisition is complex and embracing Spanish in a multi-sensory approach enables students to learn all about the culture, whilst acquiring new language knowledge.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Spain Playlist
To provide students a truly reflective, realistic and immersive perspective of Spain and Spanish culture, we used the ClassVR headsets to explore various landmarks and localities. We started off by visiting the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain and I asked the students to describe the sculpture in enough detail for their partner to draw it based on their description. We then analyzed an Easter Procession, investigating the seasonal climate, geographical location and interesting local landmarks. We repeated these questions and lines of investigation for Madrid – the Street of Toledo and the Museo Nacional del Prado. We finished the lesson off by exploring a cave with a bear skeleton and asked the students to describe the place and explain what they found interesting about this to their partner.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The students were able to cooperatively work together to see amazing sites and locations. The best part was having the other students want to see what their classmate was describing and how the students were able to then apply what they had learnt with ease.
Biological Systems
BIOLOGY Age 10-11
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Learning Aims:
• To contribute to the School’s research performance by conducting and eventually publishing new research on the application of immersive VR in the understanding of abstract concepts in science.
• To support trainee teachers to develop confidence in applying immersive VR and AR technology to their own teaching.
CONTEXT
Very recently, I started to look into the possibility of studying the effect of virtual reality in education, with the aim to analyse the impact that this type of technology has, not only on the understanding of difficult concepts in science education, but also on the learning experience that teachers and students share every day in the classroom and the enjoyment that comes from this mutual exchange. In the last few months, I have started a collaboration with Avantis, and implemented ClassVR in my teaching by planning, in collaboration with my colleagues, some lessons for the PGDE primary student teachers, with a balanced blending of traditional as well as innovative effective pedagogy techniques.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Human Anatomy Playlist
A pit-stop tour of active learning methods in preparation for an on-campus teaching session was organised for our PGDE primary student teachers who, in a meta-level approach, had the chance to test several teaching tools. Pupils moved from traditional peak flow meters and body organ aprons, to innovative augmented reality t-shirts showing the internal organs, and virtual reality ClassVR headsets with an immersive virtual tour around the body. The children explored the different organs and body components available to them in the human anatomy playlist.
The following week, PGDE primary student teachers had to plan a lesson on body systems, in a micro-teaching cooperative style, for the primary six pupils from Corpus Christi Primary School, who were invited to visit the School of Education.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The results were amazing: we found that it improved engagement and enjoyment of the lesson with pupils being able to richly describe and explain what they learnt; we found that PGDE students were confident in the delivery of the lesson’s objectives; and, we found that experiences which would not have otherwise been available, were easy to embed into science teaching and learning.
Making Connections to Current Events
SOCIAL STUDIES Age 10-11
Paige Green
Countryside Elementary School, Barrington, Illinois, USA
Learning Aims:
• To practice non-fiction text reading strategies.
• To strengthen students’ ability to make connections to current events.
• To grow literate global citizens.
CONTEXT
My students recently completed a non-fiction, current events reading unit. Shortly after finishing the unit, I was shocked to see the spire above Notre Dame, engulfed in flames, crumble to the ground. This made me think about the opportunity my students had lost. While churning this over in my mind, I had an idea. I could help students unpack this tragic current event, practice their close reading skills, AND still give them the opportunity to visit Notre Dame in all its glory using VR technology.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Notre-Dame de Paris Playlist
Students discussed their prior knowledge on Paris, Notre Dame, and this new current event. Afterward, we created a KWL chart to document what they knew about the event, what they wondered about the event, and what they learned about the news event. I introduced the news article and asked students to read it using close reading strategies. At the end of our discussion, one student said she thought the fire at Notre Dame would be like the United States losing the White House or the Statue of Liberty. Another student stated, “I think people will be sad that they can never see Notre Dame again. Some people there have probably never seen it.”
This comment helped me connect my current events lesson to using ClassVR technology. I asked students if any of them had been to Notre Dame and then told the students that they were going to be able to say that they saw it without even leaving the classroom! Each student placed a VR headset on and explored the three different views of Notre Dame. We analysed and evaluated the beauty, significance and history of the building and were able to answer and explore some of the students’ key questions using the ClassVR experiences.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
ClassVR turned a current events lesson into a culminating experience; it connected them to the news events in a way that printed word or an online video could not do. Students were able to experience Notre Dame as it was before the fire. Adding virtual reality to my lesson also awoke my students’ sense of empathy and helped them to understand this global news event in a more meaningful way. Afterward, a student said, ‘At least I can now say I saw it!’
Sharks VR
ENGLISH Age 10-11
Fairview Elementary School, Fairfield, California, USA
Learning Aims:
• To write a personal narrative/journal entry of a shark experience.
• To use descriptive words to explain their experience.
CONTEXT
Students have been researching sharks from all over the world. We have gone over key words and vocabulary related to sharks and students have then written an informational text about a specific shark and have become shark experts.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Underwater Playlist
I told my students that they will be writing a journal entry on a shark experience. They pretended they were divers looking for sharks. They used what we saw through ClassVR and/or used what we learned so far about sharks. We reviewed key words related to shark life, such as habitat, coral reef, and predator. I then walked students through their first VR experience. I played our first track “Adventures in Nature” and gave students thinking time to consider what they saw in the video. They paired up to share and discuss what they saw. We move on to “Diving with Sharks in Cuba” and “Shark in New Caledonia.” This time, students made a list of words (adjectives) that described what they saw. Next, I played the “Shark Experience” track. Students then shared with their group how they felt about what they saw. I gave students a graphic organizer to help them organize their thoughts. The graphic organizer includes: “What I saw”, “Adjectives to describe what I saw”, “How I felt” and “Vocab words to include.” Students also had access to the “Great White Shark” track in case they want to use that shark in their writing. Once they organized their writing, they began to pre-write and ended with publishing their journal entry.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Seeing and being able to explore sharks underwater truly made this lesson much more engaging for my students. They were able to see first-hand the life of sharks, all from land. My class was very engaged and immersed in this lesson. They were quick to get their thoughts on paper and many students wrote more than they ever had. I truly believe without the VR experience many students would have struggled with this writing assignment. They were able to be creative and very detailed thanks to the VR experience.
Descriptive Writing
ENGLISH Age 10-11
Hanover County Public Schools, Mechanicsville, Virginia, USA
Learning Aims:
• Students will use a ClassVR virtual reality experience to enhance their background knowledge about sharks.
• Students will create descriptive writing reflections focused on their senses.
• Students will collaborate with a partner to review, edit, and revise their digital writing.
CONTEXT
Prior to this lesson, students were familiar with using Google Classroom and Google Docs for digital writing. They also had several lessons throughout the school year about how to create a descriptive writing paragraph. This was the first experience students had using the ClassVR virtual reality headsets and their task was to write a detailed paragraph about the day they went swimming with sharks. We reviewed the five senses and how to include three of these senses in their writing. They struggled a bit to write accurately and completely as none had ever been in the ocean with sharks before. We acknowledged their struggles to include details in their writing, then revealed that today they would get an opportunity to virtually swim with sharks!
PRACTICAL SESSION
Underwater Playlist
Teaching staff created three senses charts to display on the wall for students to add their insights: “What did I see, What did I hear, What did I feel?”. Students then viewed the Shark Experience through their headsets. We focused on exploring their immediate senses and being fully immersed within the moment to ensure they had lots of ideas to use after the VR experience. Following the Shark Experience, students shared their insights as they added descriptive words and phrases to our three senses charts on the wall. Then, students used these insights to add more details to their digital writing stories. In their next lesson, students worked with a partner to read, revise, and edit their digital writing before submitting to the teacher for review and feedback.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Can students write a descriptive paragraph about swimming with sharks if they have no prior experience of swimming in an ocean or viewing sharks? Possibly, but it would be a struggle, as shown by students in the first part of our lesson. Providing students the opportunity to engage in a virtual learning experience they might never have in their real life, builds in background knowledge in a way that is innovative, powerful and relative. After viewing the Shark Experience, students’ curiosity about sharks was piqued. They wanted to not only share their reflections about the experience, but to learn more about sharks living in the ocean, what they ate, and how they lived. By collaborating with others to hone in on specific senses engaged during the experiences, students were able to dramatically enhance their descriptive writing paragraphs.
Student-created 360 Videos
SOCIAL STUDIES Age 10-11
St Andrew’s School, Boca Raton, Florida, USA
Learning Aims:
• For students to engage in an in-depth collaborative inquiry to provide students with the opportunity to synthesize and apply their learning.
CONTEXT
The student group researched why people have stress and anxiety and ways that people can help manage these feelings in many different outlets. The students wanted to showcase what it was like to be at a counselling session. The objective of the lesson was to enable students to choose an area of interest within a central idea and then find a global problem they want to research within the community. The Exhibition is the culminating, collaborative experience in the final year of the Primary Years Program for the International Baccalaureate Program.
PRACTICAL SESSION
As we wanted students to ask questions about the topic they were researching and investigate their own questions, we aimed to create a project which provided a platform for them to take action and create solutions to their line of inquiry. Hence, we purchased the Ricoh Theta 360 video camera and the students used the camera to record their experience from their time at the psychologist office. The student group then edited the video in iMovie and exported the file to the teacher’s computer, who placed it in the ClassVR portal. During their Exhibition, in addition to presenting verbal facts to visitors at their Exhibition Table, the students had four ClassVR headsets to give visitors an immersive experience of being at a clinical session. This in-depth, real-life example of psychology in action enabled students to analyze and dig deeper into their own action research project and provided a fantastic stimuli for immersive and multi-sensory learning.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Students were able to take a typical tri-fold board presentation to an in-depth virtual field trip. Their presentation skills were stretched by adding the ClassVR headset component and the best part of this was that it was totally student-driven! They figured out how to use the 360 camera, used their prior editing skills in iMovie, and then I showed them how to push it through the ClassVR portal.
Interconnected Systems
SCIENCE Age 10-11
Knox Grammar Preparatory School, New South Wales, Australia
Learning Aims:
• To examine how the environment affects the growth, survival and adaptation of living things.
• To define problems and design, modify and follow algorithms to develop solutions.
CONTEXT
Throughout this Year 5 unit of inquiry on ‘interconnectedness’, students conducted an investigation into living things. They were tasked with the question: How do living things adapt to suit their changing environments? Students began by exploring rainforest biomes and conducting a research project into the different biomes found on the Earth and their similarities and differences. Students researched the human impact on different environments, made future predictions of human impact and explored how animals have adapted.
PRACTICAL SESSION
CoSpaces ARCube
We explained to the children that they were scientists, interested in the impact humans have on a variety of environments on Earth. They were tasked with researching one particular environment, identifying its key features and classification, and assessing the impact humans have had on that environment over time. We introduced the ARCube and explained to students that they will present their findings through the creation of an interactive ARCube.
CoSpaces was used to design the different perspectives/environments on each of the six sides. Voice overs were used to incorporate English outcomes and sequencing skills. The students followed this broad outline when designing their ARCube: introduction to the rainforest environment, including four biomes and labelled plants and animals; how humans have impacted the rainforest environment; individual research of their own environment (deep sea, coral reefs, deserts etc.), identifying its unique features and outlining why it is important; explaining how the environment has been impacted by humans and/or animals in some way; and finally, students choose one animal that has had to adapt to suit its chosen environment.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Creating an ARCube engaged all learners, even those with no technological experience! It is a fun, hands-on and interactive platform that allows students to develop and extend their coding skill-base at all levels. It provided students with the opportunity to demonstrate knowledge and understanding at a level appropriate to their needs and is therefore a personalised assessment tool that produced a deeper understanding of content. The impact of utilising Virtual and Augmented Reality in the classroom has contributed to immense student growth in all key learning areas.
Creating 3D Shapes
MATHEMATICS Age 9-10
Educational Specialist
Avantis Education
Learning Aims:
• To identify 3D shapes from 2D representations.
• To draw shapes using given dimensions and angles.
• To create content using a range of programs.
CONTEXT
Before I started working for Avantis I was a Year Five teacher for three years and I was always looking for new ways to embed computing across the curriculum. One really exciting way to do this is using Paint 3D to create 3D models of shapes that can then be viewed and checked using ClassVR headsets. Giving students the ability to actually create their own shapes using simple computer software deepens both their understanding of the properties of shape and their digital literacy skills.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Paint 3D
To start this session I talk with students about the differences between 2D and 3D shapes and how they relate to one another. We then look at how a net relates to its 3D counterpart using a printed cube net – I like to use the ARCube net for this, as it can then be used with the resultant 3D models! After introducing the basics of using Paint 3D I then challenge students to create 3D models of some pre-prepared nets. These can be grouped to differentiate for varying abilities or completed in mixed ability pairs. As the students complete their shapes, I can upload them to My Cloud on the ClassVR portal and upload the model directly to them for evaluation. Does it look correct? Is it symmetrical? Do you need to edit it? The students can then use their ARCube to manipulate their creation and study it from all angles before deciding if they need to do any further editing.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Exploring shape in a new and exciting way using Augmented Reality gives students a broader depth of experience and a greater frame of reference when facing challenges in the future. When it comes to solving problems relating to 3D shapes they will have a tangible first-hand memory of creating shapes from nets. Even more importantly, they are experiencing and using new technologies to help them understand the world and simultaneously improve their overall digital literacy. While Paint 3D is a relatively simple modelling program it can lead into all sorts of other digital forms of expression and allows for creativity in an exciting and innovative new medium.
Minecraft Meets ClassVR
COMPUTING Age 7-11
Emmanuel College, Queensland, Australia
Learning Aims:
• To develop digital technology skills.
• To learn how to be a good citizen within a digital world.
• To communicate design ideas for their designed products, services and environments using modelling and simple drawings.
CONTEXT
Students have been invited to join a Minecraft server hosted by the teacher to build individual homes from a central path. The students need to build in a manner which shows how to be a good digital citizen, recognising their footprint and that everything that happens in the world can be seen. From their individual builds, the students then work on collaborative building tasks to construct something for the village to use collectively (for example a park/playground, school, library, supermarket, church, farm/factory business).
PRACTICAL SESSION
Paint 3D
Within Minecraft, students chose either a house or a building that they built collaboratively. Students used a Minecraft structure block to export their building as a 3D object (Structure blocks in Minecraft). Students opened Paint 3D and using the 3D shape and text tools, students wrote their name with a background rectangle as an embossed plaque on their collaborative build. When finished, students then exported their work from Paint 3D as a 3D object (*.glb file type). These 3D objects were then loaded into the ClassVR Portal and uploaded to the ClassVR headsets and viewed by the whole class (including being able to explore the objects fully through the use of the ARCubes).
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Students were excited to be given building challenges in Minecraft as game-based learning, but they took a further pride and ownership of their creations when they were able to bring their work from the digital world into their physical environment and then manipulate it through the use of ClassVR. Students were able to share their work with other students and staff beyond the Minecraft environment and reflect on their designs, seeing every aspect fully as a 3D object, and collaboratively discussing how they may improve their designs in future builds.
VR Worlds
COMPUTING Age 9-10
Elm Park Primary School, Hornchurch, Essex, UK
Learning Aims:
• To create a complex game using code and go beyond tutorials.
• To use skills already developed to create content using unfamiliar online technology.
• To save a document/file in various formats.
CONTEXT
The students explored the virtual world and how it can be used in the classroom. Over a period of six lessons, they built their own virtual worlds using CoSpaces. Some of the key vocabulary we explored in this unit was virtual reality, server, visual coding, z-axis, MP3, cloud, password, virtual world, and story map. Online safety also formed part of the focus and this enabled the students to understand a bit more about file saving and organisation.
PRACTICAL SESSION
CoSpaces
Students had one or two headsets on each table. The students began by creating small sections of their own virtual worlds on the desktop application CoSpaces. After students finished each phase of the virtual world, they then scanned the QR code to experience their world and test its functionality: if it had errors, mistakes or could be improved, then they undertook the computational process of debugging – to remove the errors and replace it with fully-functioning code. They also asked one or two other students on their table to view their world and then give feedback on both what they enjoyed and suggestions on how it could be improved.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Using the virtual reality headsets, the children could immerse themselves in the worlds they and their peers created; this enabled them to improve, critique and debug their worlds in a collaborative and constructive manner. One student commented, “We have made VR worlds before, but when we used the headsets it made it real. Seeing it I could see what worked and where I needed to make changes and could improve my world.”
Weather & The Seasons
GEOGRAPHY Age 5-6
James Tromans
Prince Albert Primary School, Birmingham, UK
Learning Aims:
• To become immersed into different extreme weather scenarios.
CONTEXT
Children had previously looked at the four seasons and what they associated with each season. They had looked at weather and what to expect in each season; we explored simple reasons as to why certain weather is more common at various points in the year and what kind of temperatures, sensations and noises you might hear in the different seasons. This then led on nicely to what might be considered as normal weather and extreme weather.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Seasonal Changes Playlist
During the session children were exposed to extreme weather conditions. They were immersed into a tornado and they looked at a frozen gorge and the northern lights. Following each immersive experience, the children were given the time to discuss what they had just seen, how it would have felt to have been there at the time, and what clothes and equipment would have been appropriate for that extreme weather condition. From this the children created a mind map of each immersive experience and wrote down all of the vocabulary that they generated. This then formed the basis of their next Literacy lesson where they used these mind maps to create sentences and explain what they had seen.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Many of our children will never get to see or experience the extreme weather conditions that they saw using the ClassVR headsets. By using the immersive headsets, the children got a real feel for the weather and through the use of the visual and auditory elements, they were able to accurately describe what the weather condition was like and how it made them feel. The language generated by the experience was far superior to what would have been generated by simply looking at photos or watching a standard video and formed the basis of a fantastic writing stimulus. The ClassVR immersive experience also allowed the teachers to bring together Science, Geography, Literacy and Computing into one lesson, creating a cross curricular experience that took learning to the next level.
Happy Places
READING INTERVENTION Age 11-14
Amanda Hunt
CONTEXT
We have students in our reading intervention classes, as well as English Language Learners (ELL), who struggle with test anxiety. I put together what I called a "Happy Places" lesson of places and things in the ClassVR Portal that they could visualize during the test that might help calm some of their anxiety and provide them with coping strategies.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Happy Place Playlist – Community Library
The objective was for students to visit a variety of locations; from the top of a snow-covered mountain, where it’s quiet and peaceful, to a sandy beach where they could hear the ocean waves, and many things in between. I organized it by choosing my favorite calming locations and what I thought the students would also find calming and enjoyable.
At the end of the lesson, they had to pick one and discuss or write about it so they would remember it for testing the following week. This process was part of the strategy in encouraging students to visualise a calming place to detach themselves from the immediate feelings of test anxiety. I chose images and videos from the ClassVR library.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Students never would have been able to have this experience without ClassVR headsets and photos/videos preloaded. Describing something in words or even in a 2D image or video is nothing compared to the actual virtual reality experience. Students feel like they’re actually there and this cannot be created with anything else I’ve used in education thus far. Students were talking about this lesson for weeks. Teachers across the campus came to view and join in and we had students tell us after testing how much the lesson helped with their anxiety when they got stuck. They didn’t panic like usual, but imagined their “happy place” and were able to continue on with the test. That’s all the proof I needed to show how important and vital this lesson was and what an impact ClassVR has on our students, campus, teachers and myself in the library.
Jacobites
HISTORY Age 9-10
ESMS Junior School, Edinburgh, UK
Learning Aims:
• To understand the key events of the Battle of Killiecrankie.
• To show a basic understanding of different types of historical evidence and bias.
• To understand how the Jacobites’ defeat at Culloden impacted on Scottish life/culture.
CONTEXT
Video and still footage was taken at Killiecrankie at the site at which Donald McBane allegedly leapt 5.5 metres across the raging River Garry whilst escaping his Jacobite pursuers. I also visited Culloden Battlefield and took footage of the Memorial Cairn, the Jacobite and Redcoat lines, the crofter’s cottage which was commandeered as a field hospital for the British troops and the battlefield itself to highlight the terrain. Children read the story of the battle(s) and discussed the order of events.
PRACTICAL SESSION
After reading and discussing the battles (individually) and gaining an understanding of events, the headsets were introduced to help reinforce key points such as the distance between the two lines of armies at Culloden and how the famous Highland Charge would need to be maintained for some distance over heather moorland before reaching the organised ranks of Redcoat artillery and infantry. Children were then invited to add more thoughts to their discussion points, mindmap and plans, based on experiencing the actual battlefield, including the sound of the wind over the moor. This deepened their appreciation for the stamina involved and, based on how tired the Jacobite troops were from their forced march through the night, how their charge was futile. This is also the case with the Soldier’s Leap video footage. As an extension, groups were invited outside to see how far they could leap, as if pursued by soldiers, and then discuss the enormous difficulty in jumping 5.5 metres. The discussion on bias and early propaganda can be raised here and children can debate the feasibility of Donald McBane’s efforts.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Children gain a far deeper understanding of the events having ‘witnessed’ the conditions first hand and seen the terrain which is not clear in textbooks. So too with the “Soldier’s Leap” in which the actual distance is far more realistic with the headsets than from an account in a book, or a diagram. Seeing the river rushing by between the rocks adds a whole level of appreciation, or disbelief. Importantly, every child enjoyed the lesson because of the enhancement from the headsets and therefore will better understand and remember the learning outcomes.
Virtual Reality Tour of Our School
CROSS-CURRICULAR Age 10-11
Susie Grant
Brooklands Primary, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To experiment with new technologies.
• To use the technology to aid writing.
• To take responsibility of the new technology and share with the younger students.
• To describe the setting.
CONTEXT
The overall school topic was “This is me. This is us!” The class were asked what this title meant to them and we decided to make a virtual tour of the school, which tied in with our Design and Technology project. In DT, the class were making different sections of the school; each group were given responsibility of a specific section. The class were introduced to the ClassVR headsets, and they were used to aid a descriptive piece of writing. This piece of work sparked their interest around the headsets, so we wrote instructions on how to use them and even used ClassVR for a still life drawing.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Ricoh Theta
The class were shown the 360 camera, and the Theta app. As a class we took a picture and talked about the process.
We discussed how we could make the picture better; for example, using the tripod not our hands for stability and greater focus, hiding so we weren’t in the picture to give the image a professional look, and positioning the camera in a sensible part of the room so it captures all corners and sections in as much detail as possible. Each group had a go at taking the pictures and using the device to capture various parts of the school. We then came back together to share some of the images the children had captured and were able to share these images as a Playlist on the ClassVR Portal and headsets.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
It was important for my class to see that all the small parts combined together made something which everyone was impressed by. The children loved seeing the VR map next to their models at the showcase. They really enjoyed showing their work to the other classes, which allowed every class to experience the school tour. They have really enjoyed using the headsets and their engagement in the task was increased because of the active nature of the image capture, but also from appreciating their own collaborative VR tour.
Inside “El Quijote”
SPANISH Age 15-18
MariSol Padilla
New Braunfels High School, Texas, USA
Learning Aims:
• To understand and comprehend Spanish texts.
• To describe settings, characters and atmosphere skilfully.
CONTEXT
In my Advanced Placement Spanish Literature and Culture course, students are required to tackle a large quantity of required readings in the target language. An example of this is the required chapters to be covered from Miguel de Cervantes’ *El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha*. It is a daunting task for teenagers to read and interpret literary works in archaic Spanish. As such, being able to incorporate virtual reality experiences such as those available in the ClassVR Library, combined with outside sources that I have found on my own and uploaded into my portal, allows me to customise my anticipatory set to really bring to life the world that inspired Cervantes’ great masterpiece.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Padilla / Cervantes Playlist
We began by immersing ourselves in the whimsical surroundings of authentic 360 degree photos from certain Spanish cities. We were also able to view a 360° 3D video narrated in beautiful Castilian Spanish inside the prison cell that is claimed to be where Cervantes created his work! Once the class had finished going over the “Códigos” (pre-reading discussions designed to provide historic and cultural background and insight into the works before we read them) I led students on a VR journey as described in my article. I then took my class amongst the windmills of La Mancha – another amazing VR experience – which truly enabled them to feel, see and appreciate a part of the landscape.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
To be able to take my students to the sites that inspired Cervantes truly piqued their interest in the subject and allowed them to more effectively internalize the challenging work of *El Quijote*. It should go without saying that this type of experience is beyond my wildest dreams of what I thought possible when teaching a unit on 17th century Peninsular literature. Breadth of descriptive vocabulary in the target language increased in both content discussions and essays.
Polar Exploration
SCIENCE & COMPUTING Age 9-11
Exning Primary School, Suffolk, UK
Learning Aims:
• To understand how creatures have adapted to their habitats.
• To be able to explain why certain features are crucial to surviving in challenging environments.
CONTEXT
We start every topic with a ‘sparkling start’ to engage the children; for our ‘Explorers’ topic, we used the ClassVR headsets to look at different environments to immerse the children in such a way that they could really explore and compare each setting. The children followed the journey of the Nimrod expedition, using the interactive map and using the links to the actual photographs, artefacts and diary entries. Equally, with the Terra Nova expedition story, we were able to captivate their children’s interest in comparing Robert Scott’s survival kit with that seen by a modern day explorer.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Gentoo Penguins in Antarctica
Linking to our science ‘Evolution’ topic, we explored the Gentoo penguins project video; this enabled the children to see the penguins in their natural environment and analyse their surroundings, behaviour and habitat. We challenged the children to identify features of the penguins and how these support their habitation in such a cold and tough environment. In addition, we then used CoSpaces to create our own Antarctic world – focusing on the environment features which would be appropriate for this setting and using the coding options to incorporate computing into the science-led topic. The children then created their own creature and added it to the Antarctic setting which they had earlier created. The children were then able to use CoSpaces’ share feature and provided collaborative feedback to each other about the science and computing within their projects by viewing and experiencing their worlds and creatures through the ClassVR headsets.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
These resources brought the explorations and expeditions to life for the children and removed many layers of abstraction from their learning to give them a more tangible grasp of these huge, mammoth events. Further to this, the headsets supported children in moving their learning forward by giving them the access to view and unpick environments which they and their peers had created. Their level of enthusiasm, engagement and resilience in this topic was greatly increased and we were very impressed with the children’s retention and ability to apply their understanding across the board. The high levels of cognitive engagement and achievement during the topic would not have been possible without these amazing new opportunities provided by the digital technologies.
Creating in CoSpaces
COMPUTING Age 5-7
Grange Primary School, Harrow, UK
Learning Aims:
• To create a 360 degree virtual space.
• To be able to use computational thinking, algorithms and debug code.
CONTEXT
Students were exposed to virtual reality for the first time during their lesson on ‘Space’. They had the experience of viewing the individual planets and the solar system as a whole in 3D. These experiences facilitated the students to better understand the concept of space. During these lessons one of the students curiously asked, “We are actually not on the moon but how, just using this headset, can we see and feel as if we are on the moon?” This led to explaining what programming is in computer language and made the student even more curious thinking that what he is seeing is actually possible to create.
PRACTICAL SESSION
CoSpaces
I asked the children to go onto the CoSpaces gallery and explore some of the pre-published creations; in conjunction with this, I also copied some of the links onto the ClassVR Portal, so students could view the example creation via the ClassVR headsets. The students’ ideas of creating space started to change and they wanted to create different worlds with different foci. I gave the VR Club support in getting themselves registered and then, after this point, they were left to explore all the tools they had and how to use them independently. Initially, they were tasked with coding their characters/objects to move and speak. This was challenging for some of them, as one student explained, “I want this witch to speak but it is not working!” Students were introduced to the concept of ‘debugging’ and how important it is to check the steps they were taking to perform the desired action. At this point, I asked them to share their unfinished creation with me and I showed their work via a ClassVR headset; they explained why they chose that specific world, how they created it and what they wished to add further. Some students wanted to move two objects at the same time, e.g. a car and the sitting man, a boat and a man standing on it. This was set as their homework to find out how to get two algorithms running concurrently.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The students learnt how a 3D world can be created and then shared with their peers. They felt that they could be teleported to any world through their imagination and hard work, without having to even leave home/school. They learnt to solve complicated problems through reasoning and that if the sequence in coding is not correct, then the desired action is not accomplished. The use of the headsets provided a platform for the children to publish their work on and enjoy experiencing other children’s work too.
Lines & Angles
MATHEMATICS Age 14-15
Franklin High School, Livonia, Michigan, USA
Learning Aims:
• To identify a line and a shape (i.e. circle, square, triangle).
• To identify the attributes of lines e.g. circles, and angles with equitant measure.
• To identify the attributes of perpendicular lines, parallel lines, and lines segments, angles, and circles.
CONTEXT
To begin this sequence of learning, we reviewed posters on different angles and lines to remind the students about key terminology. Then, we explored angles and lines around the classroom to enable students to have a tactile, first-hand experience of these concepts. Afterwards, we extended this to exploring for angles and lines around the school.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Angles, Lines & Modern Buildings Playlist – Community Library
We began the session by reviewing the angles and lines posters; we then launched the lines and angles ClassVR playlist. To encourage students to apply their understanding, we had them find lines and angles on the projected architectural buildings on the board. Using digital ink and dry erase markers, we identified the different lines and angles on the projected buildings. Afterwards, the students put the ClassVR headsets on to explore all the lines and angles in the virtual world. We used the dynamic point of interest to help facilitate the group in the experience while collaborating about the different lines and angles in the 360-degree experience.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The students were 100% engaged during the entire lesson on lines and angles. They love using the ClassVR headsets to enhance their learning experiences. The verbal communication and collaboration that took place throughout the lesson was incredible!
The Science of Flight
PHYSICS Age 11-13
Red Arrows
Royal Air Force
Learning Aims:
• To identify the forces affecting an aeroplane.
• To describe forces using force diagrams.
• To create virtual reality experiences based on prior learning.
CONTEXT
A big aim of the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team is to inspire the next generation – potential future pilots, engineers and technicians. The Red Arrows is one of the world’s premier display teams and has provided great footage from inside the cockpit to ClassVR. This offers a fantastic opportunity to bring the science of flight to life. This lesson will require a moderate level of digital literacy and a core understanding of CoSpaces – the ability to create an environment, add objects and code them using block coding or Javascript will be required to get the most from the session.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Red Arrows Video CoSpaces
This session explores the key forces that are involved in flight, specifically when looking at the Hawk jet used by the Red Arrows. To begin, use the ClassVR portal to play the video and discuss with students how they think the plane is able to stay in the air. This is an assessment opportunity for prior knowledge and a great time to discuss the forces in play on a plane in flight – thrust, drag, lift and weight. After explaining and demonstrating these forces, introduce students to the 3D model of the jet and ask them to identify key features of the vehicle, as well as any specific design aspects which make them aerodynamic and fit for purpose.
Afterwards, introduce the students to the CoSpaces website and instruct them to create and code a working model of a Hawk jet with accurate labels to demonstrate their understanding. Students with a more advanced understanding of coding can create an interactive model that changes based on the forces acting upon it using more advanced variables from either the CoBlocks or Javascript options. Finally, use the CoSpaces app within the ClassVR portal to explore the students’ interactive models and collectively debug the code that was used.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Using a tool like CoSpaces is an incredible way to help embed learning into a students’ long-term memory – by experiencing the content directly through virtual reality footage and then creating new content to explain key concepts. In doing so, students are using advanced cognitive recall techniques that give a genuine, first-hand memory to draw upon when they need to either remember a specific topic or build upon their knowledge later in the year.
Fairy Tales
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY Age 5-6
ESMS Junior School, Edinburgh, UK
Learning Aims:
• Support understanding of specific fairy tales beyond simple visualisation by experiencing the stories as one of the characters.
• Recount (verbally or written) the tale from a character’s point of view, using emotional and descriptive vocabulary.
CONTEXT
Children are visited by a fairy tale dragon, who leaves behind a mysterious note. The letter explains that all the fairy tales are under threat because people have stopped believing in them and have stopped sharing them.
The children are asked to help by reading classic fairy tales and then ‘visiting’ them to help share the tales with others.
PRACTICAL SESSION
There are a few ways to enhance learning with VR, depending on the dynamics of the class. The headsets might be used to explore the fairy tale in Avantis World first and let the children roam free to work out what the fairy tale might be, given clues in the setting. Alternatively, visit the fairy tale scene after an introduction to compare/reinforce/challenge what the children are sharing with you. It can also be used as an effective plenary. At whichever point the VR headsets are used, consider the following:
Read the story as a class and invite the children to imagine what the scene or objects within it are like. Talk about what it would be ‘as big as’, or how it would feel to hold/touch. What smells might they notice? And, importantly, reinforce how they might feel to be there, or be that character. There are lots of opportunities to enjoy this lesson with Drama too.
Some children may find this visualisation challenging and require a ‘visit’ with the headsets early on, but ensure there are opportunities to discuss what they see, hear, feel (physically and emotionally), and help foster a deeper empathy for a chosen character. Thoughts and experiences can be shared afterwards and a structure for presenting their argument (verbally or written) to their audience on why fairy tales need to be enjoyed and shared, can then be formed.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Using VR effectively always gives learners an emotional and experiential connection with what they are learning. It is far easier for someone to discuss and share what they have experienced than what they read about, as they can refer to their senses better. Giving children an opportunity to experience a fairy tale in Avantis World and see objects like Jack’s beanstalk in a scale beyond a 2D picture in a book, is very powerful. Children enjoy this activity and are enthused to engage more in their learning of literacy and appreciation of stories.
The Human Body
BIOLOGY Age 10-11
James Tromans
Heathfield Primary School, Birmingham, UK
Learning Aims:
• To have an awareness of the different parts of the human body.
CONTEXT
This was the children’s first lesson in their Science topic – The Human Body. The idea was to immerse them in learning which would hook their interest in how various parts of the body functioned and worked. The medium term plan was to make sure the children understood exactly why certain parts of the body were designed in such a way and how the shape, size and structure of different aspects of the human body contributed to a healthy human being.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Human Anatomy Playlist
During the session, the children were given the opportunity to take a 360-degree virtual tour of the human body using the ClassVR headsets. We used the Human Anatomy Playlist to explore different sections of the body and provide a detailed view of body parts for the pupils to interrogate and ask questions about. Following the experience, children wrote down as many body parts, facts, questions and key words that they could, based on what they had experienced. For example, we looked at how the skull was shaped and structured to provide protection to the brain; we also looked in more detail at how the skeleton was formed to provide protection to the vital organs within the torso.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
This VR experience formed the starting point to their topic. It generated questioning, which allowed the teacher to tailor future lessons to meet the children’s needs. It exposed students to language that they might not have experienced normally and gave the children the chance to explore the human body in a safe and purposeful way. Following this lesson, the children then explored the heart in more detail using the ClassVR headsets, looked inside a beating heart and explored its job within the body. This was the perfect starting point for the heart dissection that took place the lesson afterwards, as children already had an understanding of the heart’s role, and what they should expect to see inside it.
Submarine Inquiry
KINDERGARTEN Age 5-6
Kinnwood Central Public School, Forest, Ontario, Canada
Learning Aims:
• To inquire about and understand underwater life, habitats and materials.
CONTEXT
Our students’ next inquiry was to learn about sea creatures. We left out books, pictures and provocations / learning invitations. They discovered different types of water transportation, such as submarines, and how marine biologists research aquatic habitats. Some students requested to go scuba diving and others were determined to build a submarine. We gathered building materials but realized we did not know how a submarine was actually built.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Submarines Playlist
We viewed an image of the inside of a submarine. The students came up with lots of wonder questions after seeing so many panels, buttons and tanks. They sketched out what they saw, wrote down their questions and worked together to discover answers. They recorded their findings in their digital journal (e.g. the radar keeps track of objects under water, the ballast tank fills up or releases water so it will sink or float). Once the students constructed a radar, navigation system, and a ballast tank (made from everyday items), they were ready to submerge underwater and discover sea life up close.
Our class eagerly grabbed the VR headsets and we sent them on a Fish and Coral expedition. We discussed what they saw (e.g. how many sea creatures). The meaningful math conversations were exciting to observe. Next, students began plotting sea life they saw virtually onto their “radar” grid paper. We later asked students where different objects were on the radar to assess their letter/number recognition as well as their spatial awareness and comprehension of finding coordinates (e.g. “I see a scuba diver on B11”).
IMPACT ON LEARNING
We believe this VR technology was the perfect learning tool to extend our students’ thinking and promote analytical thinking. ClassVR engaged and inspired every student in our learning community. It added a third dimension to their learning experience that they could connect with and become inspired by. This technology sparked meaningful dialogue and brought our young learners together. As educators, we were excited to see so many FDK curriculum expectations and framework areas being addressed throughout these virtual reality expeditions.
Estimation and Prediction
MATHEMATICS Age 5-7
Anson Primary School, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To be able to accurately estimate using a range of mathematical strategies.
• To be able to analyse 3D objects and name their composite shapes based on the object’s properties.
CONTEXT
As part of our mission to embed virtual reality across the curriculum, we have begun to use the technology to create opportunities for independent exploration and creative mathematical thinking. Geometry, estimation, prediction and logical reasoning are all key areas of mathematics and we wanted to stretch our pupils’ reasoning through contextualised, VR learning.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Estimate and Count Playlist
Within a mathematics lesson, we used a photograph of a celebration of light from China and asked the children to begin by looking for different shapes within the lanterns. They were able to zoom in and de-construct the shapes by moving around the 360 image and thoroughly examining each lantern from various angles. We then wanted to move the children’s learning on, and as such, we asked them to identify different composite shapes within the image and within larger objects. This involved the children applying their understanding of shape and geometry to a variety of objects and then explaining how and why they have reached their decision. We encouraged the children to explain their strategies and thinking, so as to deepen their mathematical reasoning and also choose different objects within the image independent of our guidance. Afterwards, we asked the children to estimate the number of lights within the image and discussed how they could methodically and systematically have found an answer to this – again, scaffolding their deeper reasoning and higher order thinking skills.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
As an immersive mathematical experience, it is very powerful and also means that you are encouraging students to think about the world around them in different, creative and explorative ways. In doing so, we found that having these opportunities then fed into students applying their mathematical understanding within their social times and across a wide variety of subject areas. The impact of this meant that the children were constantly re-applying and re-visiting their mathematical skill base, because of having had the opportunity to apply their knowledge and understanding in such a fun and unique context.
Our Literacy learning was focused on stories with a moral. We had been reading ‘Fly, Eagle, Fly’ and were beginning to think about writing our own story with a focus on setting description. To inspire our own writing, we looked at the description of the Farmer and his friend climbing the mountain at the end of ‘Fly, Eagle, Fly’ – and what they saw below. The plan was for us to rewrite this description (and the ending of the story) with the children using powerful vocabulary and noun phrases to describe scenes from different countries in Africa.
The children were in groups of three with one headset per group. I had created a playlist of photos and videos from different countries in Africa. Each member of the group had a different job; one child wore the ClassVR headset and used adjectives and nouns to describe what they saw; another child listened to the description and wrote down (on a provided template) the nouns and adjectives the first child said; the third child had a thesaurus, with which they would look up the adjectives that had been written down and find powerful synonyms. After a few minutes of the children talking and using the thesaurus, I sent the headsets to the waiting room. They would then work in their group to use the new synonyms to form a noun phrase to describe things that they saw in the picture/video. We shared them as a class. The children then swapped jobs, looking at a different photo/video and creating more noun phrases to add to our working wall display.
Every child was engaged, enthusiastic and achieving. The range of language used during the session was excellent and promoted great discussion on the effectiveness of different words to convey the right meaning. In particular, one reluctant writer, who had previously not been able to produce more than about half a page of writing due to his limited vocabulary, was extremely vocal, engaged and excited about describing what he saw. The piece of writing straight after that lesson involved applying those noun phrases to a new setting description and he did so independently and with pride – writing over a page and a half – which I put down to his enthusiasm from the headset session!
Early Communication
EARLY YEARS Age 3-4
Fleet Primary School, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To begin using more complex sentences to link thoughts.
• To use talk to connect ideas and explain what is happening.
• To build up vocabulary that reflects the breadth of their experiences.
CONTEXT
This lesson took place in a nursery class of 23 children aged three to four; there is a high proportion of English as an additional language and bilingual pupils. Our baseline assessments demonstrate a low entry level for most children in communication and language skills; as such, we decided to incorporate as much visual and immersive learning as possible to support and accelerate the children’s language skills.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Giraffes at Riga Zoo
In pairs, the children looked at a photograph of some giraffes and talked about what they could see. I then introduced the headset with the track preloaded and ready to use. One child wore the headset and described what they could see using the Giraffes at Riga Zoo image. They then swapped over so their partner could see what they had been describing and talked about the image further – using descriptive language and predicting what was actually happening.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The initial photograph led to some statements, such as “Look…a giraffe!” and “It’s big” but the conversations were quite limited and short, and vocabulary was not developing as a result of the activity. When the headset was introduced, the children were more stimulated to say what they could see. It led to more imaginative vocabulary, expressive statements and extended sentences.
Child 1: “I can see a man, no…two mans. They are actually feeding the giraffe. There’s another man. He has a green t-shirt on!”
Child 2: “I see a giraffe. I’m scared of it! It’s big! It’s going to eat me! I see the audience too!” This child was referring to the people in the image. This discussion led to finding out more about giraffes and what they eat – luckily not nursery children!
Child 3: “Wow! I see a human. That’s a big giraffe! More humans! I’m on the ground but I’m not on the ground! The giraffe is looking at me and fooding (feeding). They look great!” The children loved using the headsets; feeling around them for the objects in the image and even exploring how to control them – one child worked out how to move the image by tilting his head, “It’s like a steering wheel on a car!”
Bringing History to Life
HISTORY Age 8-9
Ardleigh Green Junior School, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To identify similarities and differences between ancient civilisations.
• To answer, create and evaluate historically-valid questions about ancient civilisations.
CONTEXT
This session served as a springboard and initial introduction for a teaching sequence focused around historical sites of ancient civilisations. The objective was to make sure pupils were able to explore both the human and physical comparative points between various ancient civilisations and appreciate how they developed in different ways. We wanted the children to be able to compare, contrast and understand what an ancient civilisation looked like and how people of the era might have lived.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Ancient Maya
Taking turns, the children described what they saw and as a class we talked about how each civilisation was different in terms of technology, resources and sophistication. Using the focus tool to draw children’s attention to specific areas of the VR experience allowed greater understanding in discussion. For instance, we were able to really interrogate the North Acropolis, Tikal, discussing specific parts of the structure, what it was used for and encouraging the children to hypothesise and predict whilst immersed within the experience. Being able to see what and where the children were viewing directed the discussion and led onto more structured, tailored and specific questions.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Having a virtual experience of the Mayan sites, the children had a better understanding of that civilisation and its place in history; it allowed them to see exactly what it was like to stand next to a Mayan temple. The experience provoked discussion amongst children of all abilities and allowed them to describe and discuss their experiences of what they saw and how they felt because of the 3D images and artefacts they experienced. This provided a first-hand, experiential approach to learning, which enabled a deeper understanding of the topic we were studying.
Investigating Cells
SCIENCE Age 14-16
Irmo, Richland, South Carolina, USA
Learning Aims:
• To introduce parts of a cell at the beginning of a unit on the parts and processes of a cell.
• The goal was to help students visualize microscopic particles that cannot be seen readily by the human eye.
CONTEXT
At our high school, the Digital Integration Specialist (DIS), Susan, co-planned with a STEM biology teacher, Rebecca, to determine what videos and/or photos would be best to use. Because this was designed to review cells with students, we found and imported a 360-degree video of an animal cell. We had seven different biology classes with three different teachers participating over the course of two days. Before each class arrived, the DIS had content loaded on the headsets and placed them at each table. Each teacher brought his/her class in for about 35 minutes.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Animal Cell 3D
The DIS first reviewed a brief Google Slides presentation about the content we’d be viewing and the purpose of the day. At their tables, the students then drew and labelled diagrams of a cell and listed as many organelles as they could. We reviewed these organelles together to help anticipate what they would be seeing.
We first showed the video without sound. This was an intentional choice to let students see the parts of the cell and make an educated guess about the parts they were seeing. While the DIS handled the technology and troubleshooting, the biology teacher would ask the students questions. We also paused and used the ClassVR program to focus the students in on a particular part of the scene such as the Golgi apparatus (using the ‘dynamic point of interest’). Once we had been through the video without sound, we took the headsets off for some more reflection and discussion. In pairs, students shared what were the biggest/smallest organelles they had seen, which ones were moving, and what else they saw. We then reviewed as a whole class before watching the video again with the sound on so they could hear the narration. To conclude we let them independently look at the Animal Cell 3D model from ClassVR.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Viewing the animal cell from the inside gave the students a clear picture of things that are normally too small for them to ever see. This activity helped them understand the different parts of a cell and how they move and work together. Being able to see the organelles in 360 made them come alive for the students and introduce them to the unit on cells. Next year, we plan to use the cell video both to introduce and review the unit on cells.
Underwater Exploration
GEOGRAPHY Age 6-7
Beatrix Potter School, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To be able to use adjectives to create a descriptive paragraph about what a character sees under the sea.
CONTEXT
The children had completed a series of lessons on The Snail and the Whale by Julia Donaldson and had been focussing on using imaginative adjectives to describe a scene. Part of the unit of work was based around expanding their vocabulary and use of synonymous language to improve the coherency and fluency of their writing.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Underwater Playlist
At the end of a sequence of teaching The Snail and the Whale, our Year 2 students used the VR headsets to explore a range of underwater scenes from around the world. Through this experience the pupils were able to apply the adjectives they had generated in their previous lessons to a real life setting. The children used the headsets in pairs; partner A put the headset on and told partner B what they could see, partner B scribed what partner A said and then they swapped tasks. We were amazed by how much vocabulary the children were able to use and how they were able to build upon the language they had already acquired. Because the children had immersed themselves in the setting they were writing about, we found that they were more able to apply the new vocabulary they had acquired, for example “shimmering, glistening water”, “majestic, large shark”. A key feature in this lesson was being able to direct the children’s attention to a specific point in the scene. This allowed children to focus on one object at a time and the teacher to direct the discussion.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The children then wrote a descriptive paragraph about their experience under the sea using the vocabulary they had curated after each session on the VR headsets. Class teachers commented that they were so impressed by the willingness of some reluctant writers to use challenging adjectives in their writing and felt that their class had a better understanding of their vocabulary because they were able to apply it to a real life situation. The richness of the writing was evident when it was compared to a similar piece of writing completed by the pupils without the use of the ClassVR headsets.
‘Beautiful, beautiful, magnificent desolation’ Buzz Aldrin’s description of his impression of the lunar surface is not as iconic or as remembered as Neil Armstrong’s ‘one small step…’
As a child, I watched the moon landings and was in awe of the astronauts bouncing around the surface of the moon, seemingly effortlessly and with such grace (with the occasional mishap). That powerful experience made me question what was happening. Why were they walking like that? When we created our first lunar VR experience with full physics emulation, I couldn’t wait to have my virtual moment on the moon! Now, let’s figure out why things are so different on the lunar surface and how would it be to walk on the planets of our solar system!
**PRACTICAL SESSION**
**CoSpaces Physics Engine**
Allow students to virtually walk on the moon inside ClassVR Space Adventures or LunarVR. Talk to the students about how they moved around the surface and how different it was. Students should be made aware of the difference between weight and mass, as well as the relationship between gravity and weight. Weight is a force based on the effect of gravity on an object’s mass. Weight is measured in newtons (N). The gravitational field strength of the Earth is 10 while the moon’s is 1.6. Weight in newtons can be calculated by multiplying mass (in kg) by the gravitational field strength (N/kg). Students should research the gravitational field strength of all the planets in the solar system to discover their weight in newtons on each of them. Additionally, students can setup a CoSpaces simulator using the physics engine to alter mass and gravity, noting the effects on objects.
**IMPACT ON LEARNING**
ClassVR allows pupils to pull on a virtual spacesuit and walk in the footsteps of Armstrong and Aldrin. That ability to experience something out of the ordinary has a powerful effect on learners. The excitement and pull of that experience can create a strong desire to learn more and to take that learning further. The ability to then create a virtual environment in CoSpaces and alter gravity and mass add a further immersive layer. Activities like this, a blend of approaches covering science (physics), computing and maths are held together by the shared experience of pupils who have just ‘walked on the moon’.
Print 3D Spinning Tops with AR
DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY Age 10-12
David Mann
CONTEXT
It’s crucial that students have had the opportunity to explore some manufactured small spinning tops of various types, so they can begin making predictions about what makes them work effectively. Students also need experience using basic tools in a 3D modelling platform – we used Tinkercad. They will need to know how to: create and modify basic blocks, align blocks, and group them to create a single model.
Learning Aims:
• To use research and develop design criteria to inform the design of innovative, functional, appealing products that are fit for purpose.
• To generate, develop, model and communicate their ideas through discussion, annotated sketches, prototypes and computer-aided design.
PRACTICAL SESSION
This teaching sequence takes place over a series of sessions; students need time to research, plan, design, review, make and evaluate their creations. Once students have had time to investigate existing designs and have narrowed down a few key shapes, they can begin modelling in CAD. Make sure they think carefully about the axis around which their top will spin – how will they make sure it stays upright? Check that students are using appropriate 3D shapes as building blocks, then aligning and grouping them accurately. Once they’ve done this, export their models as STL files and upload them directly to the Shared Cloud library in the ClassVR Portal. Send these to the headsets and give students an opportunity to view them from all angles using the ARCube. Use this as a chance to review and make any edits before the 3D printing phase. Finally, it’s time to find out whose top can stay spinning the longest!
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The ability to view and manipulate 3D designs in Augmented Reality before 3D printing adds a tactile dimension to the process of designing and making a real-world object. This is particularly helpful for students who find 3D visualisation difficult; and offers a valuable opportunity to discuss how designs can be optimised and improved. The satisfaction students gain from seeing a project like this through from start to finish is hard to underestimate, and it’s a great way to integrate several different types of technology into the curriculum. All too often, incredible assets like 3D printers can lie unused in schools; providing scaffolded teaching sequences that use the technology for a purpose can help to unlock their potential.
Out of this World Writing
ENGLISH Age 9-11
Penybont Primary School, Bridgend, UK
Learning Aims:
• To select appropriate grammar and vocabulary, understanding how such choices can change and enhance meaning.
• To describe settings, characters and atmosphere skilfully.
CONTEXT
This session slotted into a teaching sequence for narrative writing, which linked well with our studies in Science (finding out about the Earth and space). Prior to the lesson, students had already used the ClassVR headsets in pairs. They had read a number of texts linked to space exploration, and identified key vocabulary from these texts. They had also been learning about how narrative structure can build suspense.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Lunar Rover
Each student’s strengths and weaknesses were complemented by working together. One partner wore the headset and described everything they could see on the moon’s surface, while the other partner acted as a scribe. This approach is particularly helpful for those students who find writing difficult, as they could practise their verbal skills and really get creative with vocabulary, while their partner listened and noted down key words and ideas. Difficulty in recording ideas can really put some children off writing, creating a huge barrier to learning. The combination of an exciting stimulus, which they instinctively want to talk about great detail, and a partner to write down ideas is extremely powerful and managed to engage even our most reluctant writers.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The notes made during the partner work were invaluable when it came time for the writing session. Students wrote poetry from the perspective of an astronaut on the moon. Their virtual reality experience had given them all sorts of details about textures and colours; it allowed them to consider what objects or senses they might include and supported their ability to use more ambitious vocabulary in their writing. In combination with visualising the striking image they had experienced earlier and revisiting their peer-created notes, the final outcome on the quality of writing was really impressive.
The Moon
Suddenly, a rapid wave of cold, icy air rushed over me, as my space shuttle landed onto the powdery surface of the moon, creating a floating cloud of grey dust. Excitedly, I leapt out, amazed at the weightless feeling. The jagged ground crumbled beneath my feet. My dark shadow slithered silently behind my light, crunching footsteps. Not even the slightest form of life could be found on this bare and deserted landscape. As I curiously gazed around me, the moon was as blank as a plain sheet of paper. Bumpy, towering cliffs cast creepy shadows - pitch black like dark lumps of coal. Above me the jet black space sky was dotted with glistening stars, beaming brightly down at me, and the cold air hung still and silent. The unpleasant smell of powdery dust slowly reached my nose as I cautiously stepped over the rusty grey craters surrounding me. I felt oddly stiff in my thick, strong astronaut suit, but travelling around seemed as easy as blinking. All of a sudden I heard a creaking rumble in the distance. Whipping round curiously, I noticed two mysterious figures exploring the vast moon on a groaning moon buggy. Examining the dull white land once more, I climbed into my space shuttle and caught a last glimpse of the round
The Moon
Tension washed over me as I slowly drifted out of my seat. A thick breath of icy, cold air unexpectedly hits me. Inquisitively, I peered round the enormous dome by one, almost screaming under my big, clunky cap, it surprised me suddenly, how weightless I was. I could hold me down! Nothing could be heard in the rumbling thumps of my light footsteps, echoing behind the whirlwind of grey dust, coiling around my boot like a dragon. Rocks scattered randomly upon the bumpy, cold, unique place. Millions of golden, glistening stars of me, as if they were watching over me somehow. I ripped a handful of silence, and I slipped through my space suit. Craters dipped and dived though the ground, the ocean, swimming happily. Shining milky ways and stars in the pitch black scene engulfed me, quickly. Faster than anyone can imagine, followed me, almost like ghost. It finally dawned on me that there was a shooting star whizzing past, I caught a glimpse of the sky, then in a blink of an eye, it had disappeared. I laid down on my back, and stared at the sky, lost in his
Space
SCIENCE Age 9-10
Graham Bowman
Educational Technology Consultant
Tablet Academy
Learning Aims:
• To gain an understanding of the relationship between Earth, the Moon, the Sun and other planets in the Solar System including their size and properties.
• To gain an understanding of the varying gravitational forces in place and how these relate to the Solar System and Milky Way.
CONTEXT
This lesson is intended as a hook at the beginning of the topic so no prior knowledge is assumed, although most students will have a basic understanding of the solar system and gravity. This lesson would fit in well to a scheme of work which focuses on space exploration, understanding the solar system and/or comparing size, speed and shapes (such as a geometry focus in mathematics).
PRACTICAL SESSION
Space Playlist
The session starts inside a servicing facility at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. Students are asked to look around and think about where they might be, why everyone is wearing special clothing and what the large silver object might be. Next, students watch a 360 video of a rocket launch which gives a great idea of the size of the rocket and the amount of thrust required to leave Earth’s gravitational pull. Following the launch, the class then arrives at the International Space Station. Students are asked to think about what difficulties astronauts would face and tasked with finding as many modifications made to support the crew for life in Space. Next, we go out into deep space and look back to see an amazing view of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun in the distance. Here we discuss the relative sizes of the objects and how that mass affects the gravitational pull. At this point, the class watches a truly inspirational and emotional video called One Strange Rock, in which we find out more about what it’s like to live on-board the International Space Station travelling 17,000 mph around the Earth. Finally, we explore images of the Solar System and Milky Way to get an idea of how small and insignificant the Earth really is.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Students were massively engaged by this experience. As well as finding out information from the session, they go away with even more questions than answers! This puts students in a great place for the follow-up lessons exploring the topic in more detail.
Seasonal Change
SCIENCE Age 5–6
Minet Infant School, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To describe the features of summer.
CONTEXT
Children had been learning about seasonal change; we focused on the characteristics and features of Autumn, Winter and Spring to provide scaffolding and background about the other seasons, thinking about how they each feel, smell and look.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Summer Playlist
In talking partners, children were asked to think of all the words they could think of about Summer; they were challenged to think of as many words as they could. I scribed the children’s comments and encouraged a discussion about the season; the children then went to their tables to explore and experience summer images from the seasonal playlist. They were asked to write sentences about what they could see, focusing on their senses and use of vivid, powerful language. We then undertook a word association game for the season of summer and I gave them a challenge to think of more than 15 words, having now experienced the virtual reality. I then scribed their new and improved ideas on the whiteboard.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The children seemed to really enjoy using the ClassVR headsets. Our school is 98% EAL and the language they gained from using ClassVR was great to see. As many of them have never seen summer like the one in the picture, it enabled a multi-sensory and visualised approach to enriching their learning. Further, it encouraged them to work in a team, by sharing the ClassVR headsets and using dialogue to explain the wonderful sights they were seeing. They also showed responsibility in how they handled the equipment and were eager to do the writing activity afterwards.
Comprehension Skills
ENGLISH Age 9-11
Brecknock Primary School, London, UK
Learning Aims:
• To be able to use inferential thinking to support understanding and comprehension.
CONTEXT
A key focus within our school is to ensure children are given the right tools to become successful readers and are able to fully comprehend high-level texts independently. Inference was a clear domain children struggled with across the school when analysing assessment data.
PRACTICAL SESSION
While strategies such as use of a dictionary, morphology and context can be taught, we needed to stimulate the knowledge already there and build on it. At the start of our ‘War and Peace’ topic, we worked with a group of children and gave them a poetry comprehension about a topic they knew little of – World War One. We then integrated the World War One trenches experience to provide a visually-immersive and audio-enhanced learning opportunity, so the children had virtually explored, first-hand, the conditions and living arrangements of that era. This really supported the work we went on to do based around the text ‘War Horse’. We spent a lesson focused on figurative writing and understanding the deeper meanings of text, asking key questions, such as “Why does the poet choose to look up?” and “How did the poet/character feel?” This led on nicely to a number of VR-based lessons we undertook, which explored: questioning, clarifying, making connections and inferential thinking skills – all of which underpinned our drive to improve reading and comprehension skills.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Giving children an ownership of discovering word meanings would allow them to be able to use their growing understanding of vocabulary to make accurate and valid inferences. Some of the pupils said, “The VR experience helped me imagine the scene” and “I didn’t realise how much could be going on in a trench or battlefield.” Having experienced the trenches and understood the conditions, one pupil recalled that the poet chose to look up in one of the poems studied to “get away from the guns and dead bodies and see his family in heaven.” As such, the use of ClassVR stimulated talk, which is vital for children to articulate themselves and communicate their thinking.
Comparing Australia
GEOGRAPHY Age 14–15
New Braunfels High School, Texas, USA
Learning Aims:
• To analyze the various terrain features of Australia.
• To compare and contrast coastal and central Australia.
• To explain how and why Australia has such a different landscape.
CONTEXT
Prior to viewing the Australia VR, students labelled a map of Australia and analyzed climographs of various cities in Australia. We wanted to explore and experience Australia in as much detail and depth as possible. The idea behind using ClassVR is to bring a multi-sensory, tangible experience to students’ learning.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Australia Playlist
The lesson was organized into stations and students rotated through a ten-minute cycle using the ClassVR headsets. The other stations included map reading, colonial history of Australia, indigenous people, climate zones, and population distribution. The ClassVR station directly supplemented the other learning the students were doing, creating a holistic approach to the lesson.
During the use of the headsets, I asked various questions to encourage the students to analyze the landscapes and locations they were viewing. The students, in turn, asked their own questions about Australia, its geographical and human history, as well as sharing their thoughts on modern day Australia.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
In the days after the ClassVR experience, the students referenced to the images as we applied other geographic concepts to Australia. For example, when students discussed the population distribution of Australia they were able to give specific examples from the ClassVR session to justify their response.
The children are developing their understanding of what is happening to our oceans; many children have not experienced or ever been in the ocean to observe what it should look like. Therefore, as a pre-session activity, we undertook a small group discussion about oceans and what they look like. The key questions to discuss were: Have you ever been in an ocean before? Where was it? What was it like when you looked down at the bottom of the sea? What kind of things could you see – describe them? What would you expect to see?
**PRACTICAL SESSION**
**Underwater Playlist**
Once we had discussed and reviewed the key questions, we undertook a group task to build a bank of descriptive phrases associated with what the ocean may look like, using 2D images to help generate ideas. After completing their mind map of descriptive phrases, the children experienced the ClassVR headsets in pairs. We focused on the Underwater playlist, taking a deeper look at the Fish and Coral, Underwater Caribbean and Clownfish New Caledonia tracks. The pupils with the headsets on used their pre-knowledge of descriptive phrases to describe to their partner what they were seeing. The partner’s role was to write these down on their mind map. After a period of time, the children swapped and continued until all the images and videos have been completed. By the end of the session, all the pupils built up a bank of descriptive phrases that they could then use in their own writing when creating a description of the ocean.
**IMPACT ON LEARNING**
The children have a far greater understanding of what the ocean looks like. They can experience first hand how the fish and plant life move in the water and they became familiar with the colours and noises that can be heard in a real-life ocean. Therefore, they were able to add all of this content into their written piece. The children were able to use their senses to write an in-depth setting description of an ocean. The follow-on lessons will look at: What is happening to our oceans with the impact of plastics? What impact will this have on the plan and animal life?
Battle of Britain
HISTORY Age 15–18
Stanberry R-II, Stanberry, Missouri, USA
Learning Aims:
• To trace the significant events and developments of WWII.
• To describe critical developments and turning points in WWII.
CONTEXT
This session allows students who have started the WWII unit to analyze one of the first major battles of WWII. The goal was for students to be able to see some of the vehicles used during the battle and connect that to the outcome of the battle. Our students were able to compare and contrast the vehicles from the different sides of WWII and also compare it back to some of their knowledge of WWI.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Conflicts Playlist
Taking turns, the students described what they saw, and we had a class discussion on how the vehicles shown differed from each other and how their features helped these vehicles in battle. Using the zoom and rotating tools on the headset allowed the children to fully explore the aircraft and the tank to see how they might have operated in battle. We also discussed how these vehicles differed from their counterparts from WWI. This was used to supplement along with notes about the Battle of Britain and students were able to hypothesize how the Spitfire allowed the Royal Air Force to ultimately win the battle and stop the invasion of Britain by the Nazis.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
Having the ability to see the vehicles of war with the headsets, they had a better understanding of what these looked like and how they were used in war. This provoked discussion of why they were designed that way and how they changed warfare during WWII. This provided a first-hand learning approach for the students.
The Plight of Refugees
SOCIAL STUDIES Age 10–11
Yonkers Public Library, Yonkers, New York, USA
Learning Aims:
• To understand what a refugee is.
• To understand what asylum is.
• To understand what reasons people may have to flee where they live.
CONTEXT
The students were learning about conflict in different countries and watched the documentary “I’m Not Leaving”. The following week, Carl Wilkens came to the school to visit and with the students discussed the documentary and the themes which featured in the programme. As a follow up, Mr Fontenova did a Friday Focus VR session on conflict and refugees.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Refugees Playlist Escaping Conflict lesson plan
The children looked at several photos and watched a video based around the Escaping Conflict ClassVR lesson plan. The students were asked: What did you see? Did it look how you expected it to? What were the first thoughts that popped into your head when you imagined being in their situation? Were you surprised by what you saw? Why is this?
The discussion included why people are angry and scared; why the conditions are so crowded and dirty; and, whether it is better than where they were before. We then asked the students to consider balancing up whether it was worth it to leave the disaster zone and seek refuge elsewhere or whether the plight would be more dangerous than remaining. This prompted some excellent discussion and encouraged the students to reflect objectively on other people’s living circumstances.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The children saw first hand some of the things that happen during conflict and understood the terms ‘refugee’ and ‘asylum seeker’. They were empathetic to the children who were fleeing their homes, families, friends, schools, country, etc. They were also asked to list five things they would take with them if they suddenly had to flee their homes. It also started a conversation on human rights and if these people’s rights are being met: waiting hours in line for a little bit of food, not being able to get clean water to drink or wash up. It was a very powerful learning experience and these students, at just 10 years old, were able to think very critically and objectively.
Trevilians Elementary School, Louisa, Virginia, USA
Learning Aims:
• To identify sensory words that identify sights, smells, sounds and tastes.
• To describe how sensory words contribute to text.
• To create visual/oral representations of the text identifying specific descriptions.
CONTEXT
Using virtual reality, students were able to explore and describe locations that most students will never get the opportunity to see in person. This in-class vacation helped students to easily describe a setting using sensory words. Students learned the importance of describing a setting in their writing, so that readers could better visualize their story.
PRACTICAL SESSION
On the day prior to this lesson, students explored sensory bins and we created an anchor chart of sensory words from their experience, words they could use in the activity. I started off the VR lesson by reviewing what sensory words are, referring back to the anchor chart and we discussed why these words were important. Once students were separated into partners, the partner who would start wearing the headset first (partner 1) randomly selected a VR location card from a pile. They were not to share the location with their partner, since the partner would later guess the location from their description. I gave the first teammate three minutes to put the headset on and describe the location using sensory words. The partner that was not in the virtual reality (partner 2), wrote down those descriptions on a graphic organizer. The graphic organizer also included questions that would help to prompt more ideas for senses that were difficult to describe. When the three minutes was up, partner 2 had three more minutes to draw a picture of the location using the description from partner 1. Before switching jobs, partner 2 shared their picture with partner 1 and guessed the location. Then, partner 2 explored the VR location, while partner 1 added new notes to the graphic organizer. When partner 2’s time was up, the students reflected on the experience and how they did. They looked at the picture that partner 2 drew and discussed what descriptions could have been added or changed to improve the representation of the location, if they were not correct. Teams also shared their experience with the rest of the class. As an extension, students worked with their partner to create a narrative story with their setting and they had to include sensory words from their graphic organizer.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The students were engaged and highly interested in exploring and learning. This also helped my students to be more supportive of each other because they were working toward a common goal. Students also worked on their communication skills as they collaborated with their partner. The virtual reality experience provided an authentic opportunity to describe a setting using new vocabulary words. Since students were “wowed” by the scenery, they were eager to share their description of the setting and the words came easily. In addition, there was a much higher level of participation and focus during this lesson than what I had seen on previous lessons.
Elements & Compounds
CHEMISTRY Age 16-17
State Correctional Institution, Muncy, Pennsylvania, USA
Learning Aims:
• To identify physical and chemical properties and changes.
• To compare substances and mixtures.
• To compare elements and compounds.
CONTEXT
This was designed to be an introduction to the periodic table of elements, scientific method and significant figures. The idea was to make chemistry interesting and more concrete as it tends to be primarily an abstract subject. The students were encouraged to learn the structure and structural changes of atoms.
PRACTICAL SESSION
Chemistry 3D Playlist
During the session, I gave the students the opportunity to view elements and compounds with a 360-degree view, right at their desk. Using the chemistry 3D objects for several elements and compounds, they were able to see the structural changes and sometimes slight or drastic differences. After the experience, the students located the atomic number, element symbol and atomic mass for the elements they viewed in the ClassVR.
IMPACT ON LEARNING
The VR experience made chemistry more interesting and gave the students a concrete example on which to develop their skills. It allowed students to explore 3D elements and compounds that typically would only be seen in a 2D textbook image. It is a great starting point for chemistry as the concepts tend to get more difficult. Having that visual foundation gave my students the opportunity to feel more comfortable with chemistry.
“The only source of knowledge is experience”
Albert Einstein
To learn more about how VR & AR can increase engagement and improve outcomes for your students, get in touch with us today to arrange a free consultation with our education specialists.
CLASSVR®
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Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments-Series III (MCA-III)
Test Specifications for Science
Minnesota Department of Education
October 10, 2012
Based on the K–12 Minnesota Academic Standards in Science, 2009 version effective May 24, 2010
MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
MCA-III
Test Specifications for Science
For a copy in an alternate format, contact
Division of Statewide Testing
Minnesota Department of Education
1500 Highway 36 West
Roseville, MN 55113-4266
Phone (651) 582.8200 • Fax (651) 582.8874
firstname.lastname@example.org
Last Revised
October 10, 2012
The department thanks the Test Specifications Committee, as well as all of the panelists and teachers who reviewed this document in draft form, for their hard work and continued involvement.
# TABLE OF CONTENTS
**THE MCA-III SCIENCE TEST SPECIFICATIONS** ................................................................. 1
- **INTRODUCTION** ........................................................................................................... 1
- **PURPOSE OF THE MINNESOTA COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENTS** .................. 1
- **PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW OF THE TEST SPECIFICATIONS** ............................... 2
- **ITEM SPECIFICATIONS** .............................................................................................. 3
- *Item Specification Considerations* ............................................................................. 3
- **COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY** ......................................................................................... 4
- **PRIORITIZING STANDARDS** ...................................................................................... 5
- **TEST DESIGN BY GRADE LEVEL** ............................................................................ 6
- **A GUIDE TO READING THE TEST SPECIFICATIONS** ............................................. 10
- **AN EXPLANATION OF TERMS RELATED TO THE GRADE-LEVEL TABLES** ........ 11
- **SCIENCE MCA-III TEST SPECIFICATIONS GRADE-LEVEL TABLES** .................. 12
This page has been left blank intentionally.
THE MINNESOTA COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENTS-SERIES III
Science Test Specifications
Introduction
The test specifications for each grade of the Science Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments-Series III (MCA-III) are presented in this document. The reader is encouraged to read the introductory information carefully because many important concepts are presented, including the purpose of the MCA, a description of the cognitive levels and other information about the format of the test specifications.
Purpose of the Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires that states implement “a set of high-quality, yearly student academic assessments that include, at a minimum, academic assessments in mathematics, reading or language arts, and science” (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, §1111, 115 Stat. 1449 [2002]). In science, students must be assessed once in grades 3–5, 6–9 and 10–12. The Minnesota Department of Education (MDE) has selected grades 5 and 8 for assessments in the first two grade bands. The grade 5 MCA assesses the grades 3–5 standards and the grade 8 MCA assesses the grades 6–8 standards. Students in grades 9–12 are expected to take the high school MCA if, in the current academic year, they are enrolled in a life science or biology course and/or have received instruction on all Strand 1 and Strand 4 standards that fulfill the life science credit for graduation.
The K–12 Minnesota Academic Standards were adopted in 2003; the Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments-Series II (MCA-II) assessed the 2003 standards. The 2008 Minnesota Legislature approved the 2008 Omnibus Education Policy Act (Minn. Stat. § 120B.023, subd. 2d). This legislation required the revision of the state’s academic standards in science in the 2008–2009 school year. The legislation also required that beginning in the 2011–2012 school year, state science tests align with the revised 2009 academic standards in science. The revision to the standards was significant enough that a new series of the MCA assessments was necessary. Thus, the MCA-III are aligned with the 2009 K–12 Minnesota Academic Standards in Science.
The purpose of the MCA is to measure Minnesota students’ achievement with regard to the Minnesota academic standards. The MCA results can be used to inform curriculum decisions at the district and school level, inform instruction at the classroom level and demonstrate student academic progress from year to year.
**Purpose and Overview of the Test Specifications**
The primary purpose of test specifications is to help test developers build a test that is consistent over time. The *MCA-III DRAFT Test Specifications for Science* are also meant to serve as a source of information about the test design for teachers and the general public. Test specifications do not indicate what should be taught; the Minnesota academic standards do. Test specifications do not indicate how students should be taught; the classroom teacher does. Test specifications indicate which strands, standards and benchmarks will be assessed on the test and in what proportions. In addition, test specifications provide the types of items to be included, number of items and distribution of cognitive levels. Test specifications also clarify, define and/or limit how test items will be written.
As with any test, the MCA assesses a sampling of student knowledge and does not test every standard or benchmark. There are standards and benchmarks that cannot be assessed with a standardized test. That does not mean that these skills should not be taught or assessed. Teachers need to instruct and assess their students on all of the academic standards. Standards and benchmarks that are not assessed on the MCA are indicated in this document with the phrase “Not assessed on the MCA-III.” In addition, not all assessable benchmarks will be included on every assessment each year and some benchmarks are embedded within the assessment of other benchmarks.
The test specifications presented in this document were developed by panels convened for the specific task of constructing these specifications. These panels consisted of members of the Minnesota Academic Standards Committee, as well as other classroom teachers. Many of these classroom teachers were recommended to the Minnesota Department of Education (MDE) by various education organizations, school districts and other stakeholder groups.
Item Specifications
Item specifications are provided for each benchmark. The item specifications clarify, define and limit how items should address each benchmark. The item specifications also list vocabulary that may be used in items. This list is cumulative but not exhaustive in nature. For example, vocabulary listed at grade 3 is eligible for use in all of the grades that follow.
Item Specification Considerations
There are broad item development issues addressed during the development of test items. Each of the following issues is considered for all of the items developed for the Science MCA.
1. Each item will be written to measure primarily one benchmark; however, other benchmarks may also be reflected in the item content.
2. Items will be appropriate for students in terms of grade-level difficulty, expected knowledge of grade-level science vocabulary and life experiences.
3. Item vocabulary is taken from language of the benchmarks and item specifications. Where items commonly depart from the language of the benchmark or use additional vocabulary, the item specifications will include the statement “Additional vocabulary may include terms such as”. Vocabulary used in the assessment is cumulative in nature. For example, benchmark and additional vocabulary listed in grade 3 is eligible for use in all grades that follow.
4. Many of the benchmarks include examples that clarify the meaning of the benchmark or indicate the level of student understanding. The examples may suggest learning activities or instructional topics. They are NOT intended to be directives for curriculum, assessment or a comprehensive fulfillment of the benchmarks.
5. Items will use clear language based on the work by the U.S. Department of Education: LEP Partnership as outlined in Linguistic Modification Part I: Language Factors in the Assessment of English Language Learners and
Linguistic Modification Part II: A Guide to Linguistic Modification\(^1\). For example, to the extent possible, sentences will: be simple and in standard word order, use active voice, avoid using negatives, avoid proper nouns, avoid using general language terms that have a special meaning in science contexts, reduce written context and be as universal as possible.
6. At a given grade, items will range in difficulty from easy to challenging.
7. Items will not disadvantage or disrespect any segment of the population with regard to age, gender, race, ethnicity, language, religion, socioeconomic status, disability or geographic region.
8. Each item will be written to clearly and unambiguously elicit the desired response.
9. Items will be written according to the MDE Guidelines for Test Construction.
10. Advisory Panels will review items as specified in the MDE Vendor Guide to Advisory Panels.
**Cognitive Complexity**
Cognitive complexity refers to the cognitive demand associated with an item. The level of cognitive demand focuses on the type and level of thinking and reasoning required of the student on a particular item. MCA-III levels of cognitive complexity are based on Norman L. Webb’s Depth of Knowledge\(^2\) levels. Although certain verbs, such as “recall,” “classify” or “reason,” are commonly associated with specific cognitive levels, Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels are **not** determined by the verbs that describe them, but rather the contexts in which the verbs are used and the depth of thinking required.
A Level 1 (recall) item requires the recall of information such as a fact, definition, term or simple science process or procedure. A simple science procedure is well-defined and will typically involve only one step. Listing the planets in the solar system would be in this level.
---
\(^1\) Both papers can be found on the National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs (NCELA) Website at ([http://ncela-beta.edstudies.net/files/uploads/10/LinguisticModificationBE024210.pdf](http://ncela-beta.edstudies.net/files/uploads/10/LinguisticModificationBE024210.pdf))
\(^2\) Webb, N. L. Alignment of science and mathematics standards and assessments in four states (Research Monograph No. 18). Madison: University of Wisconsin – Madison, National Institute for Science Education, 1999.
A Level 2 (skill/concept) item calls for the engagement of some mental processing beyond a habitual response, with students required to make some decisions as to how to approach a problem or activity. Level 2 activities imply more than one mental or cognitive process and may include making observations and collecting data; classifying, organizing and comparing data; and organizing and displaying data in tables, graphs and charts. Reading and interpreting information from a graph is an example of a skill assessed by a level 2 item.
Level 3 (strategic thinking) items require students to reason, plan or use evidence to solve a problem. In most instances, requiring students to explain their thinking is a level 3 activity. A Level 3 item may be solved using routine skills, but the student is not cued or prompted as to which skills to use. Developing a scientific model for a complex situation or forming conclusions from experimental or observational data is considered to be at this level.
Level 4 (extended thinking) items require complex reasoning, planning, developing and thinking, most likely over an extended period of time. Level 4 items are best assessed in the classroom, where the constraints of standardized testing are not a factor.
Using these cognitive complexity levels to categorize items ensures that the complexity of the test items matches the complexity of the content domain assessed. Table 1 indicates the target proportion of test items at each cognitive level included in each test.
**TABLE 1. Target Cognitive Level Distribution of Items**
| Grades | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 |
|-----------------|---------|---------|---------|
| 5, 8, and High School | 40–60% | 35–55% | 5–10% |
**Prioritizing Standards**
One of the first steps in the test development process is to determine which standards will be assessed and at what level of detail. In order to provide reliable data about a concept, a test must include several items addressing that concept. This emphasis is not possible for all of the academic standards in science in each grade span within a test of appropriate length. For this reason, MDE, with the advice of teachers and other stakeholders, prioritized the academic standards in science by assigning item totals for each standard that will appear on an operational test.
Test Design by Grade Level
The following tables (tables 2–4) provide the approximate number of points by strand on the operational test for each grade. Multiple-choice (MC) items are each worth 1 point, while other item types are worth 1-3 points. Approximately 40–60 percent of the test will be comprised of multiple-choice items, and other item types will make up the remainder of the test.
**TABLE 2.** Grade 5 Science MCA-III (Operational Form)
| Strand | Approximate Number of Points | Approximate Percent of Points |
|---------------------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Nature of Science and Engineering (NSE) | 11–13 | 28 |
| Physical Science (PS) | 9–11 | 24 |
| Earth and Space Science (ESS) | 9–11 | 24 |
| Life Science (LS) | 9–11 | 24 |
| **Total** | **41** | **100** |
**TABLE 3.** Grade 8 Science MCA-III (Operational Form)
| Strand | Approximate Number of Points | Approximate Percent of Points |
|---------------------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Nature of Science and Engineering (NSE) | 13–15 | 28 |
| Physical Science (PS) | 11–13 | 24 |
| Earth and Space Science (ESS) | 11–13 | 24 |
| Life Science (LS) | 11–13 | 24 |
| **Total** | **51** | **100** |
**TABLE 4.** Grades 9–12 Science MCA-III (Operational Form)
| Strand | Approximate Number of Points | Approximate Percent of Points |
|---------------------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Nature of Science and Engineering (NSE) | 24–28 | 38 |
| Life Science (LS) | 40–44 | 62 |
| **Total** | **68** | **100** |
Grades 3–5 Points by Substrand
1. **Nature of Science and Engineering (11–13)**
1. The Practice of Science (4–7)
2. The Practice of Engineering (2–4)
3. Interactions among Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Society (3–6)
2. **Physical Science (9–11)**
1. Matter (3–5)
2. Motion (1–3)
3. Energy (4–6)
3. **Earth and Space Science (9–11)**
1. Earth Structure and Processes (2–4)
2. Interdependence within the Earth System (2–4)
3. The Universe (1–3)
4. Human Interactions with Earth Systems (2–4)
4. **Life Science (9–11)**
1. Structure and Function in Living Systems (2–4)
2. Interdependence Among Living Systems (2–4)
3. Evolution in Living Systems (1–3)
4. Human Interactions with Living Systems (2–4)
1. **Nature of Science and Engineering (13–15)**
1. The Practice of Science (4–6)
2. The Practice of Engineering (3–5)
3. Interactions among Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Society (5–7)
2. **Physical Science (11–13)**
1. Matter (5–7)
2. Motion (3–5)
3. Energy (3–5)
3. **Earth and Space Science (11–13)**
1. Earth Structure and Processes (5–7)
2. Interdependence within the Earth System (3–5)
3. The Universe (2–4)
4. Human Interactions with Earth Systems (1–3)
4. **Life Science (11–13)**
1. Structure and Function in Living Systems (4–6)
2. Interdependence Among Living Systems (3–5)
3. Evolution in Living Systems (3–5)
4. Human Interactions with Living Systems (1–3)
Grades 9–12 Points by Substrand
1. **Nature of Science and Engineering (24–28)**
1. The Practice of Science (8–10)
2. The Practice of Engineering (8–10)
3. Interactions among Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Society (8–10)
4. **Life Science (40–44)**
1. Structure and Function in Living Systems (9–11)
2. Interdependence Among Living Systems (8–10)
3. Evolution in Living Systems (11–13)
4. Human Interactions with Living Systems (7–10)
Strand 3—Earth and Space Science (9–11 points)
Substrand: Earth Structure and Processes (2–4 points)
Standard: The surface of the Earth changes. Some changes are due to slow processes and some changes are due to rapid processes (18.104.22.168).
Benchmarks
22.214.171.124.1
Explain how, over time, rocks weather and combine with organic matter to form soil.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT include the terms chemical and physical weathering or require students to know the differences between these processes.
- Items will NOT require students to know the differences between soil types.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as compost.
126.96.36.199.2
Explain how slow processes, such as water erosion, and rapid processes, such as landslides and volcanic eruptions, form features of the Earth’s surface.
Item Specifications
- Changes to the earth’s surface are limited to observable examples, such as runoff from fields or construction sites, flooding, volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakes, wind or wave erosion and freezing and thawing.
Standard: Rocks are Earth materials that may vary in composition (188.8.131.52). (1–3 points)
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Recognize that rocks may be uniform or made of mixtures of different minerals.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific rocks by their composition.
- Items may require students to describe that a rock can be made of one or many minerals.
- Items will NOT require students to describe the difference between rocks and minerals.
- Items will NOT use the term uniform.
An Explanation of Terms Related to the Grade-Level Tables
**Strand**: This is the most general categorization of content in the Minnesota Academic Standards.
**Substrand**: This is the second level of strand organization. Each strand has three or four substrands.
**Standard**: Standards describe the expectations in science that all students must satisfy to meet state requirements for credit and graduation.
**Benchmark**: The purpose of benchmarks is to provide details about "the academic knowledge and skills that schools must offer and students must achieve to satisfactorily complete" the standards (Minn. Stat. § 120B.023 (2008)). Benchmarks are intended to "inform and guide parents, teachers, school districts and other interested persons and for use in developing tests consistent with the benchmarks" (Minn. Stat. § 120B.023 (2008)). Each standard is divided into several benchmarks.
**Item Code**: Test developers use this code to identify the strand, substrand and benchmark to which a test item is aligned.
**Item Specifications**: These statements provide more specific clarifications, definitions or restrictions for the benchmark as it is assessed on the MCA-III.
**Point Total by Strand**: This number is the possible number of points that will be on the operational form from a specific strand.
**Point Total by Standard**: This number is the total number of points measuring the standard that could be on the test for the indicated standard. For example, in the Grade 5 science test, 11–13 points are from Strand 1. Of those 11–13 Strand 1 points, 1–3 points are from Standard 220.127.116.11.
Strand 1—The Nature of Science and Engineering (11–13 points)
Substrand: The Practice of Science (4–7 points)
Standards: Scientists work as individuals and in groups; emphasizing evidence, open communication and skepticism (18.104.22.168); Science is a way of knowing about the natural world, is done by individuals and groups, and is characterized by empirical criteria, logical argument and skeptical review (22.214.171.124).
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Provide evidence to support claims, other than saying “Everyone knows that,” or “I just know,” and question such reasons when given by others.
Item Specifications
- Evidence is limited to measurable data from an investigation, an observation or historical evidence
- Items may require students to determine the appropriate evidence or data necessary to support a statement or claim
188.8.131.52.1
Explain why evidence, clear communication, accurate record keeping, replication by others, and openness to scrutiny are essential parts of doing science.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to recognize whether communication is clear and/or accurate or how clear communication helps others repeat work or conduct further investigations
184.108.40.206.2
Recognize that when scientific investigations are replicated they generally produce the same results, and when results differ significantly, it is important to investigate what may have caused such differences. For example: Measurement errors, equipment failures, or uncontrolled variables.
Item Specifications
- Items may use the terms investigation or experiment
- Items will NOT include the terms uncontrolled variables
- Variables are referred to as variables that are kept the same, measured or changed by the student
- Items may require students to identify types of variables in an investigation or what caused differences in the results of an investigation
Understand that different explanations for the same observations usually lead to making more observations and trying to resolve the differences.
Item Specifications
• Not assessed on the MCA-III
220.127.116.11.4
Understand that different models can be used to represent natural phenomena and these models have limitations about what they can explain. For example: Different kinds of maps of a region provide different information about the land surface.
Item Specifications
• Models may include but are not limited to: Water Cycle, Simple Machines, Solar System and Life Cycle or Food Web
Standards: Scientific inquiry is a set of interrelated processes incorporating multiple approaches that are used to pose questions about the natural world and investigate phenomena (18.104.22.168 and 22.214.171.124).
(3–5 points)
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Generate questions that can be answered when scientific knowledge is combined with knowledge gained from one’s own observations or investigations. For example: Investigate the sounds produced by striking various objects.
Item Specifications
• Scientific or investigable questions have measurable qualities and are testable by students
• Scientific questions are questions that begin with “How can,” “How does,” “What if,” and “I wonder if/how,” but typically NOT “Why”
• Items may require students to identify a testable question
• Items may be placed in a context that addresses an experiment and require students to identify an appropriate question
• Additional vocabulary may include terms such as experimental question, investigable question and testable question
188.8.131.52.2
Recognize that when a science investigation is done the way it was done before, even in a different place, a similar result is expected.
Maintain a record of observations, procedures and explanations, being careful to distinguish between actual observations and ideas about what was observed. For example: Make a chart comparing observations about the structures of plants and animals.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of organizing include placing data in a table
- Examples of analysis may include simple graphing (bar graph and line graph) and using data to make comparisons
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as notebook and journal
184.108.40.206.4
Construct reasonable explanations based on evidence collected from observations or experiments.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to recognize or generate a reasonable conclusion based on evidence
220.127.116.11.1
Generate a scientific question and plan an appropriate scientific investigation, such as systematic observations, field studies, open-ended exploration or controlled experiments to answer the question.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to compare and contrast types of investigations and how they are used to answer questions
- Items may require students to identify the appropriateness of a 2- to 3-step procedure or recognize and follow individual steps in a procedure
- Items will NOT test knowledge of specific terms, such as hypothesis
- Items will refer to systematic observations as observations
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as experimental question, investigable question and testable question
Identify and collect relevant evidence, make systematic observations and accurate measurements, and identify variables in a scientific investigation.
*Item Specifications*
- Examples of collecting relevant evidence may include placing data in a table
- Examples of tools for collecting data include thermometers, microscopes, hand lenses, balances, rulers and rain gauges; tools also include common items that may indicate wind speed or direction, such as a flag or weather vane
- Items may require students to identify which variables were changed, kept the same and measured in a given experiment
- Items will NOT use the terms independent variable, dependent variable, manipulated variable or responding variable
- Measurement tools are limited to metric units, except thermometers
- Temperature will be presented in Celsius but may be presented in Fahrenheit in situations where Fahrenheit is commonly used such as weather
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 18.104.22.168.1
22.214.171.124.3
Conduct or critique an experiment, noting when the experiment might not be fair because some of the things that might change the outcome are not kept the same, or that the experiment is not repeated enough times to provide valid results.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to recognize the variables of an investigation
- Items may require students to recognize when variables are NOT kept the same
Substrand: The Practice of Engineering
(2–4 points)
Standard: Engineers design, create and develop structures, processes and systems that are intended to improve society and may make humans more productive (126.96.36.199).
(0–2 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Describe the positive and negative impacts that the designed world has on the natural world as more and more engineered products and services are created and used.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to classify impacts as positive, negative or both
- Designed products and services are limited to those that are familiar to a grade 4 student, such as an aluminum can, plastic bag, plastic bottle or bicycle or sufficient background information will be supplied for the product or service
Standard: Engineering design is the process of identifying problems, developing multiple solutions, selecting the best possible solution, and building the product (184.108.40.206).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
220.127.116.11.1
Identify and investigate a design solution and describe how it was used to solve an everyday problem. For example: Investigate different varieties of construction tools.
18.104.22.168.2
Generate ideas and possible constraints for solving a problem through engineering design. For example: Design and build an electromagnet to sort steel and aluminum materials for recycling.
Item Specifications
- Not assessed on the MCA-III
22.214.171.124.3
Test and evaluate solutions, considering advantages and disadvantages of the engineering solution, and communicate the results effectively.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to identify which actions scientists and engineers take to test and evaluate solutions and communicate results
- Items may require students to evaluate an engineering solution
- Communicating results may include putting results into a data table or graph, publishing results, or discussing conclusions with other scientists
Substrand: Interactions Among Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Society (3–6 points)
Standards: Men and women throughout the history of all cultures, including Minnesota American Indian tribes and communities, have been involved in engineering design and scientific inquiry (126.96.36.199 and 188.8.131.52).
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Understand that everybody can use evidence to learn about the natural world, identify patterns in nature, and develop tools. For example: Ojibwe and Dakota knowledge and use of patterns in the stars to predict and plan.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to identify actions of specific individuals or groups
220.127.116.11.2
Recognize that the practice of science and/or engineering involves many different kinds of work and engages men and women of all ages and backgrounds.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific jobs or careers or to make general descriptions that encompass a job or career
18.104.22.168.1
Describe how science and engineering influence and are influenced by local traditions and beliefs. For example: Sustainable agriculture practices used by many cultures.
Item Specifications
- Not assessed on the MCA-III
Standard: The needs of any society influence the technologies that are developed and how they are used (22.214.171.124).
(0–2 points)
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Describe a situation in which one invention led to other inventions.
Item Specifications
- Inventions are limited to those familiar to grade 4 students or sufficient background information will be supplied for the invention
Standards: Tools and mathematics help scientists and engineers see more, measure more accurately, and do things that they could not otherwise accomplish (188.8.131.52 and 184.108.40.206).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
220.127.116.11.1
Use tools, including rulers, thermometers, magnifiers and simple balances, to improve observations and keep a record of the observations made.
Item Specifications
- Appropriate measurement tools are limited to rulers, thermometers, simple balances, graduated cylinders, rain gauges, timers and common items that may indicate wind speed or direction, such as a flag or weather vane
- Observational tools are limited to magnifiers or hand lenses, microscopes, binoculars and telescopes
- Measurement tools are limited to metric units
- Metric prefixes are limited to kilo-, centi- and milli-
- Items may require students to choose a tool that is most appropriate for a particular task in a scientific investigation
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 18.104.22.168.2
22.214.171.124.1
Use appropriate tools and techniques in gathering, analyzing and interpreting data. For example: Spring scale, metric measurements, tables, mean/median/range, spreadsheets, and appropriate graphs
Item Specifications
- Measurement tools are limited to metric units
- Metric prefixes are limited to kilo-, centi- and milli-
- Items may require students to choose a tool that is most appropriate to analyze and interpret data, including selecting of a tool that has the appropriate units of measure
- Examples of organizing include placing data in a table
- Examples of analysis include simple graphing (bar graph and line graph) and using data to make comparisons
- Items will NOT require students to make statistical calculations
126.96.36.199.2
Create and analyze different kinds of maps of the student's community and of Minnesota. For example: Weather maps, city maps, aerial photos, regional maps or online map resources.
Item Specifications
- Analyze and interpret maps using a key or legend
- Evaluate which type of map is most appropriate for informational need
- Identify the features or information included on a map
Strand 2—Physical Science
Substrand: Matter (3–5 points)
Standard: Objects have observable properties that can be measured (188.8.131.52). (0-2 points)
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Measure temperature, volume, weight and length using appropriate tools and units.
Item Specifications
- Temperature should be measured in Celsius
- Measurements should be in metric units
- Items may use the more familiar term “weight” to represent both weight and mass and will use grams as the base unit for this measurement type
- Items may require students to use a tool by measuring size of an object or reading a volume and temperature from the appropriate tool
Standard: Solids, liquids and gases are states of matter that have unique properties (220.127.116.11). (1–3 points)
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Distinguish between solids, liquids and gases in terms of shape and volume. For example: Liquid water changes shape depending on the shape of its container.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to understand density or changes to the volume of water during phase changes
- Examples of materials used to illustrate concepts include water, a piece of wood, air in a balloon and other common materials
22.214.171.124.2
Describe how the states of matter change as a result of heating and cooling.
Item Specifications
- Changes of state include changes between solid, liquid and gas
- Examples of materials used to illustrate concepts include water, a piece of wood, air in a balloon and other common materials
- Processes of changing phases are limited to evaporation, condensation, boiling, freezing and melting
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as water vapor, steam and phase change
Substrand: Motion
(1–3 points)
**Standard:** An object's motion is affected by forces and can be described by the object's speed and the direction it is moving (126.96.36.199).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
**188.8.131.52.1**
Give examples of simple machines and demonstrate how they change the input and output of forces and motion.
*Item Specifications*
- Uses of these simple machines are limited to changes in the speed of an object, the distance the object moves and the force on the object
- Simple machines will NOT include pulleys or second or third class levers
- Items will NOT require students to calculate mechanical advantage
- Items will NOT require students to make mathematical calculations
- Items may make comparisons to the human body
- Items will NOT use the terms input or output
**184.108.40.206.2**
Identify the force that starts something moving or changes its speed or direction of motion. For example: Friction slows down a moving skateboard.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to identify the force, the location where the force is applied or the part of an object which provides the force
- Items will NOT use the terms balanced or unbalanced force
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as push or pull
**220.127.116.11.3**
Demonstrate that a greater force on an object can produce a greater change in motion.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to understand the relationship between force and motion, apply this understanding to specific examples, make comparisons or predict the result of interactions
- Items may make comparisons to the human body
- Items will NOT require students to make mathematical calculations
- Items will NOT use the term acceleration
- Items will NOT refer directly to Newton’s laws
Substrand: Energy
(4–6 points)
Standards: Energy appears in different forms, including sound and light (18.104.22.168); Energy appears in different forms, including heat and electromagnetism (22.214.171.124).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Explain the relationship between the pitch of a sound, the rate of vibration of the source and factors that affect pitch. For example: Changing the length of a string that is plucked changes the pitch.
Item Specifications
- Examples of factors that affect pitch are the size of the object, tension, the type of material, and how fast or slow the object vibrates
- Items will NOT require mathematical calculations
188.8.131.52.2
Explain how shadows form and can change in various ways.
Item Specifications
- Items will use only a single light source
- Items are limited to length and direction of shadow as affected by location of light source
- Items may require students to understand that shadows form when light is blocked by an object
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 184.108.40.206.1
220.127.116.11.3
Describe how light travels in a straight line until it is absorbed, redirected, reflected or allowed to pass through an object. For example: Use a flashlight, mirrors and water to demonstrate reflection and bending of light.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to recognize examples of these concepts, including reflection of light using solid objects and mirrors, rainbows and the absorption of some light when it passes through dark glasses
- Items will NOT use the terms refract or refraction
- Items that describe interactions of light will include an explicit light source
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as light rays
18.104.22.168.1
Describe heat transfer when a warm and a cool object are touching or placed near each other.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require mathematical calculations
Describe how magnets can repel or attract each other and how they attract certain metal objects.
*Item Specifications*
- Metal objects are limited to those made of iron, copper, aluminum and silver.
- Items that expect students to distinguish between the magnetic properties of different metal objects will label the type of metal in each object.
22.214.171.124.3
Compare materials that are conductors and insulators of heat and/or electricity. For example: Glass conducts heat well, but is a poor conductor of electricity.
*Item Specifications*
- Examples of appropriate objects and materials include those commonly found in the classroom, such as wood, rubber, plastic, craft sticks, metal paper clips and aluminum foil.
- Items will NOT use objects that could be both an insulator and a conductor, such as glass, unless its properties are identified either in a label or in data.
- Items may require students to set up tests or use the results of the tests to identify objects and materials that are conductors and insulators.
**Standard:** Energy can be transformed within a system or transferred to other systems or the environment (126.96.36.199).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
188.8.131.52.1
Identify several ways to generate heat energy. For example: Burning a substance, rubbing hands together, or electricity flowing through wires.
184.108.40.206.2
Construct a simple electrical circuit using wires, batteries, and lightbulbs.
*Item Specifications*
- Simple electrical circuits will include both open (lightbulb not on) and closed (lightbulb on) circuits with or without switches.
- Electrical circuits are limited to series circuits.
- Items may require students to understand the organization and identify the parts of a circuit.
- Items will NOT require students to understand the mechanics and parts of a lightbulb (e.g., tip, threads, globe, filament).
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as light socket and power source.
Demonstrate how an electric current can produce a magnetic force. For example: Construct an electromagnet to pick up paperclips.
Item Specifications
- Examples include current in a coil of wire wrapped around a nail and electromagnets used to operate devices such as a doorbell
- Items may require students to understand the relationships between the number of turns of wire, the amount of current in the wire and the strength of the magnetic force
- Items may include understanding the magnetic force’s effect on a compass
Strand 3—Earth and Space Science
Substrand: Earth Structure and Processes (2–4 points)
Standard: The surface of the Earth changes. Some changes are due to slow processes and some changes are due to rapid processes (220.127.116.11). (1–3 points)
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Explain how, over time, rocks weather and combine with organic matter to form soil.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT include the terms chemical and physical weathering or require students to know the differences between these processes
- Items will NOT require students to know the differences between soil types
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as compost
22.214.171.124.2
Explain how slow processes, such as water erosion, and rapid processes, such as landslides and volcanic eruptions, form features of the Earth’s surface.
Item Specifications
- Changes to the earth’s surface are limited to observable examples, such as runoff from fields or construction sites, flooding, volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakes, wind or wave erosion and freezing and thawing
Standard: Rocks are Earth materials that may vary in composition (126.96.36.199). (1–3 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Recognize that rocks may be uniform or made of mixtures of different minerals.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific rocks by their composition
- Items may require students to describe that a rock can be made of one or many minerals
- Items will NOT require students to describe the difference between rocks and minerals
- Items will NOT use the term uniform
Describe and classify minerals based on their physical properties. For example: Streak, luster, hardness, reaction to vinegar.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to describe or classify minerals based on mineral properties provided in a table.
- Items will NOT require students to compare minerals based on density or fracture.
- Items may require students to compare minerals based on relative hardness but will NOT require students to know specific values of an individual scale such as Mohs scale of hardness.
- Items will NOT require students to name specific minerals.
**Substrand:** Interdependence within the Earth System
(2–4 points)
**Standard:** Water circulates through the Earth’s crust, oceans and atmosphere in what is known as the water cycle (184.108.40.206).
(2–4 points)
**Benchmarks**
**220.127.116.11.1**
Identify where water collects on Earth, including atmosphere, ground and surface water, and describe how water moves through the Earth system using the processes of evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of places where water exists on Earth include rivers, lakes, streams, clouds, the atmosphere, glaciers, groundwater and oceans.
- Items may include interpreting or labeling a water cycle diagram.
- Items will NOT include the process of transpiration.
- Items will define the term infiltration if the concept is used.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as water vapor, water, ice, rain, snow, pond, puddle and collection.
**Substrand:** The Universe
(1–3 points)
**Standard:** The sun and moon have locations and movements that can be observed and described (18.104.22.168).
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
**22.214.171.124.1**
Observe and describe the daily and seasonal changes in the position of the sun and compare observations.
**Item Specifications**
- All references to the position of the Sun will be from a position on Earth in the Northern Hemisphere.
- Items will NOT use the terms rotation, revolution, tilt, axis, equator, angle, spin and circle.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as spring, summer, fall, winter, day, night.
Recognize the pattern of apparent changes in the moon’s shape and position.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to name the phases of the Moon
- Items will NOT address the causes for changes in the Moon’s shape or position
- Items may require students to understand the pattern of changes in both the Moon’s daily and monthly position
**Standard**: Objects in the solar system as seen from Earth have various sizes and distinctive patterns of motion (126.96.36.199).
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
188.8.131.52.1
Demonstrate how a large light source at a great distance looks like a small light that is much closer. For example: Car headlights at a distance look small compared to when they are close.
184.108.40.206.2
Recognize that the Earth is one of several planets that orbit the sun, and that the moon orbits the Earth.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to know why the inner and outer planets are different
- Items will NOT require students to name specific planets
- Items will NOT require students to identify planets by their characteristics
**Substrand**: Human Interactions with Earth Systems
(2–4 points)
**Standards**: In order to improve their existence, humans interact with and influence Earth systems (220.127.116.11); In order to maintain and improve their existence, humans interact with and influence Earth systems (18.104.22.168).
(2–4 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Describe how the methods people utilize to obtain and use water in their homes and communities can affect water supply and quality.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT address chemical testing to determine water quality
- Methods to obtain and use water include both community systems such as building dams, agriculture, manufacturing and water treatment plants along with personal uses of water for washing, cooking and drinking
- Items may require students to identify personal and community water conservation measures such as turning off running water when not in use and fixing leaks in the water delivery system
Identify renewable and non-renewable energy and material resources that are found in Minnesota and describe how they are used. For example: Water, iron ore, granite, sand and gravel, wind and forests.
Item Specifications
- Renewable resources include water, solar, wind, forest resources and other materials or energy that are inexhaustible or replaceable by new growth
- Nonrenewable resources include iron ore, granite, limestone, clay, sand, gravel and other materials that renew on a long time scale
126.96.36.199.2
Give examples of how mineral and energy resources are obtained and processed and how that processing modifies their properties to make them more useful. For example: Iron ore, biofuels, or coal.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require understanding of the process of raw material refinement
- Items will require students to understand that raw materials must be processed in order to become useable products
- Materials are limited to iron ore, sand and gravel, granite, coal and oil
188.8.131.52.3
Compare the impact of individual decisions on natural systems. For example: Choosing paper or plastic bags impacts landfills as well as ocean life cycles.
Item Specifications
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 184.108.40.206.1 and 220.127.116.11.1
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as recycle, compost
Strand 4—Life Science
Substrand: Structure and Function in Living Systems
Standards: Living things are diverse with many different characteristics that enable them to grow, reproduce and survive (18.104.22.168 and 22.214.171.124).
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Compare how the different structures of plants and animals serve various functions of growth, survival and reproduction. For example: Skeletons in animals and stems in plants provide strength and stability.
Item Specifications
- Structures of plants are limited to roots, stems, leaves/needles/scales, flowers, fruits and seeds
- The function of the entire flower is limited to reproduction; the function of individual parts of the flower are NOT assessed
- Structures of animals are limited to observable physical characteristics such as coverings (skin, fur, hair, scales and feathers), appendages (wings, fins, arms and legs), eyes, ears, mouths and beaks, tails, teeth
- Items will NOT require students to compare the structures of animals and the structures of plants to each other
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 188.8.131.52.2
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as features and traits
184.108.40.206.2
Identify common groups of plants and animals using observable physical characteristics, structures and behaviors. For example: Sort animals into groups such as mammals and amphibians based on physical characteristics. Another example: Sort and identify common Minnesota trees based on leaf/needle characteristics.
Item Specifications
- Characteristics of animals include sex, color, size, shape, coverings (skin, fur, hair, scales, feathers), appendages (wings, fins, arms, legs, number of each), eyes, ears, mouths and beaks, tails, teeth
- Characteristics of plants are limited to roots, stems, leaves/needles/scales, flowers, fruits, seeds and functions of the plant (e.g., carrots as a type of taproot)
- The function of the entire flower is limited to reproduction; the function of individual parts of the flower are NOT assessed
- Items will NOT require recall of specific characteristics of organisms
- Items will NOT require students to identify the name of common organisms based on characteristics
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as feature and trait
Describe how plant and animal structures and their functions provide an advantage for survival in a given natural system. For example: Compare the physical characteristics of plants or animals from widely different environments, such as desert versus tropical, and explore how each has adapted to its environment.
**Item Specifications**
- Physical characteristics of animals are limited to those that are observable, such as coloration, body covering, size and strength
- Physical characteristics of plants are limited to roots, stems, leaves/needles/scales, flowers, fruits and seeds
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.2
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as feature and trait
**Substrand:** Interdependence Among Living Systems (2–4 points)
**Standard:** Natural systems have many components that interact to maintain the living system (18.104.22.168).
(2–4 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Describe a natural system in Minnesota, such as a wetland, prairie, or garden, in terms of the relationships among its living and nonliving parts, as well as inputs and outputs. For example: Design and construct a habitat for a living organism that meets its need for food, air and water.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may ask students to understand the relationships between producers, consumers and decomposers
- Examples of ways organisms interact include providing food, survival, safety (e.g., herding and schooling behaviors), reproduction, competition for resources and grooming
- Examples of ways organisms interact will NOT include the terms symbiosis, commensalisms, mutualism and parasitism, but these concepts may be addressed
- Nonliving parts of natural systems are limited to water, soil, light, air and temperature
- Items will focus on relationship between living and nonliving parts of system and NOT only identify the sun as a source of energy
- Items may require students to follow the flow of energy between trophic levels but will NOT use the term trophic level
- Items will NOT include the terms primary consumer, secondary consumer or tertiary consumer
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as protection, shelter, decay, waste, environment, ecosystem, population, predator, prey, food chain and food web
Explain what would happen to a system such as a wetland, prairie or garden if one of its parts were changed. For example: Investigate how road salt runoff affects plants, insects and other parts of an ecosystem. Another example: Investigate how an invasive species changes an ecosystem.
Item Specifications
- Examples of changes in a habitat may include changes in rainfall, pollution, catastrophic events, fire and introduced species
- Items may require knowledge that changes in a habitat can be either helpful or harmful to an organism, depending on the organism’s niche
- Items will NOT use the terms catastrophic or niche
Substrand: Evolution in Living Systems (1–3 points)
Standard: Offspring are generally similar to their parents, but may have variations that can be advantageous or disadvantageous in a particular environment (126.96.36.199).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Give examples of likenesses between adults and offspring in plants and animals that can be inherited or acquired. For example: Collect samples or pictures that show similarities between adults and their young offspring.
Item Specifications
- Items will be limited to physical characteristics and will NOT include behavioral characteristics
- Items may require students to identify similarities and differences based on the inherited and acquired characteristics
- Examples of inherited characteristics in humans may include eye, skin and hair color
- Examples of inherited characteristics in other organisms may include coloration, appendages and body coverings
- Examples of inherited characteristics in plants may include leaf and flower shape and seed and stem type
- Examples of acquired characteristics in humans may include pierced ears, hairstyle, clothing and tattoos
- Examples of acquired characteristics in other organisms may include weight and docked tails
- Examples of acquired characteristics in plants may include leaf damage and total number of leaves
- Items will NOT require recall of specific characteristics of organisms
- Items will NOT use examples of organisms that undergo metamorphosis
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as feature and trait
Give examples of differences among individuals that can sometimes give an individual an advantage in survival and reproduction.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will refer to differences among individuals within a species
- Differences among individual animals include observable characteristics such as coloration, body covering, size and strength and feeding behaviors, nesting and migration
- Differences among individual plants include observable characteristics such as roots, stems, leaves/needles/scales, flowers, fruits and seeds, and responses to stimuli
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 184.108.40.206.1 and 220.127.116.11.1
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as adapt, feature and trait
**Substrand**: Human Interactions with Living Systems (2–4 points)
**Standard**: Humans change environments in ways that can be either beneficial or harmful to themselves and other organisms (18.104.22.168).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
**22.214.171.124.1**
Give examples of beneficial and harmful human interaction with natural systems. For example: Recreation, pollution, or wildlife management.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of changes in a habitat may include pollution, erosion control, catastrophic events, fire and introduced species
- Items may require students to know that changes in a habitat can be either helpful or harmful to an organism depending on the organism’s niche
- Items will NOT use the terms catastrophic or niche
**Standard**: Microorganisms can get inside one’s body and they may keep it from working properly (126.96.36.199).
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
**188.8.131.52.1**
Recognize that the body has defense systems against germs, including tears, saliva, skin and blood.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT ask students to define the terms virus or bacteria or differentiate between them
- Items will NOT address organ systems
- Items may require students to know how germs enter the body
- Items will NOT use the term microorganism
Give examples of diseases that can be prevented by vaccination.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT refer to specific diseases but will deal in general terms with disease prevention.
- Items will NOT require students to understand how a vaccination works or the mechanisms of the body’s response (i.e., dead germs allow the body to prepare a defense against that specific type of germ).
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as contagious.
Strand 1—The Nature of Science and Engineering (13–15 points)
Substrand: The Practice of Science (4–6 points)
Standards: Science is a way of knowing about the natural world and is characterized by empirical criteria, logical argument and skeptical review (184.108.40.206.1 and 220.127.116.11.1).
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Understand that prior expectations can create bias when conducting scientific investigations. For example: Students often continue to think that air is not matter, even though they have contrary evidence from investigations.
Item Specifications
- Items may address common preconceptions of middle level students
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 22.214.171.124.4
126.96.36.199.2
Understand that when similar investigations give different results, the challenge is to judge whether the differences are significant, and if further studies are required. For example: Use mean and range to analyze the reliability of experimental results.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to compare statistical data from different investigations
- Items will NOT require students to make statistical calculations
- Statistics provided will be limited to mean, median and range
- Items may include qualitative or quantitative data
- Items may include graphs and tables to represent investigation results
- Items will NOT include the terms reliability and validity
188.8.131.52.1
Evaluate the reasoning in arguments in which fact and opinion are intermingled or when conclusions do not follow logically from the evidence given. For example: Evaluate the use of pH in advertising products related to body care and gardening.
Item Specifications
- Items will address scientific evidence in the context of science content
- Evidence consists of observations and data on which to base scientific explanations
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 184.108.40.206.3
Standards: Scientific inquiry uses multiple interrelated processes to investigate questions and propose explanations about the natural world (220.127.116.11 and 18.104.22.168).
(3–5 points)
Benchmarks
22.214.171.124.1
Generate and refine a variety of scientific questions and match them with appropriate methods of investigation, such as field studies, controlled experiments, reviews of existing work and development of models.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to determine if a given question is investigable in the context of science content
- Items may require students to determine if a given question is appropriate for specific methods of investigations
- Examples of controlled experiments may include testing motion using time, speed, mass and location as variables
- Examples of field studies may include sampling populations of living organisms
- Examples of review of existing work may include internet review of climate change
- Examples of development of models may include planetary models
126.96.36.199.2
Plan and conduct a controlled experiment to test a hypothesis about a relationship between two variables, ensuring that one variable is systematically manipulated, the other is measured and recorded, and any other variables are kept the same (controlled). For example: The effect of various factors on the production of carbon dioxide by plants.
Item Specifications
- Context for items may be from physical science, life science or Earth science areas
- Items may require students to identify a hypothesis, determine materials needed for the experiment or describe a procedure
- Items will NOT require students to identify a specific order of steps in an investigation
- Items may ask students to identify which variables are changed by the investigator, which are kept the same (controlled) and which are measured or observed
- Items will NOT use the terms independent variable, dependent variable, manipulated variable or responding variables
- Information used to specify variables must be provided
Generate a scientific conclusion from an investigation, clearly distinguishing between results (evidence) and conclusions (explanation).
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to draw conclusions based on evidence.
- Results (evidence) consists of observations and data on which to base scientific explanations.
- Conclusions (explanations) are based on evidence from a single or a few related experiments that could be performed in a classroom setting.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 188.8.131.52.1, 184.108.40.206.1 and 220.127.116.11.1.
18.104.22.168.4
Evaluate explanations proposed by others by examining and comparing evidence, identifying faulty reasoning, and suggesting alternative explanations.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to evaluate whether the evidence supports the conclusion when evaluating explanations.
- Items will NOT require students to evaluate the source of the evidence.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 22.214.171.124.1.
126.96.36.199.1
Use logical reasoning and imagination to develop descriptions, explanations, predictions and models based on evidence.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to differentiate among several proposed descriptions, explanations or models to determine which are best supported by the evidence.
- Items may require students to develop predictions based on the given evidence.
- Evidence consists of observations and data.
Substrand: The Practice of Engineering
(3–5 points)
Standard: Engineers create, develop and manufacture machines, structures, processes and systems that impact society and may make humans more productive (188.8.131.52).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Identify a common engineered system and evaluate its impact on the daily life of humans. For example: Refrigeration, cell phone or automobile.
Item Specifications
- Items are limited to engineered devices, materials, structures, processes and systems that would be equally accessible to middle level students in all socio-economic groups or will provide background information for the technology.
- Items may require students to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the engineered system.
- Items may require students to identify the effect of the engineered system on different groups of people involved in the use or design of the system.
220.127.116.11.2
Recognize that there is no perfect design and that new technologies have consequences that may increase some risks and decrease others. For example: Seat belts and airbags.
Item Specifications
- Items are limited to engineered devices and materials, structures, processes and systems that would be equally accessible to middle level students in all socio-economic groups or will provide background information for the technology.
- Items may require students to identify benefits and risks of new technologies.
18.104.22.168.3
Describe the trade-offs in using manufactured products in terms of features, performance, durability and cost.
Item Specifications
- Items are limited to engineered devices, materials and structures that would be equally accessible to middle level students in all socio-economic groups or will provide background information for the technology.
- Items may include differences between two different manufactured products such as an incandescent lightbulb and a compact fluorescent or the differences between using a pen versus a pencil.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as benefit.
Explain the importance of learning from past failures, in order to inform future designs of similar products or systems. For example: Space shuttle or bridge design.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will include any necessary background knowledge about the system that failed
- Items may be based on actual case studies of past engineering failures
- Items may provide a flaw or failure and require students to recognize the necessary design changes for a product or system
**Standard**: Engineering design is the process of devising products, processes and systems that address a need, capitalize on an opportunity, or solve a specific problem (22.214.171.124).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
126.96.36.199.1
Apply and document an engineering design process that includes identifying criteria and constraints, making representations, testing and evaluation, and refining the design as needed to construct a product or system that solves a problem. For example: Investigate how energy changes from one form to another by designing and constructing a simple roller coaster for a marble.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to evaluate the feasibility of the representations, recognize the iterative nature of the design process, identify potential design changes or identify criteria and constraints
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 188.8.131.52.3
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as limitations
**Substrand**: Interactions Among Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Society
(5–7 points)
**Standard**: Designed and natural systems exist in the world. These systems consist of components that act within the system and interact with other systems (184.108.40.206).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
220.127.116.11.1
Describe a system in terms of its subsystems and parts, as well as its inputs, processes and outputs.
**Item Specifications**
- Items are limited to designed or natural systems related to grades 6–8 benchmarks in physical science, life science or Earth science content standards
- Items may require students to label the components of a system
- Items will provide background knowledge needed for knowing the system in order to identify subsystems, parts, inputs, processes and outputs
- Items will NOT require prior knowledge of the system
Distinguish between open and closed systems. For example: Compare mass before and after a chemical reaction that releases a gas in sealed and open plastic bags.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will distinguish between open and closed systems in terms of the flow of energy and matter inside or outside of the system.
- Items will NOT require students to identify whether a system is open or closed.
**Standard:** Men and women throughout the history of all cultures, including Minnesota American Indian tribes and communities, have been involved in engineering design and scientific inquiry (18.104.22.168).
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Describe examples of important contributions to the advancement of science, engineering and technology made by individuals representing different groups and cultures at different times in history.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific individuals or groups and their contributions.
- Items may provide names of individuals or groups, cultural backgrounds and important associated contributions and expect students to describe the effect of said contributions on the advancement of science, engineering and technology.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 126.96.36.199.2.
**Standard:** Science and engineering operate in the context of society and both influence and are influenced by this context. (188.8.131.52).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
184.108.40.206.1
Explain how scientific laws and engineering principles, as well as economic, political, social, and ethical expectations, must be taken into account in designing engineering solutions or conducting scientific investigations.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will provide background knowledge needed for an engineering solution or scientific investigation in order to identify possible constraints.
- Items may include a list of possible constraints and their potential effects.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as concern, limitations.
Understand that scientific knowledge is always changing as new technologies and information enhance observations and analysis of data. For example: Analyze how new telescopes have provided new information about the universe.
Item Specifications
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.1
- Items will provide background knowledge about the technology
- Items are limited to new technologies related to grades 6–8 benchmarks in physical science, life science or Earth science content standards
18.104.22.168.3
Provide examples of how advances in technology have impacted the ways in which people live, work and interact.
Item Specifications
- Items will provide background knowledge about the technology
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 22.214.171.124.1
Standards: Current and emerging technologies have enabled humans to develop and use models to understand and communicate how natural and designed systems work and interact (126.96.36.199, 188.8.131.52 and 184.108.40.206).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
220.127.116.11.1
Determine and use appropriate safe procedures, tools, measurements, graphs and mathematical analyses to describe and investigate natural and designed systems in a physical science context.
Item Specifications
- Examples of tools include a Celsius thermometer, metric ruler, timer, electronic balance and graduated cylinder
- Items may require students to determine the tool used to accurately measure a particular quantity
- Items may include constructing and analyzing line graphs from a set of data
- Mathematical analyses are limited to mean, median, range and use of mathematical equations; no algebraic manipulation of equations will be required
18.104.22.168.2
Demonstrate the conversion of units within the International System of Units (SI, or metric) and estimate the magnitude of common objects and quantities using metric units.
Item Specifications
- Metric prefixes are limited to kilo-, centi- and milli-
- Items are limited to mass, volume, length, time and temperature (in degrees Celsius)
Use maps, satellite images and other data sets to describe patterns and make predictions about natural systems in a life science context. For example: Use online data sets to compare wildlife populations or water quality in regions of Minnesota.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples may include graphs of data, predator-prey data sets and maps of population distributions and Minnesota ecosystems
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 22.214.171.124.3
126.96.36.199.2
Determine and use appropriate safety procedures, tools, measurements, graphs and mathematical analyses to describe and investigate natural and designed systems in a life science context.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of tools include a Celsius thermometer, metric ruler, timer, electronic balance, microscope, hand lens and graduated cylinder
- Items may require students to determine the tool used to accurately measure a particular quantity
- Items may include constructing and analyzing graphs from a set of data and comparing graphs and data
- Mathematical analyses are limited to mean, median and range and use of mathematical equations; no algebraic manipulation of equations will be required
188.8.131.52.1
Use maps, satellite images and other data sets to describe patterns and make predictions about local and global systems in Earth science contexts. For example: Use data or satellite images to identify locations of earthquakes and volcanoes, ocean surface temperatures, or weather patterns.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may address data sets and maps from 184.108.40.206.2 and 220.127.116.11.3
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 18.104.22.168.3, 22.214.171.124.2 and 126.96.36.199.3
Determine and use appropriate safety procedures, tools, measurements, graphs and mathematical analyses to describe and investigate natural and designed systems in Earth and physical science contexts.
Item Specifications
- Examples of tools include a Celsius thermometer, metric ruler, timer, electronic balance and graduated cylinder
- Items may require students to determine the tool used to accurately measure a particular quantity
- Items may include constructing and analyzing graphs from a set of data and comparing graphs and data; graphs may include line graphs, scatterplots, circle graphs and histograms
- Mathematical analyses are limited to mean, median, range and use of mathematical equations; no algebraic manipulation of equations will be required
Strand 2—Physical Science
Substrand: Matter (5–7 points)
Standards: Pure substances can be identified by properties which are independent of the sample of the substance and the properties can be explained by a model of matter that is composed of small particles (188.8.131.52 and 184.108.40.206); The idea that matter is made up of atoms and molecules provides the basis for understanding the properties of matter (220.127.116.11).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Explain density, dissolving, compression, diffusion and thermal expansion using the particle model of matter.
Item Specifications
- Diagrams will be limited to common representations of particles (e.g., dots)
- Items may require students to explain common phenomena using the particle model of matter (e.g., expansion and contraction of air and solids with temperature changes, dissolving of salt in water)
- Items may require students to explain how the spacing of particles affects density
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 22.214.171.124.3
126.96.36.199.1
Recognize that all substances are composed of one or more of approximately one hundred elements and that the periodic table organizes the elements into groups with similar properties.
Item Specifications
- Groupings will be limited to metals and nonmetals
- Items that refer to the periodic table will include relevant information from the periodic table
- Elements are defined as substances composed of one type of atom
- Items will NOT refer to protons, neutrons or electrons
- Items may require students to know that elements have unique properties but will NOT require students to identify elements by their properties
Describe the differences between elements and compounds in terms of atoms and molecules.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT include chemical formulas or equations
- Items will NOT refer to protons, neutrons or electrons
- Elements are defined as a substance that cannot be broken down into any simpler chemical substances and is made of atoms all of the same type
- Compounds are defined as a substance formed by the reaction of two or more chemical elements
- Molecules are defined as the simplest unit of a chemical substance usually a group of two or more atoms
- Items will NOT require students to know the difference between a molecule and a compound
188.8.131.52.3
Recognize that a chemical equation describes a reaction where pure substances change to produce one or more pure substances whose properties are different from the original substance(s).
**Item Specifications**
- Chemical equations will be represented by word or graphical representations and will NOT include chemical formulas
184.108.40.206.1
Distinguish between a mixture and a pure substance and use physical properties including color, solubility, density, melting point and boiling point to separate mixtures and identify pure substances.
**Item Specifications**
- Physical properties that can be used to separate mixtures are limited to color, density, melting point, boiling point and solubility
- Items will NOT include quantitative data on solubility
- Items will NOT require students to distinguish between types of mixtures
220.127.116.11.2
Use physical properties to distinguish between metals and nonmetals.
**Item Specifications**
- Physical properties that distinguish between a metal and a nonmetal will be limited to electrical and thermal conductivity
Standards: Substances can undergo physical changes which do not change the composition or the total mass of the substance in a closed system (18.104.22.168); Substances can undergo physical and chemical changes which may change the properties of the substance but do not change the total mass in a closed system (22.214.171.124).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Identify evidence of physical changes, including changing phase or shape, and dissolving in other materials.
Item Specifications
- Evidence is limited to changing phase or shape and dissolving in other materials
188.8.131.52.2
Describe how mass is conserved during a physical change in a closed system. For example: The mass of an ice cube does not change when it melts.
Item Specifications
- Items will require students to demonstrate a conceptual understanding of physical changes in terms of mass before and after a change
- Items may require students to recognize that when an object’s shape changes, its mass remains constant, and the mass of an object is the same as the mass of the sum of the pieces of that object
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 184.108.40.206.3
220.127.116.11.3
Use the relationship between heat and the motion and arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases to explain melting, freezing, condensation and evaporation.
Item Specifications
- Particle diagrams are limited to common representations of particles (e.g., dots)
- The motion of particles may be described as farther apart, moving faster, or sliding past one another
- Items will NOT use the terms latent heat or intermolecular forces
- Items will NOT address the expansion of water when it freezes
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 18.104.22.168.1, 22.214.171.124.1 or 126.96.36.199.2
188.8.131.52.1
Identify evidence of chemical changes, including color change, generation of a gas, solid formation and temperature change.
Item Specifications
- Evidence is limited to color change, generation of a gas, solid formation and temperature change
- More than one piece of evidence is necessary to identify a chemical change
Distinguish between chemical and physical changes in matter.
**Item Specifications**
- Evidence for chemical reactions will be limited to a gas produced, heat released, a color change and formation of a solid precipitate.
- More than one piece of evidence will be given when possible to identify a chemical change.
- Examples of chemical changes may include baking soda and vinegar in a sealed plastic bag and burning a candle in a closed jar.
- Evidence for physical changes will be limited to changes in state (phase), shape and dissolving (e.g., salt and water).
- Items will NOT include chemical formulas or equations.
- Items will NOT use the term precipitate.
184.108.40.206.3
Use the particle model of matter to explain how mass is conserved during physical and chemical changes in a closed system.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of physical changes where mass remains constant may include the following: a ball of clay has the same mass if you change its shape, the mass of an ice cube is the same as the mass of the liquid formed by melting the ice cube, the mass of an object is the same as the mass of sum of the pieces of that object.
- Examples of chemical changes where mass remains constant may include baking soda and vinegar in a sealed plastic bag and burning a candle in a closed jar.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.2.
18.104.22.168.4
Recognize that acids are compounds whose properties include a sour taste, characteristic color changes with litmus and other acid/base indicators, and the tendency to react with bases to produce a salt and water.
**Item Specifications**
- Properties are limited to a sour taste, characteristic color changes with litmus and other acid/base indicators and the tendency to react with bases to produce a salt and water.
- Acids and bases are limited to common household materials, such as vinegar, fruit juice, antacids and baking soda solution.
Substrand: Motion
(3–5 points)
Standard: The motion of an object can be described in terms of speed, direction and change of position (22.214.171.124).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Measure and calculate the speed of an object that is traveling in a straight line.
Item Specifications
- Items will use only one reference point (e.g., the ground, a post, a person)
- Items will NOT include velocity or vectors
- No algebraic manipulation of equations will be required
- Items will only require calculating speed from distance and time, NOT distance and time from speed
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 188.8.131.52.1
184.108.40.206.2
For an object traveling in a straight line, graph the object's position as a function of time, and its speed as a function of time. Explain how these graphs describe the object's motion.
Item Specifications
- Graphs are limited to line graphs; items may include constructing and analyzing line graphs from a set of data
- Items that require students to graph the object's position will provide axes labels on the graph
- Items will NOT include the term acceleration
- Items will NOT require students to make a speed versus time graph from a position versus time graph or make comparisons between those graphs
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.1
Standard: Forces have magnitude and direction and affect the motion of objects (18.104.22.168).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
22.214.171.124.1
Recognize that when the forces acting on an object are balanced, the object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant speed in a straight line, and that unbalanced forces cause a change in the speed or direction of the motion of an object.
Item Specifications
- Items will describe the action of forces as pushes or pulls
- Items will NOT require the identification of a specific law of motion (e.g., Newton’s Laws)
- Items will NOT include velocity or vectors
- Items will address the concepts qualitatively; items will NOT include the calculation of acceleration or net forces
Identify the forces acting on an object and describe how the sum of the forces affects the motion of the object. For example: Forces acting on a book on a table or a car on the road.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will describe the action of forces as pushes or pulls
- Item will NOT require the identification of a specific law of motion (e.g., Newton’s Laws)
- Items will address the concepts qualitatively; items will NOT include the calculation of acceleration or net forces
- Items will include forces in a single dimension
- Items may use vectors qualitatively
126.96.36.199.3
Recognize that some forces between objects act when the objects are in direct contact and others, such as magnetic, electrical and gravitational forces can act from a distance.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT include the cause of electric currents in terms of electrons
- Items will NOT compare how strength of force varies over distance
- Items will NOT address the differences between attraction and repulsion in electrical and magnetic forces
188.8.131.52.4
Distinguish between mass and weight.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require calculations
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 184.108.40.206.3
**Substrand:** Energy
(3–5 points)
**Standards:** Waves involve the transfer of energy without the transfer of matter (220.127.116.11 and 18.104.22.168).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Describe properties of waves, including speed, wavelength, frequency and amplitude.
**Item Specifications**
- Items are limited to conceptual understandings
- Items may include measurements but will NOT include calculations
- Items may require students to use the terms speed, wavelength, frequency and amplitude to compare and contrast waves
Explain how the vibration of particles in air and other materials results in the transfer of energy through sound waves.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to relate the motion of sound to density and the particle nature of matter
- Items will NOT require calculations
126.96.36.199.3
Use wave properties of light to explain reflection, refraction and the color spectrum.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to apply knowledge of what happens when visible light travels through a prism
- Items will NOT include pigment mixing
- Items will NOT require students to measure angles of refraction
188.8.131.52.1
Explain how seismic waves transfer energy through the layers of the Earth and across its surface.
*Item Specifications*
- Layers of the earth are limited to lithosphere, mantle, and inner and outer core
- Items may compare the way different Earth materials affect the propagation of seismic waves
- Items will NOT require calculations
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 184.108.40.206.1
**Standard:** Energy can be transformed within a system or transferred to other systems or the environment (220.127.116.11).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
18.104.22.168.1
Differentiate between kinetic and potential energy and analyze situations where kinetic energy is converted to potential energy and vice versa.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will NOT require calculations
- Items will disregard the effects of friction
22.214.171.124.2
Trace the changes of energy forms, including thermal, electrical, chemical, mechanical or others as energy is used in devices. For example: A bicycle, lightbulb or automobile.
*Item Specifications*
- Items are limited to devices that would be familiar to middle level students in all socio-economic groups
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as energy transformations
Describe how heat energy is transferred in conduction, convection and radiation.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may include common interactions in the home such as cooking; cooling or heating of beverages; home heating systems and windows.
- Items may require students to apply an understanding of convection in the context of Earth science topics (e.g., weather, crustal plate movement, oceans currents, lake turnover).
- Items may require students to apply an understanding of radiation in the context of Earth science (e.g., Sun and solar system, weather).
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 126.96.36.199.3.
Strand 3—Earth and Space Science (11–13 points)
Substrand: Earth Structure and Processes (5–7 points)
Standard: The movement of tectonic plates results from interactions among the lithosphere, mantle and core (188.8.131.52).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Recognize that the Earth is composed of layers, and describe the properties of the layers, including the lithosphere, mantle and core.
Item Specifications
- Properties may include composition of lithosphere, mantle, and core, brittle behavior of lithosphere and plastic behavior of mantle
- Layers are limited to lithosphere, mantle, and inner and outer core
- Items will NOT require students to distinguish between crust and lithosphere
220.127.116.11.2
Correlate the distribution of ocean trenches, mid-ocean ridges and mountain ranges to volcanic and seismic activity.
Item Specifications
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 18.104.22.168.1 or 22.214.171.124.3
126.96.36.199.3
Recognize that major geological events, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and mountain building, result from the slow movement of tectonic plates.
Item Specifications
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 188.8.131.52.1 or 184.108.40.206.2
- Items will NOT require students to name tectonic plates
- Items may require students to understand the relative motions that occur at plate boundaries but not name or recognize the names of the boundary types
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as subduction and fault
Standard: Landforms are the result of the combination of constructive and destructive processes (220.127.116.11).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Explain how landforms result from the processes of crustal deformation, volcanic eruptions, weathering, erosion and deposition of sediment.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require knowledge of specific geographic locations (e.g., riverbank erosion as a process is assessable, but specific knowledge of the Mississippi River is not to be assessed)
- Items may address chemical and physical weathering
- Items will NOT address the formation of different types of soil
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as uplift, constructive process, and destructive process
22.214.171.124.2
Explain the role of weathering, erosion, and glacial activity in shaping Minnesota’s current landscape.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require prior knowledge of specific geographic locations
- Items will provide relevant information about specific geographic locations
- Items may address chemical and physical weathering
- Landscape features may include lakes, river valleys, cliffs, moraines, floodplains and will NOT address specific features such as drumlins, eskers, potholes, and outwash plains
Standard: Rocks and rock formations indicate evidence of the materials and conditions that produced them (126.96.36.199).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Interpret successive layers of sedimentary rocks and their fossils to infer relative ages of rock sequences, past geologic events, changes in environmental conditions, and the appearance and extinction of life forms.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to interpret a rock cross-section
- Items may include comparisons of relative age within a rock cross-section
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as superposition, index fossils, original horizontality, relative dating, and cross cutting
Classify and identify rocks and minerals using characteristics including, but not limited to, density, hardness and streak for minerals; and texture and composition for rocks.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to recall the names or properties of specific minerals and rocks
- Mineral characteristics are limited to density, hardness, streak, and luster
- Rock characteristics may include grain size, mineral composition, and texture
- Items may require students to use mineral properties to identify a mineral
- Rock and mineral examples are limited to those common to Minnesota and will be described in the item
184.108.40.206.3
Relate rock composition and texture to physical conditions at the time of formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
**Item Specifications**
- Physical conditions are the major processes that produce each major classification of rock, including melting, cooling, crystallization, recrystallization, erosion, deposition, heat, pressure, and cementation
- Items may require students to describe the environment or physical conditions in which a particular rock type was formed
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific rock names (e.g. quartzite, sandstone)
**Substrand**: Interdependence within the Earth System
(3–5 points)
**Standard**: The sun is the principal external energy source for the Earth (220.127.116.11).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
18.104.22.168.1
Explain how the combination of the Earth's tilted axis and revolution around the sun causes the progression of seasons.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to interpret a polar orbit animation or other diagram illustrating the combination of Earth’s tilted axis and revolution around the Sun
- Items will describe or illustrate phenomena as they would be observed in the Northern Hemisphere
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as equinox and solstice
Recognize that oceans have a major effect on global climate because water in the oceans holds a large amount of heat.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require the students to know the terms heat capacity or specific heat
- Items may require students to compare qualitatively the heat absorption by oceans and the heat absorption by land
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 22.214.171.124.3 and 126.96.36.199.3
188.8.131.52.3
Explain how heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and hydrosphere producing winds, ocean currents and the water cycle, as well as influencing global climate.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to explain how wind and temperature differences cause the creation of ocean currents
- Items may require students to explain winds in terms of air moving due to pressure differences in the atmosphere
- Items may require students to explain how density differences in the atmosphere, due to uneven heating of the Earth’s surface, cause wind
- Items will include relevant climatic background information for any specified locations
- Items may assess that the sun is the principal external source of energy for the Earth
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as prevailing winds
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 184.108.40.206.3, 220.127.116.11.2, 18.104.22.168.2 and 22.214.171.124.3
Standard: Patterns of atmospheric movement influence global climate and local weather (126.96.36.199).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Describe how the composition and structure of the Earth's atmosphere affects energy absorption, climate, and the distribution of particulates and gases.
For example: Certain gases contribute to the greenhouse effect.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to recall the name of layers
- Items may require students to recognize the presence of variations in temperature, pressure and compositions among the layers of the atmosphere
- Composition of the atmosphere may include dust, water vapor and other greenhouse gases
- Structure of the atmosphere may include regions for the ozone layer, the location of most weather phenomena and the jet stream
- Items that reference substances in the atmosphere will use the name rather than the chemical formula
- Items will NOT require students to know the mechanism of the greenhouse effect
184.108.40.206.2
Analyze changes in wind direction, temperature, humidity and air pressure and relate them to fronts and pressure systems.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to analyze how a shift in wind direction and change in cloud type are related to the passing of a pressure system
- Items may require students to interpret data but will NOT require students to memorize weather symbols
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.3
18.104.22.168.3
Relate global weather patterns to patterns in regional and local weather.
Item Specifications
- Items may include land and sea breezes and global wind patterns
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 22.214.171.124.2 and 126.96.36.199.3
- Vocabulary may include terms such as jet stream, Coriolis Effect, hurricanes
Standard: Water, which covers the majority of the Earth’s surface, circulates through the crust, oceans and atmosphere in what is known as the water cycle. (188.8.131.52).
(1–3 points)
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Describe the location, composition and use of major water reservoirs on the Earth, and the transfer of water among them.
Item Specifications
- Composition is limited to fresh water and salt water
- Transfer of water may include precipitation, evaporation, condensation, runoff, infiltration and transpiration
- Items may relate changes of phase to particle actions
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.3
18.104.22.168.2
Describe how the water cycle distributes materials and purifies water. For example: Dissolved gases in rain can change the chemical composition of substances on Earth. Another example: Waterborne disease.
Item Specifications
- Items may include transportation and deposition of sediment and pollutants
- Purification may include evaporation, aeration and filtration
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 22.214.171.124.3
Substrand: The Universe
(2–4 points)
Standard: The Earth is the third planet from the sun in a system that includes the moon, the sun, seven other planets and their moons, and smaller objects (126.96.36.199).
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Recognize that the sun is a medium-sized star, one of billions of stars in the Milky Way galaxy, and the closest star to Earth.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT include Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams
184.108.40.206.2
Describe how gravity and inertia keep most objects in the solar system in regular and predictable motion.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require calculations
Recognize that gravitational force exists between any two objects and describe how the masses of the objects and distance between them affect the force.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will NOT require calculations
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 220.127.116.11.4
18.104.22.168.4
Compare and contrast the sizes, locations and compositions of the planets and moons in our solar system.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will provide numerical information about mass, distance and size as needed
- Distance is given in astronomical units (AU)
- Items may require students to compare inner planets and outer planets as groups
22.214.171.124.5
Use the predictable motions of the Earth around its own axis and around the sun, and of the moon around the Earth, to explain day length, the phases of the moon, and eclipses.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to interpret a polar orbit animation or other diagram illustrating the combination of Earth’s tilted axis and revolution around the Sun
- Items will describe or illustrate phenomena as they would be observed in the Northern Hemisphere
- Items may require students to identify relative positions of the Earth, Sun and Moon in their explanations
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as rotate, revolve and orbit
**Substrand:** Human Interactions with Earth Systems
(1–3 points)
**Standard:** In order to maintain and improve their existence humans interact with and influence Earth systems (126.96.36.199).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
188.8.131.52.1
Describe how mineral and fossil fuel resources have formed over millions of years, and explain why these resources are finite and non-renewable over human time frames.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will provide relevant background information
Recognize that land and water use practices affect natural processes and that natural processes interfere and interact with human systems. For example: Levees change the natural flooding process of a river. Another example: Agricultural runoff influences natural systems far from the source.
Item Specifications
- Items will provide relevant background information
- Land and water use practices may include practices in systems common in Minnesota such as mining, agriculture, forestry, dam building and water treatment
Strand 4—Life Science (11–13 points)
Substrand: Structure and Function in Living Systems (4–6 points)
Standard: Tissues, organs and organ systems are composed of cells and function to serve the needs of all cells for food, air and waste removal (184.108.40.206). (2–4 points)
220.127.116.11.1
Recognize that all cells do not look alike and that specialized cells in multicellular organisms are organized into tissues and organs that perform specialized functions. For example: Nerve cells and skin cells do not look the same because they are part of different organs and have different functions.
Item Specifications
- The functions of specialized cells are limited to recognition that nerve cells receive and transmit signals, muscle cells contract and relax, skin cells provide protection and blood cells carry gases
- Tissues are limited to muscle, nerve and skin tissues
- Organs and organ systems are limited to respiratory, circulatory, digestive, nervous, skin and urinary systems
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 18.104.22.168.2
- Items are limited to examples in humans
22.214.171.124.2
Describe how the organs in the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, nervous, skin and urinary systems interact to serve the needs of vertebrate organisms.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to identify the structure or function of individual systems outside the context of system interaction
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 126.96.36.199.1
Standard: All living organisms are composed of one or more cells which carry on the many functions needed to sustain life (188.8.131.52). (2–4 points)
Benchmarks
184.108.40.206.1
Recognize that cells carry out life functions, and that these functions are carried out in a similar way in all organisms, including, animals, plants, fungi, bacteria and protists.
Item Specifications
- Life functions include obtaining and using energy
- Items will NOT require students to have specific knowledge about respiration, such as the Krebs cycle, or equations that describe respiration or photosynthesis
- Items may require students to make comparisons of the life functions of different organisms
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 220.127.116.11.2 or 18.104.22.168.3
Recognize that cells repeatedly divide to make more cells for growth and repair.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to understand how cells are replaced in an organism and how an organism gets larger.
- Items will NOT require understanding the specific processes of mitosis and meiosis, although the term mitosis may be used.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as cell division.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 22.214.171.124.1 or 126.96.36.199.3.
188.8.131.52.3
Use the presence of the cell wall and chloroplasts to distinguish between plant and animal cells. For example: Compare microscopic views of plant cells and animal cells.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to know that plant and animal cells can be distinguished by the presence of cell wall and chloroplast but cannot only be distinguished by the presence of a cell membrane, mitochondria, nucleus or ribosomes.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 184.108.40.206.1 or 220.127.116.11.2.
**Substrand:** Interdependence Among Living Systems (3–5 points)
**Standard:** Natural systems include a variety of organisms that interact with one another in several ways (18.104.22.168).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Identify a variety of populations and communities in an ecosystem and describe the relationships among the populations and communities in a stable ecosystem.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to distinguish between a population and a community.
- Items may require students to identify population trends based on a relationship.
- Items may describe non-food related relationships such as mutualism and competition but will NOT use the terms mutualism, commensalism or symbiosis.
- Populations, communities and organisms are limited to those commonly recognizable in Minnesota.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as niche, biome.
Compare and contrast the roles of organisms with the following relationships: predator/prey, parasite/host, and producer/consumer/decomposer.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to identify the roles in a relationship such as producers and consumers, predator and prey.
- Organisms are limited to those commonly recognizable in Minnesota.
- Predator-prey relationships may include owls and mice, and wolves and deer.
- Parasite-host relationships may include wood ticks and humans, deer ticks and humans, deer ticks and dogs, and tapeworms and dogs.
- Producer-consumer-decomposer relationships may include relationships such as grass and rabbits, and deer and fungi.
126.96.36.199.3
Explain how the number of populations an ecosystem can support depends on the biotic resources available as well as abiotic factors such as amount of light and water, temperature range and soil composition.
**Item Specifications**
- Ecosystems are limited to Minnesota ecosystems such as forests, prairies, streams and lakes.
- Items will use the terms living and non-living factors and will NOT use the terms biotic and abiotic.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as niche, shelter and habitat.
**Standard**: The flow of energy and the recycling of matter are essential to a stable ecosystem (188.8.131.52).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
184.108.40.206.1
Recognize that producers use the energy from sunlight to make sugars from carbon dioxide and water through a process called photosynthesis. This food can be used immediately, stored for later use, or used by other organisms.
**Item Specifications**
- Descriptions of photosynthesis are limited to words and graphic representations, NOT chemical reactions with formulas.
- Items may include the terms carbon dioxide and oxygen.
- Items will NOT use the terms chlorophyll or glucose.
Describe the roles and relationships among producers, consumers and decomposers in changing energy from one form to another in a food web within an ecosystem.
**Item Specifications**
- Organisms in food webs are limited to those commonly recognizable in Minnesota.
- If organisms are listed or labeled, broad terms such as owl, eagle, fish, snake, mouse, fox, plant, worm, frog or insect must be used.
- Items will NOT assess specific percentages of energy transferred between trophic levels.
- Items may require students to understand energy pyramids and that only a very small fraction of the available energy is transferred.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer and decomposer.
220.127.116.11.3
Explain that the total amount of matter in an ecosystem remains the same as it is transferred between organisms and their physical environment, even though its form and location change. For example: Construct a food web to trace the flow of matter in an ecosystem.
**Item Specifications**
- Organisms are limited to those commonly recognizable in Minnesota.
- Ecosystems are limited to Minnesota ecosystems, such as forests, prairies, streams and lakes.
- Organisms may include producers, consumers and decomposers.
**Substrand**: Evolution in Living Systems (3–5 points)
**Standard**: Reproduction is a characteristic of all organisms and is essential for the continuation of a species. Hereditary information is contained in genes which are inherited through asexual or sexual reproduction (18.104.22.168).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Recognize that cells contain genes and that each gene carries a single unit of information that either alone, or with other genes, determines the inherited traits of an organism.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT use the terms chromosome, phenotype, genotype, dominant or recessive.
- Items will NOT require students to understand or use a Punnett square.
Recognize that in asexually reproducing organisms all the genes come from a single parent, and that in sexually reproducing organisms about half of the genes come from each parent.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to understand the process of meiosis
- Items may require students to know that sex cells contain half the total genetic information
- Items will NOT use the term chromosome
126.96.36.199.3
Distinguish between characteristics of organisms that are inherited and those acquired through environmental influences.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will provide relevant background information
- Items may address how some inherited traits can also be affected by the environment. For example mutations caused by pollution, organism height, leaf number, leaf color
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as instinctive, behavioral and learned characteristics
**Standard**: Individual organisms with certain traits in particular environments are more likely than others to survive and have offspring (188.8.131.52).
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
184.108.40.206.1
Explain how the fossil record documents the appearance, diversification and extinction of many life forms.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to recall specific fossils, geologic time periods or absolute ages
220.127.116.11.2
Use internal and external anatomical structures to compare and infer relationships between living organisms as well as those in the fossil record.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to interpret cladograms but will not use this term
- Items will NOT use the terms DNA, phylogeny, homologous structures, analogous structures
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as common ancestor
18.104.22.168.3
Recognize that variation exists in every population and describe how a variation can help or hinder an organism’s ability to survive.
**Item Specifications**
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as adaptation, genetic diversity
Recognize that extinction is a common event and it can occur when the environment changes and a population’s ability to adapt is insufficient to allow its survival.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to use evidence from the fossil record to show extinction as a common event throughout Earth’s history
- Items will NOT require students to understand that a population’s ability to adapt can result in an increase in the population
**Substrand:** Human Interactions with Living Systems (1–3 points)
**Standard:** Human activity can change living organisms and ecosystems (22.214.171.124).
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
126.96.36.199.1
Describe examples where selective breeding has resulted in new varieties of cultivated plants and particular traits in domesticated animals.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will provide relevant background information on traits found in the plants and animals
188.8.131.52.2
Describe ways that human activities can change the populations and communities in an ecosystem.
**Item Specifications**
- Change as a result of human activities may include chemicals in the environment, bacterial resistance, pollution, deforestation, over-hunting and urban development
- Items may require students to describe the effects of human activity when given an example
**Standard:** Human beings are constantly interacting with other organisms that cause disease (184.108.40.206).
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
220.127.116.11.1
Explain how viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will provide relevant background information regarding the biological agent
- Items will NOT require students to understand the cellular processes of infection
Recognize that a microorganism can cause specific diseases and that there are a variety of medicines available that can be used to combat a given microorganism.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to differentiate between treatments for different biological agents
- Items will NOT reference specific drugs used for specific diseases (e.g., amoxicillin for treating strep throat)
18.104.22.168.3
Recognize that vaccines induce the body to build immunity to a disease without actually causing the disease itself.
22.214.171.124.4
Recognize that the human immune system protects against microscopic organisms and foreign substances that enter from outside the body and against some cancer cells that arise from within.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will NOT require students to understand the mechanisms of the immune response
- Items will NOT require students to know specific organs, tissues or cells in the immune system
Strand 1—The Nature of Science and Engineering (24–28 points)
Substrand: The Practice of Science (8–10 points)
Standard: Science is a way of knowing about the natural world and is characterized by empirical criteria, logical argument and skeptical review.
(126.96.36.199)
(2–4 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Explain the implications of the assumption that the rules of the universe are the same everywhere and these rules can be discovered by careful and systematic investigation.
Item Specifications
- Rules of the universe are things and events in the universe that “occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful systematic study”; scientific theories and natural laws are the result of that systematic study (Project 2061, Atlas of Science Literacy, Volume 2, [American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2007], 5)
- A theory is defined as “a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences and tested hypotheses” (National Academy of Sciences, Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, [National Academy Press, 1998], 5)
- A law is defined as “a descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances” and that carries the weight of scientific evidence (National Academy of Sciences, Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, [National Academy Press, 1998], 5)
- Items may require students to apply their knowledge of scientific theories and natural laws to a context
- Items will NOT require students to define scientific theory or natural law
184.108.40.206.2
Understand that scientists conduct investigations for a variety of reasons, including: to discover new aspects of the natural world, to explain observed phenomena, to test the conclusions of prior investigations, or to test the predictions of current theories.
220.127.116.11.3
Explain how the traditions and norms of science define the bounds of professional scientific practice and reveal instances of scientific error or misconduct. For example: the use of peer review, publications and presentations.
Item Specifications
- Items will NOT require students to make ethical decisions
Explain how societal and scientific ethics impact research practices.
For example: Research involving human subjects may be conducted only with the informed consent of the subjects.
Item Specifications
• Not assessed on the MCA-III
18.104.22.168.5
Identify sources of bias, and explain how bias might influence the direction of research and the interpretation of data. For example: How funding of research can influence questions studied, procedures used, analysis of data and communication of results.
Item Specifications
• Items will NOT require students to make ethical decisions
• Sources of bias may include gender bias, misconception, cultural bias, funding bias, procedural bias, individual bias based on prior experience with the subject and political bias
22.214.171.124.6
Describe how changes in scientific knowledge generally occur in incremental steps that include and build on earlier knowledge.
Item Specifications
• Items may require students to show how one scientific understanding leads to another (e.g., show how new evidence or analysis led to further development of the theory of evolution, germ theory or theory of inheritance)
• Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 126.96.36.199.1 and 188.8.131.52.3
184.108.40.206.7
Explain how scientific and technological innovations—as well as new evidence—can challenge portions of, or entire accepted theories and models including, but not limited to: cell theory, atomic theory, theory of evolution, plate tectonic theory, germ theory of disease, and the big bang theory.
Item Specifications
• Items will address theories, models and the validity of scientific knowledge in the context of life science
• Technological innovations may include microscopy, global positioning system (GPS), genetic engineering and molecular engineering
Standard: Scientific inquiry uses multiple interrelated processes to investigate and explain the natural world. (220.127.116.11)
(4–6 points)
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Formulate a testable hypothesis, design and conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis, analyze the data, consider alternative explanations and draw conclusions supported by evidence from the investigation.
Item Specifications
- Context of items should demonstrate all appropriate safety considerations
- Items may address part or all of the benchmark
- Hypothesis is defined as “a testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations” (National Academy of Sciences, Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, [National Academy Press, 1998], 5)
- Items will NOT require students to define the term hypothesis
- Items may require students to evaluate or draw an accurate conclusion based on presented evidence
- Items may require students to identify which variables were changed, kept the same and measured in a given experiment
- Items will NOT use the terms independent variable, dependent variable, manipulated variable or responding variables
22.214.171.124.2
Evaluate the explanations proposed by others by examining and comparing evidence, identifying faulty reasoning, pointing out statements that go beyond the scientifically acceptable evidence, and suggesting alternative scientific explanations.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to evaluate a set of data to formulate possible conclusions
126.96.36.199.3
Identify the critical assumptions and logic used in a line of reasoning to judge the validity of a claim.
Item Specifications
- Items may include product claims, pseudoscience and unsupported conclusions
Use primary sources or scientific writings to identify and explain how different types of questions and their associated methodologies are used by scientists for investigations in different disciplines.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to identify the different types of questions or methodologies of scientists in different disciplines.
- Disciplines are limited to zoology, botany, microbiology, evolutionary biology, ecology, genetics, cell biology, anatomy and physiology.
- Methodologies may include observation, gathering data, organizing information, analysis, experimentation and computer modeling.
**Substrand:** The Practice of Engineering (8–10 points)
**Standard:** Engineering is a way of addressing human needs by applying science concepts and mathematical techniques to develop new products, tools, processes, and systems. (188.8.131.52) (5–7 points)
**Benchmarks**
184.108.40.206.1
Understand that engineering designs and products are often continually checked and critiqued for alternatives, risks, costs and benefits, so that subsequent designs are refined and improved. For example: If the price of an essential raw material changes, the product design may need to be changed.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to know details of specific technologies.
- Items will be placed in contexts that give sufficient background information.
- Items are limited to environmental effects on natural and artificial ecosystems and their physical and biological components.
220.127.116.11.2
Recognize that risk analysis is used to determine the potential positive and negative consequences of using a new technology or design, including the evaluation of causes and effects of failures. For example: Risks and benefits associated with using lithium batteries.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to know details of specific technologies.
- Items will be placed in contexts that give sufficient background information.
- Items are limited to environmental effects on natural and artificial ecosystems and their physical and biological components.
- Items may require students to identify risks and benefits of a new technology or design.
Explain and give examples of how, in the design of a device, engineers consider how it is to be manufactured, operated, maintained, replaced and disposed of.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to know details of specific technologies
- Items will be placed in contexts that provide sufficient background information
- Items are limited to environmental effects on natural and artificial ecosystems and their physical and biological components
**Standard:** Engineering design is an analytical and creative process of devising a solution to meet a need or solve a specific problem. (18.104.22.168)
(1–3 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Identify a problem and the associated constraints on possible design solutions. For example: Constraints can include time, money, scientific knowledge and available technology.
**Item Specifications**
- Vocabulary may include terms such as limitations or problems
126.96.36.199.2
Develop possible solutions to an engineering problem and evaluate them using conceptual, physical and mathematical models to determine the extent to which the solutions meet the design specifications. For example: Develop a prototype to test the quality, efficiency and productivity of a product.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to evaluate conceptual, physical or mathematical prototypes to identify solutions to an engineering problem
**Substrand:** Interactions Among Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Society
(8–10 points)
**Standard:** Natural and designed systems are made up of components that act within a system and interact with other systems. (188.8.131.52)
(2–4 points)
**Benchmarks**
184.108.40.206.1
Describe a system, including specifications of boundaries and subsystems, relationships to other systems, and identification of inputs and expected outputs. For example: A power plant or ecosystem.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may use either natural or designed systems
- Items will be placed in contexts that give sufficient background information
- Items may require students to identify common reactants and products in a life science context as inputs and outputs
Identify properties of a system that are different from those of its parts but appear because of the interaction of those parts.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may use either natural or designed systems
- Examples of systems include ecosystems, organ systems, power plants and water treatment systems
220.127.116.11.3
Describe how positive and/or negative feedback occur in systems.
For example: The greenhouse effect
*Item Specifications*
- Items may use either natural or designed systems
- Items may require students to analyze positive and negative feedback from a set of data or information
- Items will NOT require students to know specific feedback mechanisms within an organism
- Additional examples may include ecosystem and population dynamics, greenhouses and aquaculture
- Items will NOT address organ systems
- Positive feedback is the response of the system to a change of a variable that results in an amplified change in the system; negative feedback reduces changes in a system and tends to keep a system in stable equilibriums
**Standard:** Men and women throughout the history of all cultures, including Minnesota American Indian tribes and communities, have been involved in engineering design and scientific inquiry. (18.104.22.168)
(0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Provide examples of how diverse cultures, including natives from all of the Americas, have contributed scientific and mathematical ideas and technological inventions. For example: Native American understanding of ecology; Lisa Meitner’s contribution to understanding radioactivity; Tesla’s ideas and inventions relating to electricity; Watson, Crick and Franklin’s discovery of the structure of DNA; or how George Washington Carver’s ideas changed land use.
*Item Specifications*
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 126.96.36.199.6 and 188.8.131.52.3
- Items will be placed in contexts that give sufficient background information
- Items will NOT require students to match an individual to a specific idea or invention
- Items may require students to recognize how an idea or invention has contributed to the field of science
Analyze possible careers in science and engineering in terms of education requirements, working practices, and rewards.
*Item Specifications*
- Not assessed on the MCA-III
**Standard:** Science and engineering operate in the context of society and both influence and are influenced by this context. (184.108.40.206) (0–2 points)
**Benchmarks**
220.127.116.11.1
Describe how values and constraints affect science and engineering. For example: Economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health, safety, and sustainability issues.
*Item Specifications*
- Not assessed on the MCA-III
18.104.22.168.2
Communicate, justify, and defend the procedures and results of a scientific inquiry or engineering design project using verbal, graphic, quantitative, virtual or written means.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to justify or defend procedures and results based on data, observations, or other evidence
- Items may require students to interpret or create a graphic in order to communicate procedures and results
- Items may require students to analyze or produce quantitative information in order to communicate procedures and results
22.214.171.124.3
Describe how scientific investigations and engineering processes require multi-disciplinary contributions and efforts. For example: Nanotechnology, climate change, agriculture, or biotechnology.
*Item Specifications*
- Items may require students to identify appropriate disciplines that contribute to or collaborate in a given scientific investigation or engineering effort
- Items may require students to evaluate the contributions of a discipline or group of disciplines
- Examples of disciplines are limited to zoology, botany, microbiology, evolutionary biology, ecology, genetics, cell biology, anatomy and physiology
- Items will provide context with sufficient background information
Standard: Science, technology, engineering and mathematics rely on each other to enhance knowledge and understanding. (126.96.36.199)
(4–6 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Describe how technological problems and advances often create a demand for new scientific knowledge, improved mathematics and new technologies.
Item Specifications
- Not assessed on the MCA-III
184.108.40.206.2
Determine and use appropriate safety procedures, tools, computers and measurement instruments in science and engineering contexts. For example: Consideration of chemical and biological hazards in the lab.
Item Specifications
- All measurements will use the International System of Units (SI)
- Appropriate tools and measurement instruments include tools such as thermometer, pipette, test tube, beaker, balance, graduated cylinder, microscope
- Appropriate safety procedures include using equipment such as goggles, apron, protective gloves, closed-toe shoes, fume hood, eye wash, fire extinguisher
- Vocabulary may include terms such as hazardous chemicals
220.127.116.11.3
Select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, pictorial, or graphical representation to communicate scientific ideas, procedures and experimental results.
Item Specifications
- All measurements will use the International System of Units (SI)
- Items may require students to place appropriate variables on graph axes
- Items may require students to determine appropriate increments on graphs
- Items may require students to use one of the representations to describe a phenomena, evaluate results or the identify the best way to represent a set of data
Relate the reliability of data to consistency of results, identify sources of error, and suggest ways to improve the data collection and analysis. For example: Use statistical analysis or error analysis to make judgments about the validity of results.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of error include uncontrolled variables, operator error and measurement error
- Mathematics will be limited to grade 8 mathematics or below, per the Minnesota Academic Standards in Mathematics, and can include the concepts of percent, mean, median, mode and line of best fit
- Items will NOT require students to do mathematics without using the results to evaluate data
- All measurements will use the International System of Units (SI)
- Items that require students to do calculations will provide a calculator tool
18.104.22.168.5
Demonstrate how unit consistency and dimensional analysis can guide the calculation of quantitative solutions and verification of results.
**Item Specifications**
- Mathematics will be limited to grade 8 mathematics or below, per the Minnesota Academic Standards in Mathematics
- All measurements will use the International System of Units (SI)
- Items that require students to do calculations will provide a scientific calculator tool
22.214.171.124.6
Analyze the strengths and limitations of physical, conceptual, mathematical and computer models used by scientists and engineers.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of models include population growth, bacterial growth and probability in genetics
Strand 4—Life Science
Substrand: Structure and Function in Living Systems (9–11 points)
Standard: Organisms use the interaction of cellular processes as well as tissues and organ systems to maintain homeostasis. (126.96.36.199) (2–4 points)
Benchmarks
188.8.131.52.1
Explain how cell processes are influenced by internal and external factors, such as pH and temperature, and how cells and organisms respond to changes in their environment to maintain homeostasis.
Item Specifications
- Internal and external factors or stimuli include pH, temperature, light, gravity and concentration
- A cell’s response to maintain homeostasis may include single-celled organisms or individual cells of organisms
- An organism’s response to maintain homeostasis may include responses such as gravitropism and phototropism in plants and shivering or sweating in animals
- Items may address both voluntary and involuntary responses.
- Items will NOT address the mechanisms of specific organ systems
- Items will NOT require students to distinguish between innate and learned behaviors
184.108.40.206.2
Describe how the functions of individual organ systems are integrated to maintain homeostasis in an organism.
Item Specifications
- Items may be placed in contexts referring to body temperature, breathing and pulse rate as homeostatic disruptions of the human body or any context that addresses symptoms or disruptions of homeostasis
- Organ systems in animals are limited to digestive, respiratory, circulatory and nervous systems
- Organ systems in plants may include the function of vascular tissue and leaves
- The functions of individual organ systems in plants include nutrient uptake, gas exchange and material transport
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific plant structures, such as xylem or stoma, but may require students to understand their function
- Items will NOT address positive feedback in homeostasis
Standard: Cells and cell structures have specific functions that allow an organism to grow, survive and reproduce. (220.127.116.11) (6–8 points)
Benchmarks
18.104.22.168.1
Recognize that cells are composed primarily of a few elements (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur), and describe the basic molecular structures and the primary functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to know the elemental symbols for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur
22.214.171.124.2
Recognize that the work of the cell is carried out primarily by proteins, most of which are enzymes, and that protein function depends on the amino acid sequence and the shape it takes as a consequence of the interactions between those amino acids.
Item Specifications
- Items may require students to analyze the effect of a change in the amino acid sequence on protein shape and resulting function
- Items addressing enzymes are limited to understanding that enzymes are catalysts in reactions, are specific to particular molecules and are affected by pH and temperature
- Items will NOT assess the roles of specific enzymes
- Items will NOT use the term activation energy
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess 126.96.36.199.3
188.8.131.52.3
Describe how viruses, prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ in relative size, complexity and general structure.
Item Specifications
- Viral structures are limited to genetic material and protein coat
- Examples of differences between viruses, eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells are limited to relative sizes, the presence of nuclei, the presence of other organelles, and that multi-cellular organisms are composed of eukaryotic cells
- Items will use the terms cell parts for general structures
Explain the function and importance of cell organelles for prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic cells as related to the basic cell processes of respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis and cell reproduction.
**Item Specifications**
- Cell organelles will be referred to in test items as cell parts.
- The cell part related to respiration in eukaryotes is limited to the mitochondria (transforms energy to a usable form for the cell).
- The cell part related to photosynthesis is limited to the chloroplast (converts light energy to chemical energy).
- Cell parts related to protein synthesis in eukaryotes are limited to nucleus (site of transcription) and ribosomes (site of translation).
- Structures related to protein synthesis in prokaryotes are limited to genetic material (site of transcription) and ribosomes (site of translation).
- Cell parts related to cell reproduction in eukaryotes are limited to the nucleus (site of replication), genetic material (DNA), nuclear membrane (nuclear barrier), cell membrane (cytoplasmic barrier) and cell wall (cytoplasmic division).
- Cell parts related to cell reproduction in prokaryotes are limited to genetic material (DNA) and cell membrane (cytoplasmic barrier).
- Items will NOT address prokaryotic respiration or photosynthesis.
- Cell division in prokaryotes is limited to binary fission.
- Items may use other cell parts not listed here as distractors.
184.108.40.206.5
Compare and contrast passive transport (including osmosis and facilitated transport) with active transport, such as endocytosis and exocytosis.
**Item Specifications**
- Active transport is limited to endocytosis and exocytosis.
- Passive transport is limited to diffusion, osmosis and facilitated transport.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as concentration gradient and selective barrier.
220.127.116.11.6
Explain the process of mitosis in the formation of identical new cells and maintaining chromosome number during asexual reproduction.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to know that mitosis is part of the process that produces cells that are genetically identical with the same number of chromosomes.
- Items addressing the process of mitosis may include knowing the sequence of events.
- Items will NOT assess the terms haploid, diploid, interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase or telophase.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 18.104.22.168.5.
Substrand: Interdependence Among Living Systems
(8–10 points)
Standard: The interrelationship and interdependence of organisms generate dynamic biological communities in ecosystems. (22.214.171.124)
(4–6 points)
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199.1
Describe factors that affect the carrying capacity of an ecosystem and relate these to population growth.
Item Specifications
- Examples of factors include resources such as food or nutrient availability, shelter, water and light
- Items may address how competition for the same resources decreases carrying capacity such as predators competing for the same resource
- Contexts will use examples of Minnesota ecosystems when appropriate
188.8.131.52.2
Explain how ecosystems can change as a result of the introduction of one or more new species. For example: The effect of migration, localized evolution or disease organisms.
Item Specifications
- Contexts for items will use examples of Minnesota ecosystems when appropriate
- Items may require students to predict, analyze and reflect on global issues
- Items may include invasive species
Standard: Matter cycles and energy flows through different levels of organization of living systems and the physical environment, as chemical elements are combined in different ways. (184.108.40.206)
(3–5 points)
Benchmarks
220.127.116.11.1
Use words and equations to differentiate between the processes of photosynthesis and respiration in terms of energy flow, beginning reactants and end products.
Item Specifications
- Items will refer to reactants and products of cellular respiration as oxygen, glucose, carbon dioxide, water, ATP
- Items will refer to reactants and products of photosynthesis as carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, glucose
- Molecular formulas will include labels, for example water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$)
- Items will NOT require students to understand absorption spectra
- Items will NOT require students to recognize light reactions or the Calvin cycle
- Items will NOT include glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport system or fermentation
Explain how matter and energy is transformed and transferred among organisms in an ecosystem, and how energy is dissipated as heat into the environment.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may address the processes of photosynthesis, respiration and decomposition in recycling matter.
- Items may include energy and matter cycling in food chains and food webs.
- Items may address the conceptual cycling of matter in the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen cycles but will NOT require a detailed understanding of the mechanisms of these cycles.
- Items will NOT include glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport system, fermentation or entropy.
- Contexts for items will use examples of Minnesota ecosystems when appropriate.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, decomposer, autotroph, heterotroph, energy pyramid, trophic level.
**Substrand:** Evolution in Living Systems (11–13 points)
**Standard:** Genetic information found in the cell provides information for assembling proteins, which dictate expression of traits in an individual. (18.104.22.168) (2–4 points)
**Benchmarks**
22.214.171.124.1
Explain the relationships among DNA, genes and chromosomes.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT include the terms histone, chromatin or chromatid.
126.96.36.199.2
In the context of a monohybrid cross, apply the terms phenotype, genotype, allele, homozygous and heterozygous.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to understand a Punnett square.
- Items may require students to understand dominant and recessive inheritance.
- Items will NOT reference specific human genetic disorders.
- Items will NOT use the terms or assess concepts of sex-linked, polygenic, incomplete dominance, codominance or multiple allele inheritance patterns.
Describe the process of DNA replication and the role of DNA and RNA in assembling protein molecules.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may include the terms mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, Uracil in RNA and ribosomes
- Items may require students to know the location of replication, transcription and translation in addition to the role of DNA, mRNA and proteins (amino acids) in these processes
- Items may require students to understand DNA base pairing rules A=T and G=C
- Items may require students to understand RNA base pairing rules A=U and G=C
- Items will NOT reference specific human genetic disorders
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 188.8.131.52.2
**Standard**: Variation within a species is the natural result of new inheritable characteristics occurring from new combinations of existing genes or from mutations of genes in reproductive cells. (184.108.40.206)
(4–6 points)
**Benchmarks**
220.127.116.11.1
Use concepts from Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment to explain how sorting and recombination (crossing over) of genes during sexual reproduction (meiosis) increases the occurrence of variation in a species.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT reference specific human genetic disorders
- The term recombination may be used to describe any event that results in new combinations of genetic material (e.g., crossing over, mutation, random fertilization)
- Items may require students to know that the products of meiosis are cells that are genetically unique with half the number of chromosomes
- Items will NOT use the terms haploid or diploid
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as gamete, egg and sperm
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess 18.104.22.168.4
Use the processes of mitosis and meiosis to explain the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction.
**Item Specifications**
- Examples of advantages to sexual (meiosis) reproduction include genetic diversity
- Examples of disadvantages to sexual (meiosis) reproduction include expending increased energy and time
- Examples of advantages to asexual reproduction (mitosis) include no requirement of a mate and the organism may reproduce more rapidly
- Examples of disadvantages to asexual reproduction (mitosis) include decreased genetic variation
- Items will NOT use the terms haploid or diploid
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as gamete, egg and sperm
22.214.171.124.3
Explain how mutations like deletions, insertions, rearrangements or substitutions of DNA segments in gametes may have no effect, may harm, or rarely may be beneficial, and can result in genetic variation within a species.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT require students to define or identify specific types of mutations (e.g., deletion, insertion, rearrangement, substitution)
- Items may use terms that describe specific mutations
- Items will NOT reference specific human genetic disorders
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 126.96.36.199.4 and 188.8.131.52.5
**Standard**: Evolution by natural selection is a scientific explanation for the history and diversity of life on Earth. (184.108.40.206)
(3–5 points)
**Benchmarks**
220.127.116.11.1
Describe how evidence led Darwin to develop the theory of natural selection and common descent to explain evolution.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may require students to identify relevant evidence or connect evidence to the development of Darwin’s ideas
Use scientific evidence, including the fossil record, homologous structures, and genetic and/or biochemical similarities, to show evolutionary relationships among species.
Item Specifications
- Items may illustrate the concept of analogous structures but will NOT use the term.
- Items may require understanding a graphical illustration of the relationships between organisms such as a cladogram or a phylogenetic tree but will NOT use these terms.
- Items will NOT use specific terms involved in geological time scales.
- Additional vocabulary may include terms such as common ancestor, relatedness and anatomical evidence.
18.104.22.168.3
Recognize that artificial selection has led to offspring through successive generations that can be very different in appearance and behavior from their distant ancestors.
22.214.171.124.4
Explain why genetic variation within a population is essential for evolution to occur.
Item Specifications
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmark 126.96.36.199.1
188.8.131.52.5
Explain how competition for finite resources and the changing environment promotes natural selection on offspring survival, depending on whether the offspring have characteristics that are advantageous or disadvantageous in the new environment.
Item Specifications
- Contexts for items will use examples of Minnesota ecosystems when appropriate.
Explain how genetic variation between two populations of a given species is due, in part, to different selective pressures acting independently on each population and how, over time, these differences can lead to the development of new species.
**Item Specifications**
- Items may refer to the concept of directional, disruptive or stabilizing selection but will NOT use these terms.
- Items may address the following processes and terms: divergence, convergence and adaptive radiation.
- Items will NOT address the concept of bottlenecks, founder effects or genetic drift.
- Contexts for items will use examples of Minnesota ecosystems when appropriate.
**Substrand:** Human Interactions with Living Systems (7–10 points)
**Standard:** Human activity has consequences on living organisms and ecosystems. (184.108.40.206) (3–5 points)
**Benchmarks**
**220.127.116.11.1**
Describe the social, economic and ecological risks and benefits of biotechnology in agriculture and medicine. For example: Selective breeding, genetic engineering, and antibiotic development and use.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT assess details of specific technological processes.
- Items will NOT reference specific human diseases, human genetic disorders or human cloning.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks in standards 18.104.22.168 and 22.214.171.124 and benchmarks 126.96.36.199.1 and 188.8.131.52.3
**184.108.40.206.2**
Describe the social, economic and ecological risks and benefits of changing a natural ecosystem as a result of human activity. For example: Changing the temperature or composition of water, air or soil; altering the populations and communities, developing artificial ecosystems; or changing the use of land or water.
**Item Specifications**
- Contexts for items will use examples of Minnesota ecosystems when appropriate.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks in standards 220.127.116.11 and 18.104.22.168.
Describe contributions from diverse cultures, including Minnesota American Indian tribes and communities, to the understanding of interactions among humans and living systems. For example: American Indian understanding of sustainable land use practices.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will be placed in contexts that give sufficient background information.
- Items will NOT require students to match an individual to a specific contribution.
- Items may require students to analyze the impact or results of a contribution when provided with a specific contribution.
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks 22.214.171.124.1 and 126.96.36.199.6.
**Standard:** Personal and community health can be affected by the environment, body functions, and human behavior. (188.8.131.52) (4–6 points)
**Benchmarks**
184.108.40.206.1
Describe how some diseases can sometimes be predicted by genetic testing and how this affects parental and community decisions.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT reference specific human diseases or genetic disorders.
- Items will NOT require students to make ethical decisions.
220.127.116.11.2
Explain how the body produces antibodies to fight disease and how vaccines assist this process.
**Item Specifications**
- Items will NOT reference specific human diseases or genetic disorders.
- Items will NOT require students to identify specific vaccines.
- Items may require students to understand the relationship between antigens and antibodies.
- Items will NOT assess the specific processes by which antibodies are formed.
- Additional vocabulary may include such terms as antihistamine.
Describe how the immune system sometimes attacks some of the body's own cells and how some allergic reactions are caused by the body's immune responses to usually harmless environmental substances.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will NOT reference specific human diseases or genetic disorders
- Items may require students to understand the relationship between antigens and antibodies
- Items will NOT assess the specific processes by which antibodies are formed
- Additional vocabulary may include such terms as antihistamine
18.104.22.168.4
Explain how environmental factors and personal decisions, such as water quality, air quality and smoking affect personal and community health.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will NOT require students to make ethical decisions
- Items may include point and nonpoint sources of pollution
- Items assessing this benchmark may also assess benchmarks in standards 22.214.171.124, 126.96.36.199 and 188.8.131.52 and benchmark 184.108.40.206.3
220.127.116.11.5
Recognize that a gene mutation in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division called cancer, and how exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations and thus increases the chance of cancer.
*Item Specifications*
- Items will NOT require students to make ethical decisions
- Items will NOT assess specific forms of cancer
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Home Learning Pack
Week 9 – Spring Week
Term 3, 2021
Stage 3
Barramurra Public School
HOME LEARNING
| Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Good Morning + Warmups** | Answer the question given by your teacher on Seesaw and say good morning! | **Spring Comprehension** | **Spring Poetry** | **Spring Literacy** |
| **Reading Log** | Complete the word of the day on Seesaw/Hard Copy and submit when complete | Read the text ‘Spring in Australia’ then answer the questions | Spring sensory poem | Free choice: Spring home learning matrix, find a word and mindfulness colouring |
| **Literacy** | **Science Literacy** | **Grammar** | **Science Literacy** | **Writing** |
| Air resistance – it’s a drag! | Seesaw activity: Understanding gravitational force – part 1 | Seesaw activity: to/loc/two | Understanding gravitational force – part 2 | Seesaw activity: Weekly reflection |
| **Physical Activity** | You could post a picture or video of yourself getting out and getting active | **Maths** | **Maths** | **Maths** |
| **Literacy** | **Science Literacy** | **Grammar** | **Science Literacy** | **Seesaw activity:** |
| | Seesaw activity: Understanding gravitational force – part 1 | Seesaw activity: to/loc/two | Understanding gravitational force – part 2 | Addition and subtraction lesson 5. Log onto Prodigy and complete 30 minutes of activities |
| **Mathematics** | **Maths** | **Seesaw activity:** | **Maths** | **Seesaw activity:** |
| Addition and subtraction lesson 1. Log onto Prodigy and complete 30 minutes of activities | Addition and subtraction lesson 2. Log onto Prodigy and complete 30 minutes of activities | Addition and subtraction lesson 3. Log onto Prodigy and complete 30 minutes of activities | Addition and subtraction lesson 4. Log onto Prodigy and complete 30 minutes of activities | Addition and subtraction lesson 5. Log onto Prodigy and complete 30 minutes of activities |
| **Other Key Learning Areas** | **Science & Technology** | **Geography** | **Creative Arts** | **Free Choice Afternoon** |
| Tension and elastic spring forces | Seesaw activity: Understanding gravitational force – part 1 | Seesaw activity: Living in Asia | Seesaw activity: Monochromatic Portraits | Complete any activity that interests you and upload a photo or video to Seesaw with an explanation on what you did and why you like to do this activity |
| **Additional Optional Activities** | **PM e-collection/Reading Eggs (Online English)** | **Personal Development and Health** | **Monochromatic Portraits** | **Outdoor Physical Activity and Play** |
| Log on to PM e-collection or Reading Eggs and explore. | Seesaw activity: Mindfulness - Find Your Yerf Body | Seesaw activity: Learn about Van Gogh and some of his monochromatic artworks | Learn about Van Gogh and some of his monochromatic artworks | Post a picture or video of yourself being active. |
| **PM e-collection online Reading Eggs** | Number of the day, Maths Starters | | | DET - Learning from Home Resources https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/learning-from-home/learning-at-home |
Find a relaxing space in your house where you can read. Read a book, magazine or a book from the PM-e-collection in your chosen space. Add the book you have read a rating and a picture of where you read to your reading log. Be creative!
| Book Title and Author | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday |
|-----------------------|--------|---------|-----------|----------|--------|
| | Title: | Title: | Title: | Title: | Title: |
| | Author: | Author: | Author: | Author: | Author:|
| Rating – give what you read a rating out of 5, where 1 is not very good and 5 is great! | | | | | |
| Where I read | Where: | Where: | Where: | Where: | Where: |
| Photo: | Photo: | Photo: | Photo: | Photo: | Photo: |
Find a relaxing space in your house where you can read. Read a book, magazine or a book from the PM-e-collection in your chosen space. Add the book you have read a rating and a picture of where you read to your reading log. Be creative!
| Word | Definition | In a sentence | Synonym | Antonym | Word Origin | Words in word |
|------|------------|---------------|---------|---------|-------------|--------------|
| undulation | | | | | | |
| monstrosity | | | | | | |
| prototype | | | | | | |
| Word | Thursday | Friday |
|------|----------|--------|
| | malicious | deficiency |
| Definition | | |
| In a sentence | | |
| Synonym | | |
| Antonym | | |
| Word Origin | | |
| Words in word | | |
Monday Activities
be POSITIVE
Monday – Science Literacy
Week 9: Monday lesson
Air resistance – it’s a drag!
LEARNING INTENTION:
I understand that air resistance opposes motion and can be deliberately increased or decreased.
Find and record the definition of the following terms:
| Vocabulary | Definition |
|----------------|------------|
| aerodynamics | |
| air resistance | |
| drag | |
| friction | |
| inference | |
Here is an image of a space capsule returning to Earth with three astronauts inside.
YOUR TASK:
Why do you think the outside of the capsule has an orange glow?
Access Inquisitive videos here or in the instructions
Link: http://inq.co/class/9H3E5 4 digit code: 6035
▶ Watch the video of a famous experiment performed on the Moon during the Apollo 15 mission in 1971.
▶ Now watch the video of a similar version of the experiment (using a bowling ball instead of a hammer) being performed in a special building on Earth.
In the second video, the experiment is done twice. How did the scientists change things to produce the results of the second experiment?
An inference is a conclusion you can make based on your evidence and your reasoning.
Use the results of the second experiment and what you observed in the first video to make an inference about the Moon.
Monday – Science Literacy
YOUR TASK:
Read the Air Resistance eBook.
Complete the graphic organiser
· 3 situations where air resistance is a problem
· 2 ways air resistance can be reduced
· 1 person who wants to increase their air resistance.
YOUR TASK: Compare the Pair
Look at the pictures of the 2 cyclists. One of these cyclists will experience far less air resistance than the other.
For each photo, circle different parts of the cyclist or the bike that either increases or decreases air resistance. Write a brief description next to the picture of these parts.
(Reread the eBook for some hints).
Description of cyclist #1:
YOUR TASK:
Look at this image of a tandem (2 person) skydive. The small white object is not the main parachute, but a ‘drogue’ chute. All tandem skydivers must use one.
Why do you think a drogue chute is necessary for a tandem skydive?
Monday – Science Literacy
Do some research to find out the purpose of the drogue chute.
After doing some research, why do you think a drogue chute is necessary for a tandem skydive?
YOUR TASK:
Vehicles like rockets and fast trains have a pointy ‘nose’ on the end to decrease air resistance.
Cars are usually smooth and quite aerodynamic, but they don’t have pointy bonnets.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
Suggest some reasons as to why cars don’t have pointy bonnets.
How might having a car with a good aerodynamic shape save you money?
Come up with 3 or more creative added features for a car to decrease air resistance.
Monday – Science Literacy
Draw a model of your car design including the added features you came up with.
Were you successful today?
Tick the boxes to show whether you have been successful today:
☐ I can define the terms: aerodynamics, air resistance, drag, friction and inference
☐ I know 3 situations where air resistance is a problem
☐ I can name at least 2 ways to reduce air resistance
☐ I know why a drogue chute is necessary for tandem skydivers
EXTENSION ACTIVITY: Optional – Activity: Parachute design
Follow the steps below to observe how the shape and size of a parachute affects how an object falls to the ground.
**Aim**
To find out how the shape and size of a parachute affects the time it takes to land.
**Materials**
Collect the materials listed on page 2.
**Procedure**
1. Make a simple parachute for your figure by taping four equal lengths of string to each corner of the serviette. Tie or tape the ends of the string to the figure.
2. Drop your parachute from a safe height at least 4m above the ground. Time how long it takes to land. Repeat twice and record your results in the table below.
3. Use the plastic bags and any other materials to create a parachute that will drop more slowly and land more gently. Attach your figure.
4. Complete the ‘Hypothesis’ section below and show your teacher. Drop your new parachute from the same height as before. Record the time taken to land. Repeat twice and record your results.
You will need:
- small block or figure (the ‘payload’)
- paper serviette, opened out into a square
- string
- sticky tape
- different types of plastic bags (e.g. garbags, freezer bags)
- scissors
- stopwatch.
EXTENSION ACTIVITY: Optional – Activity: Parachute design
Complete the following:
Hypothesis:
I predict that because
Results:
| | Time 1 | Time 2 | Time 3 |
|----------------|--------|--------|--------|
| Parachute 1 | | | |
| Parachute 2 | | | |
Conclusion:
Did your second parachute drop more slowly? YES / NO
What do you think was the reason for this?
Was your hypothesis correct? YES / NO
There is often confusion about which homonym to use. Even many adults get confused when they have to write the word. But the rule is very simple!
**Practice** is a noun - a *thing*. You can remember it because it is spelt with *ice*, and ice is a noun. Practice is a thing you can go to, or a cultural norm.
E.g. *You can go to soccer practice after school.*
*It is the common practice to remove your shoes before entering a house in Japan.*
These are things that you can go to, or that a culture believe in.
**Practise** is a verb – an action, or something you can do.
E.g. *Can I practise scoring goals at the park?*
*Let’s go the court and practise netball.*
These are activities you can *do*.
Choose the right homonym for each sentence. Consider if it is a noun (thing) and therefore *practice*, or a verb (action) and therefore *practise*. Some are very tricky!
We have netball **practice/practise** at lunch.
Want to **practice/practise** shooting goals?
We were told to **practice/practise** our speeches.
It is the local **practice/practise** to wear short in summer.
When I feel sick I go to the doctor’s **practice/practise**.
When I feel sick I go to the doctor’s practice/practise.
To improve you should practice/practise more.
I practice/practise the piano every day.
Deep in the jungle is a tribe who practice/practise cannibalism.
Witches practice/practise sorcery.
When training, medieval soldiers used practice/practise swords.
Many religions practice/practise fasting.
The bottles were used as target practice/practise.
He really wished he practiced/practised more often.
She was grounded, so she couldn’t go to football practice/practise.
Brushing your teeth twice a day is a healthy practice/practise.
Mathematics Week 9
Addition & Subtraction
~Mental Addition Strategies~
Learning Intention
• To be able to efficiently use a number of mental strategies to solve addition problems & equations.
Success Criteria
• I understand a variety of mental addition strategies and can decide which mental strategy to use to solve a specific problem.
Revision
For revision I want you to start at 7 and add 11 each time for 6 terms... I will do the first for you.
7, 18, ____, ____, ____, ____
Addition – Mental Strategies
❖ It is very important to be able to efficiently add & subtract in our heads, not just to use in Mathematics lessons, but in our everyday life.
❖ It is also just as important to know a variety of strategies or methods for mental addition as certain problems work better with certain strategies.
❖ The main strategies we use are the Jump, Split, Compensation & Bump strategies. We will now look at each strategy for addition. While these are mental strategies it is important to be able to write down the working that is happening in your head.
Mental Strategies – Jump Strategy
❖ While the jump strategy is a very visual strategy we generally do it in our heads and we do it in two steps that done to make it easier for us to add (or subtract).
When we add we can use the jump strategy to help us. Look at 257 + 32:
1 First we jump up by the tens
2 Then we jump up by the units
\[ 257 + 32 = 289 \]
❖ We can also use this strategy when adding decimals as well, we just add a step for every place value.
The jump strategy is also useful when adding decimals. Look at how we do this with 38.6 + 2.6:
1 First we jump up by the whole numbers.
2 Then we jump up by the tenths.
\[ 38.6 + 2.6 = 41.2 \]
Mental Strategies – Jump Strategy
Now it is your turn to try. You will need to draw a blank number line for this. Complete these 3 questions using the Jump Strategy. You need to show your working.
a) \(575 + 52 =\)
b) \(1305 + 75 =\)
c) \(84.3 + 2.9 =\)
Mental Strategies – Split Strategy
The next strategy we can use is the Split Strategy. This can be used when adding larger numbers and involves splitting up the terms into each place value and adding on... it can be done two ways as well.
\[
214 + 138 \begin{cases}
100 \\
30 \\
8
\end{cases} \rightarrow 214 + 100 = 314 \rightarrow 314 + 30 = 344 \rightarrow 344 + 8 = 352 \\
214 + 138 = 352
\]
OR
\[
214 + 138 = 200 + 100 = 300 \\
10 + 30 = 40 \\
4 + 8 = 12 \\
= 352
\]
We can also use the Split Strategy when adding decimals.
Sometimes it is easier to split both numbers. Look at how we do this with $21.2 + 3.8$:
1. We split the numbers into whole numbers and decimals.
2. We then rearrange the problem, adding the whole numbers and decimals separately.
3. We add the 2 answers.
$$21.2 + 3.8 = (21 + 3) + (0.2 + 0.8)$$
$$= 24 + 1$$
$$= 25$$
Now it is your turn to try. Complete these 3 questions using the Split Strategy. You need to show your working.
a) $575 + 152 =$
b) $1305 + 1475 =$
c) $84.3 + 12.9 =$
The next strategy we can use is the Compensation Strategy. This strategy involves rounding up or down to a number that is easier to calculate mentally — usually a multiple of 5 or 10. It is very important to remember how much we rounded as we need to reverse this at the end otherwise the equation will be unequal and is actually a different number sentence.
Sometimes we round one number in the problem to make it easier to do in our heads. Then we adjust our answer to compensate:
\[
405 + 69 = 474 \\
405 + 70 - 1 \quad I \text{ rounded up by 1} \\
475 - 1 = 474 \quad so \ I \ subtract \ 1.
\]
\[
235 + 68 = 303 \\
235 + 70 - 2 \quad We \ rounded \ up \ by \ 2, \\
which \ means \ we \ added \ 2 \\
305 - 2 = 303 \quad too \ many \ so \ we \ subtract \ 2.
\]
\[
325 + 41 = 366 \\
325 + 40 + 1 \quad We \ rounded \ down \ by \ 1, \\
which \ means \ we \ subtracted \\
365 + 1 = 366 \quad 1 \ too \ few, \ so \ we \ add \ 1 \ back.
\]
We can also use the Compensation Strategy when adding decimals.
Follow these steps for the compensation strategy when adding decimals:
1. Round the number closest to a whole number.
2. Compensate for rounding:
\[
31.4 + 5.8 \rightarrow 31.4 + 6 \quad I \ rounded \ up \ by \ 0.2, \\
= 37.4 - 0.2 \quad which \ means \ I \\
added \ extra \ so \ I \\
need \ to \ subtract \ 0.2
\]
\[
51.4 + 8.3 \rightarrow 51.4 + 8 \quad I \ rounded \ down \ by \ 0.3, \\
= 59.4 + 0.3 \quad which \ means \ I \ did \ not \\
add \ enough \ so \ I \ need \\
to \ add \ 0.3
\]
Mental Strategies – Compensation Strategy
Now it is your turn to try. Complete these 3 questions again but this time using the Compensation Strategy. You need to show your working.
a) \(575 + 52 =\)
b) \(1305 + 75 =\)
c) \(84.3 + 2.9 =\)
Mental Strategies – Applying Strategies
Now it is your turn to apply your own mental strategies to solve the following problem:
Show 2 different ways of solving this problem. You may use the strategies covered in the previous topic or explain strategies of your own:
\[249 + 142\]
Reflection
I understand a variety of mental addition strategies and can decide which mental strategy to use to solve a specific problem.
What is one new thing you learnt today in Mathematics?
It’s Prodigy Time
Remember to log into your class Prodigy account and enjoy up to 30mins of Prodigy Time!
Click on the link below:
What is Tension?
Tension is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the objects which stretch it. The direction of the force of tension is parallel to the string, towards the string.
Tension exists also inside the string itself: if the string is made up of two parts, tension is the force which the two parts of the string apply on each other. The amount of tension in the string determines whether it will break, as well as its vibrational properties, which are used in musical instruments.
Video Link – Google Drive
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1RIT8Z2yYUoPfDDVrnz0mfp5VoG9RZ4OB/view?usp=sharing
Video Link – YouTube
https://youtu.be/iWgbhbwwbPk
What is the Elastic Spring Force?
- Something that is **elastic** can be stretched or deformed (changed) and returned to its original form, like a rubber band. It tries to come back to its first shape. The stress is the force applied; the strain is how much the shape is changed.
- The **spring force** is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position. For most springs (specifically, for those that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the spring.
Elastic force is the force exerted on an elastic material that can cause it to stretch or compress.
Video Link – Google Drive
https://drive.google.com/file/d/14KvC5z2XI4eVYvRAW77UANQrg-1i0U3V/view?usp=sharing
Video Link – YouTube
https://youtu.be/JhmuS9MYViY
Experimenting with the Elastic Spring Force?
- In this experiment we are going to develop a hands-on understanding of the elastic spring force and tension.
- In the next few slides we will create and test an experiment to test the Elastic Spring force.
- Details can also be found at this link below.
https://buggyandbuddy.com/stem-activity-for-kids-popsicle-stick-catapults/
- Remember as the Mythbusters say - "The difference between mucking around and Science is writing down your results" - So make sure you record your findings.
Experimenting with the Elastic Spring Force?
Materials
- 6-12 Paddle Pop / Popsicle Sticks
- 6-10 Rubber bands
- 1 Small plastic / reusable spoon
- 1 small pom pom or light weight object
- Optional: Paint
Method
1. Make a stack of paddle pop sticks with at least 4 sticks and rubber band them together on each end.
2. Take two paddle pop sticks and stack them together. Rubber band them together on just one end.
3. Pull the two paddle pop sticks slightly apart and place the larger stack of paddle pop sticks in between them.
4. Rubber band the stack of paddle pop sticks to just the top paddle pop stick.
5. Rubber band the spoon to the upper paddle pop stick.
6. Place the pom pom or small object onto the spoon.
7. Hold the catapult with one hand, and use the other hand to pull the spoon down. Release the spoon to launch.
Add a photo or drawing of your first design.
Make sure you label your design.
Testing
- You will need to test the catapult 3-5 times, measuring and recording the distance the pom pom travelled each time.
- Measure the distance from the catapult to the pom pom with a ruler.
- Record each distance in the table on the results slide. Find the average if you can.
- Next you need to modify your catapult in some way. This may be by adding or taking away paddle pop sticks from your stack, by adding more rubber bands or any other way you can think of.
- Then you need test the catapult 3-5 times again, measuring and recording the distance the pom pom travelled each time once again.
- Finally you need to make a conclusion or observation to what was the difference if there was one between the two designs and why you think that it occurred.
Add a photo or drawing of your modified design.
Make sure you label your design.
Experimenting with the Elastic Spring Force?
Results
- **Original Design**
- Average = ____________
| Test 1 | Test 2 | Test 3 | Test 4 | Test 5 |
|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------|
- **Modified Design**
- Average =
| Test 1 | Test 2 | Test 3 | Test 4 | Test 5 |
|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------|
Conclusion / Observations
- Write a statement regarding what was the difference if there was one between the two designs and why you think that it occurred.
Reflection
Did you enjoy this STEM Exploration? Why?
What challenges did you have?
How did you overcome challenges?
Tuesday Activities
be HAPPY
Tuesday – Grammar
Similes and Metaphors
Learning Intentions
✓ I can use similes in my writing to compare something to something else using ‘like’ and ‘as’
✓ I can use metaphors in my writing to describe something as being something else using ‘is’, ‘was’, ‘are’ or ‘were’
When you are describing something in your writing, you are trying to create a picture in the reader’s mind. Similes and metaphors can help you to do this really effectively.
Let’s use similes and metaphors to create vivid descriptions about Spring.
A **simile** is a way of describing something by comparing it to something else using ‘like’ or ‘as’. For example:
The Spring flowers burst from the ground **like** fireworks.
The hum of the bees was **as loud as** a church choir.
A **metaphor** is a figure of speech where something is described as actually being something else entirely. Usually, the two things in the description are very different. The idea is that by making an unusual comparison, an interesting and effective description is created. For example:
The blue Spring sky **was** an empty canvas.
The lambs **were** soft white pillows in the fresh green grass.
Tuesday – Grammar
Use the words in the box below to inspire you as you write 5 similes and 5 metaphors about Spring.
wildflower honey cleaning yellow sprout sunshine
chick bud busy bright birds garden
cocoon warm outside fragrance playing singing
butterfly happy green blossom bloom bees
SPRING SIMILES
Write 5 similes and record the word chosen from the list.
| Word chosen | Simile |
|-------------|--------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
Tuesday – Grammar
SPRING METAPHORS
Write 5 metaphors and record the word chosen from the list.
| Word chosen | Simile |
|-------------|--------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
Were you successful today?
☐ I can use similes in my writing to compare something to something else using ‘like’ and ‘as’
☐ I can use metaphors in my writing to describe something as being something else using ‘is’, ‘was’, ‘are’ or ‘were’
Science Literacy
Understanding the Gravitational, Normal & Applied Forces. Part 1
Learning Intention
To develop a sound understanding of the normal, applied and gravitational forces and how they relate to the general understanding of the physical world.
What is Gravity?
Gravity is the force that pulls objects towards the Earth. It’s the reason we walk on the ground rather than float around. Gravity also holds Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun. Gravity exists everywhere in the universe, however, the gravitational force is not always the same.
Video Link – YouTube
https://youtu.be/suQDwZcnJdg
Video Link – Google Drive
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1A1TZ0cDA6pGcm80CV1nnRTImPmclc47u/view?usp=sharing
What is Gravity?
Your task is to watch the video and write down 3 main idea points (main facts) that are mentioned and then for each add a detail to enhance the main idea.
(main idea) (detail to add)
e.g. Dogs are a very popular pet for people to own. Dogs come in many different breeds, the most popular dog breed in Australia in 2021 is the Cavoodle according to PetCulture.
1. ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
What is Gravity? Galileo
- A number of famous scientists have made discoveries about gravity. Most namely Galileo, Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.
- Galileo’s most famous observation was that two objects of the same size but different weights hit the ground at the same time if they are dropped from the same height. This happens because the force of gravity acting on both objects is the same.
- If a feather and a ball are dropped from the same height (on Earth) they fall at different rates. This is because the feather has more air resistance acting on it. Air pressure acts on the feather from all directions counteracting the force of gravity.
- Galileo dropped two balls of different weights but the same size off the Leaning Tower of Pisa, proving that the weight of an object doesn’t affect how fast it falls. This experiment took place over 430 years ago. Wow! Try this experiment standing on a chair, step stool or ladder and then drop the balls to see what happens for yourself. Try various other items to see what happens when you drop: 2 egg cartons, 2 empty applesauce containers, 2 empty soda bottles, etc.
- However if a ball and feather are dropped in a vacuum, where there is no air resistance as there’s no air, the ball and feather will hit the ground at the same rate. The Moon is the perfect place for this experiment and has been done by an Apollo 15 astronaut.
What is Gravity? Sir Isaac Newton
- According to legend, Isaac Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, which made him wonder why it fell to the ground.
- Sir Isaac Newton published the Theory of Universal Gravitation in the 1680s, setting out the idea that gravity was a force acting on all matter. His theory of gravity and laws of motion are some of the most important discoveries in science and have shaped modern physics.
What is Gravity? Sir Isaac Newton Continued
- Your task is to use the information on the previous slide AND in the video link below and to write a summary (1-2 paragraphs) of how Sir Isaac Newton’s discoveries changed the way Scientists understood gravity and physics.
Video Link YouTube
https://youtu.be/xmJoPCZj1_Q
Video Link Google Drive
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BBq7qFGXDoiOar31uWmy-7zMisotVb5H/view?usp=sharing
What is Gravity? Sir Isaac Newton Task
Mathematics Week 9
Addition & Subtraction
~Mental Subtraction Strategies~
Learning Intention
• To be able to efficiently use a number of mental strategies to solve subtraction problems & equations.
Success Criteria
• I understand a variety of mental subtraction strategies and can decide which mental strategy to use to solve a specific problem.
Revision
For revision I want you to start at 107 and subtract 6 each time for 6 terms... I will do the first for you.
107, 101, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____
Subtraction – Mental Strategies
It is very important to be able to efficiently add & subtract in our heads, not just to use in Mathematics lessons, but in our everyday life.
It is also just as important to know a variety of strategies or methods for mental subtraction as certain problems work better with certain strategies.
The main strategies we use are the Jump, Split, Compensation & Bump strategies. We will now look at each strategy for subtraction. While these are mental strategies it is important to be able to write down the working that is happening in your head.
Mental Strategies – Jump Strategy
While the jump strategy is a very visual strategy we generally do it in our heads and we do it in two steps that done to make it easier for us to subtract (or add). The difference this time is we start at the right hand side instead of the left.
Just like in addition, we can also use the Jump Strategy when subtracting decimals.
When we subtract we can use the jump strategy to help us. Look at $189 - 35$:
1. First we jump back by the tens.
2. Then we jump back by the units.
Mental Strategies – Jump Strategy
Now it is your turn to try. You will need to draw a blank number line for this and start on the right hand side. Complete these 3 questions using the Jump Strategy. You need to show your working.
a) \(575 - 52 =\)
b) \(1305 - 75 =\)
c) \(84.3 - 2.9 =\)
Mental Strategies – Split Strategy
The next strategy we can use is the Split Strategy. This can be used when subtracting larger numbers and involves splitting up the terms into each place value and subtracting on... it can be done two ways as well.
When subtracting large numbers in our heads it can be easier to split the number to be subtracted into parts and work with each part separately.
\[
468 - 215 \quad \begin{array}{c}
200 \\
10 \\
5
\end{array} \rightarrow 468 - 200 = 268 \rightarrow 268 - 10 = 258 \rightarrow 258 - 5 = 253
\]
OR
\[
468 - 215 = 400 - 200 = 200
\]
\[
60 - 10 = 50
\]
\[
8 - 5 = 3
\]
\[
= 253
\]
Mental Strategies – Split Strategy
We can also use the Split Strategy when subtracting decimals.
We can use the same process to subtract decimals:
1. We split the numbers into whole numbers and decimals.
2. We then rearrange the problem, subtracting the whole numbers and decimals separately.
3. We add the 2 answers.
\[31.4 - 2.3 = (31 - 2) + (0.4 - 0.3)\]
\[= 29 + 0.1\]
\[= 29.1\]
Mental Strategies – Split Strategy
Now it is your turn to try. Complete these 3 questions using the Split Strategy. You need to show your working.
a) \(575 - 152 = \)
b) \(1475 - 1305 = \)
c) \(84.9 - 12.3 = \)
The next strategy we can use is the Compensation Strategy. This strategy involves rounding up or down to a number that is easier to calculate mentally – usually a multiple of 5 or 10. It is very important to remember how much we rounded as we need to reverse this at the end otherwise the equation will be unequal and is actually a different number sentence.
Sometimes we round one number in the problem to make it easier to do in our heads. Then we adjust our answer to compensate:
\[
486 - 59 = \boxed{427}
\]
\[
486 - 60 + 1 = 426 + 1 = 427
\]
I rounded up by 1, which means I subtracted 1 extra so we need to add 1 back.
\[
270 - 59 = \boxed{211}
\]
\[
270 - 60 + 1 = 210 + 1 = 211
\]
We rounded up by 1 which means we subtracted 1 extra, so we need to pay it back.
\[
350 + 73 = \boxed{423}
\]
\[
350 + 70 + 3 = 420 + 3 = 423
\]
We rounded down by 3 which means we need to add 3 more.
We can also use the Compensation Strategy when subtracting decimals.
Follow these steps for the compensation strategy when subtracting decimals:
1. Round the number closest to the whole number.
2. Compensate for rounding:
\[
52.5 - 3.9 \rightarrow 52.5 - 4 \quad \text{We rounded up by 0.1,} \quad 65.4 - 8.3 \rightarrow 65.4 - 8 \quad \text{We rounded down by 0.3,}
\]
\[
= 48.5 + 0.1 \quad \text{which means we subtracted extra so we need to add 0.1} \quad = 57.4 - 0.3 \quad \text{which means we did not subtract enough so we need subtract 0.3}
\]
Mental Strategies – Compensation Strategy
Now it is your turn to try. Complete these 3 questions again but this time using the Compensation Strategy. You need to show your working.
a) \(575 - 52 =\)
b) \(1305 - 75 =\)
c) \(84.3 - 2.9 =\)
Mental Strategies – Bump Strategy
Another addition and subtraction mental strategy that we can use is the Bump Strategy. This is similar to the Compensation Strategy, but we generally ‘bump’ up or down to the nearest 10 for one number and then do the opposite to the other to keep the equation equal.
Addition Bump Strategy
1. Bump the number closest to a multiple of ten. This makes the problem easier to do in our heads.
2. Adjust the other number so the difference between the 2 numbers stays the same. This keeps the problem the same.
3. Solve this easier problem. This then gives us the answer to our original problem.
The bump strategy is when the number closest to ten gets impatient to start the addition process. The other number must adjust to compensate.
Mental Strategies – Bump Strategy
This is similar to the Compensation Strategy, but we generally ‘bump’ up or down to the nearest 10 for one number and then do the opposite to the other to keep the equation equal.
Subtraction Bump Strategy
1. With subtraction, we need to bump the second number to a multiple of ten. This makes the problem easier to do in our heads.
2. Do the same to the other number so the difference between the two numbers stays the same.
3. Solve this easier problem. This then gives us the answer to our original problem.
The bump strategy is when the number closest to ten gets impatient to start the subtraction process. The other number must adjust to compensate.
Mental Strategies – Bump Strategy
Now it is your turn to try to use the Bump Strategy.
Use the bump strategy for these additions, bumping the first number each time. Write the rearranged sum underneath. The first one has been done for you.
a. \(79 + 15\)
\[
\begin{align*}
&+1 \\
&-1 \\
\end{align*}
\]
\[80 + 14 = 94\]
b. \(88 + 26\)
\[
\begin{align*}
&+2 \\
&-2 \\
\end{align*}
\]
c. \(32 + 56\)
d. \(83 + 12\)
e. \(61 + 24\)
Use the bump strategy for these subtractions:
a. \(46 - 19\)
\[
\begin{align*}
&+1 \\
&-1 \\
\end{align*}
\]
b. \(85 - 33\)
\[
\begin{align*}
&+2 \\
&-2 \\
\end{align*}
\]
c. \(64 - 21\)
\[
\begin{align*}
&+1 \\
&-1 \\
\end{align*}
\]
d. \(56 - 42\)
\[
\begin{align*}
&+2 \\
&-2 \\
\end{align*}
\]
Reflection
- I understand and use a variety of mental subtraction strategies to solve a specific problem.
- I have an understanding of the Bump Strategy for mental addition & subtraction.
- What is one new thing you learnt today in Mathematics?
It’s Prodigy Time
Remember to log into your class Prodigy account and enjoy up to 30mins of Prodigy Time!
Click on the link below:
Tuesday – Geography
What can everyday life be like in a country in Asia?
LEARNING INTENTION:
Students will be able to:
Examine the lifestyle and social differences of certain places in Asia.
Investigate the demographics of some specific Asian countries.
Tuesday – Geography
Watch the train market video.
What do you see, think and wonder?
Watch the sherpas video.
What do you see, think and wonder?
Watch the sulphur miners video.
What do you see, think and wonder?
Complete a PMI chart for each of the jobs showcased in the videos.
| | Plus | Minus | Interesting |
|----------------------|------|-------|-------------|
| Market stall holders of Thailand | | | |
| Sherpas of Nepal | | | |
| Sulphur miners of Indonesia | | | |
Tuesday – Geography
Choose one of the videos from Question One and watch it again. Conduct your own research into the lifestyle of the people who live in this area.
Start by creating and adding more questions to the question wall below.
| What is the natural environment like? |
|--------------------------------------|
| What type of homes do people live in? |
| Is school compulsory? |
| What is the population? |
| What do people do for fun? |
| What type of jobs do people do? |
Samut Songkhram in Thailand.
Khumjung or Namche Bazaar in Nepal.
Banyuwangi regency in Indonesia.
Once you have a good set of geographical questions, use your home resources and conduct internet research to find answers to these. Present your information in an infographic style brochure about the place you have studied, including things such as fast facts, graphs, maps, drawings and other interesting ways you’d like to present your information.
Wednesday Activities
be STRONG
Wednesday – Spring Literacy
Spring in Australia
Learning Intention
✔ I can find the important information in a text and use this to answer questions
Read the text ‘Spring in Australia’. Answer the questions using the information from the text.
After you have answered the questions, tick whether you were successful today.
Were you successful today?
☐ I can find the important information in a text and use this to answer questions
Spring in Australia
Seasons in Australia
Most people in Australia refer to the European four seasons: summer, autumn, winter and spring. Each season lasts for three months. However, there are six different climate zones in Australia. This means that the seasons vary across the country. In the tropical areas of Australia, particularly those closest to the equator, many people refer to the wet and dry season, which each last six months. Indigenous communities have their own descriptions of seasons based on the weather and the impact each season has on the animals, plants and land. Some communities have five or six seasons, which are more precise and detailed compared to the four standard seasons.
The Weather in Spring
During spring, there is more daylight, which increases on a daily basis. In spring the weather can vary dramatically. Although there may be some warmer weather, it can also be a wet season as frost, wind, rain, sun and even snow can be experienced.
Animals in Spring
In Spring, many animals and birds reproduce. There is an abundance of food and the days are longer for the parents to find their food. Animals may also start to shed their winter coat in preparation for the warmer weather. Creatures that hibernate will start to wake up and become active. Hibernation is the way some animals survive during the colder months by lowering their body temperature, not moving or eating. Native Australian animals that hibernate are some types of possums, bats and echidnas.
Plants in Spring
Plants need water and sunlight to grow. Spring provides the perfect environment for new growth. The rain provides the water and the increased sunshine gives plants the required energy to grow. Deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves for winter) will grow their leaves back. Almost all native trees in Australia are evergreens – they keep their leaves throughout the year. Flowers may also start to bloom due to the warmer weather. Fruits, such as apples, pears, avocados, lemons, mandarins and strawberries, begin to grow.
Why Do the Seasons Happen?
Seasonal changes are caused by the tilt of the Earth’s axis as it orbits the Sun. When the Earth orbits around the giant star, each place on the Earth gets a slightly different amount of sunlight. For six months of the year, Antarctica is tilted towards the Sun. During this time, spring occurs in the southern hemisphere. In Australia, spring happens during September, October and November. When Antarctica is tilted away from the Sun, it is springtime in the northern hemisphere.
Wednesday – Spring Literacy
Answer the questions using the information from the text.
1. How long is Spring?
2. Thinking about where you live, which way of describing seasons suits your home best? Why?
3. Describe the weather in Spring.
4. Why is Spring an important season for animals?
5. Why does Spring provide a perfect environment for new growth?
6. What is the difference between a deciduous and an evergreen tree?
7. Why do we have seasons?
HOMONYMS: to/too/two
There are three ways to spell ‘to’, and it is important to know when to use the right spelling, as each one has a different meaning.
To – expresses motion in a direction.
e.g. “he went to the shops.” Or “Come to me.”
Too – means ‘also/as well’.
E.g. “Can I come, too?” Or “Billy got an ice-cream; can I have one too?”
- It also means ‘excessive’.
E.g. “That tv is too loud.” Or “There are too many people on this boat.”
Two – the number 2.
E.g. “Can I have two lollies? One for me, one for my sister.”
Circle the correct homonym in each sentence.
I went to/too/two my cousin’s house for dinner.
I ate to/too/two much and felt sick.
The cars were driving to/too/two fast.
Can I have to/too/two bowls of ice-cream?
Let’s go to/too/two the beach.
There are to/too/two many steps up to Oxford and Cambridge.
When I was to/too/two I got a teddy bear.
My dog is to/too/two years old.
I’m going to/too/two the skatepark.
I went riding with my to/too/two friends.
My sister went shopping to/too/two.
The machinery was to/too/two loud.
My dog barks to/too/two much.
The heritage site was to/too/two hundred years old.
Don’t be home to/too/two late!
My aunt went to/too/two Paris last year.
It was to/too/two windy yesterday.
Wednesday – Grammar
It was to/too/two windy yesterday.
We’d better go to/too/two see the principal.
Everyone tells me what to/too/two do.
The astronauts went to/too/two space.
Mathematics Week 9
Addition & Subtraction
~Written Addition & Subtraction Strategies~
Learning Intention
• To be able to efficiently use a number of written strategies to solve addition & subtraction problems & equations.
Success Criteria
• I understand a variety of written strategies for addition & subtraction and can decide which strategy to use to solve a specific problem.
Revision
For revision I want you to start at 112 and add 13 each time for 6 terms... I will do the first for you.
112, 125, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____
There are times when it is important to be able to complete addition & subtraction problems using a written method. Some of the time we use a written strategy to confirm that our mental strategy is correct.
The most common written strategy is using a vertical algorithm. It is very important that we line up our place values correctly. Estimation is also very important!
Let’s look at this example of addition.
| H | T | U |
|---|---|---|
| 12135 | + | 489 |
| 724 |
How do we add using a written strategy?
First we estimate: $235 + 500 = 735$. Our answer will be around 735.
We start with the units. $5 + 9$ is 14 units. We rename this as 1 ten and 4 units.
We put the 4 in the units column and carry the 1 to the tens column.
3 tens plus 8 tens plus the carried ten is 12 tens.
We rename this as 1 hundred and 2 tens
We put the 2 in the tens column and carry the 1 to the hundreds column.
We add the hundreds. We put 7 in the hundreds column.
Finally we check against our estimate – do they match?
Written Strategies – Subtraction
We can also use a similar strategy when subtracting. It is important to note that sometimes we need to rename a numeral if the top number is lower than the bottom. Follow along with this example.
| H | T | U |
|---|---|---|
| 9814 | − | 278 |
| 716 |
First we estimate: $1000 - 300 = 700$
We start with the units. We can’t take 8 away from 4 so we must rename one of the tens as units. We now have 14 units.
14 subtract 8 is 6 so we put the 6 in the units column.
8 tens subtract 7 tens is 1 ten so we put a 1 in the tens column.
We subtract the hundreds. 9 hundred subtract 2 hundred is 7 hundred. Put a 7 in the hundreds column.
We check the answer against our estimate.
Written Strategies – Addition Alternative
Just like in mental strategies there are other written strategies as well. Have a look at this way of adding by adding up the place values separately similar to the split mental strategy.
| H | T | U |
|---|---|---|
| 5 | 6 | 2 |
| + | 1 | 4 | 5 |
| | | 7 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 6 | 0 | 0 |
| 7 | 0 | 7 |
We can also add each place value separately and then add these together:
\[ 2 + 5 = 7 \]
\[ 60 + 40 = 100 \]
\[ 500 + 100 = 600 \]
\[ 7 + 100 + 600 = 707 \]
Written Strategies
Now it is your turn to have a go at completing these equations.
a
| H | T | U |
|---|---|---|
| 5 | 4 | 1 |
| + | 3 | 1 | 3 |
| | | |
b
| H | T | U |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 7 | 3 |
| + | 5 | 9 | 2 |
| | | |
c
\[ 4218 - 375 \]
d
\[ 5916 - 728 \]
e
| H | T | U |
|---|---|---|
| 7 | 2 | 4 |
| + | 2 | 9 | |
| | | |
Written Strategies – Decimals
Just like in other written methods lining up the place value is very important! We have looked at this already in week 7. Here are a few activities to refresh.
| | T | U | T |
|---|---|---|---|
| a | 8 | 4 | 3 |
| | - | 3 | 2 | 3 |
| | | | |
| | T | U | T |
|---|---|---|---|
| b | 9 | 0 | 8 |
| | - | 5 | 3 | 2 |
| | | | |
| | T | U | T |
|---|---|---|---|
| c | 7 | 6 | 3 |
| | - | 2 | 0 | 4 |
| | | | |
| | T | U | T |
|---|---|---|---|
| d | 9 | 7 |
| | - | 3 | 2 | 3 |
| | | | |
| | T | U | T | H |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| e | 5 | 2 | 1 | 7 |
| | + | 3 | 5 | 9 | 2 |
| | | | | |
| | T | U | T | H |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| f | 4 | 5 | 1 |
| | + | 1 | 4 | 0 | 5 |
| | | | | |
| | T | U | T | H |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| g | 5 | 3 | 8 | 9 |
| | + | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
| | | | | |
| | T | U | T | H |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| h | 3 | 2 | 4 | 1 |
| | + | 1 | 9 | 3 | 3 |
| | | | | |
Written Strategies – Application
Have a go at this activity. You will need to use a calculator. Read the instructions carefully.
Use a calculator to add each group of numbers. Turn your calculator upside down to see a word on the screen. Use the key below to help you identify the letters. Write each word in the correct place in the crossword puzzle.
CLUES
Across
2. $3025 + 1589 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
4. $4456 + 1207 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
5. $2776 + 2861 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
6. $12824 + 32251 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
Down
1. $34569 + 342047 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
2. $20786 + 36548 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
3. $456789 + 120556 = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_$
Key
\[
\begin{array}{cccccccc}
0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
O & I & E & H & S & G & L & B \\
\end{array}
\]
Reflection
- I understand and use a variety of written addition & subtraction strategies to solve a specific problem.
- I know that the most important step is to line up the place values.
- What is one new thing you learnt today in Mathematics?
It’s Prodigy Time
Remember to log into your class Prodigy account and enjoy up to 30mins of Prodigy Time!
Click on the link below:
Wednesday – PD/H
Week 9 – Mindfulness
Watch the Mind Yeti video ‘You’re your Yeti Body’: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ge8CqeffVaw&list=PLiaUKiwbiHMQDQLCXoPaMMYotIldKIUQCw&index=5
Activity:
1. Draw a picture of you in your Yeti Body. Make sure to include the string pulling up from above you and your feet on the floor.
2. Explain more about your drawing and how it felt when you were in your Yeti Body.
Getting into your Yeti Body can help you feel more focused and readier for your day. Watch the video to learn all about what your Yeti Body should look like and how to practice finding it.
Think: Were you able to find your Yeti Body? How did your body move or change when you imagined the string pulling on you? How does your Yeti Body make you feel?
Thursday – Writing
Sensory poem
Learning Intention
✓ I can use my 5 senses to write a descriptive poem about a particular topic
Explore Spring through your senses.
Complete the sentences to create your very own Spring sensory poem. Then illustrate your poem.
Miss Meyers’ example:
Spring looks like beautiful shades of colour have spray painted the world
Spring sounds like singing birds and buzzing bees happily greeting the new day
Spring smells like freshly cut grass and a warm apple pie straight out of the oven
Spring tastes like sweet treats and delicious juicy fruits
Spring feels like warm sunshine, a cool breeze and everything is new again
Complete the sentences to create your very own Spring sensory poem. Then illustrate your poem.
Spring looks like ____________________________________________
Spring sounds like ____________________________________________
Spring smells like ____________________________________________
Spring tastes like ____________________________________________
Spring feels like ____________________________________________
Thursday – Writing
Draw your spring sensory poem here OR make a collage and take a photo of what Spring looks like, sounds like, smells like, tastes like and feels like to you.
Were you successful today?
☐ I can use my 5 senses to write a descriptive poem about a particular topic
What is Gravity? Continued – Albert Einstein
• Albert Einstein, however 200 years later, developed another very important theory about gravity. Einstein’s general theory of relativity uses the idea of spacetime. According to the general theory of relativity, any mass causes spacetime to curve, and any other mass follows these curves. Bigger mass causes more curving. This was a new way to explain gravity.
• General relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is light bending when it comes near a massive object. This explanation was proven correct during a solar eclipse, when the sun’s bending of starlight from distant stars could be measured because of the darkness of the eclipse.
What is Gravity? Continued – Albert Einstein
- Watch these two videos that explain Einstein’s contribution to the gravitational force debate and also his Theory of General Relativity.
- You need to take notes by identifying the main ideas and details then use the information in the videos and on the previous slide to write a paragraph, in your own words, about why Albert Einstein is so influential and important in the Science community.
Video 1 – YouTube - https://youtu.be/t_X5nT_zePo
Video 1 – Google Drive - https://drive.google.com/file/d/107UPe2cX-fK-U6-qcQlPt9VJevalOn-W/view?usp=sharing
Video 2 – YouTube – https://youtu.be/s9hkK7NOAD0
Video 2 – Google Drive - https://drive.google.com/file/d/1AgqhwUj7hyrWC4NeXEJy5TYuMSCgKe0_/view?usp=sharing
Take your notes that identify the main ideas and details of the videos here.
What is The Normal Force?
- There's another really important force called the **normal force**, also sometimes called the **support force**. This is the force that supports the weight of an object on a surface. We should be grateful for this force because it's what keeps you from falling through the floor!
- The normal force is the force that the ground (or any surface) pushes back up with.
- The normal force on a object is always perpendicular (at a right angle) to the surface the object is on.
Watch the two videos below and then draw and label a picture describing the Normal Force.
Video 1 – YouTube - [https://youtu.be/1pbGP-MRN-0](https://youtu.be/1pbGP-MRN-0)
Video 1 – Google Drive - [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1IBZAFrWh2atdknBinGBcugicv3MQPQqJ/view?usp=sharing](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1IBZAFrWh2atdknBinGBcugicv3MQPQqJ/view?usp=sharing)
Video 2 – YouTube - [https://youtu.be/aJc4DEkSq4I](https://youtu.be/aJc4DEkSq4I)
Video 2 – Google Drive - [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UVO_A27Q-X9clgs-jQ3kgLJwNtjjj9bl/view?usp=sharing](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UVO_A27Q-X9clgs-jQ3kgLJwNtjjj9bl/view?usp=sharing)
Draw your diagram here.
What is an Applied Force?
An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object and is linked very closely to the Normal Force. If a person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the object. The applied force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.
Video Link – YouTube - https://youtu.be/Asi31-OpgS8
Video Link – Google Drive - https://drive.google.com/file/d/1GjsmEjeub3IsfHuNzzlWu7oVR56iRTk/view?usp=sharing
How do these forces relate?
Now that you have learnt about the Normal, Applied & Gravitational forces tell me how you think they are all related to each other? You can use diagrams to assist you.
Mathematics Week 9
Addition & Subtraction
~Applying Strategies in Word Problems~
Learning Intention
• To be able to efficiently select a mental or written strategies to solve addition & subtraction problems & equations.
Success Criteria
• I can recognise the need to use a mental or written strategies for addition & subtraction to solve a specific problem.
Revision
For revision I want you to start at 1102 and subtract 13 each time for 6 terms... I will do the first for you.
1102, 1089, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___
There are a significant amount of times where addition or subtraction problems are represented as word problems. It is important to practise how to identify the information you need to solve the problem and also how to select the right strategy for you to be able to answer the problem. Through this presentation you come across a number of different word problems for you to decipher and answer.
a The table tennis set costs $34.90 at the store down the road. If Gillian buys it here for $28.60, how much does she save?
b Sanjeev saved $55.50 to buy the baseball kit. How much of his savings remain after buying the kit?
c If she had a voucher for a $8.75 discount, how much did Katya pay for the boxing gloves?
Solve these subtraction problems using a mental strategy:
a) Nariah has $436 saved. She buys a new MP3 player costing $127. How much money does she have left after the purchase?
b) Unfortunately Nariah loses her 4th school jumper for the year. Her mum refuses to pay for another and Nariah has to cover the cost of $52 herself. How much of her savings does she now have left?
Solve these money problems using a strategy of choice:
a) You have $98.00. The total of the groceries is $67.00. How much change will you get after you pay for your groceries?
b) How much will you save if you buy an item on sale that was $76.95 and is now $68.99?
c) Hugo’s total grocery bill before subtracting his coupons was $77.84. If he had $5.87 in coupons, what was his final bill?
d) Your mum gives you $10.00 to go to the bakery to buy morning tea. You buy 3 items at the bakery for a total cost of $8.25. You have a discount voucher worth $1.05. How much change will you get back?
Solve these problems using a strategy of choice:
a) Jenny is 32 cm taller than Jaala. Jaala is 143 cm tall. How tall is Jenny?
b) The rainfall in Two Wells was 73 mm. Gawler recorded 36 mm less. How much rainfall did Gawler record?
c) Jarred’s bike cost $189. Molly’s bike cost $263. What is the price difference between the two bikes?
d) Joe scored 346 more points than Zac. Joe scored 589 points. How many points did Zac score?
Now it is time for you to write your own word problem and show the strategy you used to solve the problem.
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Reflection
- I can recognise the need to use a mental or written strategies for addition & subtraction to solve a specific problem.
- I can make a decision about which strategy to use when solving a word problem.
- What is one new thing you learnt today in Mathematics?
It’s Prodigy Time
Remember to log into your class Prodigy account and enjoy up to 30mins of Prodigy Time!
Click on the link below:
The term monochrome comes from the Ancient Greek: μονόχρωμος, romanized: monochromos, lit. 'having one colour'. A monochromatic object or image reflects colours in shades of limited colours or hues.
**What is monochrome art?**
Mono means one and chrome means colour, so monochrome art is art that is created using just one colour.
**Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890)**
He started painting flower still lifes to experiment with colour. There are five versions of his *Sunflowers* (1888) artworks which can be found in museums around the world. He also painted two other versions. One is in a private collection and another was lost during World War II.
Van Gogh is one of the most famous artists in the world. He began his artist journey using just drawings in black and white. He believed mastery of this discipline to be essential before working with colour. The large Van Gogh artworks on this page are almost monochromatic. What effect does this use of colour have?
Scan or use the URL to watch a video about Van Gogh’s life and artworks. Read the questions below before you watch. Listen carefully and record your answers below:
1. What 3 jobs did Van Gogh have before becoming an artist? Where were those jobs?
2. What was Van Gogh’s first true artwork? What did critics think of it?
3. What plans did Van Gogh have for his yellow house?
4. Pause the video on an artwork that you like. What is it? Why do you like it?
5. Pause the video on an artwork that you don’t like. What is it? Why don’t you like it?
6. “What are you good at?”
Van Gogh’s entire artistic career was in the last 10 years of his short life. For the first two years he did nothing but struggle to teach himself to draw. The impressive improvements he made can be seen in these two drawings.
Grisaille, is a type of monochrome painting done completely in grays, coming from the French (and Latin and Spanish) term for gray.
Friday Activities
be THANKFUL
Friday – Spring literacy
Complete at least 2 of the activities on the matrix. You can choose to do more activities if you wish.
| Activity | Description |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Create a painting of blooming spring flowers. | |
| Look out for butterflies and mark them off on this Butterfly Checklist.| Write an acrostic poem about a springtime word of your choice. |
| Make bird feeder and draw pictures to record some of the birds that use it. You could even use these instructions to create a pine cone feeder. | Ask your friends and family to tell you what their favourite thing about spring is. Make a list of their answers. |
| Go for a walk with an adult and look out for the things on this Spring Hunt Checklist. | Create a picture of a butterfly. Can you make sure that the wings are symmetrical? |
| Use plant seeds to grow some flowers or plants. These display posters might be some help! | Become a flower detective! Can you spot any of the flowers or plants on this Plants and Flowers Hunt Sheet. |
| Go on a sensory spring walk with an adult. What can you see? What can you smell or hear? | Can you create a springtime picture using natural materials? |
| Go to the park with a grown-up and look out for signs of spring. Take photographs or make a list of what you spot. | Write your own springtime story. |
Spring in Australia
hibernate spring axis breeding
possum season Earth renewal
echidna young frogspawn bat
daylight vernal equinox regrowth
A coloring page featuring intricate line drawings of leaves and branches, enclosed within a decorative border.
A coloring page featuring a detailed illustration of a plant with intricate leaf patterns. The plant has multiple leaves, each with unique designs such as zigzags, dots, and wavy lines. The background includes a decorative border with small circles and lines.
A drawing of a plant with leaves and flowers.
Grevillea
Grevillea is a genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, native to Australia and New Zealand. It includes about 200 species of shrubs and trees, many of which are popular garden plants for their showy flowers and attractive foliage. The flowers are typically large and have a distinctive shape, with long, narrow petals that are often brightly colored. Grevilleas are known for their ability to attract birds and butterflies to gardens, making them a favorite among gardeners.
Butterfly Coloring Pages for Adults
Enjoy these intricate butterfly coloring pages designed for adults. Each page features detailed patterns and designs that will challenge your artistic skills while providing a relaxing and therapeutic experience. Print them out, grab your favorite colors, and let your creativity soar!
Amaryllis
Amaryllis is a genus of flowering plants in the family Amaryllidaceae, native to South America and southern Africa. The name comes from the Greek word amarysso, meaning "to burn," referring to the bright red color of some species. Amaryllis flowers are typically large and showy, with six tepals (petal-like structures) arranged in a star shape. They bloom in late winter or early spring and are popular as cut flowers for indoor decoration.
Rabbit with Easter Egg
Coloring Page
Friday – Spring literacy
Answer the following questions:
The 2 activities I chose to complete were:
1. _______________________________________
2. _______________________________________
I completed more activities from the home learning matrix? YES / NO
Complete the find-a-word activity on the next page
I completed the find-a-word? YES / NO
I completed at least one mindfulness colouring sheet?
YES / NO
Friday – Writing
WEEK 9: Captain’s Log
Answer the following questions:
1. What was your favourite activity this week during Wellbeing week?
2. Why was this activity your favourite?
3. What are some activities or hobbies you like to do for enjoyment, relaxation and wellbeing?
4. What could you do to improve the wellbeing of those around you, such as friends and family?
Barry goes to Woolworths and buys 24 watermelons for $3 each. He then goes to Coles and buys 12 watermelons for a total of $48. Finally he goes to Aldi and buys 10 watermelons for $2.50 each.
a) How many watermelons did Barry buy? ______
b) How much did Barry spend on watermelons? ______
Please draw your board game here.
Applying Your Skills & Knowledge – Challenge
❖ Explain how your board game uses addition & subtraction:
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❖ Explain the other maths that is involved in your board game:
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Reflection
○ I can use my knowledge of addition & subtraction strategies to create a board game that utilises them.
○ I can explain the mathematics used in my board game.
○ What is one new thing you learnt today in Mathematics?
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Non-screen activities for book lovers
These 25 fun book-based ideas will help you explore your favourite stories and maybe inspire your own!
1. Can you take the story from your favourite book and turn it into a short poem?
2. Write a letter to your favourite author. What will you tell them or ask them?
3. Alternative ending. Think of your favourite book and re-write the final chapter of it.
4. Get creative! Make your own bookmark to use when you read. How will you decorate it?
5. Turn your favourite book into a comic strip. Writing a story doesn’t always have to be about the words!
6. Reading wish list. Make a list of all the books you’d like to read in the future.
7. Decorate an item to look like your favourite book character. You could choose a stone, a wooden spoon or something else!
8. Turn the story of your favourite book into a play script. Can you act it out?
9. Story mash-up! Write a new story that mixes together your favourite characters from different books.
10. Make a puppet of a famous book character. You could use a sock, a paper bag or even your finger!
11. If you could write a non-fiction book, what would you write about? Write down five facts about your chosen topic.
12. Design a new costume for your favourite book character. How will you make it different from the original?
13. Where is the most unusual place you can find to read a book? Under the bed? Up a tree? You choose!
14. A word of advice. What advice would you give to your favourite book character? How could you help them?
15. Story hunt. Collect items that give clues to a book then share them with someone. Can they guess the story?
16. Imagine you’re a reporter. Write a news report based on a famous book. What happened? Who? Where and how? Don’t forget a catchy headline!
17. Can you make a model of a famous book setting? You could use a box and decorate it!
18. Take the first line of your favourite book and use it to write a different story. Where will it take you?
19. What would happen to your favourite character in a different story? Can you write a new tale?
20. Design a new book cover for your favourite book. What will you change?
21. Reading den! Build a den using things from around the house and cosy up in there to read a book.
22. Pretend to be your favourite book character. Act out a part of the story, can your family guess which book it is?
23. Read aloud! Grab your favourite book and read to someone else, your family, a pet or even your toys!
24. Who is the villain in your favourite book? Can you make a wanted poster for them?
25. Get crafty! Make a mask of your favourite book character. You could use a paper plate, some cardboard or something else.
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Supporting independent writing in English
Teacher Education through School-based Support in India
www.TESS-India.edu.in
TESS-India (Teacher Education through School-based Support) aims to improve the classroom practices of elementary and secondary teachers in India through the provision of Open Educational Resources (OERs) to support teachers in developing student-centred, participatory approaches. The TESS-India OERs provide teachers with a companion to the school textbook. They offer activities for teachers to try out in their classrooms with their students, together with case studies showing how other teachers have taught the topic and linked resources to support teachers in developing their lesson plans and subject knowledge.
TESS-India OERs have been collaboratively written by Indian and international authors to address Indian curriculum and contexts and are available for online and print use (http://www.tess-india.edu.in/). The OERs are available in several versions, appropriate for each participating Indian state and users are invited to adapt and localise the OERs further to meet local needs and contexts.
TESS-India is led by The Open University UK and funded by UK aid from the UK government.
**Video resources**
Some of the activities in this unit are accompanied by the following icon: 🎥. This indicates that you will find it helpful to view the TESS-India video resources for the specified pedagogic theme.
The TESS-India video resources illustrate key pedagogic techniques in a range of classroom contexts in India. We hope they will inspire you to experiment with similar practices. They are intended to complement and enhance your experience of working through the text-based units, but are not integral to them should you be unable to access them.
TESS-India video resources may be viewed online or downloaded from the TESS-India website, http://www.tess-india.edu.in/. Alternatively, you may have access to these videos on a CD or memory card.
Students at secondary school are expected to write various texts in English. This might range from words to learn; notes about grammar, or sentences such as answers to comprehension questions; to longer texts, such as compositions, stories, letters, reports, applications and so on. These types of texts should require students to communicate through writing using their own ideas and language. However, often what students write is copied from the textbook or blackboard, or they reproduce dictated or memorised answers. Most students do not compose texts themselves.
While this copying and memorising may help some students in exams, it doesn’t help them to develop the skills they need in order to write in English independently for real-life purposes. Writing independently involves your students using their own ideas and their own language to communicate something. This is a skill that will be useful for their future personal and professional lives. Moreover, writing about feelings and opinions gives your students an opportunity to think critically and imaginatively. Students will develop the skills and confidence to write independently if they get lots of opportunities to talk about their ideas and practise speaking and writing about them. It is not enough for them to see – and copy – examples of ‘good’ language. It is also through trying to express themselves that students become better writers.
This unit explores two strategies that you can use to help your students move from copying and memorising to composing their own texts:
- Facilitating student talk on the chosen topic. By talking to each other and you, students share and develop their ideas. This also allows them to practise and experiment with the language to express their ideas in writing.
- Teaching students writing independently involves giving them access to language that they can model their writing on.
When students are writing independently, they will make mistakes. This is a normal part of language learning. By noticing and recording the mistakes, you can direct student learning more effectively through your use of positive and encouraging feedback.
What you can learn in this unit
- Facilitating student talk to support the development of students’ writing.
- Making accessible models for student writing.
- Ways to manage the correction of your students’ written work.
1 Using discussion to support student writing
Students are expected to write answers to comprehension questions about a lesson or passage in English, as in the following example.
Class VIII students study a passage called ‘The Summit Within’ from NCERT’s textbook *Honeydew*, which is about someone who climbs to the top of Mount Everest. After reading the text, they are expected to answer the questions below:
Answer the following questions:
(i) What are the three qualities that played a major role in the author’s climb?
(ii) Why is adventure, which is risky, also pleasurable?
(iii) What was it about Mount Everest that the author found irresistible?
(iv) One does not do it (climb a high peak) for fame alone. What does one do it for, really?
(v) ‘He becomes conscious in a special manner of his own smallness in this large universe. This awareness defines an emotion mentioned in the first paragraph. What is this emotion?
(vi) What were the ‘symbols of reverence’ left by members of the team on Everest?
(vii) What, according to the writer, did his experience as an ‘Everester’ teach him?
Pause for thought
Have you taught this lesson? If so, how have you helped your students to answer these questions? If you have not taught the lesson, how would you help students to answer the questions in their own words?
Some teachers ask students to copy the answers from the blackboard. But when students do this, it is difficult to know if they have understood the question or the lesson. Just because students can copy sentences or paragraphs, it doesn’t mean that they understand what they are writing. Also, when copying, students are not practising English much. It may help their spelling, but they are not thinking about how the language works. If students write their own sentences and text, they have to think about the grammar – the tenses and structures – and vocabulary. They focus on the *meaning* of what they want to communicate, and this helps them become able to use the language independently.
One way you can help students to write their own responses to questions such as these is by allowing them to discuss the questions. When you give your students time to discuss the questions in pairs or groups before they write answers, they have to communicate what they understand to each other, learning from each other. Having time to talk and think and by discussing things with classmates can help your students make the first steps in writing sentences independently.
Video: Talk for learning
http://tinyurl.com/video-talkforlearning
2 Discussing ideas through groupwork
If students are not used to writing by themselves it can be quite a big step to ask them to try this. But by working in small groups, students can support each other in understanding a text, develop their ideas and practise the language that they can then use in their written responses.
Activity 1: Try in the classroom – answering textbook questions in groups
In the textbook passage called ‘The Summit Within’ from NCERT’s textbook *Honeydew*, students are expected to write answers in English to a number of comprehension questions.
The next time you teach a lesson with an activity like this, ask your students to answer the comprehension questions at the end of the lesson in groups. This will allow them to develop their ideas with each other and find the language to answer the questions together.
1. In class, divide the students into groups of four. If they are sitting on benches, ask the students on the first bench to turn around so that they are facing the students on the second bench. Repeat that with the other rows so that groups are formed without too much noise. Ask one student from each group to be the ‘secretary’ who writes down the responses. For more on groupwork see Resource 1.
2. Ask students to discuss their answers to the questions and write them down. Tell them that they should not copy sentences directly from the lesson. Give them a time limit for this task (ten minutes, for example).
3. Move around the groups and monitor their work. This ensures that the students understand what they are doing, and feel more confident to discuss problems. Make sure that all the students have an opportunity to contribute to the discussion.
4. When they have finished, ask a representative from two or three groups to read aloud an answer. Discuss the answers as a class, and how they can be improved. If it is possible, check each group’s questions and answers.
Video: Using groupwork
http://tinyurl.com/video-usinggroupwork
Pause for thought
Here is a question for you to think about after trying this activity. If possible, discuss this question with a colleague.
After the lesson, think about your students’ learning. Did this activity engage them in communicating what they understood to each other?
Having students work together to answer questions about passages in the textbook can help them build up the skills and confidence to write answers to these questions. One way to extend students’ understanding further is to ask them to compose their own comprehension questions about a text.
Activity 2: Try in the classroom – using groupwork to help students write questions and answers about a text
You can try out this activity with any lesson or passage, and any class.
1. Set up groupwork as in Activity 1.
2. Ask different groups to read through different paragraphs of the text. For example, Group 1 could look at the first two paragraphs; Group 2 could look through the third and fourth paragraphs; and so on. It doesn’t matter if several groups are looking at the same paragraphs.
3. Ask each group to work together to write three questions about the section of the text they have read – these questions should check the students’ understanding of the text. Provide some examples to the whole class of the kind of questions you mean before they start working in groups. Give a time limit for the activity (for example, ten minutes).
4. Ask your students to discuss their questions and what the correct answers to the questions are. Have the group secretary write these questions and answers down.
5. When the students have finished writing their questions, ask the groups to exchange their questions, so that every group gets a different set of questions to the ones they have written.
6. Ask students to discuss and write answers to the questions. Tell them that they should not copy sentences directly from the textbook. Once again, give a time limit.
7. Move around the groups and monitor their work. This ensures that the students understand what they are doing and feel more confident to discuss problems.
8. Ask two or three groups to read aloud one or two questions and the answers; discuss the answers, and how they can be improved. If it is possible, check each group’s questions and answers.
Pause for thought
Here are some questions for you to think about after trying this activity. If possible, discuss these questions with a colleague.
After the lesson, think about your students’ learning. Were there groups that found it difficult to write questions? How could you help them the next time you do this exercise?
There are ways that you can help support your students’ writing by giving them some of the language that they need to write their responses. You will find out more about this in the following case study.
Case Study 1: Mr Singh uses student discussion with comprehension questions
Mr Singh teaches English to Class VIII. He recently tried a technique to help his students to answer comprehension questions without copying directly from the lesson, and this involved getting his students to work in groups. The lesson was ‘The Summit Within’ from Honeydew, NCERT’s textbook for Class VIII.
After doing a pre-reading exercise, we read the passage ‘The Summit Within’ together. When we finished, I first asked students what the text was about to get a general sense of whether they had understood. I then moved to the post-reading activity, which was answering the comprehension questions at the end of the lesson. I decided that we would answer the first question together as a class.
I asked my students to read the first comprehension question: ‘What are the three qualities that played a major role in the author’s climb?’ I made sure that they could understand the question by asking them to give a translation. Then I gave my students a list of useful phrases to begin answers, such as: ‘The three qualities that played a major role are …’.
I asked them to read the first paragraph and underline the sentences that contained the answer. The students underlined the following:
The simplest answer would be, as others have said, ‘Because it is there.’ It presents great difficulties. Man takes delight in overcoming obstacles. The obstacles in climbing a mountain are physical. A climb to a summit means endurance, persistence and will power.
I asked them to locate the exact words that would describe the three qualities. Most of the students answered ‘endurance’, ‘persistence’ and ‘will power’, but a few asked me whether ‘overcoming obstacles’ wasn’t another important point.
I was happy that the students could narrow down their search for the most appropriate words that would answer the question. I then asked them to find a way to include ‘overcoming obstacles’ in their list of three qualities.
I showed them how to organise the points into an appropriate answer, with a proper beginning and ending. I also made sure that they noted the change of the tense of the verb when writing an answer: ‘are’ would change to ‘were’, and so on. After making the necessary changes in the sentences, this is what they got:
The three qualities that played a major role in the author’s climb were endurance, persistence and will power for overcoming obstacles.
I showed them other ways of writing the same answer, such as:
Endurance, persistence and will power for overcoming obstacles were the three qualities that played a major role in the author’s climb.
I wanted the class to answer the rest of the questions in groups. I asked the class to work in groups of four, and to work together and compose answers to the rest of the questions. I gave them some words and phrases from the lesson to use in their responses. But I reminded them that they should use their own
words, and not copy sentences directly from the lesson. I gave them some time to write their answers, and moved around the room to help any students that needed it.
When the time was up, I asked a different group to answer each question. I wrote the answer that the group gave on the blackboard and we discussed whether it answered the question, and whether the group had used their own words in addition to the important words and phrases from the text that they needed to complete their answers. I also corrected any mistakes that the group had made.
By the end of the class, my students were getting better at answering the questions. I really noticed with discussion and a little help with their answers, students were much better able to do the activity, and they felt a lot better about themselves too.
3 Helping students to write independently by modelling language
In Case Study 1, the teacher helped students to write their answers to questions about a text by modelling the answer and giving students some of the language that they needed to compose their responses. Giving students the models or writing frames helps them to slowly build up the skills that they need to write independently.
Here are some different ways that you can provide help:
- **Missing words**: Provide a text that has words or sentences missing, and that students have to complete themselves. Leave out words or short phrases that students can find in a reading passage. This gives students a lot of support, and works well with well-known stories or summaries of a lesson, for example:
Anne Frank had a father, a mother and _____. She was born in _____ in ____. The family emigrated to _____, and she went to _____.
- **Models**: Provide a complete text that students change according to their own contexts. For example, give a description of your mother or father, and ask students to change the key words to describe their own mother or father. Students who are more confident at writing can make more changes and use more of their own language.
- **Writing frames**: Provide a writing frame of a text that gives students a structure to follow: a formal letter, for example. You can support students more by giving them more information: sentences, sentence prompts, key vocabulary and so on. As students become more familiar with writing formal letters, you can give them less support (see Resource 2 for a sample writing frame).
Now read about how one teacher uses the ‘missing words’ technique in the next case study.
**Case Study 2: Mrs Mishra supports his students to write longer texts**
Mrs Mishra teaches English to Class IX. She recently tried an activity to help her students to write independently in English by supporting them with the language they needed to do a writing activity at the end of a lesson.
At the end of the chapter that we were studying (in the NCERT Class IX textbook *Beehive*), there was a writing task:
Pets have unique care and handling requirements and should only be kept by those with the commitment to understand and meet their needs. Give your argument *in support of* or *against* this statement.
I knew that it would be too difficult for most of my students to write this paragraph – first of all, they wouldn’t really know what to say! So I asked my students to spend a few minutes discussing what requirements pets need. This allowed them to generate some ideas for what they wanted to write. As they were talking, I wrote the following sentences on the board:
```
Pets have unique care and handling requirements. They need ___. They also need___.
```
When I had finished, I asked students to give some suggestions. A couple of students raised their hands and suggested that animals needed food, water and someone to take care of them if they are ill. I then added some more sentences on the board.
```
Pets have unique care and handling requirements. They need____. They also need__.
In my opinion, people who can’t meet these needs should/should not be allowed to keep them.
```
I asked my class to raise their hands if they thought that people who couldn’t meet the needs should be allowed to keep pets. Not many students raised their hands – just a few. I asked Prajit why he thought so. He said that perhaps people couldn’t meet all of the needs, but maybe they could meet some of them, and that was better for the animal than nothing. He expressed this in his home language, so I asked other students in the class if they could help him say this in English. Together they were able to come up with a reply.
I then asked the class to raise their hands if they thought that only people who can meet the needs should be allowed to keep pets. Most of the students raised their hands. They thought that it was not fair for the
pets if they did otherwise. Devang thought that pets were like members of the family. I praised him for expressing his opinion and then helped him to say this in English. Now I added another sentence:
Pets have unique care and handling requirements. They need_____. They also need____.
In my opinion, people who can’t meet these needs should/should not be allowed to keep them.
I believe this because____.
Now there was a model paragraph on the blackboard. I asked students to write the paragraph and to complete it with their own thoughts and ideas. I moved around the class as students worked to help with any questions, and to correct mistakes where I could. At the end, each student had written a paragraph, and I encouraged the students who were more confident to write more, and to give more reasons. I asked one or two students to read out their paragraphs. It led to quite an interesting discussion about animal welfare. I never expected that students would come up with so many interesting ideas. By providing them with support, they were able to express their opinions in English. These kinds of activities are definitely helping my students to improve their writing, so I will continue to try them. [For more on supporting your students, see Resource 3.]
Video: Monitoring and giving feedback
http://tinyurl.com/video-monitoringandfeedback
Activity 2: Try in the classroom – helping your students to write a longer text independently
This activity helps your students to write a longer text. You can use it with any class.
1. Choose a writing task from your textbook or create a writing task. For example, you could choose a story or a summary of a story or lesson; a formal or informal letter; a report or an article for a newspaper or magazine; an application; a paragraph expressing an opinion about something; or perhaps a description.
2. Before class, select one of the techniques described above to help your students undertake the writing task. Depending on the level of your students and the technique you have chosen, you will prepare a text with missing words, a model or a writing frame. You can write this on a large sheet of chart paper and stick it on the blackboard, or write it on the blackboard before class if possible.
3. Ask your students to undertake the writing task using the resource you have prepared as a guide. As students work, move around the room to help where necessary. Give your students a time limit.
4. When they are ready, ask two or three students to read out their work. The rest of the class should listen to see if they have written something similar or different. Ask other students for comments and additions.
Pause for thought
Here are some questions for you to think about after trying this activity. If possible, discuss these questions with a colleague.
After trying this activity with your students, consider the following questions:
- Did they find it easy or difficult?
- Were there common misunderstandings? If so, how can you help them in future?
Remember that writing in another language is difficult – there is so much to think about! Be positive and encouraging, and tell your students that they need to practise writing to learn how to write. If most of your students struggled, give them more support next time by giving them more of the language that they need, and help them with ideas about what to say. You can find more ideas for this in the unit Whole-class writing routines.
4 Managing the correction of your students’ written work
When students write independently, they will make more mistakes than when they are copying or reproducing memorised texts. You may feel that this means that your students are not performing so well. However, making mistakes is a natural part of the language learning process and is a sign that your students are learning and internalising the language. You can use these mistakes as an opportunity to support your students’ language learning.
Giving students positive and encouraging feedback on their writing can help them to learn and improve. You may think that it is difficult to correct all of your students’ written work, especially if you have a large class. You may feel that there is just not enough time to look at each student’s work or there are just too many different mistakes to deal with. These are common problems that teachers face, whatever level of students they teach. There are, however, ways in which you can make correcting students’ work easier:
- Remember that you don’t have to check each student’s work every time they write. You can choose to correct and review some students some of the time. Over a period of time, you will have the chance to correct and review each student’s work. Keep records of your students’ work for assessment purposes.
- If the writing exercises are simple (for example, short answers to comprehension questions or grammar exercises), you can write the correct answers on the blackboard or read them out and students can correct their own work or their neighbour’s. This gives them a better sense of their own writing and where they might need to improve.
- Get your students to do writing activities in pairs or groups sometimes. This means students can share their ideas, and help each other. They can write a text together, which means that there is less for you to correct.
While each student is different and may need more or less support, there may be mistakes that are common to your group of students – you can focus on these to help them progress. As students are writing, walk around the room and note common, general mistakes. Write some sentences containing mistakes on the blackboard (without mentioning names) and ask your students to spot the mistakes and correct them.
Concentrate on just some mistakes – perhaps one time focusing on tenses and another time on punctuation or grammar. You can decide based on what you think is a priority. Tell your students what you are focusing on – if they spot other mistakes to correct, that is fine. Make sure they realise that you are not ignoring mistakes.
Get your students to keep a list of the mistakes that they make repeatedly in their notebooks. They can then refer to this list whenever they write. This helps students become more independent and have a better sense of what they need to improve. It can also act as a quick ‘checklist’ of things that they need to focus more on to improve their writing.
Have a positive attitude towards mistakes and foster this among your students. Don’t chastise students for making mistakes. Remember that it is normal for students to make mistakes as they write in a new language, and mistakes show that they are learning. Remind your students that everyone makes mistakes sometimes – you included!
Encourage your students to write independently as much as possible – and help them to enjoy it. They may enjoy writing more if they see that it can help them in life beyond school, and if they are encouraged to express their own ideas. If they can see the value of writing in English, it will motivate them to practise more and to learn more in the process.
**Activity 3: Correcting your students’ written work**
You can use a variety of techniques to manage how you correct your students’ written work. Use a form like Table 1 below to plan how you are going to do it over the next month. Remember to think about strategies for how to take the feedback forward so that it focuses on how the students can improve.
*Table 1 Correcting your students’ written work.*
| Class and chapter: | |
|-------------------|---|
| **Week** | **Written work to be corrected** | **How will I correct it?** | **Whose work will I correct?** | **How to take it forward** |
| 1 | | | | |
| 2 | | | | |
| 3 | | | | |
| 4 | | | | |
Table 2 shows an example of a completed form.
Table 2 Correcting your students’ written work – completed example.
| Class and chapter: | Class X, *Beehive* Chapter 5, ‘The Snake and the Mirror’ |
|-------------------|----------------------------------------------------------|
| Week | Written work to be corrected | How will I correct it? | Whose work will I correct? | How to take it forward |
| 1 | Answering questions about the lesson
Students write answers in pairs | Move around the room as students write and correct as many as possible
Review correct answers with the whole class | I haven’t seen students at the back of the room for a while - I will look at their work | Give extra support to students who seem to be struggling |
| 2 | Grammar exercise on reported speech | Write the correct answers on the blackboard
Students correct their own work | | Students get a sense of whether they need more work in this area
Suggest further practice for those who need it |
| 3 | Pair dictation | Students use the textbook to correct each other’s work | | Students take note of spelling errors to work on |
| 4 | Writing a story based on a picture
Students write stories in pairs | Take stories from ten pairs and correct them | Names:
Raju, Nimisha, Abdul, Aliya, Neelam, Brajesh, Suman, Ashraf, Ravinder, Rina | Students had problems with past tense
Review in next class |
Pause for thought
After you have followed your plan for a month, answer these questions:
- How easy was it to follow the plan? If it wasn’t easy, how can you change it?
- How much of your students’ work were you able to review and correct?
It is useful to make plans like these so that you know when your students are going to do written work, and that you are able to review the work of different students. Over the months, you will review the work of all your students and track their progress. In this way both you and they will get a better sense of their strengths and areas for improvement, and you will be able to see where you need to focus your teaching.
See the unit *Supporting language learning through formative assessment* for information about correcting written work, giving feedback and using it for assessment purposes.
If your plan hasn’t worked out the way you had hoped it would, make another one and try some different techniques – see what works best for you and your class. The important thing is to keep trying to give your students as much positive and encouraging feedback as you can so that they can continue to improve.
## 5 Summary
You can help your students to move from copying and memorising texts to writing their own answers and compositions. You can help them to compose their own answers to comprehension questions by:
- giving them time to think about their answers
- encouraging them to work in groups to discuss and compose their responses
- providing models and writing frames that they can adapt according to their abilities and confidence.
They will make more mistakes as they write using their own words, but this is part of the learning process. You can use different strategies to manage the written work of your students and use their mistakes as opportunities to learn.
Over time and with practice, your students will develop the confidence and skills they need to write texts in English independently.
If you would like to develop your own writing skills in English, see Resource 4. If you are interested in reading more about teaching writing, see the additional resources section.
Other Secondary English teacher development units on this topic are:
- *Helping students to develop their writing skills*: You can learn more about helping students to write longer texts in this unit, and how to help them to develop their writing skills.
- *Supporting language learning through formative assessment*: You can learn about giving feedback on and assessing written work in this unit.
## Resources
### Resource 1: Using groupwork
Groupwork is a systematic, active, pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. These small groups promote more active and more effective learning through structured activities.
**The benefits of groupwork**
Groupwork can be a very effective way of motivating your students to learn by encouraging them to think, communicate, exchange ideas and thoughts, and make decisions. Your students can both teach and learn from others: a powerful and active form of learning.
Groupwork is more than students sitting in groups; it involves working on and contributing to a shared learning task with a clear objective. You need to be clear about why you are using groupwork for learning and know why this is preferable to lecturing, pair work or to students working on their own. Thus groupwork has to be well-planned and purposeful.
Planning groupwork
When and how you use groupwork will depend on what learning you want to achieve by the end of the lesson. You can include groupwork at the start, the end or midway through the lesson, but you will need to allow enough time. You will need to think about the task that you want your students to complete and the best way to organise the groups.
As a teacher, you can ensure that groupwork is successful if you plan in advance:
- the goals and expected outcomes of the group activity
- the time allocated to the activity, including any feedback or summary task
- how to split the groups (how many groups, how many students in each group, criteria for groups)
- how to organise the groups (role of different group members, time required, materials, recording and reporting)
- how any assessment will be undertaken and recorded (take care to distinguish individual assessments from group assessments)
- how you will monitor the groups’ activities.
Groupwork tasks
The task that you ask your students to complete depends on what you want them to learn. By taking part in groupwork, they will learn skills such as listening to each other, explaining their ideas and working cooperatively. However, the main aim is for them to learn something about the subject that you are teaching. Some examples of tasks could include the following:
- **Presentations**: Students work in groups to prepare a presentation for the rest of the class. This works best if each group has a different aspect of the topic, so they are motivated to listen to each other rather than listening to the same topic several times. Be very strict about the time that each group has to present and decide on a set of criteria for a good presentation. Write these on the board before the lesson. Students can use the criteria to plan their presentation and assess each other’s work. The criteria could include:
- Was the presentation clear?
- Was the presentation well-structured?
- Did I learn something from the presentation?
- Did the presentation make me think?
- **Problem solving**: Students work in groups to solve a problem or a series of problems. This could include conducting an experiment in science, solving problems in mathematics, analysing a story or poem in English, or analysing evidence in history.
- **Creating an artefact or product**: Students work in groups to develop a story, a piece of drama, a piece of music, a model to explain a concept, a news report on an issue or a poster to summarise information or explain a concept. Giving groups five minutes at the start of a new topic to create a brainstorm or mind map will tell you a great deal about what they already know, and will help you pitch the lesson at an appropriate level.
- **Differentiated tasks**: Groupwork is an opportunity to allow students of different ages or attainment levels to work together on an appropriate task. Higher attainers can benefit from the opportunity to explain the work, whereas lower attainers may find it easier to ask questions in a group than in a class, and will learn from their classmates.
- **Discussion**: Students consider an issue and come to a conclusion. This may require quite a bit of preparation on your part in order to make sure that the students have enough knowledge to consider different options, but organising a discussion or debate can be very rewarding for both you and them.
Organising groups
Groups of four to eight are ideal but this will depend on the size of your class, the physical environment and furniture, and the attainment and age range of your class. Ideally everyone in a group needs to see each other, talk without shouting and contribute to the group’s outcome.
- Decide how and why you will divide students into groups; for example, you may divide groups by friendship, interest or by similar or mixed attainment. Experiment with different ways and review what works best with each class.
- Plan any roles you will give to group members (for example, note taker, spokesperson, time keeper or collector of equipment), and how you will make this clear.
Managing groupwork
You can set up routines and rules to manage good groupwork. When you use groupwork regularly, students will know what you expect and find it enjoyable. Initially it is a good idea to work with your class to identify the benefits of working together in teams and groups. You should discuss what makes good groupwork behaviour and possibly generate a list of ‘rules’ that might be displayed; for example, ‘Respect for each other’, ‘Listening’, ‘Helping each other’, ‘Trying more than one idea’, etc.
It is important to give clear verbal instructions about the groupwork that can also be written on the blackboard for reference. You need to:
- direct your students to the groups they will work in according to your plan, perhaps designating areas in the classroom where they will work or giving instructions about moving any furniture or school bags
- be very clear about the task and write it on the board in short instructions or pictures. Allow your students to ask questions before you start.
During the lesson, move around to observe and check how the groups are doing. Offer advice where needed if they are deviating from the task or getting stuck.
You might want to change the groups during the task. Here are two techniques to try when you are feeling confident about groupwork – they are particularly helpful when managing a large class:
- ‘Expert groups’: Give each group a different task, such as researching one way of generating electricity or developing a character for a drama. After a suitable time, re-organise the groups so that each new group is made up of one ‘expert’ from all the original groups. Then give them a task that involves collating knowledge from all the experts, such as deciding on what sort of power station to build or preparing a piece of drama.
- ‘Envoy’s’: If the task involves creating something or solving a problem, after a while, ask each group to send an envoy to another group. They could compare ideas or solutions to the problem and then report back to their own group. In this way, groups can learn from each other.
At the end of the task, summarise what has been learnt and correct any misunderstandings that you have seen. You may want to hear feedback from each group, or ask just one or two groups who you think have some good ideas. Keep students’ reporting brief and encourage them to offer feedback on work from other groups by identifying what has been done well, what was interesting and what might be developed further.
Even if you want to adopt groupwork in your classroom, you may at times find it difficult to organise because some students:
are resistant to active learning and do not engage
are dominant
do not participate due to poor interpersonal skills or lack of confidence.
To become effective at managing groupwork it is important to reflect on all the above points, in addition to considering how far the learning outcomes were met and how well your students responded (did they all benefit?). Consider and carefully plan any adjustments you might make to the group task, resources, timings or composition of the groups.
Research suggests that learning in groups need not be used all the time to have positive effects on student achievement, so you should not feel obliged to use it in every lesson. You might want to consider using groupwork as a supplemental technique, for example as a break between a topic change or a jump-start for class discussion. It can also be used as an ice-breaker or to introduce experiential learning activities and problem solving exercises into the classroom, or to review topics.
**Resource 2: Sample writing frame of a letter that you can use to help your students write independently**
To
The Headmistress,
D.D.B. Girls’ High School,
Golaghat
Date: 1st June, 2014
Subject: Request for leave of absence
Madam,
I would like to inform you that I could not attend my classes on 28th and 29th May, 2014 because I was suffering from fever. A medical certificate is enclosed with this application for your consideration.
I hope you will kindly grant me leave of absence for these two days.
Yours faithfully,
Barsha Dutta
Roll No. 32
Class IX A
**Resource 3: Monitoring and giving feedback**
Improving students’ performance involves constantly monitoring and responding to them, so that they know what is expected of them and they get feedback after completing tasks. They can improve their performance through your constructive feedback.
Monitoring
Effective teachers monitor their students most of the time. Generally, most teachers monitor their students’ work by listening and observing what they do in class. Monitoring students’ progress is critical because it helps them to:
- achieve higher grades
- be more aware of their performance and more responsible for their learning
- improve their learning
- predict achievement on state and local standardised tests.
It will also help you as a teacher to decide:
- when to ask a question or give a prompt
- when to praise
- whether to challenge
- how to include different groups of students in a task
- what to do about mistakes.
Students improve most when they are given clear and prompt feedback on their progress. Using monitoring will enable you to give regular feedback, letting your students know how they are doing and what else they need to do to advance their learning.
One of the challenges you will face is helping students to set their own learning targets, also known as self-monitoring. Students, especially struggling ones, are not used to having ownership of their own learning. But you can help any student to set their own targets or goals for a project, plan out their work and set deadlines, and self-monitor their progress. Practising the process and mastering the skill of self-monitoring will serve them well in school and throughout their lives.
Listening to and observing students
Most of the time, listening to and observing students is done naturally by teachers; it is a simple monitoring tool. For example, you may:
- listen to your students reading aloud
- listen to discussions in pair or groupwork
- observe students using resources outdoors or in the classroom
- observe the body language of groups as they work.
Make sure that the observations you collect are true evidence of student learning or progress. Only document what you can see, hear, justify or count.
As students work, move around the classroom in order to make brief observation notes. You can use a class list to record which students need more help, and also to note any emerging misunderstandings. You can use these observations and notes to give feedback to the whole class or prompt and encourage groups or individuals.
Giving feedback
Feedback is information that you give to a student about how they have performed in relation to a stated goal or expected outcome. Effective feedback provides the student with:
- information about what happened
- an evaluation of how well the action or task was performed
- guidance as to how their performance can be improved.
When you give feedback to each student, it should help them to know:
- what they can actually do
- what they cannot do yet
- how their work compares with that of others
- how they can improve.
It is important to remember that effective feedback helps students. You do not want to inhibit learning because your feedback is unclear or unfair. Effective feedback is:
- **focused** on the task being undertaken and the learning that the student needs to do
- **clear and honest**, telling the student what is good about their learning as well as what requires improvement
- **actionable**, telling the student to do something that they are able to do
- **given in appropriate language** that the student can understand
- **given at the right time** – if it’s given too soon, the student will think ‘I was just going to do that!'; too late, and the student’s focus will have moved elsewhere and they will not want to go back and do what is asked.
Whether feedback is spoken or written in the students’ workbooks, it becomes more effective if it follows the guidelines given below.
**Using praise and positive language**
When we are praised and encouraged, we generally feel a great deal better than when we are criticised or corrected. Reinforcement and positive language is motivating for the whole class and for individuals of all ages. Remember that praise must be specific and targeted on the work done rather than about the student themselves, otherwise it will not help the student progress. ‘Well done’ is non-specific, so it is better to say one of the following:
- That’s a good question!
- I really liked the way you …
- I was impressed by how you helped your group by reminding them to read …
- What would make this even better is …
**Using prompting as well as correction**
The dialogue that you have with your students helps their learning. If you tell them that an answer is incorrect and finish the dialogue there, you miss the opportunity to help them to keep thinking and trying for themselves. If you give students a hint or ask them a further question, you prompt them to think more deeply and encourage them to find answers and take responsibility for their own learning. For example, you can encourage a better answer or prompt a different angle on a problem by saying such things as:
It may be appropriate to encourage other students to help each other. You can do this by opening your questions to the rest of the class with such comments as:
Correcting students with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ might be appropriate to tasks such as spelling or number practice, but even here you can prompt students to look for emerging patterns in their answers, make connections with similar answers or open a discussion about why a certain answer is incorrect.
Self-correction and peer correction is effective and you can encourage this by asking students to check their own and each other’s work while doing tasks or assignments in pairs. It is best to focus on one aspect to correct at a time so that there is not too much confusing information.
**Resource 4: Develop your own English**
Here are some tips for developing your own writing skills:
- Read as much as you can in English. Good writers are often also good readers! Reading as much as possible will help you to develop your vocabulary and language use.
- Write as much as you can in English – shopping lists, diaries, notes – whatever you can. This will help you develop confidence in writing, and will develop your fluency.
- Remember that you can take your time when you write something. You can write as many drafts as you like, and you can revise and edit your own work.
And don’t forget to share your written work with your peers. It’s always a good idea to get feedback.
**Additional resources**
- Articles on writing: [http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/writing](http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/writing)
- ‘Writing matters: getting started’ by Adrian Tennant: [http://www.onestopenglish.com/skills/writing/writing-matters/writing-matters-getting-started/154745.article](http://www.onestopenglish.com/skills/writing/writing-matters/writing-matters-getting-started/154745.article)
- ‘Effective writing across the curriculum’: [http://orelt.col.org/module/unit/4-effective-writing-across-curriculum](http://orelt.col.org/module/unit/4-effective-writing-across-curriculum)
References/bibliography
National Council of Educational Research and Training (2006a) *Beehive: Textbook in English for Class XI*, National Council of Educational Research and Training. Available from: [http://www.ncert.nic.in/NCERTS/textbook/textbook.htm](http://www.ncert.nic.in/NCERTS/textbook/textbook.htm) (accessed 16 September 2014).
National Council of Educational Research and Training (2006b) *Honeydew: Textbook in English for Class VIII*, National Council of Educational Research and Training. Available from: [http://www.ncert.nic.in/NCERTS/textbook/textbook.htm](http://www.ncert.nic.in/NCERTS/textbook/textbook.htm) (accessed 16 September 2014).
Acknowledgements
This content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike licence ([http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)), unless identified otherwise. The licence excludes the use of the TESS-India, OU and UKAID logos, which may only be used unadapted within the TESS-India project.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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Tweed Shire Council
Access and Inclusion Plan 2023–2026
Easy Read version
Cover: Courtney Peate’s Connect and Captivate team at Tweed Shire Council’s International Day of People with Disability community event, December 2022.
Photo credit: Pipi and Palm Photography.
How to use this plan
The Tweed Shire Council wrote this plan.
When you see the word ‘we’, it means the Tweed Shire Council.
We wrote this plan in an easy to read way.
We use pictures to explain some ideas.
We wrote some important words in **bold**.
This means the letters are thicker and darker.
We explain what these bold words mean.
There is a list of these words on page 30.
This is an Easy Read summary of another plan.
This means it only includes the most important ideas.
You can find the other plan on our website.
www.tweed.nsw.gov.au/people-with-disability
You can ask for help to read this plan.
A friend, family member or support person may be able to help you.
We recognise the traditional owners of our land – the Tweed.
This includes the Ngandowal and Minyungbal speaking people of the Bundjalung Country.
It also includes the following clans:
- Goodjinburra
- Tul-gi-gin
- Moorung – Moobah.
They were the first peoples to live on and use the:
- lands
- waters.
## What’s in this plan?
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| What we want for the Tweed | 6 |
| The laws that apply | 9 |
| What have we done so far? | 10 |
| How did we make our Plan? | 12 |
| Our Access and Inclusion Plan | 13 |
| 1. Good attitudes and behaviour | 15 |
| 2. Accessible communities | 18 |
| 3. Helping people with disability get jobs | 20 |
| 4. Our services and way of doing things | 23 |
| Making sure our Plan works well | 26 |
| Contact us | 28 |
| Word list | 30 |
What we want for the Tweed
We want to make the Tweed more accessible.
When the community is accessible, it is easy to:
- find and use things
- travel around.
We also want to make the Tweed more inclusive.
When the community is inclusive, everyone:
- can take part
- feels like they belong.
We want the Tweed to be a place where everyone can:
- feel included
- connect with each other
- find and use the services they need.
We explain how you can contact us on page 28.
In the Tweed, about:
- 17,200 people live with disability
- 33,000 people are over 60 years old
- 7,200 people need help to do things
- 10,000 people are carers.
It’s important that all these groups can:
- take part in our community
- live well.
The laws that apply
We have a law in New South Wales called the Disability Inclusion Act 2014 (the Act).
The Act explains the rules that everyone must follow.
The Act makes sure people with disability in New South Wales are treated fairly.
The Act says we must have an Access and Inclusion Plan. We call it our Plan.
What have we done so far?
We worked with people and organisations to learn about issues that people with disability face:
- in the community
- when having contact with Council staff.
We made an online project with the Tweed Regional Museum. We did this during the 2020 and 2021 COVID-19 lockdowns.
We called it ‘Untold Stories’. It explores the stories of people with disability.
In 2021, we made 3 videos to celebrate International Day of People with Disability.
We created an inclusive playground that everyone can enjoy.
We call it Livvi’s Place at Goorimahbah – Place of Stories.
We also made our websites more accessible.
We worked with:
- Centre for Accessibility Australia
- the Tweed Equal Access Advisory Committee.
How did we make our Plan?
To make our Plan, we checked what we did last time.
And thought about the work we still need to do.
We also looked at what other Councils are doing to support their communities.
We asked our community to share their ideas about how we can be more accessible and inclusive.
We asked:
- people with disability
- their family and carers
- Council staff.
Our Plan explains how we will make the Tweed more accessible and inclusive.
Our Plan will finish in July 2026.
Focus areas are important areas of our work and lives.
Our Plan has 4 focus areas.
1. Good community attitudes and behaviour
2. Accessible communities
Each focus area talks about:
- our goals for that focus area
- what we will do.
1. Good attitudes and behaviour
What is our goal?
Our attitudes are what we think, feel and believe.
We want the community to have good attitudes and behaviour towards people with disability.
This can help people with disability to:
- take part in the community
- be healthy and live well
- find and keep a job.
What will we do?
We will help our staff and community to celebrate our diverse community.
When something is diverse, it means lots of different people take part in it.
This includes people with different:
- abilities
- ages
- backgrounds
- beliefs.
We will also help our staff and community to understand:
- different types of disability
- the rights of people with disability.
Rights are rules about how people must treat you:
- fairly
- equally.
We will work with:
- people with disability
- their families and carers.
And we will connect them to groups in the community.
We will also share stories about how our community can work to have good attitudes and behaviour.
2. Accessible communities
What is our goal?
We want our community to be a place where everyone can take part in community life.
This includes people with disability.
We want everyone to go to and use places like:
- parks
- toilets
- libraries
- beaches.
What will we do?
We will check that everyone can find and use things in the community.
For example, toilets and buildings.
We will listen to any problems people have when they need to find and use things in the community.
This includes how to find and use information.
We will work with the government and other groups to make sure our communities are good to live in.
We will help different groups in the community learn about ways to make things accessible. This includes things like shops and services.
We will give people information about what parts of the community are:
- accessible
- inclusive.
For example, we will create maps.
We will also make signs and guides for people with disability to move around open spaces.
3. Helping people with disability get jobs
What is our goal?
We want our Council to be more diverse.
We know that people with disability can face issues to find and keep a job.
We want to make sure everyone in the Tweed can:
- learn
- work.
This will support everyone in our community to:
- earn money
- be healthy
- live how they want.
What will we do?
We will think about different ways that people with disability can work with the Council.
To do this, we’ll work with:
- disability organisations
- organisations who speak up for people with disability
- researchers.
We will:
- share information about Council jobs
- train our staff.
We will check programs that support people with disability to find and keep a job.
This can improve the way the programs work.
And we will also check how inclusive and accessible it is to work for the Council.
This includes:
- where people work
- equipment.
4. Our services and way of doing things
What is our goal?
We want everyone in our community to be able to find and use Council services.
This includes people who:
- work with us
- visit the Tweed.
We want everyone to be able to find and use information about:
- events
- programs
- decisions that might affect their lives.
We also want everyone in the community to be able to share their experiences with us.
What will we do?
We will provide different ways for people to find:
- information
- support.
We will continue to make our website more accessible.
We will make sure our computer system works well when people want to:
- get in contact with us
- tell us about parts of the community that aren’t accessible.
We will teach our staff about:
- accessible services
- working with people with disability.
We will run events that are inclusive.
And we will support other people to run inclusive events.
We will work to make sure our services and programs are inclusive for everyone.
Making sure our Plan works well
We want to make sure:
- our Plan works well
- we reach the goals in our Plan.
To keep track of how well our Plan is going, we will work with different people and organisations.
This includes the:
- government
- community.
We will check how well our Plan is going every 3 months.
We will share the goals we reached in the Tweed Shire Council Annual Report.
This report explains what we did in the last year.
We will also work with experts so our staff understand what they must do to follow the Plan.
We will work with:
- our Community Development Officer for Inclusion
- the Tweed Equal Access Advisory Committee.
Contact us
You can contact us:
- for more information about our Plan
- in the way that’s easiest for you.
You can call us.
02 6670 2400
You can send us an email.
firstname.lastname@example.org
You can meet us in person.
Murwillumbah administration office
Civic and Cultural Centre
10-14 Tumbulgum Road
Murwillumbah NSW 2484
You can write to us
Tweed Shire Council
PO Box 816
Murwillumbah NSW 2484
You can visit our website.
www.tweed.nsw.gov.au/home
You can call the National Relay Service if you:
- are deaf or hard of hearing
- find it hard to speak using the phone.
TTY
133 677
Speak and Listen
1300 555 727
If you speak a language other than English, you can contact the Translating and Interpreting Service (TIS).
131 450
Word list
This list explains what the **bold** words in this document mean.
**Accessible**
When the community is accessible, it is easy to:
- find and use things
- travel around.
**Attitudes**
Our attitudes are what we think, feel and believe.
**Diverse**
When something is diverse, it means lots of different people take part in it.
This includes people with different:
- abilities
- ages
- backgrounds
- beliefs.
Focus areas
Focus areas are important areas of our work and lives.
Inclusive
When the community is inclusive, everyone:
- can take part
- feels like they belong.
Rights
Rights are rules about how people must treat you:
- fairly
- equally.
The Information Access Group created this Easy Read document using stock photography and custom images. The images may not be reused without permission. For any enquiries about the images, please visit www.informationaccessgroup.com. Quote job number 5298.
The 2016-2017 school year was a challenging one for many students and families, but we are proud to report that our students continued to make significant progress in their academic and social-emotional development. We are committed to providing a safe, supportive, and engaging learning environment for all students, and we will continue to work tirelessly to ensure that every student has the opportunity to reach their full potential.
We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to our parents, guardians, and community members for your continued support and involvement in our students' education. Your partnership is essential to our success, and we look forward to working together to create a brighter future for our students.
Sincerely,
[Your Name]
Principal
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ENGLISH AS AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE (EAL)
Aural and written examination
Wednesday 27 October 2021
Reading time: 9.00 am to 9.15 am (15 minutes)
Writing time: 9.15 am to 12.15 pm (3 hours)
QUESTION AND ANSWER BOOK
| Section | Number of questions | Number of questions to be answered | Percentage of total marks |
|----------------------------------------------|---------------------|-----------------------------------|---------------------------|
| A – Listening to texts | 2 | 2 | 20 |
| B – Analytical interpretation of a text | 28 | 1 | 40 |
| C – Argument and persuasive language | 2 | 2 | 40 |
| | | | Total 100 |
- Students are permitted to bring into the examination room: pens, pencils, highlighters, erasers, sharpeners, rulers and an English and/or bilingual printed dictionary.
- Students are NOT permitted to bring into the examination room: blank sheets of paper and/or correction fluid/tape.
- No calculator is allowed in this examination.
Materials supplied
- Question and answer book of 24 pages, including assessment criteria on page 24
- Task book of 12 pages
Instructions
- Write your student number in the space provided above on this page.
- All written responses must be in English.
At the end of the examination
- You may keep the task book.
Students are NOT permitted to bring mobile phones and/or any other unauthorised electronic devices into the examination room.
SECTION A – Listening to texts
Instructions for Section A
You will hear two texts. Each text will be played twice. There will be a short break between the first and second playings of each text. You may make notes at any time.
Listen carefully to each text and then answer the following questions.
Section A is worth 20 per cent of the total marks for the examination.
TEXT 1
Background information
Ali and Wendy are school friends. They are discussing what they will be doing with their families in the holidays.
Question 1 (10 marks)
a. At the beginning of the conversation, how does Ali feel about going on his holiday? In your response, include an example of how Ali shows this feeling through his language use.
b. Explain why Ali and Wendy need to be quiet at their different holiday locations.
| Location | Reason to be quiet |
|----------|-------------------|
| Ali | |
| Wendy | |
c. Give a reason why Ali would like to go camping.
d. Tick (✓) the correct box.
Given what Ali says about his preferred type of holiday, which statement would most likely be true for Ali?
- [ ] He is easily bored.
- [ ] He likes to take photographs.
- [ ] He loves being outdoors.
- [ ] He can ignore flies and sunburn.
e. At the end of the conversation, Wendy shows her enthusiasm for Ali’s holiday. Give one example of her language use and one example of her delivery, which show her enthusiasm.
Example of language use
Example of delivery
TEXT 2
Background information
Cathy and Alex are friends. Alex, who now lives in the bush, tells Cathy about his new hobby – keeping bees to produce honey.
Question 2 (10 marks)
a. How does Alex feel about Cathy’s response to his new hobby? In your response, include an example of how Alex shows this feeling in his language use.
Alex’s feeling
Example of language use
b. Give two main reasons why Alex thinks that bees are important to humans.
1.
2.
c. Give two benefits that Alex has experienced from keeping bees.
1.
2.
d. i. Describe how Cathy’s attitude to bees changes during the conversation.
Attitude at the beginning
Attitude by the end
ii. Give two of Cathy’s comments about bees that show her changed attitude.
1.
2.
SECTION B – Analytical interpretation of a text
Instructions for Section B
Section B requires students to write an analytical interpretation of a selected text in response to one topic (either i. or ii.) on one text. The topics can be found on pages 3–8 of the task book.
Your response should be supported by close reference to the selected text.
If your selected text is a collection of poetry or short stories, you may write on several poems or stories, or on at least two in close detail.
Indicate which text you have chosen to write on and whether you have chosen to answer i. or ii. by shading the appropriate boxes.
Your response will be assessed according to the assessment criteria set out on page 24 of this book.
Section B is worth 40 per cent of the total marks for the examination.
Shade the box next to your selected text.
☐ After Darkness .................................................................................................................. Christine Piper
☐ All the Light We Cannot See ................................................................................................. Anthony Doerr
☐ Behind the Beautiful Forevers: Life, Death, and Hope in a Mumbai Undercity ................ Katherine Boo
☐ Extinction ............................................................................................................................. Hannie Rayson
☐ I Am Malala: The Girl Who Stood Up for Education and Was Shot by the Taliban ........ Malala Yousafzai with Christina Lamb
☐ In Cold Blood ....................................................................................................................... Truman Capote
☐ Like a House on Fire ........................................................................................................... Cate Kennedy
☐ Much Ado About Nothing .................................................................................................... William Shakespeare
☐ Nine Days ............................................................................................................................ Toni Jordan
☐ Old/New World: New & Selected Poems .............................................................................. Peter Skrzynecki
☐ Persepolis: The Story of a Childhood ................................................................................ Marjane Satrapi
☐ Photograph 51 ..................................................................................................................... Anna Ziegler
☐ Pride and Prejudice ............................................................................................................. Jane Austen
☐ Rear Window ..................................................................................................................... directed by Alfred Hitchcock
☐ Reckoning .......................................................................................................................... Magda Szubanski
☐ Runaway ............................................................................................................................. Alice Munro
| Title | Author/Creator |
|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
| Stasiland | Anna Funder |
| Station Eleven | Emily St John Mandel |
| Stories We Tell | directed by Sarah Polley |
| The 7 Stages of Grieving | Wesley Enoch and Deborah Mailman |
| The Crucible | Arthur Miller |
| The Golden Age | Joan London |
| The Lieutenant | Kate Grenville |
| The Queen | directed by Stephen Frears |
| The Women of Troy | Euripides |
| Things Fall Apart | Chinua Achebe |
| Tracks | Robyn Davidson |
| William Wordsworth: Poems Selected by Seamus Heaney | William Wordsworth |
Shade the box next to your selected topic.
☐ i. or ☐ ii.
SECTION B – continued
TURN OVER
SECTION B – continued
SECTION B – continued
TURN OVER
SECTION B – continued
SECTION B – continued
TURN OVER
END OF SECTION B
DO NOT WRITE IN THIS AREA
SECTION C – Argument and persuasive language
Instructions for Section C
Section C consists of two questions.
Read the background information on page 9 and the material on pages 10 and 11 of the task book, and then complete both Questions 1 and 2.
For the purposes of this task, the term ‘language’ refers to written, spoken and visual language.
Your response to Question 2 will be assessed according to the assessment criteria set out on page 24 of this book.
Section C is worth 40 per cent of the total marks for the examination.
Questions 1 and 2 are equally weighted.
Question 1 (10 marks)
a. In your own words, explain why Ava writes that Toppdale’s cinema will be a ‘victim of the streaming revolution’.
b. Give two examples from Ava’s post that show what the experience of going to the movies in the past has in common with that of going to the movies today.
1.
2.
c. Explain the comparison that Ava makes between going to the cinema and eating out.
d. According to Ava, what are two benefits of the cinema to the Toppdale community?
1.
2.
Question 2 (10 marks)
Analyse the ways in which the writer uses argument and written and visual language to try to persuade others to share her point of view. In your response, use the material on pages 10 and 11 of the task book.
SECTION C – Question 2 – continued
TURN OVER
SECTION C – Question 2 – continued
SECTION C – Question 2 – continued
TURN OVER
SECTION C – Question 2 – continued
END OF SECTION C
Assessment criteria
Section B will be assessed against the following criteria:
• knowledge and understanding of the text, and the ideas and values it explores, demonstrated appropriately in response to the topic
• development of a coherent analysis in response to the topic
• control of expressive and effective language, as appropriate to the task
Question 2 of Section C will be assessed against the following criteria:
• analysis of the use of argument and language to try to persuade
• control of the mechanics of the English language to convey meaning
ENGLISH AS AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE (EAL)
Aural and written examination
Wednesday 27 October 2021
Reading time: 9.00 am to 9.15 am (15 minutes)
Writing time: 9.15 am to 12.15 pm (3 hours)
TASK BOOK
Instructions
A question and answer book is provided with this task book.
Refer to instructions on the front cover of the question and answer book.
You may keep this task book.
Students are NOT permitted to bring mobile phones and/or any other unauthorised electronic devices into the examination room.
THIS PAGE IS BLANK
SECTION B – Analytical interpretation of a text
After Darkness by Christine Piper
i. ‘In After Darkness, silence damages characters and their relationships.’
To what extent do you agree?
OR
ii. ‘In After Darkness, racism affects everyone’s life.’
Discuss.
All the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr
i. ‘All the Light We Cannot See highlights that what is most precious is not always easy to see.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. ‘All the characters in All the Light We Cannot See are trapped in some way.’
To what extent do you agree?
Behind the Beautiful Forevers: Life, Death, and Hope in a Mumbai Undercity by Katherine Boo
i. ‘There is more chaos than order in the lives of the Annawadi slum-dwellers.’
Do you agree?
OR
ii. Why do the people of Annawadi treat their neighbours badly?
Extinction by Hannie Rayson
i. “You’ve got to believe in your own species, Piper. In the human capacity to achieve great things.”
How does the play explore Harry’s idea?
OR
ii. ‘Extinction demonstrates the conflict between the desire to take action and the need to follow rules.’
Discuss.
I Am Malala: The Girl Who Stood Up for Education and Was Shot by the Taliban by Malala Yousafzai with Christina Lamb
i. How does education influence Malala’s values?
OR
ii. “[…] if you want to achieve a goal, there will be hurdles in your way but you must continue.”
‘Malala’s greatest strength is her determination.’
Discuss.
**In Cold Blood** by Truman Capote
i. To what extent is *In Cold Blood* about the failure of dreams?
OR
ii. ‘The tragedy of the Clutters is that their story becomes less important than the stories of Dick and Perry.’
Do you agree?
**Like a House on Fire** by Cate Kennedy
i. ‘Only in times of crisis do the characters truly begin to know themselves.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. How successful are the characters in finding happiness in their relationships with others?
**Much Ado About Nothing** by William Shakespeare
i. To what extent do characters in the play suffer because they believe what they hear?
OR
ii. ‘In *Much Ado About Nothing*, romantic relationships are more about appearances than about reality.’
Discuss.
**Nine Days** by Toni Jordan
i. ‘In *Nine Days*, some characters can make choices with more freedom than other characters.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. How does *Nine Days* explore the connections that keep people together?
**Old/New World: New & Selected Poems** by Peter Skrzynecki
i. ‘Skrzynecki’s poetry reveals a life well lived.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. ‘Skrzynecki’s poetry shows his desire to understand both the old world and the new world.’
To what extent do you agree?
**Persepolis: The Story of a Childhood** by Marjane Satrapi
i. How does Satrapi use symbols to understand her changing world?
OR
ii. ‘Marji discovers that she cannot trust everything that she is told.’
Discuss.
**Photograph 51** by Anna Ziegler
i. ‘Both women and men are disadvantaged by traditional gender roles in *Photograph 51*.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. Is competition more important than collaboration in *Photograph 51*?
**Pride and Prejudice** by Jane Austen
i. ‘Women’s relationships with other women are important in the world of *Pride and Prejudice*.’
To what extent do you agree?
OR
ii. ‘In *Pride and Prejudice*, a woman’s reputation is of the highest importance to her.’
Discuss.
**Rear Window** directed by Alfred Hitchcock
i. “Neighbours like each other, speak to each other, care if anybody lives or dies. But none of you do!”
‘The characters in *Rear Window* know many details about their neighbours’ lives, but they do not care for each other.’
Do you agree?
OR
ii. ‘There’s no harm in looking.’
Is this idea supported by Hitchcock’s film?
**Reckoning** by Magda Szubanski
i. To what extent does Szubanski’s rebellion play a role in establishing her identity?
OR
ii. How are Szubanski and her family affected by changing cultures?
Runaway by Alice Munro
i. ‘In the stories in Runaway, life is not always fair.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. “I don’t look cruel. But I was.”
‘For the characters in Runaway, looks can be deceiving.’
Do you agree?
Stasiland by Anna Funder
i. Is there any sense of hope in the world of Stasiland?
OR
ii. “Yes, […] being a blind man is the best way to observe people.”
‘For the people in Stasiland, watching others and being watched creates a culture of suspicion.’
Discuss.
Station Eleven by Emily St John Mandel
i. ‘The characters in Station Eleven search for ways to give their lives meaning.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. Discuss the role of theatre and the arts in rebuilding the world in Station Eleven.
Stories We Tell directed by Sarah Polley
i. ‘In Stories We Tell, Polley is searching for herself rather than for her parents.’
Do you agree?
OR
ii. ‘A person’s life is often a mystery.’
How does Polley’s film reveal this idea?
The 7 Stages of Grieving by Wesley Enoch and Deborah Mailman
i. ‘In The 7 Stages of Grieving, there is always hope.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. ‘Anger motivates the behaviour of the characters in The 7 Stages of Grieving.’
Do you agree?
The Crucible by Arthur Miller
i. ‘In The Crucible, the voices of the women are more powerful than the voices of the men.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. ‘John Proctor is overwhelmed by a sense of shame.’
Do you agree?
The Golden Age by Joan London
i. Discuss the role of poetry and music in the lives of the characters in The Golden Age.
OR
ii. How important is human connection as a source of hope in The Golden Age?
The Lieutenant by Kate Grenville
i. ‘Grenville’s novel examines the dangers of failures in communication.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. “Every thing is part of every other thing, now and forever.”
How is the importance of connections between people explored in The Lieutenant?
The Queen directed by Stephen Frears
i. ‘The Queen explores how loss changes relationships.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. ‘In The Queen, leadership is portrayed as a lonely role.’
Do you agree?
The Women of Troy by Euripides
i. ‘Euripides’s play shows that there are no winners in war.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. To what extent is Helen treated fairly in The Women of Troy?
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
i. ‘Okonkwo’s inability to adapt to change leads to his tragic end.’
Do you agree?
OR
ii. Things Fall Apart shows how difficult it can be to maintain culture and family.
Discuss.
Tracks by Robyn Davidson
i. ‘The people in Tracks resist attempts to make them conform to other people’s expectations.’
Discuss.
OR
ii. ‘Davidson does not fear isolation.’
Do you agree?
William Wordsworth: Poems Selected by Seamus Heaney by William Wordsworth
i. How does Wordsworth use sound and colour to engage readers?
OR
ii. ‘In Wordsworth’s poetry, the natural world enriches people’s lives.’
Discuss.
SECTION C – Argument and persuasive language
Background information
A cinema in the regional town of Toppdale is struggling to attract customers and is at risk of closing down. To ask for support, Ava, the cinema’s marketing manager, has written a social media post on the *Toppdale Community Voice* page. Members of the page are residents of Toppdale and the surrounding area.
Toppdale’s cinema has been part of our town since 1910. Now, after supporting many generations through difficult times by offering the latest, greatest films from around the world, our historic cinema is at risk of closing. Forever! We must remember the value that the cinema adds to the community of Toppdale. It is not just a business. We have no choice but to fight to save Toppdale’s cinema!
In the past, our cinema was threatened by television and DVDs. Today, the biggest threat to the cinema’s survival is the growing popularity of streaming services. Just a few years ago, we had an estimated 250,000 customers a year. Now we are down to 100,000 customers a year. We are at risk of being overpowered by the online world! Without your support, Toppdale’s cinema will be the next victim of the streaming revolution.
A Toppdale cinema experience has always been special. Once, our cinema was the social heart of town, where moviegoers of every age came together to have fun. Just ask your grandparents. They’ll tell you about the fun they used to have dressing up for an evening out with friends at the cinema with its cosy darkness and big screen. Everyone delighted in watching a movie and eating the best ice cream in town from the snack bar. Every community, in every age, needs a place where people can meet, relax and enjoy each other’s company. What better place than at the movies? Have we forgotten the magic of watching the latest movies on a huge screen and with excellent sound quality? Have we forgotten the magic of music swirling around us as we are transported into imaginary worlds? Have we forgotten the anticipation of that moment when the screen lights up? What an experience: the lights dim, the music plays and … action! You never feel such excitement when you watch a streamed movie at home, on the couch, staring at a small screen, with only your cat for company.
Nowadays, going to Toppdale’s cinema is more than just watching a film. We have created an entertainment experience for everyone, with discounts for senior citizens, baby-friendly sessions for parents and cheap tickets on Tuesdays for students. Our special cinema for kids even has a play area. Think of it like this: we have kitchens at home to cook meals but we still enjoy going out to eat. That’s like going to our cinema. Cinemas provide an experience and an atmosphere that you can’t create at home.
As long as we have our cinema, there will always be something to do in Toppdale. In the future, we see potential for the cinema to offer community events, such as live music, comedy performances and film festivals to support local people. Such events, besides building a sense of community, would possibly provide local employment opportunities. If people say that there is nothing to do in Toppdale, we say that we have the cinema, where people connect with each other, socialise and have fun. When holding a small screen in your hand becomes boring, the cinema must still be there for you.
However, if you don’t get off your device, off the couch and fight for it, Toppdale’s cinema will be just a memory – our favourite meeting place gone. We must fight to save the treasure that is our beautiful cinema – a place to enjoy being with friends, a place to lose ourselves in a mystery or a romance, a place to preserve for the future. Then, just as they did in the past, the movies will take us on adventures into other worlds and other lives.
Share this post, grab your friends, get your popcorn and relax into the comfortable seats. Spread the word before the doors slam shut forever! Save the Toppdale cinema before it is carelessly thrown into history.
Sources: world of vector/Shutterstock.com (p. 10, top); Zoran Zeremski/Shutterstock.com (p. 10, bottom); David Gilder/Shutterstock.com (p. 11)
END OF TASK BOOK | 7b6d2b84-71e3-4bce-aebc-d261b7b59089 | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/exams/english/2021/2021EAL-w.pdf | 2022-06-29T21:23:07+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103645173.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20220629211420-20220630001420-00171.warc.gz | 1,088,814,940 | 4,585 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.936545 | eng_Latn | 0.996769 | [
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Hiking the Appalachian Trail
A Reading A-Z Level U Leveled Book
Word Count: 1,212
Connections
Writing
Ben achieved his dream of hiking the Appalachian Trail. Write a paper about a dream you have achieved or would like to achieve.
Social Studies
Create a brochure for the Appalachian Trail. Include a map that shows the fourteen U.S. states it goes through, and at least five interesting landmarks on the trail.
Reading A-Z
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Focus Question
What are the challenges and rewards of hiking the Appalachian Trail?
Words to Know
acclimate lean-to
filtered replenish
footpath summited
hygiene terrain
hypothermia thru-hiking
insurmountable traversed
Front cover: Beautiful clouds rolled in at the end of a long day in the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
Back cover: I came across this quiet beach along the trail in Maine.
Page 3: These spiderwebs caught my eye just after sunrise in New Hampshire.
Photo Credits:
All photos except pages 6 (bottom), 8 (background): courtesy of Ben Gaddes; page 6 (bottom): © iStock/WendyOlsenPhotography; page 8 (background): © iStock/stock_colors
Correlation
| LEVEL U | Fountas & Pinnell | Q |
|---------|-------------------|---|
| | Reading Recovery | 40|
| | DRA | 40|
Hiking the Appalachian Trail
Level U Leveled Book
© Learning A–Z
Written by Ben Gaddes
All rights reserved.
www.readinga-z.com
Introduction
My name is Ben. In 2015, I became so overwhelmed with my work as a therapist that I needed an especially long break. I decided it was time to fulfill a childhood dream and hike the entire length of the Appalachian Trail.
The Appalachian Trail, or “A.T.,” is nearly one hundred years old. It connects the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States along their highest ridgelines. When the trail was completed in 1937, the A.T. became the world’s longest hiking-only footpath. It still holds that title.
The A.T. begins on Springer Mountain in Georgia and travels over 2,000 miles (3,000 km) north, ending on Mount Katahdin in Maine. It goes through fourteen U.S. states. The terrain covers farmland, runs alongside rivers, travels above the trees, and even goes through backyards.
Hiking an entire long-distance trail in one year is called **thru-hiking**. Thousands of people try to complete an A.T. thru-hike each year. Only a few hundred, including me, succeed. Most thru-hikers begin the trail in spring and hike north, as I did, since it is already warm down south in springtime.
I took my first step from Springer Mountain, Georgia, on April 4, 2016. The next few days were some of the most difficult. My body and mind had to **acclimate** to the daily challenges of hiking.
**Fun Facts about the Appalachian Trail**
- **Length**: 2,190 miles (3,524 km)
- **Steps on an A.T. thru-hike**: Approximately five million
- **Highest point**: Clingman’s Dome, North Carolina–Tennessee border, 6,643 feet (2,025 m) above sea level
- **Elevation gain and loss**: Equivalent to hiking Mount Everest from sea level and back—sixteen times!
- **First and oldest thru-hiker**: Earl V. Shaffer, first in 1948 at thirty years old and again in 1998 at eighty years old
- **Record for fastest A.T. thru-hike**: 45 days, 22 hours, 38 minutes
Preparation Is Key
I spent several months intensively preparing for my thru-hike. I walked wherever I could while wearing my heavy pack, often in poor weather. I got a job at an outdoor store to learn more about hiking supplies and tried to save money.
I did a practice hike across the Brooklyn Bridge wearing my backpack full of supplies.
I practiced setting up my tent inside my apartment.
Thru-Hiking Gear
- Backpack, tent, trekking poles
- Sleeping bag, sleeping pad, sitting pad
- Down jacket, rain jacket, poncho, rain skirt, pack cover
- Waterproof bags, food/bear bag, rope
- Camping stove, fuel, lighter
- Water bottles, water filter, purification tablets
- First aid kit, repair kit, mini-pocketknife
- Earplugs
- Sanitary kit, toothbrush/toothpaste, towel
- Hat, gloves, bandanna, underwear, long underwear, T-shirt, shorts, pants, long-sleeved shirt, balaclava
- Hiking sneakers, camp shoes, camp socks, sock liners, wool socks, gaiters
- Headlamp, smartphone, headphones, GPS tracker, backup batteries
Total Average Pack Weight = 21 pounds (9.5 kg) with a day’s food, some stove fuel, and a liter of water
Total Gear Cost = nearly $2,500
The Trail Community
Ever since I had heard about the A.T. as a kid, its trail community intrigued me. Just imagine an entire community, constantly moving at different speeds, sprawled across 2,190 miles (3,524 km) of continuous trail measuring only a few feet wide. Interesting people of all ages, cultural backgrounds, and abilities choose to hike the A.T. each year. Many people hike to help them recover from tragedies. I even met families hiking the whole trail together. Everyone I met was on the A.T. for a reason.
Some thru-hikers hiked with a group, but I chose to hike alone most of the time. I enjoyed meeting new people and keeping my own schedule. Whenever I felt lonely, I could always seek out friends in fellow hikers.
Daily Challenges
One of the most difficult aspects of hiking every single day was just that—hiking every single day! On a typical day on the trail, I woke up with the Sun. I hiked until I reached my daily goal and got to camp just before sunset. Most thru-hikers, myself included, eat inexpensive foods that are lightweight, are easy to prepare, and won’t spoil.
The number of miles I hiked each day depended on the weather and the terrain. My personal goals and level of exhaustion also affected my daily mileage. I typically tried to stay at campsites with a lean-to shelter, a water source, and an outhouse. Otherwise, I set up my small tent.
Shelters were generally small, such as this one in Pennsylvania (top), and also crowded, such as this one in the Smoky Mountains (bottom).
If I was unable to find a space in a shelter, I set up my tent, as I did in this forest in Vermont.
Every few days I went into a nearby town to replenish my food supply, take a shower, and do my laundry. I learned that properly resting and resupplying were just as important as hiking.
On rainy days, I planned my whole day around arriving at a shelter in time to secure a spot. Shelters can fill up quickly in bad weather. Sometimes it rained nonstop for several days in a row, and I couldn’t fully dry out until I reached a town.
The most important concern while hiking is safety. I encountered black bears, venomous snakes, and disease-carrying ticks on the trail. Knowing what to do when faced with unsavory critters is critical to staying safe in the woods. I tried to remain calm, act respectfully, and maintain a safe distance.
I filtered all my water and was cautious about my hygiene to avoid getting sick. To prevent hypothermia, I stayed dry and warm. Having the right shoes and listening to my body’s limits helped me avoid injuries. Keeping my gear well organized allowed me to be prepared in case of an emergency. Staying in touch with loved ones was also important to me.
Intense heat caused most water sources to dry up in New York, so I filtered puddle water.
**Math Minute**
If my hike took six months, about how far did I hike each month?
Answer: 365 miles (587 km)
Although I felt very happy most of the time, one of the biggest challenges I faced was that hiking wasn’t always fun. I was often hungry, exhausted, and sore. Sometimes I was even bored. I learned that the best way to overcome these challenges was to lean on the people around me for support.
Like the beginning of my hike, the end was difficult. With the fall season in full swing, it had started getting cold at night, and I was hungrier than I had ever felt. The mountains of northern New England were undoubtedly the hardest to climb. My pace was cut in half as I traversed the rocky ranges of southern Maine. After nearly six months of hiking, I did it—I summited Mount Katahdin on October 1, 2016!
However difficult they were, these last days on the trail were also unlike my first. I felt as though I was a different person than when I had started hiking. I never felt so strong, confident, and accomplished. As a child, I rarely played sports, but now I could call myself an athlete for the first time.
Reflections
Since I finished my hike, many people have asked me about my favorite memories. My fondest memories were those times when a challenge that seemed insurmountable turned into something beautiful.
One night when I was camping alone on a treeless mountaintop, strong winds and heavy rain caused my tent to collapse. I became frustrated and afraid. At 3:00 a.m., I gave up trying to sleep and decided to pack my belongings, eat breakfast, and start hiking. What followed was the most amazing sunrise I had ever seen, all alone on a mountaintop. I had faced a challenge that at first seemed impossible but over time transformed into something incredible.
Many people have asked me, “How did you do it?” I tell them that I hiked the Appalachian Trail the same way you do anything else: one step at a time. People have also asked me, “Why did you do it?”
After hiking more than 2,000 miles (3,000 km), I was skinnier and dirtier than when I began.
After the most challenging night of my adventure, I enjoyed beautiful views of the Roan Highlands in Tennessee.
Looking back, the reasons I kept going were different from my reasons when I began. I felt so surrounded by love and support from those around me and at home that I never wanted to stop.
I’m writing this book several months after finishing my thru-hike. My knees still hurt from those five million steps. I was away from people I love for six months. So you might be wondering, was it worth it?
I followed a dream, one step after another, for five million steps. No one can ever take that accomplishment away from me. It took months of careful preparation to hike the A.T., and failure was always looming. I faced many dangers and challenges along the way. I planned, saved money, and learned to live on a tight budget. I also learned to value every item I carried because my life depended on it. I made friends from around the world, and I grew closer to the people in my life who were cheering from the sidelines. Despite all the challenges, in the end, thru-hiking was an invaluable experience.
Glossary
| Term | Definition |
|---------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| acclimate | to get used to a new climate or situation (p. 6) |
| filtered | passed something, such as a liquid or a gas, through a device or material to separate out unwanted items (p. 12) |
| footpath | a narrow trail or path made for people to walk along (p. 4) |
| hygiene | cleanliness for the purpose of staying healthy (p. 12) |
| hypothermia | a dangerously low body temperature (p. 12) |
| insurmountable| impossible to overcome or achieve (p. 14) |
| lean-to | a small shelter with a sloping roof that is held up by rocks, posts, or trees (p. 10) |
| replenish | to fill something up again (p. 11) |
| summited | reached the highest point of a mountain (p. 13) |
| terrain | the natural features of a piece of land; ground (p. 4) |
| thru-hiking | hiking a long-distance trail from beginning to end within a single hiking season (p. 6) |
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Electricity is the movement of electrical charge through a circuit (usually, flowing electrons.)
The Greek word for “amber” is “electron”
Women in ancient Greece noticed that rubbing their amber jewelry against silk caused it to accumulate a charge—which they used to shock small frogs at parties.
Benjamin Franklin (1705-1790) had ideas about electricity:
1. That Lightning was electricity.
2. The two types of electrical charge (at the time, referred to as two “fluids”: “resinous” and “vitreous”) were in fact the result of the relative presence or absence of a “single fluid”.
We can make this intuitive generalization:
– Electrical current (like electrons from a voltage source) tries to flow taking the path of least resistance, to ground." (-From "+" to "-".)
...Except that it's all really backwards!
Benjamin Franklin came up with the labels of “positive” and “negative” for the different types of charge. He decided that the “fluid” flowing was “positive.” Almost a hundred years later when the electron was discovered, it was learned that Franklin got it backwards. To this day, (and in this class) “conventional current” flow is described as flowing from positive to negative, even though electrons (negatively charged particles) flow towards a positive pole.
An electron inserted at A will cause one to pop out instantaneously at B.
Electrons are directed to drift from negative potential to positive potential as a result of the potential difference supplied.
Electrons pop out here.
Simple DC Circuits (open):
Here is perhaps the simplest circuit we could build. In this case the light bulb is the “load” in the circuit, controlled by a “single pole, single throw” (SPST) switch. (More about switches later.)
Materials that have a large supply of free electrons in their atomic structure are referred to as conductors (e.g. copper, gold.) Conversely, materials with relatively few free electrons are called insulators (e.g. wood, rubber.) If the electromotive potential is great enough, just about anything can become a conductor, even the air in the sky (in the case of lightning.)
Simple DC Circuits: (closed)
Electricity flows from a source, where there is the greatest concentration of electrons (positive pole) to the place with a relatively lower concentration of electrons (negative pole, often also referred to as “ground”) through the path of least resistance.
DC (Direct Current) circuits harness the power of the electrical current flowing from a positive source, energizing a load of some kind as it passes through it to ground.
Simple DC Circuits: (short!)
- Always make sure there is a load of some kind on the circuit. A path through a conductor directly from source to ground is called a **short circuit** (very bad.) It will cause the power source to over-heat and die. In this case it would cause the battery to get very hot and die. If this happens with AC current in your home it can cause catastrophic fires.
J.J. Thomson's discovered the electron in 1897. Thomson was studying "cathode rays", rays are emitted at the cathode, or negative terminal in a vacuum tube. The nature of cathode rays was controversial. It had been proposed that the cathode rays were negatively charged 'radiant matter'. Many Europeans thought they were an 'ethereal disturbance', like light.
The classic “Rutherford-Bohr” model of the atom. Niels Bohr developed it in 1913. It has since had numerous amendments to account for discoveries in quantum mechanics.
Helium atom:
2 Protons,
2 Neutrons
2 Electrons
Bohr discovered that electrons could only exist in specific “quantized” orbits, with only a certain number of electrons allowed in each orbit or “shell”. The outer “valence” shell was key in how the atom interacted with other atoms.
The element copper has 29 electrons in 4 energy levels, with only one lonely electron in its fourth (outer) shell.
“Volts” is a unit of measure of the difference in electrical potential between 2 points in a circuit.
Here is a water metaphor
Some Definitions:
- Electricity (electrons flowing through a circuit) has two principle properties: voltage and current.
- **Electromotive potential** (symbol: $V$, or sometimes the more archaic $E$) is the difference in potential energy between two points in a circuit. It is measured in units called **volts** (after Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery.) In the metaphor of water and plumbing often used to visualize electrical charge flowing in a circuit, voltage would be thought of as water pressure.
- **Current**: (symbol: $I$ for “intensité”) Current is the rate of flow, or volume of electrical charge through a circuit. The unit of measure is the **ampere**, usually shortened to “amp” (after French physicist André-Marie Ampère.) It’s a measure of how many electrons go past a given point in a circuit per second. (In the water metaphor, current can be thought of as the diameter of the pipe.)
- **Power** (symbol: $W$) Volts and amps multiplied together equals the total amount of electrical power in the circuit, measured in units called **watts** (after James Watt, Scottish inventor and engineer.)
- **Resistance** (symbol: $\Omega$ - Greek letter for omega) Also called **impedance**, is measured in units called **ohms** (after German physicist, Georg Ohm.)
Thinking about current:
The famous “water metaphor”
Electrical components called “resistors” slow down the flow of electrons, and are essential for controlling the flow of electricity in a circuit. The electrical energy lost when current goes through a resistor is transformed into heat. The property of impedance (resistance) in a resistor is measured in units called ohms. In the metaphor, it’s represented by pinching the water pipe.
The water pressure (measured between two points) is a metaphor for electromotive potential, measured in units called volts.
The diameter of the pipe (or volume of water flowing) is a metaphor for current. It is measured in units called amperes (amps.) One ampere = a volume of one coulomb per second. -A coulomb is a measure of charge equal to $6.24 \times 10^{18}$ electrons.
Series and Parallel:
When connected “in series”, DC voltage sources are added. In the above example, two AA batteries (1.5 volts each) wired in series supply 3 volts to the circuit. (1.5 + 1.5 = 3.)
When connected “in parallel”, batteries' voltages are unaffected, but the current (measured in amperes) is increased. In the above example, two AA batteries (1.5 volts each) wired in parallel supply 1.5 volts to the circuit, but can do so for a longer time than a single battery alone.
Series and Parallel load:
The concept of being “in series” or “parallel” also applies to electrical components which are wired as the load of the circuit.
Some Definitions:
- The name for the property of having a “positive” and “negative” polar orientation is called “polarity.” Magnetic polarity and electrical polarity are inextricably linked.
- When a magnetic field is moved through a coil of wire, it causes electrons to move through the wire (electricity) in a process called “induction.” The moving magnetic field “induces” electrical current.
- Direct Current (DC) occurs when electrons flow in one direction continuously along a conductor. This is the kind of current obtained from batteries and is generally safe to work with at low voltages, and is the main kind of current we will be working with in our circuit constructions.
- Alternating Current (AC) occurs when the direction or polarity of the current alternates direction. AC is better suited for transmission through long distance power lines. Household (wall plug) current in North America delivers 110-115 volts, alternating at 60 times a second (60 Hz). A wire carrying AC will induce a current in nearby wire.
- “Wall current” (110-115 VAC) is a dangerous, potentially life-threatening energy source. **Do not use it** in the circuits you build without the advice and oversight of faculty and staff who can assure the work is done safely.
Prefixes:
These prefixes are universally used to scale units in science and engineering:
| Prefix | Abbreviation | Multiplier |
|---------|--------------|------------|
| tera | T | $10^{12}$ |
| giga | G | $10^9$ |
| mega | M | $10^6$ |
| kilo | k | $10^3$ |
| (none) | (none) | $10^0$ |
| centi | c | $10^{-2}$ |
| milli | m | $10^{-3}$ |
| micro | µ | $10^{-6}$ |
| nano | n | $10^{-9}$ |
| pico | p | $10^{-12}$ |
| femto | f | $10^{-15}$ |
When abbreviating a unit with a prefix, the symbol for the unit follows the prefix without space. Be careful about upper-case and lower-case letters (especially m and M.) 1mW is a milliwatt, or one-thousandth of a watt, but 1MW is a megawatt (one million watts.) The unit name is only capitalized when it is abbreviated. For example, in describing cycles-per-second we use hertz and kilohertz, but Hz and kHz.
Working with Multimeters
As you can imagine there are many different meters for measuring things. (“Ohmmeters” for measuring resistance, “Voltmeters” for measuring voltage, etc.) They come in analog and digital flavors.
Probably the most useful tool we will be using to understand what’s going on in our circuits is the digital multimeter (DMM). You should all get one if you are serious about working with electronics. As its name implies, it is a collection of multiple types of meters in one handheld device. Especially useful in our first circuits are the voltmeter (with the dashed line indicating dc current) and the ohmmeter (in different ranges by the “omega” symbol.)
Meter “ranges”
Multimeters are available that are “auto-ranging”, but we will be using the more economical manually-ranged meters. This means you will be manually selecting both the type of meter and the range within which you will be measuring.
Start by selecting the range you think is closest to the value you will be measuring. In this example, I'm measuring something I think is around 6 volts, so I start in the range of 0 – 20 volts. I'm measuring dc current, so I select the range in the area next to the “V” with a dashed line. (The “V” with the wavy line is volts of ac current.)
If I move dial to the 0 – 200 volt range, notice what happens: The meter is displaying the same value, but it moves over one decimal place to make room for a sign (+ or -) and larger, three digit number. -And notice I'm losing some resolution (the hundredths place) in the process. Selecting the range closest to the value you are measuring will give you the most precise measurement (most decimal places.)
Meter “ranges”
If I move dial to the 0 – 1000 volt range, notice what happens:
The meter is displaying the same value, but it moves over one decimal place to make room for a sign (+ or -) and larger, four digit number.
-And notice I'm losing some resolution (the tenths place) in the process.
The range below 0 – 20 volts has a small letter “m” indicating that it is a range measuring millivolts (thousandths of a volt.) Note: 0 – 2000 thousandths of a volt is the same as measuring 0 – 2 volts.
Since the voltage we are measuring is 5.71 volts, the meter displays a numeral 1 at the left of the display. This is what the display looks like when it is measuring a value that is “out of range.” If you see it, just move the dial to a larger range. (Or check that you are not trying to measure the wrong units, like volts instead of ohms.)
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HONOR YOUR PERSONAL MICHIGAN HERO—BY WRITING AN ESSAY ABOUT THEM!
TOPIC: “MY PERSONAL MICHIGAN HERO”
There are people in your life who inspire, help, teach, or guide you. In your community, you are surrounded by Michigan people making a difference. Which one is a hero to you? Who is it that you admire and would like to show gratitude to?
We invite you to write a 500-word essay about your personal Michigan hero—someone who lives in our state who’s taught you important lessons or helped you to pursue your dreams. It could be a family member, neighbor, businessperson, or anyone in your community. Tell us about their qualities or the reason they’re special in your life.
TIPS:
• Be honest
• Stay positive
• Use humor
• Be personal, and
• Most of all be original in your writing.
Your essay will be very meaningful to them and act as a lasting tribute. We can’t wait to read your essay!
THE AWARDS
STUDENT
• Top three essayists from each school will receive an honor certificate.
• Each school’s 1st place winner will receive a commemorative pen.
SCHOOL
• Each school receives a plaque for their first year of participation, with their school’s 1st place student’s name engraved on it. The plaque remains on permanent display in the school so names of future winners can be added.
• The 1st place essay from each school will be entered into the statewide competition from which the top ten essays will be chosen.
STATEWIDE
• If a student from your school is selected as a statewide finalist, the school and student will be notified in April.
• The ten statewide winners will be invited to attend an awards day program in May.
• A teacher and two other adults may accompany each winner.
• The top ten student winners will receive a cash award of $1,000, a plaque, and medallion.
• The top ten winners’ schools will each receive a $1,000 check compliments of the student winner and an additional $500 if the school has been sponsored by a Farm Bureau Insurance agent.
PARENTAL PERMISSION CARD
This card, or a copy, must be completed and signed by the parent or guardian of the student whose name appears on this card (the “Student”), and must be stapled to the essay in order to qualify the Student for the contest.
I grant full permission to the Student to participate in the America & Me Essay Contest sponsored by Farm Bureau Insurance. I understand and agree that all entries become the property of Farm Bureau Insurance and will not be returned. I also grant full permission to Farm Bureau Insurance to use the Student’s name, photograph, and essay (or a portion thereof) as well as the name and city of the Student’s school in booklets and other written materials, on the Farm Bureau Insurance website and social media pages. Furthermore, I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, this is the Student’s own work.
____________________________________
Signature of parent or guardian
Please print the following information legibly.
Student’s Name ____________________________
Date of Birth ________ Sex: M or F
Home Address ____________________________
City_________________ Zip _________
Phone Number ___________________________
Email _________________________________
Full School Name _________________________
School Address __________________________
City_________________ Zip _________
School Phone Number _________________
County ________________________________
Teacher’s Full Name ______________________
Farm Bureau Insurance Agent Sponsor’s Full Name
(if your school has an agent sponsor)
________________________
THE RULES
• The contest begins September 3 and ends November 15, 2019.
• A maximum of 10 entries from each school will be accepted for judging.
• Entries must be submitted by the school, not by the individual contestants, and must arrive at the Farm Bureau Insurance corporate office in Lansing no later than November 19, 2019.
• The contest is open to any 8th grade student in Michigan attending a state education facility.
• The essay must be based on the topic “My Personal Michigan Hero.”
• The essay must be typed and double spaced.
• Retain a copy of your submitted essay. Farm Bureau Insurance cannot return or make copies of essays.
• Students name, home address, school, and school address must appear at the top of each page of the essays.
• A Parental Permission Card must be filled out and stapled to the back of all essays.
• Essay must be the student’s own work and may be up to 500 words long.
• Essays are judged on originality, creativity, quality of writing, how well the information is conveyed, and accuracy. It is important to stay within the parameters of the theme.
GOOD LUCK AND HAVE FUN WRITING!
Note: School essays must be submitted at one time – no straggler essays will be accepted.
RULES BROCHURE
Contest runs
September 3rd through
November 15th, 2019
Sponsored by
FARM BUREAU INSURANCE
A Michigan Company
America & Me
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‘Want to help the children? Help the parents’:
Challenges and solutions from the Babies and Young Children in the Black Summer (BiBS) Study
Australian Breastfeeding Association
WESTERN SYDNEY UNIVERSITY
‘Want to help the children? Help the parents’:
Challenges and solutions from the Babies and Young Children in the Black Summer (BiBS) Study
The Babies and Young Children in the Black Summer (BiBS) Study
The Babies and Young Children in the Black Summer (BiBS) Study is a collaboration between the Australian Breastfeeding Association (ABA) and Western Sydney University. ABA is Australia’s peak breastfeeding information and support service and a critical part of Australia’s public health infrastructure.
Founded in 1964, ABA is also one of the largest volunteer organisations in Australia, with nearly 1,000 trained volunteer breastfeeding counsellors and educators who provide support to new mothers and health professionals. ABA services include the 24-hour, 365 days a year National Breastfeeding Helpline (1800 686268), LiveChat service, mum2mum app, local support groups, antenatal classes, numerous print and digital resources, and health professional education.
During the Black Summer Bushfires, ABA volunteers provided support to mothers via the National Breastfeeding Helpline and, for some, in person. Through the work of their volunteers, ABA has long been aware of the vulnerable position of infants and very young children and their families during and after disasters, and the need for better support for them.
The BiBS Study is part of ABA’s Community Protection for Infants and Young Children in Bushfire Emergencies Project, which is based in Eurobodalla Shire on the NSW South Coast. The project aims to increase community resilience to disasters through facilitating better planning and preparedness to meet the needs of very young children and their parents and caregivers in emergencies.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the parents and caregivers who so generously shared their experiences of caring for their very young children during the 2019–20 Black Summer Bushfires. We also sincerely thank the emergency responders in Australia and overseas who shared their experiences and expertise. We would like to thank Jonathan Ng for help with data analysis and our ABA colleagues Kate Turtiainen and Alexandra Shanks who provided invaluable assistance throughout the BiBS Study and the writing of this report. This project was conducted on Yuin Country, on the lands of the Djiiringanj and Walbanja people. We wish to pay our respects to the elders of these lands past, present and emerging and acknowledge and thank the indigenous people who took part in this research project. This research was supported by an Australian Government Protecting Australian Communities–Local Stream Grant.
Ethical approval for this research was granted by Western Sydney University, approval number HI5019. ABA research approval number is 2022–05. DOI: 10.26183/ggeh–p937 Contact: firstname.lastname@example.org ‘Want to help the children? Help the parents’
About the authors
- **Karleen Gribble** is an Adjunct Associate Professor in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at Western Sydney University. She is the author of more than 70 peer-reviewed papers and book chapters on infant feeding, child protection, and child rights and is a world leading researcher on infant and young child feeding in emergencies.
Karleen is a current steering committee member of the international interagency collaboration the Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergencies Core Group and has provided advice to UN organisations, non-governmental humanitarian organisations, health professionals, emergency responders and government bodies on the emergency response to infants and young children in diverse countries.
Karleen is also an ABA Breastfeeding Educator and Counsellor.
- **Michelle Hamrosi** is a General Practitioner and International Board Certified Lactation Consultant.
Michelle experienced the Black Summer Bushfires in Eurobodalla Shire first-hand and evacuated three times with her three children, the youngest of whom was a toddler.
She returned to work in the week following the fires and supported families throughout the aftermath. Michelle is a clinical lecturer for the Australian National University’s Rural Medical School and lectures on emergency disaster preparedness and response in primary care to medical students.
She is an ABA Breastfeeding Counsellor and Educator has led the Australian Breastfeeding Association Eurobodalla Group for the past eight years, including through the Bushfire recovery and COVID-19 pandemic.
- **Susan Towia** is a breastfeeding researcher and health professional educator for ABA’s Breastfeeding Information and Research team.
Susan has held a variety of positions as a scientist and educator having worked as a research scientist, university lecturer and school teacher.
In her role at ABA, Susan undertakes research about the impact of ABA services on the experiences of breastfeeding women; supports other ABA staff to evaluate their services; and facilitates ABA collaboration with university researchers on joint infant and young child feeding research. Susan also oversees the publication of ABA’s peer-reviewed academic journal, *Breastfeeding Review*.
Susan is an ABA Breastfeeding Educator and Trainer and Assessor.
The 2019–20 Black Summer Bushfires was an emergency of unprecedented scale. During these bushfires, many families with very young children had to evacuate, were isolated in homes or towns, and were caught in large traffic jams. They experienced loss of access to health care, clean water, power, communications, fuel, money, and shops. To date, there has been very limited research on infants and young children in Australian disasters. The Babies and Young Children in the Black Summer (BiBS) Study was designed to address this gap, and provide an evidence base to enable improvements in emergency planning and response.
From August to December 2022, an Australia-wide online survey was conducted and completed by 233 parents and caregivers of children 0 to 4 years who were impacted by the Black Summer Bushfires and 40 emergency responders who had supported families in this emergency. In addition, 23 parents from Eurobodalla Shire and surrounds were interviewed about their Bushfire experiences, as were 37 emergency responders from across Australia and 20 global emergency experts involved with emergency planning or response related to very young children in high income countries.
Caring for an infant or very young child profoundly impacted caregivers’ bushfire experiences. Preparing to evacuate was more complex, and more physically and logistically difficult with very young children. Caregivers reported being underprepared, many did not have an evacuation plan prior to the Bushfires and found it difficult to pack when evacuation was imminent. This meant they often evacuated later than they wanted to, did not always have the resources they needed to care for their children and sometimes presented at evacuation centres without necessary supplies. Where parents were able to evacuate to the home of a family member or friend, their experience was much better.
Caregivers and emergency responders saw a need for targeted resources and communications to better prepare families with very young children for emergencies, including what items to pack in evacuation kits. Parents wished they were better prepared and had evacuated earlier.
When it came to evacuation, mothers were often on their own, sometimes with multiple small children and elderly people. Partners commonly stayed behind to protect property or worked in emergency response. Large evacuation centres were often very difficult places for these women as they tried to keep their children safe in environments that were overcrowded, where there were many strangers and animals, and where resources for caring for very young children were limited. Breastfeeding women sometimes felt very uncomfortable feeding in such close quarters with so many people. Women’s focus on their children meant that they sometimes neglected their own needs, including for food, and water. Some emergency responders were aware of the vulnerability of children and their caregivers in large evacuation centres. They described child protection concerns, awareness of physical dangers, and unsafe practices by unsupported caregivers such as bottle washing in toilet sinks and unsafe cosleeping. These emergency responders highlighted a need to provide proactive support to the caregivers of very young children. However, they also said that a lack of planning and training on children in disasters meant that the needs of very young children were often not visible to the broader population of emergency responders. They said that it was often assumed that parents do not need help and will be able to look after their children on their own. They noted a particular gap for children younger than school age.
Caregivers and emergency responders described how small evacuation centres, or evacuation centres that had multiple rooms allowing a separate space for families, provided a much better experience for young children and their caregivers.
Ad hoc evacuation centres in venues such as doctors’ surgeries and childcare centres were created by community members on their own initiative and provided evacuation spaces that were supportive of child and caregiver wellbeing. A global emergencies expert, described how Community Response Planning, involving community members in emergency planning and assisting them to identify how to support each other in emergencies, has been deployed in New Zealand. This has included identifying evacuation centres suitable just for families with very young children. The community response and kindness exhibited during the Black Summer Bushfires showed that many individuals are very willing to provide support to very young children and their caregivers in disasters. Mothers and other caregivers very much appreciated the support of all emergency responders who assisted them.
Some evacuation and recovery centres had formal child friendly spaces which not only provided a place where children could play, but also the presence of emergency responders who were aware of children’s needs and could advocate for them. Parents, caregivers and emergency responders said that designated evacuation centres should have a separate area for families with very young children where they can access the necessary hygiene, feeding, and sleep resources, and proactive support in childcare. Overseas emergency experts interviewed described how this has been implemented with success in Alberta, Canada in the form of an intervention called the Baby and Child Unit.
When it came to feeding babies during the Black Summer Bushfires, mothers who were breastfeeding were glad this was the case when they evacuated or did not have resources like electricity. However, they also often had concerns about breastfeeding, with infant fussiness and frequent feeding leading to worries about milk supply. Many mothers and emergency responders falsely believed that stress reduced milk supply. Emergency responders saw a need for breastfeeding support for evacuated mothers but in practice found this difficult to access.
It was also recognised that busy or preoccupied mothers not drinking enough fluid or infrequent breastfeeding during the acute or recovery phases of an emergency could lead to a reduced milk supply.
Caregivers of formula feeding infants found it challenging to evacuate with all the supplies necessary to feed their babies. Obtaining infant formula could be difficult during the Bushfires. Mothers were clearly distressed by not being able to obtain infant formula or not being able to obtain specialised infant formula their baby required. Access to clean water and power to heat water for washing and reconstitution were difficult or impossible for some caregivers to obtain for some time. The process by which infant formula was provided to caregivers in evacuation centres varied widely. Often, there was uncertainty about who took responsibility for ensuring that caregivers also had access to washing and preparation facilities in the evacuation centre or in the community. Emergency responders described excessive volumes of infant formula donations being made with donations often close to or past its use by date. Donated infant formula was offered to some breastfeeding women as well as those who were formula feeding, but those offering infant formula did not always check whether caregivers had resources needed for use with an acceptable level of safety. Feeding very young children solid food was also sometimes difficult during the Bushfires due to lack of access to appropriate foods or cooking and washing facilities.
Women who were pregnant at the time of the Bushfires had their access to health care restricted and in some cases their health was jeopardised. Two pregnant women interviewed, reported fainting while queuing. Pregnant women found it more difficult than others to breathe because of their reduced lung capacity and many were very worried about the impact of the smoke and stress on their unborn baby. It was identified that there was a need to provide resources to pregnant women in case they had to give birth alone because of isolation due to an emergency.
The needs of very young children for sleep, feeding, toileting, attention, comfort, supervision, and play profoundly impacted their caregivers’ experience of the Bushfires. Caregivers did their best to work around these needs, but this was often difficult. They also did their best to keep calm around their children to protect their emotional wellbeing. Caregivers often faced long waits in queues at evacuation centres, recovery centres and supermarkets. This could impact their capacity to obtain support and basic resources. Intervention by emergency responders to reduce queuing was a practical way to enable caregivers to access resources, reduce their stress, and support child wellbeing. Some caregivers faced additional challenges related to culture, disability, trauma, and domestic violence and emergency responders recognised a need for better planning and more support for such families.
Caregivers and emergency responders understood that the physical, time and emotional demands of recovery, presented challenges to caregivers’ ability to look after the physical and emotional wellbeing of themselves and their children. However, some mothers felt they did not deserve mental health assistance after the Bushfires because others were suffering more than them. Others simply found it too difficult to access support because of busyness including time spent caring for their children. In New Zealand, the ‘All Right’ and ‘Sparklers’ social marketing campaigns were launched after the 2011 Christchurch earthquakes to remind parents of the importance of their caregiving role and provided tools to assist them to engage with their children, to be kind to themselves and to feel good about their parenting.
In the aftermath of the Bushfires, preschools and early childhood centres provided older toddlers and preschool-aged children with some normality and routine, as well as supporting the wellbeing of parents by providing them with childcare. Early childhood educators described how they sought to create an environment that would promote feelings of safety. Early childhood educators also knew about families’ circumstances and so could provide material support in a non-obtrusive way. These centres also acted as a conduit for other organisations to reach families with wellbeing programs. However, it was noted that early childhood-based programs can miss the very youngest children and their families who may not be engaging with these services.
It was recognised by emergency responders that supporting the emotional wellbeing of the infants and the very youngest children, needs to be predominantly focused on supporting their parents in caregiving. Emergency responders described informal initiatives supporting mothers in the immediate aftermath of emergencies through providing spaces for women to come together, to share stories, to support one another, and for children to play. After the 2019–20 Bushfires, the Australian Childhood Foundation created a more permanent space for mothers and their very young children in one community through a program called ChildSPACE. ChildSPACE supports the emotional wellbeing of caregivers through promoting social connectedness and provided a toy library, classes and access to other resources and has been very well utilised in this community.
In conclusion, the BiBS study showed that the emergency response to very young children and their caregivers in Australia is inadequate. Very young children and (predominantly) mothers, are bearing the brunt of this and are being exposed to avoidable risks. Emergency responders are not being enabled by appropriate planning, training, or resourcing to support families with very young children in disasters. In recovery, programs to support the parents of the very youngest children are largely absent. Action should be taken to ensure better support for the caregivers of very young children and their caregivers in emergencies.
Recommendations to better support families with very young children in emergencies
Preparedness
• Existing emergency policies, planning, and guidance should be evaluated with a ‘young child lens’ to identify gaps and make adjustments to ensure the needs of very young children and their parents and/or caregivers are appropriately accounted for. Individuals with expertise in the needs of very young children should be involved in evaluations and planning adjustment.
• Policies and planning for the needs of very young children in emergencies should be integrated across relevant government and non-government organisations so that they can efficiently work together to protect very young children.
• At a local level, the involvement of community members including parents, health workers and early childhood educators in emergency planning should be facilitated. Encouraging parents to build relationships with neighbours and others in the community should be encouraged for building family and community resilience.
• Emergency responders and health workers should receive appropriate training for their role in supporting the caregivers of very young children in disasters. This might include basic training on psychological first aid for very young children and their caregivers, infant and young child feeding, sleep safety, child protection, infant mental health, child development, and referral pathways for families with very young children. Guidance documents, checklists and flow charts should be developed to support emergency responders in their work. The needs of infants and young children should be included in training scenarios.
• The needs of very young children should be considered in evaluation of venues for suitability as evacuation centres. Factors to consider include whether the building has rooms or spaces that could be used as a child-friendly space or as separate space for families with very young children as well as safety considerations related to roads, gates, steps and balconies.
• Policies, plans, and procedures should be developed for the prevention and management of infant formula donations and to enable appropriate infant formula distributions. Where infant formula is provided, access to other necessary resources for formula feeding should be facilitated. Education of the public should be undertaken on the importance of donating funds rather than products for supporting the needs of young children.
• Emergency preparedness materials and initiatives for families with very young children should be developed. Content should include detailed information on what to pack in evacuation kits for infants and toddlers and emphasise early evacuation and prioritisation of evacuation to homes of family and friends rather than evacuation centres. At a local level, parents should be informed about which evacuation centres are more suitable for families with very young children. Communicating with parents via child-related organisations such as playgroups and preschools/childcare centres will assist in maximising parental engagement.
• Pregnant women should be provided with information on emergency preparedness, including early evacuation, avoidance of smoke, and emergency kit items and information in case of giving birth while isolated. Breastfeeding should be encouraged and supported antenatally and postnatally as an emergency preparedness activity.
• Social media messaging addressing the broad spectrum of possible emergency related issues for families of very young children should be prepared. Messaging should relate to emergency planning, emergency kits, boil water alerts, power outages, heat waves, smoke and asbestos, as well as messaging for particular emergency types (bushfire, floods, cyclones etc).
Emergency response and recovery
- Evacuation centres should provide a space for parents and caregivers of very young children separate from the general population. These spaces should be resourced with: a private space for mothers to sit and breastfeed or express milk, snacks and water for breastfeeding mothers, infant formula, a clean space for infant formula preparation, washing and sterilising supplies, access to hot water for washing, complementary foods and feeding implements; nappy changing facilities, safe sleep spaces, and an appropriate play space for babies to crawl, sit and play along with suitable clean toys. These spaces should be staffed by volunteers/workers who have received basic training on breastfeeding, formula feeding, hygiene, sleep safety, and psychological first aid and aim to provide an environment where caregivers are able to be responsive and reassuring to their children. Mothers experiencing breastfeeding challenges should receive breastfeeding counselling onsite or via the National Breastfeeding Helpline. Infant formula provision should be the responsibility of one organisation and accompanied by an appropriate assessment of need.
- Safety of children in evacuation centres should be prioritised. Walkthroughs should be regularly undertaken to ensure that the environment is safe for children. Evacuation centres should have clear signage directing parents and caregivers to assistance and signs in toilets stating that baby bottles should not be washed there.
- Registration processes in evacuation centres should allow identification of immediate child needs, including regarding feeding. Parents and caregivers of very young children and pregnant women should be prioritised for access to resources and assistance, with queuing minimised in evacuation and recovery centres.
- Child Friendly Spaces should be provided in evacuation and recovery centres so that children of all ages can be cared for and play while parents and caregivers attend to important needs and conversations on their own.
- Immediately following the emergency, a space should be provided for mothers and other caregivers to come with their infants and very young children to be with one another, to support one another, and to allow children to play. Over time, this space should be augmented with more formal supports, with the intent being to facilitate mothers and other caregivers to remain connected to and to provide sensitive and responsive care to their very young children.
- Early childhood education should continue to provide a means by which preschool-aged children and their caregivers are supported following emergencies. Other community resources for mothers and caregivers of infants and very young children such as new mothers’ groups, playgroups, music groups, and ABA groups should be supported to restart where possible after disasters.
- Parents should be provided with information and resources on how to assist their very young children who have been directly impacted by the emergency or by their parents’ traumatic response. Initiatives to reduce the burden of recovery on parents should be supported with the understanding that anything that frees up time or reduces parental stress will assist children. Parents who need mental health support should be encouraged to access it, not only for their sake but also as a positive step for their children. Child minding and other facilitators of parental access to mental health and other supports should be made available.
# Contents
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| Executive summary | iii |
| Recommendations to better support families with very young children in emergencies | vi |
| Introduction | 1 |
| How we conducted the research | 3 |
| Parents’ and caregivers’ survey | 4 |
| Emergency responder survey | 13 |
| Interviews with parents | 15 |
| Interviews with emergency responders | 30 |
| Global emergency expert interviews | 48 |
| Conclusion | 53 |
| References | 54 |
Introduction
This report summarises the findings of the Babies and Young Children in the Black Summer (BiBS) Study which is part of the Australian Breastfeeding Association’s Community Protection for Infants and Young Children in Bushfire Emergencies Project. It describes the experiences of parents and caregivers of infants and young children (0–4 years) during and after the Bushfires of 2019–20 that impacted large parts of Australia. It also describes the experiences of people and organisations who worked to support families with very young children during and after this and other Australian natural disasters. It outlines actions that organisations and governments in other high-income countries have taken to support families with young children in emergencies. Finally, it makes recommendations based on the evidence collected, to improve the emergency response to very young children and their caregivers in Australia.
Australia is prone to disasters including bushfires, cyclones, floods, and heatwaves. These emergencies are set to increase in frequency and severity as a result of climate change. In particular, predictions show that Australia will experience an increase in intensity, frequency and duration of fire weather events (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022). Australian governments and non-government organisations have invested significant resources into emergency planning and response. However, emergencies do not impact all people in the population equally; some groups are more vulnerable to the impact of disasters than others (Wisner, Blaikie, Cannon, & Davis, 2004).
It is recognised that emergency plans should account for the special needs of vulnerable groups in order to reduce risks to them and ensure they are provided with appropriate assistance (UNISDR, 2015).
Amongst the groups that are more vulnerable in emergencies are children. The younger the children, the more vulnerable they are (Sammy, Lori, & Samuel, 2008). Infants and young children are particularly vulnerable in emergencies due to their stage of physical and emotional development, specific food and fluid requirements, susceptibility to dehydration, and total dependence on others for care (World Health Organization, 2009). These characteristics interact with environmental conditions associated with emergencies such as poor sanitation, food and water shortages, power shortages, overcrowding, restricted access to health care, and stressed and distressed caregivers, to create a situation where they are at heightened risk (Kouadio, Aljunid, Kamigaki, Hammad, & Oshitani, 2012). Parents and other caregivers need support in disasters to protect their very young children from harm.
Creating an evidence base for emergency planning: why we conducted the research
Australia has historically lacked planning for the needs of children in emergencies. An audit conducted by Save the Children in 2013 found no standard practice in emergency management planning for the needs of children and a lack of detail regarding how their needs could be met (Davie, 2013). Where children were mentioned in emergency planning, it was most commonly as a part of a generic list of vulnerable groups. It was identified that the needs of animals were far more considered in emergency planning than children (Davie, 2013).
An audit of Australian national, state and territory emergency plans and guidance conducted in 2018 revealed a dearth of planning for the needs of infants and young children (Gribble, Peterson, & Brown, 2019). This audit focused on children’s feeding needs and found that where...
plans contained content related to infant feeding, they lacked detail, lacked important elements or evidence showed that the plans were not followed (Gribble et al., 2019). Worryingly, some guidance related to heat waves contained information that could prove dangerous to infants. The study also found that no government or emergency agency had specific responsibility for children and only Queensland had detailed guidance for parents on what to include in an evacuation kit for babies. As in the earlier audit conducted by Save the Children, animals were much better catered for in emergency planning. While the words ‘infant,’ ‘baby,’ and ‘babies’ were mentioned 124 times in planning and guidance, the words ‘animal’ and ‘pet’ were used more than 2300 times (Gribble et al., 2019).
The 2019–20 Black Summer Bushfires was an emergency of unprecedented scale. Beginning in July 2019, during Australia’s hottest and driest year on record, and ending in March 2020, the Black Summer Bushfires resulted in the burning of more than 24 million hectares, the loss of more than 3000 homes and the direct deaths of 33 people (Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements, 2020). All states and territories were impacted to some extent. An estimated 2.9 million adult Australians had their property damaged, their property threatened, or had to be evacuated (Biddle, Edwards, Herz, & Makkai, 2020). Smoke from the Bushfires covered a large proportion of Australia and may have impacted as much as 80% of the population resulting in hundreds of premature deaths and thousands of hospital admissions for heart and respiratory conditions, including asthma (Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements, 2020). Many families with young children, including those on holidays, had to evacuate, were isolated in homes or towns, got caught in large traffic jams, or experienced loss of access to clean water, power, or communications. Some were not able to purchase supplies, including food, because of inability to access stores, because stores had been emptied of goods, or because without electricity they could not obtain cash or use debit/credit cards.
Many families with young children, including those on holidays, had to evacuate, were isolated in homes or towns, got caught in large traffic jams...
The experience of the Black Summer Bushfires made it clear that emergency planning and response for infants and young children in Australia needed to improve. However, since there had been almost no research on infants and young children in disasters in Australia, an evidence base for planning was needed. The BiBS Study was designed to create that evidence base and enable proper planning to be developed so that infants and young children and their parents and caregivers are better supported in future emergencies.
How we conducted the research
The BiBS study has four parts.
1. First, we surveyed people who were caring for children 0–4 years during the 2019–20 Black Summer Bushfires or who had been emergency responders supporting families with very young children during or after these bushfires.
2. Second, we interviewed parents of children 0–4 years who had experienced the Bushfires within Eurobodalla Shire or surrounds.
3. Third, emergency responders who had supported families with very young children during the 2019–20 Bushfires or other disasters in Australia were interviewed.
The survey and interviews explored parents and caregiver’s experiences of preparing for emergencies and caring for their very young children during the Bushfires, including during any evacuations and in the recovery phase. We wanted to know what people packed for their children when they evacuated, where they evacuated to, and what helped them or made things difficult for them in the acute and recovery phases of the emergency. Emergency responders were asked to describe how they had supported families with very young children and what they had seen that helped or did not help parents and caregivers during the Black Summer Bushfires or other emergencies.
4. In the fourth and final part of the study, we interviewed people who had been involved in planning or implementing emergency response in other high-income countries about the challenges they faced in supporting the caregivers of very young children and the solutions they had found to these challenges.
Child at Malua Bay Beach during Black Summer Bushfires (photo courtesy of Amanda Healy)
Two hundred and thirty-three parents and caregivers participated in the BiBS survey. The survey participants were overwhelmingly female, were the mothers of the children in their care, and were from New South Wales. The demographic characteristics of BiBS survey participants are shown in Table 1.
**Table 1. Demographic characteristics of BiBS survey participants**
| Personal characteristic | N=233 |
|-------------------------|-------|
| **Sex** | |
| Female | 226 |
| Male | 7 |
| **Age** | |
| 20–29 | 17 |
| 30–39 | 116 |
| 40–49 | 95 |
| 50+ | 5 |
| **Aboriginality** | |
| Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander | 7 |
| Not Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander | 222 |
| Prefer not to say | 4 |
| **State of residence** | |
| New South Wales | 179 |
| Australian Capital Territory | 12 |
| Victoria | 29 |
| South Australia | 5 |
| Queensland | 4 |
| Outside Australia | 3 |
| Unknown | 1 |
| **Household income** | |
| <$40 000 | 26 |
| $40 000–$59 999 | 34 |
| $60 000–$79 999 | 30 |
| $80 000–$99 999 | 39 |
| $100 000–$124 999 | 45 |
| $125 000–$149 999 | 17 |
| $150 000–$199 999 | 26 |
| $200 000+ | 16 |
| **Highest education level** | |
| Year 10 | 9 |
| Year 11 | 1 |
| Year 12 | 13 |
| Certificate or trade qualification | 38 |
| Diploma | 29 |
| Degree | 64 |
| Post-graduate | 79 |
**Parents and caregivers were not very prepared for the Bushfires**
Sixty-five percent of parents and caregivers had not prepared a bushfire plan before the 2019–20 bushfire season. Of these, only half prepared a plan during the Bushfires. Of those who had made a bushfire plan, the most common sources of guidance on bushfire preparation were: a fire service website (25%), a state/territory government emergency website (24%), family or friends (24%), or a Bushfire Ready Day event (12%). Seventeen percent of caregivers said they didn’t get information on preparing for a bushfire from anywhere, they just worked it out for themselves.
Before or during the 2019–20 Bushfires, about three quarters of parents and caregivers packed an evacuation kit that included items for their baby or young child. More than three quarters of these parents and caregivers had worked out what to put in this kit themselves without outside assistance.
*Van set up at an evacuation site during Black Summer Bushfires*
Sources of information on packing an evacuation kit weren’t used often but included: state/territory emergency websites, fire service websites, a Bushfire Ready Day event, the Red Cross website and the Australian Breastfeeding Association website.
**Many parents and caregivers evacuated more than once**
Eight-five percent of parents and caregivers had evacuated at least once. Of those who never evacuated, only 3% had been advised to evacuate but did not; this 3% included three caregivers who did not evacuate because they didn’t think that they were at real risk, two who did not evacuate because they decided to stay and fight, one who did not evacuate because they did not have transportation, and one mother who did not evacuate because her infant had been born prematurely and she wanted to avoid smoke exposure.
Most parents and caregivers evacuated multiple times: only 44% evacuated once, 33% evacuated twice and 12% evacuated three times. Some parents and caregivers evacuated eight or more times. The number of times parents and caregivers in the BIBS study evacuated are shown in Figure 1.
It was common for parents and caregivers to evacuate later than they wanted to.
Just over one third (36%) of parents and caregivers who evacuated said that they left later than they wanted to the first time they evacuated. The most common reasons why caregivers left later than they wanted were because they had: to pack things for children, to look after or evacuate with other people, animals to evacuate with, not prepared an evacuation kit. Other reasons why parents and caregivers evacuated later than they wanted were because they had to evacuate on their own, the woman’s partner did not want to evacuate, roads were closed so evacuation wasn’t possible, and in one case, a woman evacuated later than she wanted because she thought she was in labour. The reasons why parents and caregivers evacuated later than they wanted to are shown in Figure 2.
**Parents and caregivers most commonly evacuated to the homes of friends and family members**
Over all evacuations, the most common place for parents and caregivers to evacuate to was to a friend or family member’s home, either nearby (37%) or far away (18%). Twenty percent evacuated to an official evacuation centre, 9%
to an outdoor venue like a beach or sports field, 4% to an unofficial evacuation centre and 2% had been on holiday and evacuated by returning home.
**Safety concerns in evacuation centres**
Parents and caregivers were asked about whether they had safety concerns for their child in the places they evacuated to. Three quarters of parents and caregivers had safety concerns for their very young children in an official evacuation centre. These concerns related to: overcrowding, not having a safe place for their child to sleep, having strangers around their child, distressed or arguing people upsetting their child, animals being around their child, their child wandering away, not being able to care for their child because of their own stress levels, and around what would happen if they had to evacuate the building quickly.
One woman who had evacuated to a surf club by herself with her newborn and her two-year-old, after having only recently had a caesarean section, described what happened when the evacuation centre had to be evacuated:
‘There were two occasions where there was a crowd crush to exit through a small double glass door. It was absolute chaos. It was everyone for themselves. The fire front came through and lifeguards told everyone to evacuate to the beach. It was chaos so I held my two babies back until the last to get out of the surf club even though I was terrified. A lady using a walker was left inside with us and I felt the need to stay with her but thankfully two lifeguards came running back and assisted her down to the sand. It was absolutely traumatic.’
**Suggestions for evacuation centre improvements for very young children**
Parents and caregivers were asked what could be done to make things better for those with very young children in evacuation centres. Almost half of their suggestions were related to having a separate space for families with young children. Other suggestions were related to access to baby supplies and toys as well as having food suitable for very young children and identifying who to ask for help or having people offer assistance.
One mother described how:
‘It was unclear who was in charge or able to assist. Lots of evacuees were helping others e.g. elderly, but it would have helped to have clearer identification of who could help or who to speak to if you had concerns. A quiet space for babies and children would have made a huge difference for feeding, sleeping and settling. More supplies of bottled water. A generator to maintain power and access to boiling water. We were in the centre for 12 hours and it wasn’t until the last hour that anyone checked in with me and my 5-month-old baby.’
**Feeding infants and young children**
One hundred and seventy-six BIBS survey participants provided information about the children in their care at the time of the Bushfires. Sixty-five had one child, 63 had two children, 27 had three children, 17 had four children and four had five children. A total of 58 children were infants at the time their family was impacted by the Bushfires (11 were <1 month old, 28 were one to five months old and 28 were 6–11 months). A breakdown of the ages of the children is in Table 2.
*Table 2. Ages of the children of BIBS survey participants*
| Age of children | N=360 |
|-----------------|-------|
| 0–5 months | 39 |
| 6–11 months | 33 |
| 12–23 months | 46 |
| 24–47 months | 105 |
| 4–6 years | 81 |
| 7–10 years | 34 |
| 11+ years | 22 |
During the Bushfires, 30 children 0–5 months were being breastfed at the breast, five were being fed expressed breastmilk, 12 were fed infant formula and two were being fed solid food. Of the children who were 6–11 months, 24 were being breastfed at the breast, two were being fed expressed breastmilk, seven were being formula fed, four were being fed cows’ milk and 33 were being fed solid food.
Women who were breastfeeding commonly stated that they were very glad to be doing so:
‘I am so lucky I was still breastfeeding – I felt during this time of stress I could comfort my baby and make her feel sense of normality, I was also able to feed my child without needing to worry about safe food or bottle preparation and supplies.’
However, this did not mean that breastfeeding women did not encounter difficulties, many did so. As shown in Figure 3, the most common difficulties were that their babies wanted to breastfeed more frequently during the day or night-time and that they felt that stress had reduced their milk supply. It was not uncommon for women to experience more than one difficulty as was described by one mother:
‘I am not one who needs to hide away to feed but with so many people in then one spot it was hard to sit still and watch my other children while feeding my youngest. Her feeds were all over the place not to mention sore nipples from lack of dry breast pads.’
Unfortunately, for a number of women, difficulties associated with the Bushfires resulted in them ceasing breastfeeding before they wanted to. It was clear that some felt very sad about this:
‘It was disappointing to end our breastfeeding journey so suddenly’
‘I felt like a failure. I had dreamed of breastfeeding my baby and it was taken away.’
Parents and caregivers who were formula feeding also experienced challenges. As shown in Figure 4, they had difficulties accessing infant formula, not being able to boil water for infant formula reconstitution, not being able to sterilise bottles and not having hot water for washing. As one mother said:
‘It was hard. I was in a routine of washing and sterilising bottles after each use in the microwave. When the fires happened, I had absolutely no way to ensure the bottles were cleaned as we only had a bit of water and paper towel to wipe them out with. The bottles did not have any contact with detergent on over six days. We did the best we could.’
Survey participants were asked if they had been offered or given infant formula during or after the Bushfires. Fourteen breastfeeding women were offered and six were given infant formula. None of these women were asked if they had a way of heating water, detergent or clean water for reconstitution. Five formula feeding parents were offered infant formula and three were given infant formula. When infant formula was offered, four parents were asked if they had water for reconstitution, and one was asked they had hot water for washing and detergent.
As described by two women, donation of infant formula could be excessive:
‘The local CFA shed had dozens of hampers dropped off at but we only have 26 households in the valley. I was the only one with a baby so I ended up with tins and tins of formula’
‘People were trying to help. However it was an overwhelming amount of formula. Large amounts would have gone out of date before use. Some tins were for over 12 months of age.’
One hundred and eighty-two caregivers provided information on whether they had experienced difficulties with feeding solid food to their children 0–4 years during the 2019–20 Bushfires, and if so, what problems they had experienced. One hundred and eleven said that they had not had difficulties. Of the remaining 71 caregivers, common problems encountered were that children became fussier with eating, that there were difficulties accessing refrigeration and cooking facilities and that food could not be purchased from supermarkets for their child. Some of the issues were potentially dangerous, like foods being provided that were choking hazards or to which the child was allergic.
Figure 4. Difficulties with formula feeding experienced by caregivers during and up to one month after the Bushfires
Sleeping environments
Caregivers were asked about where their children slept immediately before the Bushfires and during and up to one month after the Bushfires. As shown in Table 3, children’s sleeping environments commonly changed. During and after the Bushfires, children were much more likely to be cosleeping with their mother (either in a bed or on a mattress) or to sleep in a pram. They were less likely to be sleeping in their own bed and were more likely to share a bed with a sibling.
Table 3. Frequency of sleep location for caregivers’ youngest child during and up to one month after the Bushfires
| Location | Before Bushfires | During and up to a month after the Bushfires |
|---------------------------------|------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Bassinet | 24 | 22 |
| Cot | 52 | 46 |
| Pram | 3 | 11 |
| Sidecar cot | 8 | 5 |
| Bed with mother | 55 | 82 |
| Mattress with mother | 8 | 21 |
| Couch with mother | 1 | 3 |
| Own bed | 38 | 23 |
| Shared bed with sibling | 1 | 9 |
| Other | 8 | 18 |
Twenty-five percent of caregivers were concerned that at some time during and after the Bushfires the sleep environment was not safe for their child. Safety concerns were related to air quality, cosleeping on surfaces not suitable for cosleeping, the child having to sleep on a bed without a rail, and fear of strangers in evacuation centres.
Special treatment
It was unusual for caregivers to say they received special treatment during or after the Bushfires because they were caring for very young children; only 11% said that they had. This special treatment included being prioritised for emergency accommodation, being placed in a ‘family room’ in an evacuation centre and being ‘fast tracked’ for access to services and assistance in a recovery centre. One mother, described a situation where emergency responders noticed her specific need and delayed a convoy leaving a town in response:
‘When I went to leave in the guided convoy, a couple of minutes before we left my baby woke up wanting a feed, so the men who were driving with us delayed the whole convoy so that I could feed my baby so he would be happy on the 1 and a half hour trip.’
This special treatment included being prioritised for emergency accommodation, being placed in a ‘family room’ in an evacuation centre...
Such kindness from emergency responders was greatly appreciated and parents and caregivers expressed gratitude for the emergency responders who had assisted them.
‘They did a fantastic job supporting everyone as much as they could.’
‘They did a fantastic job looking after everyone.’
‘The emergency responders that I came into contact with did a great job and were very helpful.’
**Experiences of pregnant women**
Thirty-two women (14% of BiBS Study participants) were pregnant at the time of the Bushfires and eighteen of these women provided detail on their pregnancy experiences. They ranged from 4 to 38 weeks pregnant at the time of the bushfires. Being pregnant during the Bushfires was difficult for many women. As shown in Figure 6, amongst other things, they were worried about the impact of smoke on their unborn baby and had breathing difficulties because of the smoke, but were not able to get a mask to protect themselves. Having to queue and stand for long periods of time for food or paperwork was difficult for pregnant women. They also found it hard to evacuate without assistance, had difficulty caring for their children, were excessively tired, didn’t have water when they needed it, and did not have an appropriate place to sleep.
Some women provided details that underline why these things were difficult, for example, one woman had pelvic instability meaning she couldn’t walk properly and another was unable to drive because of her advanced stage of pregnancy.
**Having to queue and stand for long periods of time for food or paperwork was difficult for pregnant women… they also found it hard to evacuate without assistance…**
The Black Summer Bushfires impacted pregnant women’s access to health care. Six women described not being able to see their usual midwife or doctor for appointments, four were not able to have appropriately scheduled antenatal appointments, two weren’t able to see a midwife when they had a medical problem, and two weren’t able to give birth where they planned. Some of these women had serious pregnancy complications including hyperemesis gravidarum, complete placenta previa, or bleeding. One woman gave birth prematurely during the Bushfires and another described how she:
‘Couldn’t access my midwife. I had two children and was 7 months pregnant with third and went into early labour.’
Emotional wellbeing
Caregivers were asked whether they agreed with a number of statements about their emotional wellbeing and circumstances at the time of the Bushfires, up to three months after the Bushfires and three to six months after the Bushfires; 144 caregivers did so. As shown in Figure 7, most caregivers were more stressed than usual at the time of the Bushfires but the number indicating increased stress declined in the months after the fires. The same pattern was the case for the number of caregivers who said that they were feeling anxious, hopeless, or overwhelmed. More caregivers felt that their community was strong than those who said that they felt their community was weak at all time points.
Just over a quarter of caregivers said that they had accessed mental health support sometime after the Bushfires. Of the three quarters who had not accessed mental health support, almost half said that they had not accessed mental health because they did not need it. Of those who didn’t access mental health support even though they thought they could benefit from it, 36% had not sought it because they thought that others needed it more than they did, 22% said they had not had time to access mental health support, 13% said that they were too overwhelmed to access support and 13% found it too difficult to access.
What would caregivers do differently?
When asked what they would do differently if they were ever in another emergency, by far the most common responses from caregivers were:
(1) Pack an evacuation kit and,
(2) Leave earlier.
Figure 7. Frequency of caregiver’s agreement with statements about their emotional wellbeing and circumstances during and after the Bushfires
Thirty-five people who had been emergency responders during the 2019–20 Bushfires completed a BiBS survey. Six of these people were also parents of children 0–4 years and had also completed a parent survey. The people who responded were mostly women and 40+ years of age as shown in Table 4.
| Sex | N=35 |
|-----------|------|
| Female | 33 |
| Male | 2 |
| Age | |
|-----------|------|
| 30–39 | 6 |
| 40–49 | 8 |
| 50–59 | 8 |
| 60+ | 13 |
Emergency responders were most commonly healthcare providers (n=13), were involved in evacuation centre support (n=12), or child or youth support (n=9). During the Bushfires, they most commonly had worked for a health service (n=12), Save the Children/54 Reasons (n=7) or the Red Cross (n=4). They also worked for the NSW Ambulance Service, the Rural Fire Service, the Country Women’s Association, local government, volunteer community organisations, or had volunteered independently.
Thirteen of the emergency responders had received training on supporting families with very young children in emergencies (this included all those who worked for Save the Children and three of those who worked for a health service). This training included the set-up of child-friendly spaces, psychological first aid, child safeguarding and the health needs of pregnant women, infants and young children.
More than 70% of emergency responders said that they would like training or more training on supporting very young children in emergencies. They said they’d like training on supporting the relationship between caregivers and children in disasters, behavioural responses of very young children in emergencies, how to support very young children’s mental health, how to support infant and young child feeding in emergencies, what sort of physical supports are needed by very young children in disasters and referral pathways for families with very young children. Several emergency responders said they would like training on supporting children of all ages in emergencies.
Emergency responders described comprehensive, concrete and clearly very helpful support being provided to very young children and their caregivers during the Bushfires. This included in terms of enabling physical needs to be met and facilitating an environment that was less stressful for parents and their children.
‘[We organised] signs about accessing kitchen facilities; child requisites. Offering toys to families; asking about how each child in their care was going; being alert to not having children overhearing adult conversations; providing child-friendly distractions at times; focusing on turning down the volume on tv reports; creating a ‘slowed down’ calm in relief centres.’
‘Many families arrived at the centre with not enough nappies, formula, clothes, bedding, etc etc. My small crew sorted out donations for various aged infants and children so we could access required resources needed for families. We set up a corner with books and toys for families. We helped with bedding and other supports like food.’
However, they also described situations where children’s needs and those of their caregivers were not being appropriately considered.
‘Evacuation shelters were not well set up for safety or for children’s need to move.’
‘Having to wait in crowded areas with long queues for extended periods. Evacuation centre staff and relief agency staff with no understanding of disability or special needs, no parenting room. Universal, tick-box approaches. No trauma informed responses,’
‘Not having freely available child requisites including nappies, appropriate food… no privacy for breast feeding parents.’
Child safeguarding risks were identified.
‘Emergency accommodation was open to anyone so the risks of children running around with strangers near them was high. Toilets were not monitored. Too many risks of children possibly being harmed.’
Emergency responders described a variety of gaps in emergency responses related to poor data collection, lack of supplies, lack of availability of health services for very young children, and lack of specific support for families with very young children including related to emergency preparedness and recovery.
‘Data was often not collected about specific ages and needs of young children e.g. the needs of a 6 month old compared to a three year old. cancelling services such as MCH [maternal and child health nursing], kinder and playgroups especially when community centres are converted to relief centres’
‘Most families were unprepared to be evacuated for as long as they were.’
‘Little appropriate bedding for babies. Lack of privacy for feminine needs. Little provision for children’s entertainment requirements (toys, game suitable to be used in the limited space in an Evacuation Centre). Children’s Change table facilities in the ablutions areas.’
‘Lack of feeding support, lack of understanding in children and infants in trauma.’
‘Lack of quiet spaces (e.g., for caregivers to have reprieve). Baby change stations and areas for breastfeeding.’
‘There are many gaps, the availably [sic] of suitable initial short term accommodation, availability of clothing, food, baby products, transport or even fuel to enable carers to get to a stable/safe place.’
Emergency responders described changes they thought would enable better support for the mothers and other caregivers of very young children in emergencies. These included: increasing the knowledge of policy makers and emergency responders of the needs of children, informing parents of the most appropriate evacuation centres for children, prioritising caregivers of very young children for access to resources, and adapting policies for emergencies.
‘Local shires/councils, first responders including police, fire and medical understanding the importance of providing a safe, supported and therapeutic space for children and families during natural disasters’
‘Training for all stakeholders in the care of infants/children and caregivers (culturally, physically, and psychosocially and psychologically)’
‘The community needs to be informed where young families with children can shelter/evacuate to before such an event even occurs. Many families did not know where to go other than the show ground evacuation which was not suitable for babies, young children and children with disabilities.’
‘Make [caregivers with very young children] a priority to seeing services first.’
‘Hospitals need to be better trained as they were discharging patients [women with newborns], who had nowhere else to go but the evacuation centre. Training for duty of care.’
Emergency responders repeatedly said that the emergency response to very young children would be improved if there were appropriately-resourced separate spaces for very young children and their caregivers in evacuation and recovery centres.
‘I would say that recovery centres and community support centres need to look at dedicated support cells for caregivers of very young children. These cells need to be manned by appropriately qualified people who understand and are empowered to assist with the needs of these groups.’
‘Designated safe spaces for very young children and their caregivers.’
‘Safe children’s “room” with adequate washing and child friendly toileting facilities. Safe hygienic food preparation areas just for mums and infants.’
Interviews with parents
Interviews were conducted with 22 mothers and one father who had been impacted by the 2019–20 Black Summer Bushfires in Eurobodalla Shire or surrounds with their very young children. At the time of the Bushfires, parents had from one to four children (total of 44 children and average of 1.9 children per family) with the children ranging in age from newborn to 7 years (average 2.3 years). Five of the women interviewed were pregnant at the time of the Bushfires. One foster mother whose children were older than four years was also interviewed.
Caring for a very young child impacted mothers’ experiences of the Bushfires
Caring for an infant or very young child profoundly impacted women’s experience of the Bushfires. Their attention was largely focused on their children and the need to keep them safe. Their child’s need for care meant that they evacuated when they would not have otherwise, because they recognised that they could not stay and fight a fire with a very young child and partly because they wanted to protect their children from physical or emotional harm.
‘I think my big worry was I don’t want a fire to start on the grass next to my house and to have me feel responsible for fixing it but also feel responsible for [my baby]. And he being so unsettled, I just didn’t want to be stuck where I was going outside to put a fire out in smoke … while leaving a screaming baby inside because you can’t meet their needs at the same time.’
‘I just made that final decision. I can’t stay here anymore … It’s just too much for me being heavily pregnant and with four kids on my own. So that’s why I was like, “No. What’s best for them is if I get out of here. Go to my sister’s place and then there’s four other adults up there that can help.” That’s why I wanted to get out of here for them. I think if I wasn’t pregnant, didn’t have kids, I would have been right. I would have just stayed here, but because I had the kids, I was like, “No, I’m going.”’
However, being the caregiver of very young children (and sometimes also elderly people) meant that preparing to evacuate was more complex as well as more difficult physically and logistically.
‘There’s a lot more to get organised with kids than people that don’t have children.’
‘The three mothers, myself and the other two, we had decided we were not going to go because it just felt like a reasonably safe place. There was no trees anywhere close. There was nothing that could ignite… so we just said we weren’t going to go. And it was almost comical because the dads all arrived one after one, and they’re like, “Let’s go. We have to go.” And we just pulled them in and said “No, we’re not going,” and shut the door. And the next dad arrived like, “We have to go.” And we just decided we’re not going to move with six children and two elderly people and a dog. And so we waited it out.’
‘We just decided we’re not going to move with six children and two elderly people and a dog. And so we waited it out’
Women had to consider how they could escape with their children and others they were caring for.
‘If the fire approaches and we need to get out, I needed to be able to run with him. So I had him in the baby carrier. It was so hot and we were trying to manage these two grandmas and all the other kids, so it was a really intense situation. And my partner was still at the other house …’
They prioritised providing essential care and their children’s need for food and sleep around what they needed to do, all while trying to make the situation as least stressful as possible for their children.
‘My son, he normally would’ve had a nap around that time … So I was trying to get him settled to try and have a nap. And I just sort of got anxious around that because I’m like, “Oh, if he doesn’t get his sleep, he’s going to be tired,” and we’ve already got so much going on at the moment. He needs his sleep.’
Travelling long distances in heavy traffic to evacuate was particularly challenging for those with infants who needed to be fed or have nappy changes.
‘Because we were going so slowly and we didn’t want to get out of the queue, there were a couple of times where I unbuckled [my baby] from his car seat and fed him while we were pretty much stopped. It was quite a dilemma for me in that, “But he’s got to be in his car seat, and we’ve got to be safe, of following the road rules,” and matching that with, “This is a very emergency situation.”’
Especially for mothers on their own with multiple very young children the need to keep a hold of toddlers in environments like evacuation centres or other places of evacuation where they might want to run away or wander was an issue.
‘I had my [baby sling] to put the four-month-old in so that I could then have the two-year-old and hold onto her.’
Queuing was much more difficult for those who had children with them and this could impact women’s capacity to obtain support and resources, including food.
‘It’s two, three hours wait just to get any just one thing from the supermarket … I can’t sit there in line with four girls whinging for food, and whinging for drinks, when I know I can’t provide that for them.’
Women’s focus on their children meant that they sometimes neglected their own needs, including for food and water.
‘As a mum, you might be putting your kids first, and you grab nappies and water; all the stuff for the kids, but you don’t have stuff for yourself.’
‘I was more focused on my children than myself at the time, even though I should have been because I was pregnant, but I was just more so focused on my children … I always had that in the back of my head, just put them first before me. Then I neglected myself and I’m like, “Why did I do that? Because I’m pregnant. What the hell?”’
‘I think was the most difficult thing, of not being able to have any space to process one’s own stuff because you have a responsibility. I think being in an emergency without children is very different from doing it with children. The unrelentingness of parenting is exacerbated in an emergency, constantly having to self-regulate for the children’s sake and not being able to have any space to do your own
thing … I found it difficult to recognise my own needs because I was always going to put my children’s needs first.’
Women who were pregnant at the time of the Bushfires had their health jeopardised. Two of the five pregnant women who were interviewed fainted while queuing. One had been queuing at the supermarket to get infant formula for her baby, the other was queuing at a relief centre. One of the women said that she had not been eating or drinking properly because she was so focused on caring for her children:
‘They told us to go to the Club to get food supplies and stuff if we needed. I can’t remember how or why, but it was just extremely hot that day. I got really overheated. I literally, I fainted… I was so worried about my kids. I’ve given them water, supplying them with food and everything that I would just forget, just the simple things to eat myself, to drink, and whatever. The ambulance people asked me, “Have you had anything to drink today?” I literally, I couldn’t even answer the question. I was like, “I don’t even remember if I have or not.”’
I was so worried about my kids. I’ve given them water, supplying them with food and everything that I would just forget, just the simple things to eat myself…
Pregnant women found it more difficult than others to breathe because of their reduced lung capacity, some were very worried about the impact of the smoke and stress on their unborn baby, they spoke of women they knew whose pregnancy complications they attributed to the smoke and continued to worry throughout their pregnancy and after their baby’s birth.
‘Yeah, because I was heavily pregnant. I was trying to keep my body not stressed. I’m like “How the hell am I supposed to do that while I’m heavily pregnant watching four kids?” That much smoke in the air, couldn’t breathe.’
‘The only person who hasn’t given birth early to a sick baby was someone who was out of the area for the entire duration of fires. Everybody else went early with sick babies and it was one of those sick feelings where you just couldn’t go back in a time machine and change what you did and you couldn’t escape it.’
One mother described how the Bushfires disconnected her from her unborn baby:
‘I felt I neglected the pregnancy. That was a big thing for me mental wise … There were a few times when I thought I’d lost bubba. Not because I was bleeding or anything, but I just didn’t feel like it was alive or real. I don’t know. It’s just … It must have been a trauma thing. I don’t know. But, “Oh yeah, I’m pregnant, oh shit.” I didn’t drink alcohol or anything, but I just kept forgetting because I just had too much on my mind, I guess.’
Packing for evacuation with infants and toddlers was challenging
Some of those interviewed described not having an evacuation plan or kit prior to the bushfires and finding it difficult to pack when evacuation was imminent.
‘And I frantically packed. I didn’t think we were going to be under threat, so I wasn’t ready. I hadn’t packed anything; I hadn’t done anything. I thought we’re in the suburbs … surely nothing’s going to hit us.’
Some parents and caregivers didn’t understand the urgency of evacuation, know where they should go, or realise how long they would be evacuated for.
‘A police car came down the street and stopped and yelled out something to people down the road. And I saw them and I was standing on the front deck with a seven-month-old and I looked at them … and they saw me and then they stopped and reversed and they just yelled, “Get out of here, what are you doing here? Leave.” And then it was sort of like, I needed that adult to tell me what to do. I just went, “Right, we’re leaving. Everybody out.”
‘I definitely didn’t anticipate we’d be gone for the whole day, let alone a week.’
Some women found themselves in a situation where they had evacuated but did not have the supplies needed to care for themselves and their children. This was extremely stressful for them.
‘We had no water … That was one thing that was left … I didn’t grab any. I had a water bottle for my children, but that was pretty much a quarter left, so I didn’t have any water.’
‘Oh my God, I didn’t know where nappies are … But it was still that thought of like, “Wait, I have nothing, I literally have some clothes for us and some toys.’
When asked about what they wished that had packed for evacuation but didn’t, they commonly said more food, more water and toys to keep their children occupied in contained evacuation circumstances.
‘I guess for the kids, number one, having more food and water packed … I’d also wished I’d had more things to entertain the kids with because it was a hard day, they were little, my son was three and a half, so he understood there was this thing going on, but he also didn’t understand the real danger of it. And for him it was just such a long day … he didn’t get why we couldn’t just go outside.’
While some women were not prepared, others found that packing for evacuation helped them to cope with the stress of being threatened by bushfire.
‘And so we had the car packed, I had the car packed every day ... I had nappy bags, nappies for days, wipes. That was one thing that separated me from the anxiety. And what’s going to happen to reality is, “My kids immediately need food. My kids immediately need a nappy change.” So that kept me a little bit sane, prepping my car.’
However, in some cases, women’s desire to prepare or to evacuate was undermined by their partners or other family members who did not see the need to act.
‘The perception was that I was overreacting... [from] my partner, my family ... So I felt a little bit like, “oh, you crazy prepper.”
“We were lucky we had a house in town that was my cousin’s holiday house, so she offered us to stay there ... That made it a lot easier because I got the kids and we went in there.’
‘What was really helpful ... when we needed to organise food or try to work out if there was a supermarket open, there were other adults and other grown-up children that could care for him. So it was actually possible for my partner and I to do something else for a short period of time ... so not just being our nuclear family, was hugely important.’
Very often, families grouping together meant that children not only didn’t find evacuation stressful, they enjoyed it.
‘So there was five families under my mum’s roof, some were my husband’s family ... there was about four children under four at the time. So obviously, they’re all playing with each other and occupying each other most of the time.’
Extended family support was extremely helpful to many families with very young children
Extended family often provided a place to evacuate to meaning that parents could avoid evacuation centres. They also shared resources like food and gas, and helped to keep children happy and occupied, giving parents a break and allowing them to undertake necessary tasks.
Women preferred evacuating to a family or friend’s home because they realised that it would be difficult to care for their children in an evacuation centre.
‘But that was one of the things that was also pointed out to me by my friends was, what are you going to do in evacuation centre in a big room full of people you don’t know? And you’re pregnant … You’ve got a one-year-old and you’ve got a three-year-old.’
‘I didn’t want to go into an evacuation centre because it wasn’t segregated or anything, so everyone would be thrown into the one area.’
Evacuation centres were often not good places for families with very young children
Those who could not evacuate to family or friends commonly found themselves in a difficult situation. Evacuation centres, especially those that were a single large building, were often not great for families with very young children. Evacuation centres often could not separate those with very young children from the general population and parents were concerned about animals possibly harming their children and concerned about exposure to very distressed people.
‘There was literally a thousand people crammed inside this one building … It was also a frantic environment I’d say. There were people crying and it was people panicking … I didn’t feel like it was a good environment for my kids to be in, especially because my three-and-a-half-year-old wasn’t quite aware of the danger we were in, which is how I wanted it to be for him. I didn’t want him to be stressing out.’
That many women had evacuated on their own with children made them particularly concerned about how they could care for and protect their children by themselves, particularly overnight.
‘It worried me that we were all just sleeping and I could have been sleeping next to anyone. And that worried me for my kids … This one girl, I think the mother was very relieved, she stayed with me and my dog and my daughter and she felt safe there because … you’re next to anyone. You don’t know who’s in the room with you.’
‘There was nowhere really suitable for my bub to sleep while we were at the evacuation centre – I had to put him on the floor on blankets and sit with him to protect him from anyone walking/stepping on him.’
Those with children who could run away were concerned about keeping track of their children and their safety around strangers.
‘It’s all these strangers and trying to watch your kids because the older ones … running off and playing with other kids and worrying, so you’d be worrying about the older kids not being supervised and the strangers everywhere.’
Running off and playing with other kids and worrying, so you’d be worrying about the older kids not being supervised…
Lack of privacy for breastfeeding was an issue. One mother described seeing another woman with a brand-new baby, expressing milk in public in one of the large evacuation centres.
‘I remember about being in the evacuation centre and … there was a girl sitting on the ground who had a baby that probably would’ve only been … four to six weeks old … she was sitting expressing on the floor of the evacuation centre and I just felt so sorry for her … there was no privacy … She was just sitting in the middle of the floor with all this chaos going around her and this new baby.’
Outside places of evacuation had some of the same issues as evacuation centres around safety for those women who were on their own.
‘I fell asleep on one of the benches one time and I had my hand on the pram … and fell asleep on a bench by the beach because I was so tired. Someone came and checked on me. It was a bit confronting. I was like, “Whoa,” brought the reality of you are by yourself. You literally have to have your hand on your pram so you can sleep. So, that was pretty confronting.’
Those who had been in an evacuation centre that had a child friendly space or a space in which families with young children could stay together had a much better experience.
One of the venues that provided this separate space was a bowling club:
‘The kids were in heaven they had a great time because … there’s even a room with all the kids’ stuff in it. So they just spent the whole day running around the pokies and then running into and playing with all the toys and arts and craft in the room. And I felt really … we were all … yeah, I felt really welcome there.’
Children playing at a Eurobodalla childcare centre used as evacuation centre during Black Summer Bushfires
Breastfeeding provided food security for infants during and after the Bushfires
Women who were breastfeeding described being grateful at being able to breastfeed their babies despite whatever else was going on.
‘Literally, I had my boobs and that’s all I needed.’
‘Luckily I didn’t have to worry about food for [my baby] ’cause he was fully breastfed, we had snacks, we had water.’
‘As long as he had me and he had nappies, he was fine.’
Complementary foods for babies and young toddlers were not necessarily available in evacuation centres but women who were breastfeeding were able to return to exclusive breastfeeding.
‘I just gave up on solids because it was too hard, and he just drank lots and lots of milk.’
Women noticed that their babies were more unsettled and wanted to breastfeed more frequently during the Bushfires. Some women believed that their milk supply had been reduced. This may have been a perception due to their babies wanting to feed more frequently but may also have been because they were dehydrated as some women were not eating or drinking because they were so focused on caring for their children.
Some women believed that their milk supply had been reduced. This may have been a perception due to their babies wanting to feed more frequently...
‘And so day and night, he would just be feeding. He was definitely more unsettled. He’d been sleeping much better, but he’s always been the sort of kid that’s very empathetic and can pick up on how other people are feeling. So, with me being so scatter brained and all over the place, he was definitely way more unsettled.’
‘I definitely lost a little bit of supply given that I’d had that very stressful couple of hours. I hadn’t looked after myself, that New Year’s Eve, I didn’t really eat or drink at all just because of the chaos of the day.’
One breastfeeding mother described losing a significant amount of weight over the Bushfires:
‘I think I was eating less for me than I should have, and I ended up losing quite a lot of weight over that period of time … I was 55 kilos by the time we’d gotten out the other end of that … Between 60 and 65 would be where I kind of sit normally … I hadn’t been 55 kilos since I was in high school.’
Parents of formula fed infants faced challenges in feeding their babies
They needed to ensure that they evacuated with all the supplies necessary to feed their babies without access to mains water or power.
‘Stuck on the road and bottle feeding – It was being trapped in a car for hours. We didn’t know how we were going to do bottles and things like that … we had to talk about carrying our own hot water and things like that.’
Evacuation centres did not necessarily have the required resources and one mother described how a call was put out for sterilising equipment to be brought to the evacuation centre:
‘One of the midwives here was assisting with the evacuation centre … and she put out a post looking for sterilisation equipment.’
During and after the Bushfires, obtaining infant formula could be difficult and mothers were clearly distressed by not being able to obtain infant formula or not being able to obtain the infant formula that their baby usually drank.
‘Formula shortages; even the groceries were difficult to find at that time … and we weren’t able to get trucks come in with stock and all that kind of thing, formula, toilet paper, milk, bread, anything, all the staple things that you would normally expect to be able to have, you no longer have access to that.’
‘Imagine a screaming child. My son… was screaming. I normally, I get really anxious when that happens … I just held him trying to feed him this bottle and he wouldn’t accept the milk. He wouldn’t, he didn’t like the milk.’
Evacuation centre staff who assisted caregivers with formula feeding, were appreciated.
‘With the evacuation centre, we weren’t that far from the kitchen area. So if I needed a bit of hot water I could go and ask them. They were very helpful.’
Some resources were enormously helpful to some parents
The resources that made the most difference included food supplies, a gas stove, a generator and a caravan. Access to these resources cushioned them against the disaster.
‘We had those little gas cookers basically. So we were just getting pots and putting them on the stove and then we would just be boiling hot water pour into the sink where the [baby bottles] would just be left to sit there for a few minutes and then rinsed out with cold water’
‘My husband had a tiny little generator that we could run on our freezer so we didn’t lose all our freezer supplies … And yeah, I am a little bit of a hoarder in the sense of we live away from a big town, so I’ve always got plenty of food in the fridge and a gas cooktop that I could cook.’
Total strangers provided accommodation including to people in transit who were not even from their town.
‘I walked into a shop in Bermi and she’s like, “Are you by yourself?” And I said, “Yes.” And she’s like, “Do you need somewhere to stay?” And I just burst into tears … because she’s like, “Oh, I live just walking distance here, here’s my key.”’
‘And it was probably 11.30pm or something. We just walked up to these strangers and they just gave us two of their bedrooms and put us up for the night. So we slept there. It was so kind. They were such good people.’
Other people helped women who were on their own with their children.
‘I walked on the beach with my four-month-old in the carrier and my two-year-old in my hand. And people just swarmed to look after me.’
Mothers received wonderful support from friends, neighbours and strangers
This support helped them greatly in caring for their children during and after the Bushfires. It included friends and neighbours offering places to stay.
‘I’m like, “I’m going to get my kids,” and she’s like, “Can you get mine?” So I picked up [the children] from daycare and brought them here, and then they came and stayed here. Friends of ours … they came and stayed. So our place was a bit of a hub for people … we had the room.’
‘Another neighbour said, “Guys, guys, we’ve got somewhere here. Come here, come here. So we’re together.” And so we said, “Okay, okay.”’
Child at Malua Bay Beach during Black Summer Bushfires (photo courtesy of Amanda Healy)
They provided emotional support to one another.
‘As soon as I got out of my car, there was a pregnant mum, she was younger than me and she just looked at me and she hugged me and she’s like, “Oh, I had to leave my husband,” and she was crying … And that was the first person that I saw, just a random stranger. So, she saw me alone and came and gave me a big hug.’
‘If one of us was just going to lose our shit. If we’d go see the other one and just go, “I just need five” … I could just step away. Just do whatever I needed to do and come back.’
Some caregivers turned the emergency circumstances into a game as a way of protecting children.
‘By the end of the day, the kids thought it was so funny because we had all those push lights … so they were going around and clicking all the lights everywhere … having a blast … we turned it into a game.’
Community members made sure that mothers had what they needed.
‘I think just the support of other families in the community that just sort of stepped in and just made you feel like you had the support really. That we’re not just on your own. So dropping things around, like I said, toys and things for the kids to entertain them and moral support. Just going with you to gather things. And when I was sick and things like that, giving you that bit of support, inviting us around for dinner and things like that. Just sort of keeping in touch and checking up on us.’
Mothers tried to protect their very young children from trauma
Mothers described keeping calm and keeping their fear hidden so that their children were not distressed by their distress.
‘Having the kids all there, we really focused on not panicking, and being really calm.’
‘I’m staying calm for my children, but inside, going … we’re all going to die.’
Those who had partners or others with them, separated themselves from their children when they could not contain their distress.
The success in protecting children from the acute experience of the bushfires is evident in how some children now speak about their experiences.
‘He talks about the day and he’s like, “Remember the sky was really red, remember we had to stay in [Grandma’s] caravan.” And he talks about that but he doesn’t remember it as a scary day. He sees it more as this big adventure that we all had. We were lucky that he was just that little bit younger that he didn’t actually realise how stressful the situation was.’
‘And even still, we drive down [a road] now and they go, “Oh remember we had a holiday there? … And that’s why I said, as long as you just can refer to it as holidays every time, I think I’m doing okay, we did okay in sheltering you guys.’
Unfortunately, this was not the case for all children and some still show signs of distress.
‘I feel like, especially the younger kids, the ones that maybe were really heavily exposed, or their parents were quite frantic, they don’t articulate it because it’s about the fire, but it has changed the way that they behave… Some of the people that I know, their kids are a lot clingier. When they smell smoke in the air, they get worried. They get a worried tummy, or they get particularly needy. So little kids like this can’t articulate it, but it does come out in their behaviour.’
Some families faced particular challenges
These challenges included where children had a disability.
‘My boys were very young at the time, and they really didn’t understand why they’re being locked in the house because they have ASD and they’ve got proprioception issues around their sensory stuff. They were throwing themselves into walls and things like that while we were locked in the house.’
Or because the family was a foster family. The foster family interviewed had lost their home and yet was not supported by their foster care agency.
‘I just felt that the children, being in foster care, and they probably should have done a little bit more and they also should have sourced some kind of support. But none of that was offered at the time. So we muddled through.’
It also included where parents and children were separated, which occurred because parents were divorced or because parents were health or emergency services personnel who, as essential service providers, worked through the disaster and were cut off from home by bushfire.
‘And I remember that was the sheer terror because I was separated from my kids.’
‘Couple of the nurses I worked with, they were on the night shift that night and they could not get home. Children were stranded.’
Two health workers had very different experiences with their workplace understanding their situation as mothers. One woman, who had a high-risk pregnancy, was not supported by her state health workplace when she needed to evacuate:
‘I was actually reprimanded on that. I was sent a letter saying that … they were going to be watching my sick leave … I ended up missing about four or five shifts at that period… I did get a letter from my obstetrician to say that I needed to be out of the smoke, and I wrote an email back. I mentioned the Big B-word, said that I’ve been bullied.’
Another health worker was much better supported. She had lost all her expressed breastmilk because of power outages and was provided with additional time at work to express milk or to go to her child’s day care to breastfeed:
‘My boss is 100% supportive of me having breaks to express and or whatnot … so she’d actually say, “You need to stop and you need to go and quickly express.” And yeah, so she was very good as well because she knew the trouble that I was in.’
Parents’ challenges in caring for their children continued through the recovery period
Obtaining support could require people to repeatedly share distressing experiences and this included in the presence of their children.
‘I cried every time. “What happened to you? Where do you live?” “What did you lose?” That was a big thing. “What did you lose?” And the trauma, it would’ve been so fresh for me. So every time I told my bloody story, I’d just go into freaking … I just cried. And the kids were always with me. Always with me … the two little ones.’
The demands of recovery made it more difficult for parents to be patient with their children.
‘We both got a lot more reactive with the kids, and it took a lot less to get either of us yelling. [We] had been really, really calm parents before then … we just didn’t have the headspace.’
Where there had been property damage or loss, rebuilding was recognised as taking time from children.
‘After the fires, it was just trying to replace everything and get back on top. Both of us had to go back to work, just there wasn’t any other option. And like we’ve sacrificed time with our kids … I was like, “I need to work every minute I can because we need to put every cent we have into getting this house done.”’
Volunteer Fire Fighter with her breastmilk expression kit
Children’s home playground the day after evacuating during Black Summer Bushfires
Some mothers described not deserving psychological assistance because others were suffering more than them.
‘I’ll sit in an appointment with a family where the whole family has lost every house. And you think, “Okay, yeah, I didn’t need it.” But you did, you did need it just as much as what they all did. And you do need the support. And I think it strongly contributed to how mentally unwell I was in that year after having my son. I think it massively affected me.’
Others simply found it too difficult to access support available to them because of busyness including related to caring for their children.
‘I remember as time went on there were lots of different community days and offerings, “Do you need to talk?”… I went to the planning stages of doing a community day, but that was about it. Not that I wasn’t interested or anything, but you just get busy with your family and it’s just, try to make the time to go and do that sort of thing, it gets pushed down the list of priorities … we were just too busy managing life with the two kids and trying to move life forwards.’
A workplace facilitated discussion was a way for one mother to have the opportunity to share her story with others:
‘Our workplace did have a meeting with a counsellor that came and we had a group discussion about it, which was good. It was more just for everyone to tell their story and situation. It was quite an emotional meeting, but that was good.’
Another woman shared how someone she knew had arranged with a friend to get their husbands together to talk:
‘She purposefully organised play dates so that their husbands could get together to talk about [what happened] both helped each other fight the fires off their farms. And she said they really did it under the guise of, yeah, we’re going to have play date with the kids, but, really, it was for them because they’re both really traumatised … because neither would go and seek support ever.’
Psychological support for children during the recovery period is valued
Mothers whose children showed persistent distress as a result of the Bushfires or the aftermath valued support from professionals. For one woman, this included a school-based program for a child who had been a young toddler at the time of the bushfires:
‘This year, my son got approved … to have the lady that came to the school and she was amazing … he went from that kid to having to know where I was at all times. And he would just start yelling, if he stopped what he was doing and couldn’t hear or see me … And I don’t know what she did, where she was able to just get through to him that he doesn’t need to worry about these things, like, “That’s
mummy and daddy’s job and they’ll always look after you.”
For another, it was a school-based program that helped her to build her confidence in parenting:
‘And then we had an hour with the counsellors and they were amazing. I think I got so much joy out of it than what my daughter did. Just giving a bit more faith back in myself and that what I’m doing is okay, it’s more than okay. Yeah. So it was awesome. It’s made a lot of difference.’
**Recommendations to better support families with very young children in emergencies**
Mothers said that they wished that they had better prepared for evacuation and said there should be more information available on being in an emergency with children including **what to pack in an evacuation kit** if you had an infant or toddler.
‘I really feel like there needs to be more resources … If you have small children, here’s a checklist of things you need. If we’re in bushfire season, have some bottled water, or have access to water that’s not town water, because all those people with formula-fed babies, and having no access to water, that’s a huge issue, running out of formula.’
It was also expressed that **making connections with others** in the community should be encouraged as a way of building resilience.
‘Social connectivity, that’s really important I think in terms of having those relationships set up in non-emergency times. Like who are the people that your children feel comfortable with, that you know are safe people, that live geographically close to you? So that when there is something that you absolutely need to do … who have you got around you? Because it’s very difficult to do that if you’re an isolated family without connections in the community.’
**There’s definitely room for things like, “This is designated mothers or family area for young children.”**
Improvements in evacuation centres for families with very young children were frequently suggested including in choice of venue for evacuation centres with information on which centres **might be best for children**, communicated to parents.
‘Maybe pre-planning into the different evacuation centres in your area to see what one is more child appropriate. So the club would’ve been so much better for our kids because there was a lot more room to move, seating, all that sort of stuff … but we didn’t even know that that was an evacuation centre.’
Many of the women we interviewed said that evacuation centres needed to have a **separate space for families with very young children**.
‘There’s definitely room for things like, “This is designated mothers or family area for young children.”’
‘Not just lumping everyone in together … Putting the families with kids … separate.’
‘I didn’t know how much the fires affected me after until later. Having people flag it with you to maybe pick it up sooner. Just in that, looking after you, as a mum … I’m sure there are mums that probably needed just as much support as I did … And having people ask the questions before you have to go and look for the help would’ve been good … I found that because I didn’t feel like I lost my house, I didn’t evacuate for weeks on end. I was like, “Well, that doesn’t apply to me. I’m not one of those mums.” I evacuated for two hours, and I went back home. And I had a lot of things that I needed to keep the kids sustained, but just … I was like, “Oh no, it’s not me, it’s not me. There are people that need it more than me.”’
Women also expressed that facilitating get-togethers so that stories and experiences could be shared or so they could just be with other mothers would be helpful.
‘It would’ve been nice to have somewhere that we could go in on the day so you could go and collect supplies. But just somewhere you could go sit when those days were long and … I didn’t have my husband there; he was at work. I could have say gone and sat at the Surf Club with other mums with something, a distraction. To sit in something other than the four walls of your house. Yeah. That, but obviously that’s not a safety thing, more of a mental health thing. Just something to distract you from, yeah, what you dealt with.’
And more assistance on how to help very young children who had been impacted by their parents’ traumatic response to the Bushfires.
‘One thing I thought about was, especially with the younger children, is as a mother, how to lessen the trauma? While it’s happening, how? … Me not crying in front of them. But I did that many times. How do I shift them from a traumatic experience? Maybe it would be useful to know those lines or some type of list of don’t do this or try to talk about something.’
Mothers expressed that they felt that proactive psychosocial support for the mothers of very young children would be beneficial and might help overcome any reticence to seek help because others were more deserving.
‘Want to help the children? Help the parents’
Interviews with emergency responders
Interviews were conducted with 39 emergency responders. These emergency responders had provided support to families with very young children in a wide variety of roles as shown below in Table 5.
Table 5. Roles of emergency responders who were interviewed
| Description of role | No. of people |
|----------------------------------------------------------|---------------|
| Evacuation centre worker (NGO and community volunteer) | 4 |
| Doctor in an evacuation centre (community volunteer) | 3 |
| Family support recovery worker (child NGO) | 3 |
| Family support workers in community (NGO) | 3 |
| Early childhood educator | 3 |
| Midwife (state government) | 2 |
| Emergency researcher (health response, child response) | 2 |
| Child services worker (local government) | 2 |
| Child friendly space worker (child NGO) | 2 |
| Social worker (state government) | 1 |
| Welfare manager (state government) | 1 |
| Volunteers’ manager (NGO) | 1 |
| Nurse in an evacuation centre (community volunteer) | 1 |
| Donations manager (community volunteer) | 1 |
| Recovery case worker (local government) | 1 |
| Independent volunteer manager | 1 |
| Health manager (state government) | 1 |
| Foster care manager (NGO) | 1 |
| Family and child health nurse (local government) | 1 |
| Hospital-based nurse (state government) | 1 |
| Evacuation centre manager (local government) | 1 |
| Domestic violence worker (NGO) | 1 |
| Disability support specialist (independent) | 1 |
| Catering manager (NGO) | 1 |
Three of these emergency responders were also caregivers of children 0 to 4 years during the Bushfires. Some of these emergency responders had a particular interest in women and children in emergencies, others did not have this special interest. They shared their experiences of the 2019 to 2020 Bushfires and other emergencies that had occurred in Australia.
Emergency planning for very young children is lacking and has not been a priority
Some of the emergency responders who were interviewed were very aware of the lack of planning for very young children in emergencies in Australia.
‘When I went to work in emergency management, I quickly realised that we don’t plan for children very well at all at any stage of life … I think we lump children in with the vulnerable cohort and it is poorly understood that children have special and unique needs, and we should be planning for that. Because if we don’t plan for it, we’re not looking after children in the best way. And that’s right across the spectrum.’
For others, the BiBS Study and the Community Protection for Infants and Young Children in Bushfire Emergencies Project had brought to their attention for the first time that there was a gap.
‘I can’t really recall mums and bubs being a feature of any of the recommendations [of the Bushfire Royal Commission] … when you first approached about helping you out, I started thinking, I thought it’s never really hit the radar before.’
‘When this project was launched, talking to some of the emergency services people, it’s like they’ve never thought about the issue. And it is rather telling, because they’ve never thought about women and children and babies.’
And it is rather telling, because they’ve never thought about women and children and babies…
As one interviewee described, this lack of planning means that how families with young children experience an emergency is very dependent on the personal knowledge of those present:
‘So, while we care and give everybody as much support as we can, there are a lot of gaps in looking after young families. And it’s not that they don’t get care and attention from Red Cross or from Centrelink or Services Australia or Council of the Churches that might be there or the Salvation Army. They do get that care, but there’s no guidelines … So, it’s very ad hoc because it all depends on who’s there.’
**School-aged children are better catered for in emergency planning and response**
Emergency responders reported that in their experience, there is **more planning and targeted response for school-aged children** than infants and toddlers.
‘We had a big table and we’d put [information on it], and it would tell us how to care for our animals … and … about how to talk to our school-aged children about what had happened … there was nothing about vulnerable infants and toddlers and children under five.’
One emergency responder speculated that babies and very young children are overlooked because they are **not in institutions** where government has some responsibility:
‘Once they get to school, the government really has to supply services as in schools and all those kinds of things.’
Some emergency responders who were specialists in supporting school-aged children, were keenly aware of the gap for the youngest children in the acute emergency response and recovery and the **need for them to receive better support**.
‘So I guess working with the parents, we were hoping to be then supporting those children that were under two, but we didn’t work directly with children who weren’t preschool age. But we were very aware that they’re such an ignored group and … really, really vulnerable.’
**It is assumed that parents will look after their children and know what to do**
A number of the emergency responders interviewed were aware of the need to support caregivers of children in emergencies, but they said that many of **their colleagues assumed** that parents would look after their children without assistance.
‘One of the questions I sent back was, so who looks after children under three or four? Who gives the parents support? And when the question was asked … the three people that were facilitating it just looked at each other and said, “Oh, the parents will know what to do.”’
‘It’s the whole concept of, “Oh, but mum will know what to do.” Mum doesn’t even know how to look after herself in this emergency situation at the moment. Yes, her most protective thing will be to protect her baby or her toddler or her children, but she doesn’t know what she’s doing. She doesn’t know where they’re going to go and live. She doesn’t know where their next meal’s going to come from. She’s the one who has no longer got clothes for her kids and may not even have nappies.’
Emergency responders also recognised that some parents may **get caught up in the emergency** and not be able to care for their children in the way their children need.
‘So there’s this view that the parents will look after the children. But what often happens is we have an event that is very traumatic and stressful, and the parents will be caught up in the adrenaline reaction to what’s happening. And they don’t necessarily put the children first as they would in their normal life because there are so many things.’
**This is generalising massively, but basically, the town was left with women, children, and older relatives…**
As was described by the mothers in this study, emergency responders were very aware that women are often on their own with the care of the young and the elderly during an emergency.
‘So the women were literally holding the baby. Literally holding the baby or babies, or babies and young children or older children. So the men were off in the trucks, in their ute … They were all out doing their blokey thing. This is generalising massively, but basically, the town was left with women, children, and older relatives.’
But people just don’t seem to join the dots unless you’re doing it for them.’
‘If they don’t see it, then probably nobody really sees it unless you are on the receiving end. You are the mum or the bub, or the family or somebody that does actually understand that and happens to spot it.’
Parents are often unprepared or underprepared for evacuation
Emergency responders described parents turning up at evacuation centres without any supplies, including feeding supplies, for their babies or young children.
‘A lot of people arrived with nothing … So if it was a young mum who needed all of those things, whether it’s nappies or whatever, invariably they didn’t have more than a couple of hours or a day’s supply. I think in some cases it would be fair to say that they just rocked up to the evacuation centre with nothing, not even anything for their child to sleep … Some [formula feeding] mothers turned up without a bottle even.’
It was recognised that those who ended up in evacuation centres were often the most vulnerable and least resourced families.
‘It is a socioeconomically challenging place as well … In the … stadium were the people in town who had no resources at all. So quite a lot of elderly people, people with disabilities, young parents and what have you. Because the people out on the oval with the camper trailer were resourced up and had their little setup, where the ones we dealt with in that concentrated form were people who had literally no resources and a lot of vulnerabilities.’
In the stadium were the people in town who had no resources at all… So quite a lot of young parents…
Emergency responders described problems in evacuation centres for very young children
Evacuation centres were recognised as often not a good place for very young children or their caregivers and especially for mothers on their own.
‘It’s certainly not ideal for, I would say heavily pregnant women or even women who have just had a baby especially if they’re not supported with a partner or no one else is there with them. That’s going to be quite high risk.’
When children and families are vulnerable, they can be preyed on by people that do not have good intentions for the children…
Emergency responders described a variety of risks to children in evacuation centres, with many emphasising child safeguarding concerns.
‘So in terms of safety, in terms of child safety, the showground is full of dark spaces, poorly lit … There’s lots of old little shaky pavilions with dark corners around. There’s nothing about it that is safe.’
‘How vulnerable kids are with having so many different people, the stories that we heard were just that the evacuation centres were chaos, because there were pets there, there was such a range of things happening, and just the vulnerability of kids in that space.’
One emergency responder warned that:
‘Emergencies can bring out the very best in people, but also the very worst in people. And when children and families are vulnerable, they can be preyed on by people that do not have good intentions for the children.’
Physical safety concerns were noted.
‘The things that we find is challenging with kids is things like the low power points that don’t have covers on them, that they could stick fingers and toys in, balcony steps. Some of these big halls are right next to a main road, so there’s not necessarily any protections outside. Things like hot water urns for tea and coffee … that little ones can reach up and … touch. And of course, cords and cables and you name it, lying around the centre.’
Young children playing in an evacuation centre during Black Summer Bushfires
Exposure of children to very distressed people or news reporting was described as detrimental to children.
‘They had the mega screens on, with the news on [in the evacuation centre]. And so of course it’s just 24 hours a day, but it’s on screen after screen, after screen. And I had to go and try and find a coordinator to say, “You need to turn this off. You cannot have the children seeing it.”’
Animals in evacuation centres were a problem for those caring for very young children.
‘The chaos in that evacuation centre … she found it difficult to [breast] feed and she had dogs running over her … it was just untenable, really.’
Lack of safe sleeping environments for babies was a concern raised by several of the emergency responders.
‘So we often use camp stretchers or blow-up mattresses on the ground … we’ve seen very dangerous situations where the caregiver will fall asleep while breastfeeding baby. And of course those mattresses will just sink into the middle, and it can be quite dangerous for bub.’
‘I went into the toilets. I came out to wash my hands, and here’s a lady trying to wash baby’s bottles so she can make up some formula. [The baby] was somewhere around the three or four-month age … that was wake-up call to me … there was only two ladies’ toilets … and it was only cleaned once a day.’
In an even more concerning case, a woman was found washing her baby’s feeding implements in a puddle:
‘Outside the back… there was a lady squatting down and she had a baby strapped to her back, and she was washing the baby’s feeding implements… So the little bottle and a little bowl and a spoon in a muddy puddle.’
In another alarming example, a mother put her baby under blankets to hide them, highlighting the need for support for women on their own in evacuation centres:
‘We had a single mum in one centre … didn’t tell anyone she was heading off for the shower and buried the baby under all the blankets on the bed so nobody would know that the bub was still there while she was gone … now thankfully bub stirred and did scream and one of our team noticed that the bub was actually in the bed buried under all these blankets. So the dangers to bub in that scenario were pretty significant … But I guess that highlights the issue of single parents or caregivers in an evac environment who need to undertake basic care for themselves like toilets and showers and those kind of things, while trying to care for a bub with no other supports around.’
Emergency responders described how unrecognised needs and lack of support for mothers in evacuation centres meant that, when stressed and overwhelmed, some women make decisions that seem best to them at the time but are potentially risky or outright dangerous. For example, washing of feeding bottles was observed to occur in (often overused and dirty) toilet sinks in evacuation centres.
Uncrowded and relatively child-friendly evacuation centre during Black Summer Bushfires
In these cases, the women did not know that they could ask for help or who to approach for assistance, resulting in their children being placed at risk.
In agreement with the mothers who were interviewed for this study, smaller evacuation centres or those that had multiple rooms were described as being better for families with very young children than larger or single-space evacuation centres.
‘Smaller [evacuation centres] like your bowlos, and even some of your churches and stuff, definitely more comfortable’.
‘One of the places … worked very well … they had an evacuation centre in a large bowling club … [with] lots of areas for people to go to … And the families with young children actually congregated, not through any planning, but just naturally all went to the one area. And so, I think that they had a much better experience there than what they did in some of the other evacuation centres.’
**Informal evacuation centres were a response to community need**
In some instances, community members, including doctors and early childhood educators, responded to emergencies by **opening up their facilities as informal evacuation centres** for families with very young children and other vulnerable people.
‘We had eight families staying there with their dogs and a couple of families from the evacuation centre who came because it was medical practice … because their kids had special needs. That was the baby we were caring for … we were caring for the family. I can’t tell you how vulnerable they felt. A new child and brand new, three months old and it was so deeply disturbing to them that they couldn’t protect their child … And so they ended up coming and staying at the practice as well.’
‘There were lots of families with little babies camping in an environment where the sky was black for days, you couldn’t see, it was the middle of night all day, and you went out and it was just so choking. And so when we found families like that, we brought them back to the surgery and they stayed at the surgery.’
These were **not planned actions**.
‘It was [spontaneous], I was just sitting on the veranda one day and I was just thinking, hold on a second, the centre has gas and … then I rang my boss and I was like, “Can we use it?” And he said, “Absolutely, go right ahead, just open the doors, let people in.”’
In these small, informal evacuation centres, the presence of other people and cooperation between them **promoted feelings of safety**.
‘Overnight, people would take watch so other families could sleep, and some said they hadn’t slept for days because they were just so worried about what was going on. So it was nice that they had a few hours that didn’t have to watch and get up and look around their property and things like that.’
Children whose families evacuated to day care centres **even had a good time**.
‘So we were in a bubble … to the children it was like a holiday because they had all the play equipment, they had a huge, big play area out the back.’
**So it was nice that they had a few hours that didn’t have to watch and get up and look around their property and things like that…**
While children as young as two years old can be accommodated in child friendly spaces, it was noted that very young children often do not want to be separated from their parents.
‘We didn’t take the babies on … the younger kids … mainly, they wanted to stay with their parents, which is fair enough, it was a scary situation.’
Often child-friendly spaces take days to more than a week to be established, but one of the emergency responders interviewed described how she was able to get a child-friendly space established the day after an evacuation centre opened because the council asked quickly and she and a colleague were close by:
‘Like the day after … one of my colleagues and I both just came down to our workplace. We … just boxed up heaps of toys and stuff to drop there. And then she got the call to say from the Shire to say, “Can you set up?”’
Emergency responders also described making informal spaces for children in evacuation centres.
‘This poor mother, who was on the brink, just lost it. And I said, you know what? Come over here, where the kids’ area was, because she’s got three kids, we’ll move some of this stuff aside and your kids can read books and stuff like that … She said, “Oh, thank you so much.”’
The presence of child-friendly space workers in evacuation or relief centres means that people are present who have a child focus and it seems they often play an important advocacy role. One of the child-friendly space workers interviewed was the person who told evacuation centre managers to take the news off the big screens at the evacuation centre. Another described how she and colleagues got parents prioritised for access to supports and ensured that children were fed and cared for while their caregivers waited:
‘We had families in there for eight hours waiting to see all of the services. They were at a high level of stress. They had kids that hadn’t eaten all day because they didn’t want to lose their line. So we ended up coming out with a formulation with Resilience New South Wales.’
and Red Cross … We bumped them up the line of Vinnies or we bumped them up the line of Salvation Army or bumped them up the line of Insurance or Service … We had food there for the children and water. In the end, we were pushing families through really, really quickly. And … when they got … paperwork … We’d just say, “Come in. Grab a cup of tea, something to eat, either stay in here, fill out your paperwork or sit out in the waiting room, your children are okay, they’re happy, they’re actually being children.” … They would go out and fill out their paperwork. We’d then bump them up the line [again] … And so we were getting them through within two hours … from start to finish.’
**Breastfeeding challenges and support provided to mothers**
While breastfeeding was noted as being protective of infants, emergency responders noted that mothers **faced challenges in continuing to breastfeed** their babies during and after disasters. Although **stress does not impact milk production**, it is very commonly believed that it does, and this belief was held by mothers and emergency responders.
‘Very frequently people who will come into those evac centres who are stressed, and obviously normal stress reactions can not only affect the cognitive process, but also the actual physical and physiological kind of processes as well. So things like the mother’s breast milk being impacted by stress in the first instance can and does occur for sure in an evac centre.’
We had families in there for eight hours waiting to see all of the services. They were at a high level of stress. They had kids that hadn’t eaten all day because they didn’t want to lose their line.
Women in that situation can **stop breastfeeding altogether** as described by one emergency responder:
‘We had a mum had been so stressed that she couldn’t breastfeed. Then the baby hadn’t had any food for, I don’t know, 18 hours … How do you breastfeed when you’re going through something like that?’
A Red Cross Volunteer and ABA breastfeeding counsellor who provided support to mothers who had evacuated with their babies during the Black Summer Bushfires
Breastfeeding counselling can enable women who are in extreme distress and lacking confidence in their ability to breastfeed to continue breastfeeding. In fact, breastfeeding itself has a physiological destressing impact. However, **breastfeeding support is often not available** or not seen as a priority in emergencies.
‘So if someone was having a problem with even being able to breastfeed or express milk in any way, being able to access the health worker that is available to come across to the centre and spend time with mum or being able to organise for mum to go to a health centre… And when you come forward with a request like that, they’re like, “That’s not on our priority list.” And you’re thinking, “Oh actually it should be. It’s got to be on someone’s priority list if this baby can’t feed.”’
One emergency responder described how a lactation consultant who offered assistance to an evacuation centre was turned away:
‘She’d made contact with them because … somebody [from a large evacuation centre] had put out the word, “We need sterilising equipment.” And she’d responded saying, “I don’t have a steriliser, but I do have these skills.” And they’d said, “Oh no, we don’t need those”.’
An evacuation centre volunteer who was also an ABA breastfeeding counsellor described how she was able to assist mothers who were stressed and worried about their ability to breastfeed by helping them to understand their baby’s behaviour and so regain confidence. These mothers and babies were in an extremely smoky environment and were very unsettled and coming on and off the breast. The volunteer described how she:
‘Didn’t particularly go there to do breastfeeding counselling, but … I tended to gravitate to the mums that would be sitting around with babies that were between the ages of newborn to two or three to find out how they were coping.’
This emergency responder described how one particular mother was concerned that there was a problem with her milk and how she provided empathy and information thus:
‘How they pick up vibes. And at this age, at four months in, they’re aware of what’s happening around them, they’re aware that mum and dad are very stressed and uptight, and they are having trouble breathing … and that’s why they were coming on and off.’
In this way she normalised the woman’s experience and empowered her in her mothering.
Some weeks later the emergency responder encountered this woman again who told her:
‘Once, I got over my initial fears when we talked the first time about the baby being unsettled [it was all OK].’ She informed the emergency responder that, ‘She was … glad she was breastfeeding because, ‘I don’t have to worry about getting formula. I don’t have to worry about where the water’s coming from, whether it’s been boiled, whether it’s out of the tank.’
The demands of recovery, were described as presenting challenges to some mothers caring for children, including breastfeeding. One health worker detailed how the enormous workload of farming women on fire-affected properties reduces women’s ability to look after the physical and emotional wellbeing of themselves and their children. This included reducing their hydration and breastfeeding frequency, so impacting milk production:
‘And so what’s going to happen is the baby’s going to miss out and your baby cues … the time to the breast … all that attachment stuff, it just totally goes out the window. So the nutrition of our mums, hydration of our mums … because that farming workload is so enormous and the demands, it’s hard to describe it without going on and on for hours … And the distractions when you’re feeding would’ve been enormous too. Phones ring, people coming and going and just not that ability to be able to relax. And that fatigue overnight, breastfeeding as well would’ve been just awful. It’s that whole care, that whole physiological caring of babies, of children.’
Family returning home, Currowan area, during Black Summer Bushfires
Formula feeding challenges and support provided to caregivers
Emergency responders recognised the vulnerability of formula fed infants in emergencies and the need to ensure that their caregivers had access to infant formula. However, they also spoke about a general lack of knowledge about formula feeding amongst emergency responders around the resources and support required to formula feed with an adequate level of safety. Guidance and policy appeared to be lacking meaning that response could be inappropriate.
‘One of the evac centres we had … we’d requested formula to be sent across, they sent one tin. We had a couple of hundred evacuees with multiple families and kids. One tin. So we had multiple families dipping in and scooping out of this one tin, no sterilisation equipment, no means to be able to sterilise there. It was just an absolute health and safety nightmare. So we very quickly then had to scream up the chain of command to say, This is not okay.’
The process by which infant formula was provided to caregivers in evacuation centres and who provided it varies widely according to what emergency responders said. One emergency responder said that in their jurisdiction, caterers, welfare, or evacuation centre management might provide infant formula. However, it also seemed that none of these people had responsibility for ensuring that caregivers also had access to washing and preparation facilities in the evacuation centre. In some evacuation centres, infant formula might just be left on a table for people to come and get if they wanted it.
‘So, yes, there was formula, and it was quite often just take it if you want, like it was just open slather.’
Emergency responders recognised that those living in the community might also come and get infant formula from evacuation centres but there seemed to be no processes in place to ensure that they have access to clean water and the ability to heat water, even in circumstances where water and electricity supplies are disrupted and/or boil water alerts are in place. A number of the emergency responders recognised that there needed to be improvement in processes around infant formula distribution. One of the emergency responders interviewed, described how their local health district had taken on responsibility for providing infant formula to evacuation centres and creating guidance for evacuation centre staff including around assessment of need and support that must be provided:
‘When an evacuation centre is set up, the pathway is just the steps that the disaster manager will follow … The most recent edition of the pathway, it’s just a step-by-step kind of approach, who’s going to contact who… So who do they contact to then say, “We’ve got a baby in this evacuation centre that’s six months old. We might need formula.” Then we would send out ready-to-feed formula rather than powdered infant formula’.
However, this process is yet to be deployed.
Emergency responders described large volumes of infant formula donations. One small community received hundreds of tins of donated infant formula, much of it out of date or otherwise not suitable for use. In this case, a local health worker gathered it all together to stop it causing problems for breastfed and formula fed infants:
‘It was horrific. So that was another huge, huge issue. Oh my God. The donations of formula that was either out of date, really close to being out of date, really bizarre labels, goat milk, just weird brands that I’ve never really had anything to do with before … But yeah, the formula was certainly absolutely out of control.’
In another town, a donations manager described having:
‘So much baby formula that we just couldn’t get rid of it.’
These donations also included expired infant formula which was given to a local animal shelter.
Out-of-date donated infant formula was used by one emergency responder to feed her lambs (photo courtesy of Louise Middleton)
Infant formula is a special category of product that should only be provided to caregivers after an assessment of need and with assurance that other resources needed for feeding are available. However, the existence of donated infant formula places pressure to distribute, as described by one emergency responder:
‘There was plenty of baby formula in powder … I know there was a newish mother in the town, and I tried to give her some things, but she said she was right.’
Pregnancy and birth experiences
Midwives who had worked through emergencies described how they disrupt care to pregnant, birthing, and post-partum women. One midwife worked in a hospital isolated because of a disaster and where for a number of days, she was the only provider of health care for women presenting for pregnancy concerns or in labour. She described being unable to access health records for some women because women had intended to give birth in another health service and how post-discharge care was compromised for some women:
‘The women who had delivered and got home just in time before the roads shut, some of them with brand-new babies were having to evacuate … we weren’t allowed to home visit anyone … The phones were down. So we had no way to ring a woman and say, “How’s your breastfeeding going?” Or the baby who’d lost 12% on day four, who should really be having daily weights and a feeding plan.’
Another emergency responder described a lack of consideration of the emergency circumstances in the discharge process for a premature infant:
‘I had a horrible situation in the flood … A very young mum. She was 17, dad was 18, and they came in with their five-week-old who had been four weeks prem. And the hospital had let them go home knowing that they’d been sleeping in the car for the past two and a half weeks. But the baby got to five pounds, so off you go. You can take the baby home. They had nowhere to go. They had no house to go to … And I was so frustrated with the hospital’s duty of care.’
And the hospital had let them go home knowing that they’d been sleeping in the car for the past two and a half weeks. But the baby got to five pounds, so off you go…
Domestic violence considerations
Domestic violence was described by emergency responders as a common and serious issue. In small communities, emergency responders described how women feared that their ex-partner might be in the same evacuation centre. These women might not evacuate or risk violence in the evacuation centre.
‘Some families didn’t go into relief centres, especially in our very small communities, because of the partners who may have been at that relief centre.’
One emergency responder described a woman with very young children, who had been staying in a refuge, having rocks thrown at her by her ex-partner in an evacuation centre:
‘She had an AVO against her ex-partner, the father of her child; she was put into the evacuation centre with him. He was throwing stones at her during that time.’
A specialist in family violence described how their organisation had taken up extensive planning for emergencies to ensure that women and children are safe:
‘If we know a fire’s raging towards a house and there’s a victim and her children in the home and we know that her partner’s not going to let her leave, what do we do with that? ... Particularly for those that are in rural areas, he’ll regularly leave, take the keys and she’s stuck ... Or he’ll go out and fight the fire because he’s a hero of a man and that’s what he does, and she’ll be stuck at home in a rural property with the kids and no vehicle. So ... one of the things that we are planning for this ... is to keep a register of those where we know that could be a possibility and having a plan around how we would contact them to check that they are okay and what our plan would be if they don’t respond. So working with the police around doing welfare checks and at what point that would be safe and how we can actually have a conversation with the victims around how do you keep yourself and your child safe if you do face an emergency?’
This same organisation has plans in place to ensure that women do not need to evacuate to evacuation centres:
‘Our plan is to have quite a solid plan of how we manage that situation and where victims should go to be safe because putting them in an evacuation centre is not the safest place for them ... when we hit the peak of bush fire season and if we’re heading into code red days, we will book accommodation in advance so that we have rooms available should we need to put people in there.’
Trauma and out-of-home care considerations
Children who have experienced trauma or who are in out-of-home care and their caregivers were recognised as having some special needs. One emergency responder described how she had advocated for a family with children in kinship care to have more time to adjust to change:
‘At one point the coordinator of the evacuation centre had said, “Okay, grab your stuff. We’re going to shut this one down at four o’clock and we’re all going to move over to the other evacuation centre.” … It was just a fluke that we heard that and we’re able to say, “No, this family actually needs processing time.”’
A foster care manager described how they support carers to develop emergency plans, keep in touch with them through disasters and provide financial assistance where needed:
‘Well, we do have some carers who might not have family local, and even say evacuation points, they may not be suitable for some of our children [for whom] … It could be a real trigger. So we would be offering that financial assistance if that’s what was required … basically whatever they needed.’
She also recognised that not all foster care agencies provide such support:
‘I’m actually surprised sometimes at the amount of carers that say they’re not supported.’
**Disability considerations**
Emergency responders described how difficult evacuation centres could be for children with a disability.
‘And as we know little people with additional needs, especially the age bracket you’re looking at, that sense of stranger danger is just non-existent … We’ve got a child that’s very gregarious and likes to meet people, additional needs, but we just couldn’t ensure their safety.’
‘Little ones living with autism or ADHD, or other iterations. So of course an evac centre environment is not going to be helpful to them at all. It’s noisy, it’s chaotic, it’s way removed from their normal routine.’
In some cases, emergency responders described how children were able to be placed in an alternative location to the main evacuation centre.
‘There were children with disabilities and one of those little boys had lots of pets, and he couldn’t be separated from his pets with his condition and anxiety. This little boy ended up in the [small evacuation centre] for a couple of weeks. He needed enclosure. He needed something like that.’
However, it was also reported that some families have paid, sometimes a substantial amount of money, to evacuate to alternative housing because they knew their children would not be safe in an evacuation centre.
‘They ended up spending their whole life savings to move out … And they made that choice to make sure that their children were safe.’
In recovery, it was noted that parents of children who had a disability could not necessarily access mainstream or disability supports.
‘There were recovery activities available where parents could just drop the kids off for a couple of hours … A lot of parents that I’ve spoken to, still trying to process their own trauma, and then go, “Well, hang on a minute. We’ve not been able to do what others have done because we can’t actually get access to support workers to help said child.”’
**Cultural considerations**
Emergency responders raised cultural considerations including around breastfeeding and asking for assistance.
‘So other challenges definitely around, I guess cultural norms and cultural practice in … relation to breastfeeding. So some of those cultures … It’s not acceptable for them culturally wise to be sitting in an open space and breastfeeding; they very much want and need a private space for that to occur, [but] they won’t always come forward and tell you that it’s an issue.’
‘So migrant, not a single word of English, had no support network around her at all. And for her culture, it wasn’t okay to ask for help, you had to fend for yourself.’
**After the acute emergency and into recovery**
The stage of development of infants and very young children means that they are unlikely to be directly traumatised by a disaster, however they can have **trauma transmitted to them by their parents and caregivers**. This transmission can occur if parents and caregivers are unable to provide predictable, responsive and loving care. Supporting the emotional wellbeing of children therefore needs to be predominantly focused on supporting their caregivers. As one emergency responder said:
‘You want to help the children, help the parents’ … We need to consider what the parents need to help facilitate the children because their influence on the children is so strong and so crucial.’
In their acute distress, some women needed their children’s **very basic needs pointed out to them**:
‘So keeping your baby clean, keeping the nappy fresh, checking over their body, making sure there’s no rashes, or making sure they’re fed, watered, all those basic things. It was almost as though they couldn’t even actually think to do those things … we would go around to each house and just make sure. “Okay, has such and such been fed in the past three hours? How are you going?” So, “Yes.” And it’d be like a veil had … “Yes, yes, I have to feed him. Hang on, hang on.” So they’d go over and pick up the baby. The baby was soiled. Obviously the nappy hadn’t been done in all that time. So there was so much of that basic … prompting to do those basic things.’
We felt as though it really helped them to also remember and then think that this is only a temporary thing and that into the future…
Father and daughter walking their property after the Black Summer Bushfires
Parents and caregivers who have been severely traumatised because of an emergency, might need help to see past their circumstances and **connect with their very young children**. One emergency responder, working in a community that had been devastated by bushfire, described using photos and video to help women to do this:
‘We got the mothers’ mobile phones, the mothers that were so frozen that they … couldn’t really even think to attend to the basic needs, we could see that the children were desperately seeking the reassurance of the mother that everything was going to be okay … We would find videos on the mother’s phone of the happy times, like holiday videos, things like that, where the mother was really engaging very authentically with the child and … we would play those videos … we felt as though it really helped them to also remember and then think that this is only a temporary thing and that into the future, they can possibly get back to what it was that they were seeing.’
Emergency responders noted that the **busyness of recovery** also made it very difficult for caregivers to be responsive to their children.
‘But the services that present to you after that initial emergency is so overwhelming, and the phone ringing and the demands on you, that it’s almost impossible to function and care for yourself, your children, and your family ... It’s just absolutely almost impossible.’
Emergency responders indicated that **anything that lightened the load** off parents would help their children.
**Preschools and early childhood centres play an important role in recovery**
Preschools and early childhood centres provided older toddlers and preschool-aged children with **normality and routine**. Early childhood educators we interviewed described how they sought to create an environment that would **promote feelings of safety**.
‘We had set things that we did in that time of gathering and that was the formation for those children every morning, that was their little secure base ... And so, it was really important to have a safe structure and familiarity for them.’
Early childhood centres **supported the wellbeing of parents** by providing them with childcare when they had so much on their plate.
‘[A preschool had just opened] they thought there would be no one that would come... But they were saying that it was full, that all of the parents really needed to come to the preschool and really relied on it as a way of getting through it themselves.’
Early childhood educators also knew about families’ circumstances and so could provide **material support in a non-obtrusive way**.
‘We were able to connect with the families around here, who probably weren’t jumping up and down asking for a handout, weren’t asking for something ... We were able to distribute this through several charities.’
Early childhood settings **acted as a conduit for other organisations** to reach children and their families with programs to support emotional wellbeing. Interviewees described a number of different programs which generally focused on **helping educators to understand** children’s responses and needs after a disaster, with some activities for children, limited because of their age.
‘We would also offer support for educators ... It may be some just general disaster recovery workshops about how children are impacted, signs that they might need additional support.’
‘So we would usually do a shared book reading, just OT regulation activities, maybe do some speech activities all around that theme of [the emergency recovery resource] Birdie’s Tree ... There were some children that we did individual therapy with, but primarily, it’s more working with the educators as a group or individually with particular things that they would like to learn, and then how they could put that into place in the preschool.’
**We didn’t work directly with children who weren’t preschool age. But we were very aware that they’re such an ignored group**
Unfortunately, these programs were **generally not available immediately after the emergency** and often did not have high involvement of parents and caregivers. This meant they would only assist the very youngest children if they had older siblings in early childhood education and their parents were being provided with support. This was recognised as a gap by one interviewee:
‘We didn’t work directly with children who weren’t preschool age. But we were very aware that they’re such an ignored group.’
Emergency responders noted that there was very little support post-emergencies targeted at supporting the emotional wellbeing of the youngest children.
‘One of the big things we’ve had here since the fires, was very, very low supports, mental health supports for early childhood.’
And as one emergency responder described, children who were likely too young to have been directly impacted by the disaster, were showing distress through their behaviour:
‘The children’s behaviour, it’s beyond our capacity to deal with a lot of the stuff … we’ve never had to deal with this before.’
Bringing mothers of infants and very young children together as a supportive measure
Emergency responders described, how in some instances, spaces for mothers to come together to share stories, to support one another and for their children to play were created. These initiatives were able to be accessed by the mothers and caregivers of the very youngest children. In one town, a preschool next to the relief centre was opened up by Red Cross volunteers two weeks after a bushfire for two hours two mornings a week as a drop-in centre for mothers and other caregivers and their very young children. In another, very badly disaster-impacted town, a space that was safe for very young children was created less than one week after a bushfire and enabled mothers to gather together for support. As one of the emergency responders involved described:
‘There was a woman there whose house was still half standing, and she had a big … open shed. So we ended up being able to … set that up as a bit of a meeting place for everybody to come together … We ended up putting up … that orange sort of temporary fencing stuff that goes around festivals and things just to provide some sort of security to the children … and that did become a real mecca for the mothers and the children.’
These initiatives were short-term, but the Australian Childhood Foundation and partners, instituted a more long-standing program for mothers and their very young children in Corryong, Victoria, after the 2019 to 2020 Bushfires called ChildSPACE. ChildSPACE aims to support the emotional wellbeing of caregivers through promoting social connectedness. It provides resources to assist parents in caring for their children including a toy library, classes and access to other resources. As described by an emergency responder involved with the program, it has been very well utilised:
‘We leased a building and made a kids and families space … So it’s full of toys and climbing equipment for kids, and we’ve made one room really safe and nurturing for mums to go and use. And yeah, the way the community has used it has just been greater than we could have ever hoped or dreamed. People are coming in and connecting.’
Some people plan to meet friends there for a play with the kids, and the mums have a coffee, others, there’s just so much of the incidental catch-ups, that just turns into a really rich connection that just wouldn’t happen without a space like that. So yeah, it’s been really lovely to see how the community have used it and continue to use it.’
Providing a safe space for mothers and their very young children immediately after a disaster, and then augmenting that space with formal supports over time, is a model of support aligned with what one of the emergency responder researchers interviewed said is needed:
‘So it’s not ever going to be perfect. But I think what happens initially around that nurturing, caring, calming, restoring, a sense of safety, those things are really, really important for the long-term outcomes. And then after that initial phase that we need to come in with the specialist care, whatever that might be. And also the overlay over all of that for me is around protecting children.’
**Recommendations to better support families with very young children in emergencies**
Emergency responders were clear that parents needed to be provided with more information on preparing for an emergency including what to put in their evacuation kit for their very young children.
‘All that stuff about safe evacuation with pets was telling you all the things to take with you, but if you had something very simple for babies that this is, take this with you.’
It was also suggested that pregnant women in emergency-prone areas should have items on hand in case they were isolated at home because of an emergency and went into labour, as well instructions on what to do if they needed to give birth without access to health support.
‘An instruction list of worst-case scenarios, you end up delivering at home or looking after your baby at home, brand-new baby, you’ve never done it before and then midwives cannot visit or ring you because of fires or whatever.’
Emergency responders also spoke about the need to have a separate space for families with very young children in evacuation centres.
‘On intake, if you had everyone register and they could say on intake whether they’re breast or formula feeding, and then just giving the families a nice supportive place, a comfortable place, so they don’t get as stressed … a station [for making up infant formula] … even a table for changing nappies and a garbage bin to be able to dispose of it easily and wipes and things like that.’
As in the previous example, emergency responders also said that more information on family and child vulnerability, including information on how infants are being fed (and particularly if they are formula fed) should be collected at registration in evacuation centres so that proactive and appropriate support can be provided.
‘Just a tick box for whoever to say that this person would be classed as vulnerable, which could be used … This family has X amount of children under the age of five. This person is classed as a vulnerable person due to age, medical, whatever … if they were being formula-fed.’
Signage in evacuation centres to tell people where they could get help with accessing resources for formula feeding and not to wash bottles in toilet areas was also suggested.
‘In our evacuation centre kits that we have, that we take, we need some laminated posters that says, “Do you need help with washing bottles or do you need help with … Please come and talk to Red Cross staff” … if we had that in the toilets around the evacuation centre.’
And having one organisation (rather than many) responsible for supporting the feeding needs of infants and young children.
‘So I think at a minimum it’s acknowledging that all of these issues exist … identifying that one entity to be responsible for … the food
or formula, if that’s required, not just in evac centres, but the wider community who might be displaced or impacted through lack of power or water.’
They recognised that wherever possible ensuring access to breastfeeding support in evacuation centres was needed, whether in person or through use of telehealth or the National Breastfeeding Helpline.
‘That should be GPs coming into evacuation or lactation consultants coming into evacuation centres … And I think we need to use our ability to use telehealth and things like that so we can phone in on a phone and talk to a mother and support them.’
Adding the needs of children into evaluation of venues as possible evacuation centres was a suggestion made by one emergency manager:
‘Every shire that is responsible for identifying evac centres, send them as a tick box part they can add to their inspection sheet when assessing a property … Does it have discreet baby feeding areas? Is bottle washing accessible? … Now just have a little tick box thing they can add onto the site inspection, because most of them operate with a checklist format when they nominate an inspector to possible evac centre … it makes it front of mind.’
Emergency responders wanted information and checklists for themselves to make it easy for them to know what to do.
‘Well see, I’m a father of a seven-year-old and a nine-year-old boy … and I put myself back into those situations and just think, “it’s just a different world” [caring for babies]. At which point do I step out of the normal world into this little bit of a specialised world?” … But if I had a cheat sheet then, I’d go there. It’s my favourite, a cheat sheet.’
Aforementioned ‘cheat sheets’ might also assist in child safety checks that another emergency responder said need to be carried out in evacuation centres:
‘Having evac centre workers be aware that they will literally have to do these safety walkthroughs on a regular basis to make sure that those environments are child safe.’
Finally, emergency responders expressed a need for training and capacity building for emergency responders on supporting very young children and their parents and caregivers in emergencies. It was evident from what the emergency responders interviewed said, that many would welcome the opportunity to learn more. One interviewee had seen this for herself when she undertook a training:
‘Three local Shires got together and did a training day for evacuation centres … We presented about just some of the considerations for kids, and the feedback was phenomenal just about how they really hadn’t thought about it … And so we just spoke around some really basic considerations… we got a lot of feedback to say that it just shifted the whole conversation for the rest of the afternoon, because people really started to think about the impacts on kids.’
Community Protection for Infants and Young Children in Bushfire Emergencies Project team presenting to Red Cross volunteers at Club Malua, 2022.
Global emergency expert interviews
Twenty emergency experts who had been involved in emergency planning or response related to young children in Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, the United Kingdom, Ukraine, and the United States of America were interviewed.
Global challenges to supporting very young children in emergencies
The global emergency experts described challenges and barriers to providing support to families with very young children that echoed what we found in Australia. They noted that supporting the mothers and other caregivers of infants and young children in disasters was often not seen as a priority. They also described a gap for the youngest children in emergency planning and response.
Problems with data collection and service provision were described. The feeding needs of infants and young children, including breastfeeding, formula feeding and complementary feeding were overlooked. A lack of knowledge amongst emergency responders of how to support mothers and other caregivers was evident. This meant that emergency responders often did not notice children’s or caregivers’ needs and that it was assumed that mothers and other caregivers would know what they need and be able to look after their children without special support. The false belief that stress impacts breastmilk production was widespread and resulted in lack of breastfeeding support and responders providing infant formula when not indicated.
Alongside this, was a lack of awareness about the needed resources for formula feeding. In all countries, donations of infant formula were a problem. These donations were often out-of-date, of excessive quantity and not distributed in a controlled way while ensuring that parents and caregivers had other necessary resources.
Global solutions to supporting infants and young children in emergencies
The global emergency experts interviewed described actions undertaken in their countries to improve the support for and emergency experiences of families with very young children.
Improving the emergency planning for infants and young children
Global experts described how evidence that there was a planning gap assisted advocacy for improving planning for infants and young children. Ensuring that those who have knowledge about the needs of very young children had a seat at the table during planning was an enabler of a child focus and for issues to be brought forward when they wouldn’t otherwise be. It was noted that those involved in planning should include health workers with appropriate knowledge including regarding infant and young child feeding. Including the needs of infants and young children in scenario activities (paper-based and staged) provided both educative and gap-identification opportunities.
Ensuring emergency response meets the needs of infants and young children
Having appropriate planning was considered the foundation for good emergency response, but planning itself was not enough. Planning and policies needed to be integrated across relevant government and non-government organisations so that organisations could work together to protect very young children. In addition, appropriate training of emergency responders, including health workers, was viewed as essential to ensuring emergency responses meet the needs of very young children. In one country, this was taken so seriously that infant and young child feeding in emergencies was integrated into national medical training requirements so that all graduating doctors would have knowledge in this area.
When it came to the detail of emergency responses, ensuring that very young children and their parents and caregivers were considered in the management of evacuation centres was viewed as extremely important. This included
considering the needs of children in the choice of evacuation centre venues and making sure that evacuation centres have appropriate equipment for young children (for example, beds and bedding and nappy changing facilities).
Ensuring that registration forms ask for crucial information, such as how an infant was fed, was described as necessary for providing required support to parents and caregivers. Recognising vulnerabilities associated with child age and feeding method within and without evacuation centres, was described as protective of child health and was supported by appropriate data collection at registration and other forms of needs assessment (at an individual and population level).
Priority access to resources for mothers and other caregivers of infants and young children was noted as a valuable practice given how difficult queuing can be for very young children and their caregivers and how it can interrupt time-sensitive caregiving like feeding.
Policies and procedures to reduce and manage infant formula donations and to enable appropriate infant formula distributions were described by global experts as critically important. Encouraging the public to donate money and not infant formula was described as being one way of reducing unhelpful donations.
Distributions of infant formula were most effective when undertaken by individuals with skills to assess need and who also had the responsibility to ensure that other necessary resources (such as water and washing facilities) were available to the caregiver. Where breastfeeding counselling was not available on-site, enabling access to telephone counselling had been of assistance in several countries. Emergency authorities had, in some instances, promoted telephone breastfeeding counselling services broadly to the emergency-affected population including via the media. Adjusting for cultural context (for example around breastfeeding in public) and child or parent disability was described as assisting caregivers.
A separate space in evacuation centres for families with very young children was described as a facilitator of support to caregivers and protective of child health and wellbeing. In Alberta, Canada, an initiative to support very young children and their caregivers in evacuation facilities that encompassed the supports described here, has been developed. Further detail on this initiative is provided in Box 1.
**Gaining support for implementation of emergency planning**
The global experts interviewed, emphasised the need to gain support to ensure that planning and initiatives to support very young children in emergencies were implemented. They described having government agency support as vital. Experts from five countries also explained that the support of UNICEF had been critical to their improving emergency response to very young children. Champions for children within government and other organisations assisted in gaining institutional support. Experts described how more non-emergency specific policies (for example national breastfeeding strategies) could assist in advocacy for better emergency response to infants and young children.
Within NGOs, involving international humanitarians whose work routinely includes support for mothers and infants and young children in emergencies, was seen to increase the confidence of those working domestically on the value of targeted support for very young children. Providing resources to emergency responders, for example instructions and guidance, was seen to aid implementation. In two other countries, flow charts including questions to ask mothers and other caregivers was developed to help emergency responders to provide appropriate infant feeding support.
**Promoting family resilience**
It was recognised by global experts that including parents, particularly mothers, in emergency preparedness activities, such as for evacuation, was important. However, it was also noted that the busyness of parenting meant that it could be difficult to engage those caring for very
young children. Communicating with parents via community organisations that involve children such as playgroups was described as assisting with parental engagement. Involvement of whole communities, including parents, in emergency planning via Community Response Planning has been successfully used in New Zealand as described below in Box 2.
Providing emergency preparedness and recovery resources, specifically for the mothers and caregivers of infants and young children was described as important. In New Zealand, a recovery program focused on encouraging caregivers to take time to engage lovingly with their children was deployed after the 2011 Christchurch Earthquake and is described following in Box 3.
### Baby and Child Unit, Alberta, Canada
The 2016 Fort McMurray Bushfires in Alberta, Canada burnt nearly 600 000 ha of land and required the evacuation of 88 000 people, including many families with infants and young children. During this emergency, volunteers from a child health coalition identified deficiencies in the emergency response to the caregivers of infants and young children, that placed children at serious risk. Following this emergency, an organisation created in response to the poor disaster response to very young children, Safely Fed Canada, worked with authorities from one local government area to create the Baby and Child Unit. The Baby and Child Unit supports the caregivers of children 0–3 years, who have been impacted by a disaster, in caring for their children. The Baby and Child Unit provides a separate space within evacuation facilities for parents and other caregivers of very young children and is resourced with items to support children’s specialised feeding, hygiene, sleep and play needs.
These resources include:
- **Feeding:** private space for mothers to sit and breastfeed or express milk, snacks and water for breastfeeding mothers, infant formula, clean space for infant formula preparation, feeding implements, washing and sterilising supplies, access to water for washing, complementary foods.
- **Hygiene:** space for nappy changing, nappies, nappy wipes, hand sanitiser.
- **Sleep:** space for very young children to sleep, including during the daytime, baby boxes for infant sleep, baby blankets.
- **Play:** clean and contained space for babies to crawl and sit and play, suitable clean toys.
Reassurance and emotional support are provided to caregivers by trained volunteers/workers to help them to remain responsive to their children, so protecting children’s emotional wellbeing.
Volunteers/workers receive basic training on breastfeeding, infant formula feeding, hygiene, sleep safety and psychological first aid.
Mothers experiencing breastfeeding challenges are referred to telephone breastfeeding counselling if onsite services are not available. Signs supporting child safety are posted in facilities, for example signs saying ‘do not wash baby bottles here’ are placed in toilets.
In facilities where the Baby and Child Unit is activated, families with very young children do not go through the general registration process but are directed to the Baby and Child Unit for family registration. During the family registration process, immediate and longer-term childcare needs are identified with immediate needs met (e.g. baby needing a nappy change or feed) before further processing or support. The Baby and Child Unit is not a childcare facility or a replacement for medical support.
The Baby and Child Unit has since been fully integrated into multiple local government emergency plans in Alberta as part of any facility providing services to evacuated people, including evacuation centres and other emergency accommodation sites. A Baby and Child Unit kit, including instructions, paperwork, signage and resources is stored for fast deployment.
In New Zealand, government emergency planning is augmented by Community Response Planning. Community Response Planning recognises that community members are first responders in any disaster and that assistance provided in emergencies mostly comes from family, friends, neighbours, community groups, and churches etc. Community response plans are developed by community members and in the event of a disaster, are supported by government responses. Community Response Planning is viewed as beneficial because it empowers communities, creates community ownership, supports emergency services in times of overwhelm, creates realistic expectations, and strengthens community relationships and resilience.
The principle underlying Community Response Planning is that the best people to prepare for, respond to and support recovery from an emergency are those who know, understand and are part of that community. Community Response Planning is viewed as a means of ensuring that communities are as ready as possible for any emergency which may affect them and to empower local communities to look after each other. Community Response Planning is useful in emergencies recognised as such by governments as well as those not officially recognised outside of the community.
In Community Response Planning, communities consider the risks that they face and the assets they have and consider how they can use these assets and build on their strengths to support each other in an emergency. They think about the different groups in their community and what those groups might need in terms of support in different types of emergencies. Community members develop plans and resources to support those plans including checklists, role descriptions and instructions.
For example, each role in an evacuation centre would have a lanyard with a tag with the job title on one side and job description and instructions on the other. These plans are communicated to government organisations responsible for emergency management. Community Response Planning is considered particularly valuable for rural and isolated communities who may be cut off in disasters. Tokanui is a small rural community in Southland, New Zealand that experienced a flooding emergency in 2022 requiring evacuation of many residents and tourists. Following their Community Response Plan, different evacuation venues were used for different groups; the general population went to the Rugby Club, the tourists to the Scout Hall and the families with very young children to the Plunket (child nurse) facility. Food and other supplies were helicoptered in by government civil defence and, in this manner, everyone was catered to based on what the community saw as being appropriate for them.
Research conducted in the years following the 2011 Christchurch Earthquakes found an inadvertent neglect of family life as the all-consuming nature of disaster recovery took all the attention of parents, to the detriment of children.
In response to this, the ‘All Right’ and ‘Sparklers’ social marketing campaigns were initiated by the Canterbury District Health Board and the Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand. The purpose of these programs included to remind parents of the importance of their caregiving role and to assist them to reengage with, and care for, their children.
A variety of resources were developed to assist parents in doing this. These included the ‘Tiny Adventures’ card set (now also an app) with the tag line, ‘It only takes a minute to make a memory’ and with cards to choose for 1, 5, 10, and 30 minute easy activities for parents to do with their child.
All Right and Sparklers also included resources to encourage parents to be kind to themselves and to help them feel good about their parenting. Underpinning the programs is a recognition that how well a child does during and after a disaster, is largely dependent on how well their parents do. Thus, resources were also available on protecting children from trauma during and after disasters, and on building resilience.
Conclusion
The BiBS study showed that the emergency response to very young children and their caregivers in Australia is inadequate.
Very young children and (predominantly) mothers, are bearing the brunt of this and are being exposed to avoidable risks.
Emergency responders are not being enabled by appropriate planning, training, or resourcing to support families with very young children in disasters.
In recovery, programs to support the parents of the very youngest children are largely absent.
Action should be taken to ensure better support for the caregivers of very young children and their caregivers in emergencies.
Biddle, N., Edwards, B., Herz, D., & Makkai, T. (2020). *Exposure and the impact on attitudes of the 2019–20 Australian Bushfires*. Canberra: Australian National University, Social Research Centre.
Davie, S. (2013). *Don’t Leave Me Alone: Protecting Children in Australian Disasters and Emergencies*. Melbourne: Save the Children.
Gribble, K., Peterson, M., & Brown, D. (2019). Emergency preparedness for infant and young child feeding in emergencies (IVCF-E): an Australian audit of emergency plans and guidance. *BMC Public Health*, 19(1), 1278. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7528-0
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2022). *Climate Change 2022: Impact, Adaptation and Vulnerability*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kouadio, I. K., Aljunid, S., Kamigaki, T., Hammad, K., & Oshitani, H. (2012). Infectious diseases following natural disasters: prevention and control measures. *Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy*, 10(1), 95–104. doi:10.1586/eri.11.55
Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements. (2020). *Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements Report*. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.
Sammy, Z., Lori, P., & Samuel, D. B. (2008). Youth mortality by forces of nature. *Children, Youth and Environments*, 18(1), 371–388.
UNISDR. (2015). *Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 – 2030*. Geneva: UNISDR.
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., & Davis, I. (2004). *At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters, 2nd edition*. London: Routledge.
World Health Organization. (2009). *Infant and Young Child Feeding: Model Chapter for Textbooks for Medical Students and Allied Health Professionals*. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Australian Breastfeeding Association
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Studies show, that:
1. Students, who participate in extracurricular activities have better grades, feel greater attachment to school, and reach higher levels of achievement in college.
2. Teens who don’t participate in after school programs are nearly three times more likely to skip classes than teens who do participate. They are also three times more likely to use marijuana or other drugs and they are more likely to drink alcohol and smoke cigarettes.
3. Students, who participate in after school programs are half as likely to drop out of high school and two and one half times more likely to go on to further education after high school than other students.
4. Developing leadership skills is another important result of children participating in after-school programs. The Boys and Girls Club study revealed that 82% of teens in the program took part in leadership roles such as student council, being in charge of different activities.
5. After school programs help children stay physically active and learn healthy habits.
How do we help our students to achieve their goals, grow up healthy, successful and happy?
1. We encourage their creativity through different projects, puppet theater and music.
2. We give our students once a week fruits and plan to increase it, providing them with a healthy snack in the afternoon.
3. We motivate them to learn – the more new concepts they are exposed to, the more confident and independent they grow up.
4. We remind them of the importance of being physically active and ask them to practice martial arts twice a week in the short recess.
5. We teach them to be nice, kind and positive.
You can help us improve and do better by giving us feedback and filling up the survey we sent to you per email.
Tai Chi is an ancient Chinese type of exercise program with its roots coming from martial arts. It emphasizes a mind body connection using slow, gentle movements, meditation and deep breathing.
Tai chi requires all the major muscle groups and joints to complete the slow, gentle movements. It has been shown to improve balance, agility, strength, flexibility, stamina, muscle tone, and coordination.
- Tai chi focuses on correct posture and balance. Our children are spending increasing periods of time sitting down. From classrooms to computer rooms, the seated position dominates and postural problems in young children are on the rise.
- Tai chi can improve a child’s ability to focus. Concentration has become a casualty of busy lifestyles with the ability to ‘stay in the moment’ becoming increasingly difficult. A child’s ability to focus and remember is a powerful learning tool. As the movements in Tai chi have to be memorized it plays a pivotal role in improving memory and focus.
- Our children are surrounded by noise: TV, videos, Ipads, music, cell phones - often occurring simultaneously. Relaxation is constantly compromised. Tai chi offers a mental break from extraneous influences because in order to participate successfully you have to shut out the external in order to master the moves.
- Tai chi is gentle. It is a combination of movement and meditation that has a calming effect. Tai chi promotes inner harmony and relaxation.
- Screens are part of everyday life, however they demand very little input from the child who then becomes a passive learner. An increase in movement based activities is one way of addressing the balance between passive and active activities.
Pick up Policy
If you come to pick up your child before 5.30pm please wait at the front desk area until we notify the teacher. In case you pick up early on regular basis let us know so the teachers can get your child prepared in time without to disturb the class.
After 6.30pm students will be lined up with their backpacks in the hallway and a late pick up fee will be applied to your next invoice. Omei teachers leave school at 6.30pm and your child will be left without supervision. In case you can not make it at 6.30pm please sign up for our extended program until 7pm.
Ask us how your child is doing at Omei! We are happy to make an appointment for you to talk to our teachers!
Please sign in your child if he/she doesn’t take the Omei bus and make sure you sign him/her the same way out.
Tests in Math, Chinese and English are coming up this month. Test results and students evaluations will follow.
Friday Folders
Please make sure to take students folders and projects back home on Friday and bring the empty folder to Omei on Monday.
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Young People's Mental Health
Mental health challenges can be difficult to define, diagnose, and address, partly because it isn't always clear when an issue is serious enough to warrant intervention. All of us, at all ages, occasionally experience fear, worry, sadness, or distress. In most cases, these symptoms are short-lived and don't affect our ability to function. But, at other times, symptoms can cause serious difficulties with daily functioning and affect our relationships with others, as in the case of conditions such as anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and eating disorders, among others.
Unfortunately, in recent years, national surveys of youth have shown major increases in certain mental health symptoms, including depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation. From 2009 to 2019, the proportion of high school students reporting persistent feelings of sadness or hopelessness increased by 40%; the share seriously considering attempting suicide increased by 36%; and the share creating a suicide plan increased by 44%. Between 2011 and 2015, youth psychiatric visits to emergency departments for depression, anxiety, and behavioral challenges increased by 28%. Between 2007 and 2018, suicide rates among youth ages 10–24 in the US increased by 57%. Early estimates from the National Center for Health Statistics suggest there were tragically more than 6,600 deaths by suicide among the 10–24 age group in 2020.
Families and caregivers play a critical role in providing the safe, stable, and nurturing environments and relationships young people need to thrive. Below are some recommendations for how families and caregivers can engage with children and youth on mental health topics, help them become more resilient, and address emerging mental health challenges:
- Be the best role model you can be for young people by taking care of your own mental and physical health.
- Help children and youth develop strong, safe, and stable relationships with you and other supportive adults.
- Encourage children and youth to build healthy social relationships with peers.
- Look out for warning signs of distress, and seek help when needed.
Source Material: https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-youth-mental-health-advisory.pdf
August Health Observance: National Immunization Awareness Month
August is National Immunization Awareness Month (NIAM). This annual observance highlights the importance of getting recommended vaccines throughout your life. We know the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted all aspects of life, including your ability to attend important appointments and receive routine vaccinations. During NIAM, we encourage you to talk to your doctor, nurse or healthcare provider to ensure you and your family are protected against serious diseases by getting caught up on routine vaccination. Immunization prevents an estimated 4 million deaths every year in all age groups from diseases like diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), influenza and measles. It is one of the most successful and cost-effective public health interventions. An additional 1.5 million deaths could be avoided, however, if global vaccination coverage improves.
If you need to get vaccinated, give WCHD a call at 513-695-1229.
With back to school season quickly approaching, there is so much to prepare, from back to school shopping, preparing school lunches, the list goes on and on! Below are some steps that you can take to help ensure that your student is safe and healthy as well.
**Sleep**
Over the summer, it is very easy for your student’s sleep schedule to change! It is very easy to go to bed late and to wake up later in the day, which can become an issue when it comes to transitioning to their back to school schedule. It is recommended by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine that children aged 6–12 years should regularly sleep 9–12 hours per 24 hours and teenagers aged 13–18 years should sleep 8–10 hours per 24 hours. Before school starts, have your student practice going to sleep at the time they would need to during the school year the week or so before school starts!
If your student rides their bike to school, make sure that they wear a helmet and bright colored clothing. If your child must cross the street in front of the bus, teach him or her to walk on the side of the road until they are 10 feet ahead of the bus; your child and the bus driver should always be able to see each other.
**Vaccinations and Clinics**
Did you know that you can get all of your student’s required vaccinations at WCCHD? We also provide physicals that your student may need. If you need to schedule an appointment, call 513-695-1468 or 513-695-1229.
---
**Back to School Nutrition**
For many students, lunch is their favorite part of the school day—here’s some tips to make it healthy!
**Make Breakfast a Priority**
Did you know that kids who eat breakfast regularly are more likely to have better concentration, problem-solving skills, creativity, and school attendance than those who do not? Eating a healthy breakfast is the best way to start the day! To encourage your kids to eat a good breakfast before school, sit down and eat with them. Eating breakfast together models that breakfast is important for everyone.
If a rushed morning routine keeps you from sitting down for a healthy breakfast, set aside 10 to 15 extra minutes to eat. Wake up just a little bit earlier if needed, or prepare something the night before to be easy and on-the-go!
A healthy and balanced breakfast does not have to be elaborate, or even “breakfast food”. Find what fits for your family and flow of the morning!
**Snack Right**
After a busy day of learning and playing, kids are hungry! Even if a child eats at breakfast and lunch, they will most likely be hungry after school and need something to tie them over until dinner. If you are looking for a kid-friendly after-school snack, try to find a healthy snack to help your child come to dinner hungry but not starving. Have healthy options at eye level in the pantry so that it’s easier for kids to make a healthy choice. Consider sending a snack to school with your child that they can eat on the bus or on the drive home. Have healthy fruits and vegetables around, instead of less nutritious foods like chips and cookies, keeps kids from eating too many empty calories. | 1113f143-fcaf-4346-b1e0-c054de62e93f | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | https://warrenchd.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Newsletter-Aug2023.pdf | 2024-04-23T18:09:48+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296818732.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20240423162023-20240423192023-00896.warc.gz | 530,502,220 | 1,303 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998011 | eng_Latn | 0.998537 | [
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ST JOSEPH’S CATHOLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ACTIVITY POLICY
Reviewed: MAY 2021
To be reviewed: MAY 2023
ST JOSEPH’S CATHOLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL, WRIGHTINGTON
Physical Education and Activity Policy
Document Purpose
This policy reflects the school values and philosophy in relation to the teaching and learning of Physical Education and Activity. It sets out the framework within which teaching and non-teaching staff can operate and gives guidance on planning, teaching and assessment. This policy should be read in conjunction with the Lancashire Scheme of Work for P.E. which sets out in detail what pupils in different classes will be taught.
Outline of Facilities for Physical Activity
On-site Facilities
- P.E. cupboard contains equipment to meet all the objectives of the Lancashire Scheme of Work.
- Trim Trail
- Running Track
- Netball court and posts.
- Football posts.
- 1 large football pitch & 1 small football pitch.
- Rounder’s Pitch
- Outdoor Play area for Foundation Stage.
- Outdoor Forrest Environment – for all classes to access, learning about the great outdoors, den building etc.
Off-site Facilities
- Skelmersdale Swimming Pool.
- Wigan Life Centre Swimming Pool
- St Peter’s High School.
- Up Holland High School.
- Winstanley Tennis Club.
- JMO Football Facilities.
- Orrell Water Park
- Sporting Edge Athletics Facilities
Aims of the Physical Education and Activity Policy
The aim of the Physical Education and Activity Policy is to increase the activity levels of the whole school through the provision of a supportive environment conducive to the promotion and understanding of physical activity.
- West Lancashire School Sport Partnership ‘Specialists’ currently delivering all P.E sessions until 2020.
- To work in conjunction with the West Lancashire School Sport Partnership.
- To deliver the National Curriculum P.E requirements through the Lancashire Scheme of Work.
- Develop control, co-ordination and mastery of the body.
- Develop stamina and strength.
- Develop knowledge, understanding and appreciation of the purposes, forms and conventions of a selection of physical activities.
- Develop the capacity to express ideas in dance forms and appreciate qualities of movements.
- Develop a range of criteria for assessing performance, strategies for improving performance.
- Develop the appreciation of the concepts of fair play, honest competition and good sportsmanship.
- Develop the capacity to maintain interest and persevere to achieve success.
- Foster self esteem and develop self confidence through understanding the capabilities and limitations of oneself and others.
• Develop an understanding of the importance of exercise in maintaining a healthy life.
• Develop an understanding of safe practice.
• To enable young people to become independently active within the school and the community.
• To foster an enjoyment of physical activity, and offer a wide range of opportunities to encourage lifelong participation.
St Joseph’s has a provision register where all children who take part in any clubs are recorded throughout each year. This includes any AGT or Inclusion festivals that children may have taken part in.
DfE funding is having a positive impact on the quality and breadth of PE and sporting provision, including increasing participation so that all pupils develop healthy lifestyles and achieve the performance standards they are capable of, by funding a variety of PE specialists to deliver quality PE lessons and after school clubs; to allow greater inclusion of organized events focusing on AGT and SEN children.
Sports Funding can be viewed on our school website and this is reviewed every 12 months (see appendix 1a & 1b)
Building on this, new funding for Health & Wellbeing will be introduced next year (2018) to encourage ALL children to be involved in fitness, exercise and healthy eating. To prepare for this we are currently having taster sessions to give the children an insight to the kind of activities that they will be involved in e.g. Aerobic exercise sessions and classroom based sessions on healthy diet.
**Objectives of Physical Activity Policy**
• To be actively involved in the West Lancashire School Sports Partnership (WLSSP), working closely with the PDM, Up Holland High School SSCO and School Sport Specialists.
• PE subject leader to ensure staff receive appropriate training and quality information
• We follow the Lancashire P.E. Scheme of Work to be supported by TOPS Cards, which meet statutory National Curriculum requirements.
• Maintain at least two hours of curricular Physical Education.
• Increase pupil participation in physical activity both within and outside the curriculum.
• Engage with School Games by providing opportunities for Level 1 within school, Level 2 competitions within the WLSSP competition structure and striving where possible to represent West Lancashire at Level 3.
• Making facilities and equipment available for pupils to use at lunchtimes and break times and encouraging pupils to be active at these times.
• Providing leadership opportunities for pupils on the playground.
• Utilising P.E premium funding to provide school sport specialists from the WLSSP to deliver physical education lessons, staff CPD and extra curricular provision. (See Appendix 1b).
• To engage other appropriately qualified professionals to contribute to the provision of activities e.g. Team Theme.
• Liaise with relevant professionals in the community to develop physical activity pathways beyond school.
• Organisation of specific annual events which promote and raise the profile of activity, e.g. Sports Day, Hat-Trick Day, National School Sports Week, Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games Weeks.
• Encouraging staff, governors and parents to participate in physical activity.
**General Aims of Physical Education for Key Stage One and Two**
**Gymnastics** – To establish skilful control of body movement (travelling, rotation and balance.)
**Dance** – To develop an awareness of the body as a medium for communication and expression, and to appreciate the aesthetic qualities of movement.
**Games Skills** – To provide the opportunity for children to acquire a variety of games skills and to provide opportunities and practice for children to create their own games, and be introduced to the games that are part of our cultural heritage. (Invasion, striking and fielding)
**Athletics** – To encourage children to participate in, and develop their individual skills in running, throwing and jumping.
**Swimming** – To enable children to learn to enjoy being in the water and to be able to swim confidently and have a basic knowledge of personal survival techniques.
**OAA** – To develop children’s orienteering and problem-solving skills with an emphasis on building trust and teamwork.
School Policies on Specific Issues.
Entitlement and Equal Opportunities
- All pupils at St Joseph’s, including those with special needs, are ENTITLED to a comprehensive programme of physical activity which:
- Takes into account their individual needs and interests.
- Provides them with opportunities to pursue activity beyond school.
- The Physical Activity opportunities offered both within and outside of curriculum time:
- Provide all pupils with EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES to participate and to achieve in different activities.
- Ensure that all children have ACCESS to a varied programme which allows children the opportunity to meet the national expectations as outlined in the PE National Curriculum.
Differentiation
The Physical Education and Activity Policy takes into account the different stages of development of all children. The provision within St. Joseph’s is developmentally appropriate and a variety of teaching and learning approaches are adopted to ensure that tasks are matched to the pupils’ different abilities, needs and interests by balancing challenge with the likelihood of success.
The achievements of all pupils are maximised by providing variations in tasks, resources, response, support and group structure.
Low Achievers
To ensure the needs of low achievers are met the provision:
- Differentiated targets.
- Allows extra time to complete a task.
- Uses appropriate demonstrations.
- Groups the children into ability groups for some tasks/activities.
- Focuses on personal improvement and recognises participation, improvement and effort.
- Makes activities enjoyable and interesting.
- Uses Adults Other than Teachers (AOTT’s) to provide additional support.
- Uses more-able pupils to assist in paired work, taking on a coaching role.
High Achievers
To ensure the needs of high achievers are met the provision:
- Differentiated targets.
- Provides appropriate challenges which stretch them.
- Provides extension work for activities.
- Encourages participation in out-of-hour’s clubs.
- Encourage children to work at a faster pace and to move onto more advanced skills.
- Uses Adults Other than Teachers (AOTT’s) to provide additional coaching.
- Involves them in helping and supporting less-able peers.
- Uses award schemes which focus on performance and attainment of skills.
- Provides competitive opportunities.
- Encourages participation in local sporting events.
- Directs pupils to local clubs/outside agencies under the guidance of WLSSP.
Inclusion
To ensure the inclusion of those with specific difficulties; the following approaches are adopted:
- Modification of activities where necessary.
- Parallel activities – all pupils take part in the same activity but in different ways.
- Included activities – all pupils play adapted games specifically designed to meet everyone’s needs.
- Separate activities – where it is difficult for a pupil with special needs to take part.
- Provide opportunities for pupils to take part in activity-specific inclusion events provided by WLSSP.
Procedures are in place to ensure that pupils take appropriate medication prior to, or following physical activity.
Gifted Able and Talented Provision
It is our aim to identify, encourage, challenge and support our gifted and talented pupils through the organisation of our Physical Education curriculum and extended curriculum. Providing opportunities for pupils to develop their abilities at WLSSP activity-specific and generic Gifted & Talented Events.
Identification of pupils – exceptionally Able and Talented pupils are those who may demonstrate many or all of the
following characteristics in one or more areas:
- Perform exceptionally well in one sport or many.
- Show good spatial awareness.
- Have a good understanding of movement quality such as weight and time.
- Skilful body management showing a high degree of control and coordination.
- Are able to combine movements fluently, precisely and accurately.
- Learn, understand and adopt technical aspects of sport very quickly.
- Are able to make correct decisions in pressure situations and adapt their technique accordingly.
- Able to reflect on processes and outcomes in order to improve performance, taking into account the relationship between skill, fitness and tactics or composition.
- Able to work independently and with initiative.
- Show a high degree of motivation to practise and perform.
- Show an ability to lead others.
To Identify Able and Talented pupil’s staff will use the following:
- Recorded Teacher and School Sport Specialist assessment of the Lancashire Scheme of Work.
- Discussion with colleagues.
- Information from colleagues in other institutions.
- Information from the pupil, peers, parents and coaches.
- Evidence of pupil’s performance at club level, town level or County level.
Provision – Many Able and Talented pupils have specific needs that stretch beyond the skill, knowledge and expertise of the teacher. We will:
- Differentiate lessons to endeavour to challenge their skill level.
- Use their skill level to help guide and coach the other children.
- Point the children to an outside agency or club which has been audited by the WLSSP.
The Able and Talented register will be reviewed termly with all staff. Able and talented pupils are highlighted on every unit planning/assessment sheet, enabling the teacher to take into account the needs of the pupil.
Assessment/Recording/Reporting
Pupils’ progress and achievements are assessed, recorded and reported in the following ways.
- Assessment criteria included as lesson objectives, outcomes and success criteria.
- Teacher and School Sport Specialist observation of pupil performance in lessons.
- Question pupils to find out what they did/did not enjoy – involving pupils in the assessment of themselves and others.
- Keep an electronic record of individual pupil’s achievements for each activity area (those working towards, at, and beyond expectations).
- Keep an electronic record of class achievements through the production of a pie chart for each activity area (those working towards, at, and beyond expectations).
- Highlight physical activity successes through assemblies, school newsletter WLSSP newsletter, local press and display of trophies in school.
Methods of reporting pupils’ progress and attainment to various groups include:
To pupils:
- Highlighting objectives at the start of lessons and reinforcing these throughout, providing feedback at the end of the lesson.
- Setting pupils individual targets verbally with reference to pupil friendly assessment criteria posters.
- Giving verbal feedback.
- Awarding certificates and stickers for achievements in different activities, focusing on effort, skill, participation and support.
- Awarding certificates for attendance at out-of-hours activities.
- Highlighting pupils’ successes via assemblies, press and newsletters.
To teachers and School Sport Specialists:
- Use the Lancashire Scheme of Work Activity Specific Assessment Criteria to assess children.
- Pass all assessments to subject leader for electronic recording.
- Teachers know where to access recorded assessments (School Server).
• Analyse previous assessments to inform planning; this is recorded in a whole school data overview – populated by the PE Subject Leader (Appendix 2)
• Highlighting pupils’ successes via assemblies, press and newsletters.
Parents:
• End of year report.
• Parent’s evenings.
• Chatting to parents at sport fixtures and physical activity events.
• Inviting parents to sports day, festivals and events.
Other Agencies:
• Providing annual report to Governors.
• Arranging transfer meetings with other schools.
• Involving pupils in WLSSP sports events.
• Informing local press of physical activity and sporting successes.
**Safety**
The Physical Activity Policy ensures the safety of all pupils. As part of this the policy ensures that:
• Appropriate risk assessments are adopted by the PE co-ordinator.
• Pupils understand all procedures and information regarding the minimising of risks.
• Regular assessments are carried out of risks associated with general procedures, facilities, activities, equipment and exercise practice.
• PE co-ordinator to ensure staff receive appropriate training and quality information to minimise risk in PE.
PE Subject Leader should:
• Have a working knowledge and understanding of their liabilities and legal responsibilities.
• Secure knowledge and understanding of the safety implications and procedures associated with the activities which are being taught.
• Be familiar with the Health and Safety Policy of the school.
• Risk-assessment framework.
• Carry out regular assessments of risk in terms of general procedures, facilities, activities and exercise practice.
• Be completely familiar with the BAALPE document, ‘Safe Practice in PE.’
• Be knowledgeable concerning particular conditions and know how to plan and/or adapt exercise/activities to minimise risks for young people with these conditions.
• Be able to assess the safety of specific exercise/activities.
All teaching staff and School Sport Specialists should ensure:
• That they are familiar with safety guidelines issued by Subject Leader in conjunction with BAALPE document.
• A record is kept of pupils with medical conditions.
• They are either first aid trained themselves or know who the qualified first aiders are.
• Safe and effective procedures are taught and adopted in all activity sessions within and outside of school.
**Staffing Levels and Responsibilities**
In planning the subject leader should:
• Review and contribute to teacher planning.
• Develop policy and scheme of work with staff.
• Analyse recorded P.E assessments.
• Co-ordinate P.E specific CPD.
The PE Subject Leader will assist the staff by:
• Leading staff meetings when required.
• Planning/leading INSET activities when required.
• Provide advice.
• Specifying and ordering all resources.
• Co-ordinating staff requests for resources.
• Monitoring and maintaining condition and availability of resources.
The PE Subject Leader’s responsibility for monitoring and evaluating includes:
- Analysing pupils’ access to the subject.
- Reviewing teacher and School Sport Specialist plans.
- Reviewing teacher/pupil records.
- Leading curriculum meetings.
- Liaise with the Head Teacher on spending of P.E Premium Funding.
Each member of staff is responsible for planning, implementation and evaluation of the Lancashire PE Scheme of Work for their Year group.
**Curricular Physical Education Programme**
Foundation Stage – two hours.
Key Stage 1 – two hours per week.
Key Stage 2 – two hours per week.
The outline of the content of curricular provision is provided by the Lancashire Scheme of Work for PE.
**Participation**
Any child not participating in the PE lesson should bring a note explaining the reason, but should still be involved in the lesson in some way, through observation, coaching or officiating.
Parents will be contacted if their child is a regular non-participant. Letters regarding non-participation and lack of PE kit can be found in the appendix (Appendix 3 & 4)
**Daily Mile**
All children have access each day to the daily mile. This is where children will use the track on the school field (purchased with the Health & Well Being Funding) to improve their own health on a daily basis. Every Wednesday morning before school children have the option to take part in the ‘Family Mile’ where they are able to run around the track with family members to improve their own health & well being.
**Paid and Voluntary Sports Coaches (AOTT’s)**
The school has a number of sports specialists, coaches and leaders working within the school, providing support for curriculum PE and running out of school hours learning activities and clubs. These include specialist sports coaches, parents and non-teaching staff.
To ensure that activities are safe and of a high quality all voluntary and paid staff must:
- Adhere to the school’s Physical Education and Activity Policy.
- Provide a CRB Disclosure certificate.
- Where appropriate, provide appropriate insurance documentation.
- Be qualified or working towards a nationally recognised qualification in the appropriate sport or activity.
- Be informed and encouraged to attend locally run coaching and leadership courses available through the WLSSP and Sports Specific Governing Bodies.
- Keep a register of all pupils attending each session.
- Be aware of any medical conditions among children and the first aid procedure in the school.
- Report any accidents and incidents to the head teacher.
- Ensure all sessions are inclusive to all children.
- Ensure the school rules regarding behaviour are adhered to.
- Adhere to the safety and accident procedures detailed on the Health and Safety Guidelines for teachers and pupils.
- Discuss activities with PE subject Leader on a regular basis.
- Be monitored and have their practice evaluated regularly by PE Subject Leader.
**ICT and Physical Activity**
The use of ICT makes a significant contribution to teaching and learning in physical activity by:
- Improving pupils’ skills and techniques – video images.
- Help pupil to review and evaluate own performance – by videoing and reviewing performances.
• Develop pupils’ understanding and knowledge of physical activity – viewing high quality performances.
• Develop pupils’ understanding of the human body and health education – monitoring heart rates.
ICT will be used in PE by:
• Providing examples of quality performance.
• Supporting administration.
• Use of equipment – stop-watches, data handling programmes, measuring equipment, digital camera, video.
• For introducing and maintaining, ‘Wake Up and Shake Up’ routines.
Cross-curricular Links
• Literacy and Numeracy highlighted regularly in P.E lessons.
• Physical education lends itself particularly well to lateral thought, transferral of skills and practical experience, providing excellent links with a range of subjects such as Geography, History, Science and PSHE.
Out-of-hours Learning Programme
• Out-of-hours learning activities are offered both at lunchtimes and after school.
• All Year groups have activities offered to them at some point.
• Depending on the type of activity offered in a session determines whether sessions are for boys only, girls only or mixed.
• A mixture of competitive and open-access activities are offered.
• Outside Agencies are invited into school to run a range of out-of-hours clubs.
CPD
• School Sport Specialist Provision for all lessons provides activity specific staff CPD. Staff are encouraged to involve themselves in the lesson and conduct joint assessment of pupils. School Sport Specialist lesson plans are provided for teaching staff.
• A variety of CPD courses, meetings and conferences are provided through the WLSSP structure. These enable staff to be informed of new developments, share good practise, acquire new skills and resources and obtain qualifications.
• Internal CPD provided through school staff meetings and Inset’s.
Resource Provision
• The PE Subject Leader is responsible for the purchasing of resources. An annual audit of equipment is taken and is used in conjunction with the staff audit, when new purchases are selected.
• It is the aim of St. Joseph’s to have sufficient small equipment to enable individual and small-group work.
• WLSSP School Sport Specialists provide all equipment necessary for the delivery of their activity area.
• The WLSSP has provided some additional equipment.
• The WLSSP have loaned equipment to the school.
• Tennis equipment provided through attendance on LTA Primary Teachers Course.
• The PE cupboard is situated in the hall and is equipped for Key Stage One and Key Stage Two. Equipment should be collected and returned by a member of staff. If children are collecting or returning equipment this should be supervised. All equipment to be put back in the labelled places.
• The equipment is checked and maintained regularly, including inspections by an outside contractor. Any faulty equipment should be reported to the PE Subject Leader.
Community Links
• Links with all West Lancashire Primary and Secondary Schools through the WLSSP framework.
• Community facilities e.g. swimming pools, sports centres, private sports clubs and university facilities.
• Community Sports clubs through WLSSP, sports coaching in schools, parental and pupil links with local sports clubs.
• WLSSP and St. Joseph’s promote clubs which adhere to minimum operating standards.
Dissemination of the Physical Activity Policy
This policy will be disseminated at:
• Staff meetings.
• Governors meetings.
Procedures for Monitoring and Evaluating the Physical Education and Activity Policy.
Measures to be used are:
- Teacher feedback.
- Feedback from Governors/staff.
- Pupil feedback.
- Parental feedback.
- Out-of-hours learning opportunities offered.
- Pupil participation.
- Number and nature of links with local community.
- Number of special events offered.
- Availability of up-to-date information on local activity opportunities.
- Number of CPD courses attended by teachers.
- OFSTED inspection.
Health and Well Being Agenda
In line with the Government’s ‘Health & Well-Being’ agenda: school is in receipt of extra money from the government. In order to be compliant with PE and website policy, the school must complete a form explaining exactly how all the money has been spent. This is updated each year and evaluated and is accessible via the School Website. (Appendix 1a and 1b)
Overview of the school:
| Number of pupils and School Sport Funding received: |
|---------------------------------------------------|
| Total number of pupils on roll | 128 |
| Total number of pupils eligible for Sports Premium | 104 |
| Amount of sports funding received | £16000 + £10 per eligible pupil (Children who turned 5 by 31/08/19) |
| SCHOOL SPORTS’ LINK GOVERNOR: | Mr Lane |
Nature of support 2019/2020:
- Employing specialist PE teachers/qualified coaches to work alongside teachers in lessons to increase their subject knowledge and confidence in PE; **1.5 days of specialist sports teaching per week**.
- Employing a specialist teacher/ providing professional development for staff to lead after-school sports clubs; **2x1 hour of sports clubs and 1 lunchtime club per week**.
- Procuring quality-assured professional training for staff to raise their confidence and competence in teaching PE and sport; **3 x CPD courses for staff**.
- Buying into existing local sports networks such as school sports partnership initiatives; **membership to WLSSP and SUPSSA to access a full range of competitive events i.e. Sport Hall Athletics, Tennis Festivals etc.**
- Providing pupils who are gifted and talented in sport with expert, intensive coaching and support; **6XAGT events per year**.
- Providing pupils who struggle with sport the chance to take part against other children at their level in **INCLUSION** festivals.
- Providing children with aerobics sessions for 8 weeks during the Summer Term to help children to become fitter and to think more about their health.
- Y6 classroom sessions about the advantages of leading a healthy lifestyle.
- ‘Champions of Character education programme into curriculum and extra-curricular delivery, explicitly teaching honesty, reflection, responsibility, respect, empathy and resilience.
- Employing a qualified ‘Forest School’ specialist to help with delivery of Forest School sessions after school.
- Change4Life Lunchtime Sports Club engaging less active pupils in schools takes place at different points during the year.
Purchased a running track for school with the extra funding received. This is being used for the ‘Mile a Day’, which is implemented into the school day. It is also going to be used before school to encourage parental involvement and for sponsored events. E.g. Sponsored ‘Christmas Fun Run’.
Walk for Life – Sponsored event, Children walking to Derby House and back to encourage a healthier life style.
Forest School – School staff trained up as Forest School Leaders to deliver weekly sessions with each class.
**Impact: Did the School Support Funding make a difference in 2019-20?**
- All teachers have gained experience working alongside specialist PE teachers/qualified coaches during lessons. Particularly helping to assess pupils during each sporting discipline.
- Pupils have benefited from the 2x1hour of sports clubs and 1 lunchtime club provided per week by the P.E specialist giving them a further chance to develop their skills.
- The standard of PE which is delivered is good because:
- Assessments are provided each half term to the PE subject leader by the specialist.
- Pupils have benefited from taking part in inter-school activities to test themselves competitively against peers from other schools. Giving them the experience of working towards a goal, a skill that can then be transferred to their academic studies.
- Pupils who are gifted and talented in sport have benefited from focussed AGT events aimed at enhancing their specific set of skills through expert, intensive coaching.
- The after school clubs are always oversubscribed
- Aerobics sessions were made available to children for 8 weeks during the Spring Term and continues through lockdown to help children to become fitter and to think about their health.
- In addition, health classroom sessions were made available to Year 6 children where they made aware of the advantages of leading a healthy lifestyle.
- Champions of Character – children made aware of the principle of P.E and good effective team spirit/work.
- Change4Life Lunchtime Sports Club – Giving children who do not like taking the part in competitive sport the chance to learn how they can be active none competitively and look after their own bodies.
- Running Track – Track has been purchased and children are using it for ‘The Daily Mile’.
- Forest School tacks place every Friday on a rolling program giving children from all classes the opportunity to learn in the outdoors. – Mrs O’Leary & Mrs Cook are both trained to hold Forest School Sessions.
- During lockdown a range of differentiated video resources were made available on the internet and updated weekly so that children were able to carry on with their Physical Education learning at home.
Evidencing the impact of the Primary PE and sport premium
Website Reporting Tool
Revised October 2020
Commissioned by
Department for Education
Created by
Association for Physical Education
Youth Sport Trust
It is important that your grant is used effectively and based on school need. The Education Inspection Framework (Ofsted 2019 p64) makes clear there will be a focus on ‘whether leaders and those responsible for governors all understand their respective roles and perform these in a way that enhances the effectiveness of the school’.
Under the Quality of Education criteria (p41) inspectors consider the extent to which schools can articulate their curriculum (INTENT), construct their curriculum (IMPLEMENTATION) and demonstrate the outcomes which result (IMPACT).
To assist schools with common transferable language this template has been developed to utilise the same three headings which should make your plans easily transferable between working documents.
Schools must use the funding to make additional and sustainable improvements to the quality of Physical Education, School Sport and Physical Activity (PESSPA) they offer. This means that you should use the Primary PE and sport premium to:
- Develop or add to the PESSPA activities that your school already offer
- Build capacity and capability within the school to ensure that improvements made now will benefit pupils joining the school in future years
Please visit gov.uk for the revised DfE guidance including the 5 key indicators across which schools should demonstrate an improvement. This document will help you to review your provision and to report your spend. DfE encourages schools to use this template as an effective way of meeting the reporting requirements of the Primary PE and sport premium.
We recommend you start by reflecting on the impact of current provision and reviewing the previous spend.
Schools are required to publish details of how they spend this funding as well as on the impact it has on pupils’ PE and sport participation and attainment by the end of the summer term or by 31st July 2021 at the latest. **In the case of any under-spend from 2019/20 which has been carried over this must be used and published by 31st March 2021.**
We recommend regularly updating the table and publishing it on your website throughout the year. This evidences your ongoing self-evaluation of how you are using the funding to secure maximum, sustainable impact. Final copy must be posted on your website by the end of the academic year and no later than the 31st July 2021. To see an example of how to complete the table please click HERE.
Support for review and reflection - considering the 5 key indicators from DfE, what development needs are a priority for your setting and your pupils now and why? Use the space below to reflect on previous spend and key achievements and areas for development.
Please note: Although there has been considerable disruption, in 2020, it is important that you publish details on your website of how you spend the funding - this is a legal requirement.
N.B. In this section you should refer to any adjustments you might have made due to Covid-19 and how these will influence further improvement.
| Key achievements to date until July 2020: | Areas for further improvement and baseline evidence of need: |
|-----------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|
| ➢ Attainment in P.E is high across the school based on assessment data that is completed by the WLSP Specialist and Class Teacher at the end of each block of teaching. | ➢ To improve fitness levels of all children, particularly those who are not as engaged with P.E, sport and exercise. |
| ➢ Wide range of extra-curricular sports clubs offered to children of all year groups. These include – Football, Netball, Gymnastics, Dance, Net & Wall, Striking and fielding, Invasion Games, Athletics, OAA and Fundamental skills. | ➢ To increase the amount of children engaging in 30 minutes physical activity every day. |
| ➢ High levels of participation in extra-curricular sporting activities. | ➢ Continue to develop staff’s subject knowledge, skills and confidence relating to teaching P.E. |
| ➢ Children have attended SEN/inclusion sporting events with children from other schools. | ➢ Raise the profile to ensure physical activity is a high priority within school. |
| ➢ Current Y4, Y5 & Y6 children attend Swimming lessons at Nye Bevan Swimming Pool, Skelmersdale 20/21 – All children in Y4-6 attend 9 weeks of swimming sessions throughout the year. If children do not meet NC for swimming then extra sessions will take place. | ➢ Develop the fundamental movement skills of children across the school |
| ➢ 100% of Y6 children achieved NC in swimming in 2019/20. | ➢ To continue to achieve 100% NC in swimming for Y6 children in 20/21 |
| ➢ Successes in West Lancashire School Sports Partnership competitions in a range of year groups and sports. – Including Swimming Galas, Sports Hall Athletics, Triathlon, and Athletics competitions. | |
Forest School – School staff trained up as Forest School Leaders to deliver weekly sessions with each class.
Mini Wheelers – This combines unique ergonomic balance bikes with a programme of fun activities that build confidence, spatial awareness and dynamic balance skills in young children, enabling them to cycle without ever needing stabilisers. (Reception children will be targeted first)
Bikeability – This will take with Y5 children. Bikeability is a cycle training programme. It helps children gain practical skills and understanding how to cycle on the roads. Bikeability gives everyone the skills and confidence for all kinds of cycling.
‘Champions of Character education programme into curriculum and extra-curricular delivery, explicitly teaching honesty, reflection, responsibility, respect, empathy and resilience.
The ‘Daily Mile’, which is has been implemented into the school day, provides the children with greater opportunities to be physically active. It is also used before school to encourage parental involvement and for sponsored events. E.g. Sponsored ‘Christmas Fun Run’.
Did you carry forward an underspend from 2019-20 academic year into the current academic year? YES
If YES you must complete the following section
If NO, the following section is not applicable to you
If any funding from the academic year 2019/20 has been carried over you MUST complete the following section. Any carried over funding MUST be spent by 31 March 2021.
| Academic Year: September 2020 to March 2021 | Total fund carried over: £973 | Date Updated: January 2021 |
|---------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------------|
| What Key indicator(s) are you going to focus on? | | |
| Intent | Implementation | Impact |
| To update our outdoor environment by fixing the trim trail so that the equipment can be fully utilised to enhance the children’s experience of outdoor activities | • Trim Trail to be fixed repairing and replacing any broken parts.
**£973 to be put towards the total cost of the repairs to the Trim Trail (£2650.00)** | Trim trail being used by all classes during playtimes, dinner times and other parts of the day; Safety instructions explained to each class before they use the equipment. |
| Meeting national curriculum requirements for swimming and water safety. N.B Complete this section to your best ability. For example you might have practised safe self-rescue techniques on dry land. | | 100% |
| What percentage of your current Year 6 cohort swim competently, confidently and proficiently over a distance of at least 25 metres? N.B. Even though your pupils may swim in another year please report on their attainment on leaving primary school at the end of the summer term 2021. | | 100% |
| What percentage of your current Year 6 cohort use a range of strokes effectively [for example, front crawl, backstroke and breaststroke]? | | 100% |
| What percentage of your current Year 6 cohort perform safe self-rescue in different water-based situations? Not currently covered – Covered in Spring Term | | 100% |
| Schools can choose to use the Primary PE and sport premium to provide additional provision for swimming but this must be for activity **over and above** the national curriculum requirements. Have you used it in this way? | | Yes – Children swim for 9 weeks each year in Y4, Y5 & Y6 to ensure by Y6 all children are able to swim and are water confident. |
Created by: [Association for Physical Education](https://www.associationforphysicaleducation.org.uk/) [Active Partnerships](https://www.activepartnerships.org.uk/) [Youth Sport Trust](https://youthsporttrust.org/) Supported by: [Sport England](https://www.sportengland.org/) [UK Coaching](https://www.ukcoaching.org/) [LOTTERY FUNDED](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/lottery-funding-terms-and-conditions)
## Action Plan and Budget Tracking
Capture your intended annual spend against the 5 key indicators. Clarify the success criteria and evidence of impact that you intend to measure to evaluate for pupils today and for the future.
| Academic Year: 2020/21 | Total fund allocated: £17120 | Date Updated: January 2021 |
|------------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------------|
### Key indicator 1: The engagement of all pupils in regular physical activity – Chief Medical Officers guidelines recommend that primary school pupils undertake at least 30 minutes of physical activity a day in school
| Intent | Implementation | Impact/Success Criteria: |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Continue the Daily Mile ensuring that the children are active for 15 minutes every day. | Classes regularly completing the daily mile each week. P.E lessons to include a high intense warm up to increase physical activity. | • Children more actively involved in playtimes evident through observation.
• Continue to use the running track daily for mile a day activities. |
| Children to be active at playtimes | CPD for Staff
Children taking part in organised games on day sport specialist is in school | • Children taking part in physical activities on the playground.
• Welfare to encourage children to take part in different games at lunchtime. WLSP to run different games at playtimes and lunch times when in school. |
| A wide range of extra-curricular sports clubs offered to children of all year groups. These include – Football, Netball, Gymnastics, Dance, Net & Wall, Striking and fielding, Invasion Games, Athletics, OAA and Fundamental skills. | Ensure all children get the chance to attend the after school clubs during the year. Use WLSP specialists to support implementing a range of different clubs. | • Children from every year group encouraged to take part in extra-curricular activities during the academic year. Priority given to children who haven’t taken part in extra-curricular activities this year.
• Encourage less active children to take part in extra-curricular activities. |
£430
| Intent | Implementation | Cost | Impact |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Purchase equipment so that high quality and engaging P.E can be taught throughout school. | Equipment to be purchased | £60.95 | • Equipment being used by children during P.E lessons. |
| | | | • Equipment replaced as and when necessary. |
| Update our outdoor environment by fixing the trim trail so that the equipment can be fully. | Trim Trail to be fixed repairing and replacing any broken parts. | £1677 | • Trim trail being used by all classes during playtimes, dinner times and other parts of the day. |
| | | | • Safety instructions explained to each class before they use the equipment. |
| Pitch Markings : | Pitches mart so that football matches and Athletics events can take place. | £300 | • Children taking part in different sports events. Children fully engaged. |
| • Football Pitch Markings | Marking to be painted onto the pitches at different times of the year so that events can take place. | | • Pitch markings updated yearly. |
| • Athletics Track Markings | | | |
**Key indicator 2: The profile of PESSPA being raised across the school as a tool for whole school improvement**
| Intent | Implementation | Cost | Impact |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Children exposed high quality PE once or twice a week. | West Lancashire School Sports Partnership subscription. High quality specialist coaches teaching PE – Working alongside class teachers. | WLSSP Package £3160.66 x 3 = £9481.98 | • Analysis of termly Assessment data |
| | | | • Staff in lessons working alongside WLSP coaches to provide them with CPD. |
| | Mini Wheelers programme x 2 (Reception & Y1) | £450 x 2 = £900 | • Children develop confidence and competence on a balance bike. |
| | | | • This will help the children with their balance and overall confidence and fundamental skills and will prepare them for the ‘Bikeability’ course (Learning how to ride safely on the road) which they will take part in in Y5/Y6 |
| Intent | Implementation | Cost | Impact |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Forest School is used each week by different classes | Timetabled Forest School 3 x sessions taking place each week. Forest School After School club taking place during the summer term. Forest School supplies | £1871 | - All Children engaged
- Team building exercises
- Learning new skills
- Calculated risks
- Good mental heath
- Outdoor survival skills.
- Continue to run weekly sessions. |
| **Key indicator 3: Increased confidence, knowledge and skills of all staff in teaching PE and sport** | | | |
| Intent | Implementation | Cost | Impact |
| Children to receive better quality PE sessions by WLSP working closely alongside school staff. | School staff to receive CPD from WLSP coaches. Working alongside them and completing assessments together at the end of a unit of work. | As above - WLSSP Package £3160.66 x 3 = £9481.98 | Children enjoying PE sessions. High levels of attainment gained in Assessment data. |
| Intent | Implementation | Cost | Impact |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Staff accessing weekly CPD through the observing and participation in PE lessons delivered by specialist coaches/teachers. | P.E Timetable in place ensuring that WLSP coaches and school staff are in attendance during PE sessions. Audit staffs knowledge, skills and confidence to identify training needs. Courses for staff in areas of need so that they can provide high-quality teaching within P.E. Subject Leadership time to identify staff training needs. First Aid training to ensure activities are delivered safely. | £500 2 x £138 4 x £70 = £486 | - Staff Feedback. Audit at the end of the year
- Continued relationship with WLSP to meet staff CPD needs.
- Continue to identify training needs for staff.
- Staff Meeting time to feedback any following any courses/training. |
| Key indicator 4: Broader experience of a range of sports and activities offered to all pupils | | | |
| Intent | Implementation | Cost | Impact |
| Broad range of high quality activities to all pupils both within and beyond the curriculum using specialist staff. | Commission external coaches to bring expertise into school. | As above - WLSSP Package £3160.66 x 3 = £9481.98 | - Assessment data Numbers engaged School Games Mark Accreditation |
| A greater range of children taking part in extra-curricular sporting activities. | Teaching Assistants paid to run weekly extra-curricular after school clubs. (Netball/Forest School). Offer more after school clubs. | As above - £430 (staffing costs) | - Extra-curricular attendance data collected and reviewed. |
| Intent | Implementation | Impact |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| A greater range of sports taking place during P.E lessons. | National Curriculum maps for each year group outlining what each class is learning for the year. | • National Curriculum maps reviewed regularly ensuring all areas of the curriculum is covered. |
| Delivery of Bikeability to all year 5 and any Y6 children that have not passed from the last academic year. | All children in Year 5/6 to gain accreditation | • Pupil satisfaction questionnaires Assessment data
• Numbers engaged School Games Mark Accreditation |
| Inclusion, GAT and SEN events delivered to identified children | Identify children to participate and enter into all events Ensure a survey of all children to ensure as many children have opportunity to represent school at events. | • Assessment data
• Numbers of children engaged
• Possibly introduce a small fee for clubs to help cover staffing costs. |
| Delivery of mini-wheelers to all Reception children and Y1 children that need extra coaching. | All children in Reception to pass the course. | £450 x 2 = £900
• Promote more exit routes for children within their chosen sporting domains.
• P.E curriculum changed to cover a greater range of sports to develop children’s confidence.
• Provide more exit routes for children within their chosen sporting domains.
• Promote appropriate exit routes within the community. |
**Key indicator 5: Increased participation in competitive sport**
| Intent | Implementation | Impact |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Children to take part in intra-school competitions. | Ensure competition week takes place in sports. | Competitions entered.
Data collected on children that have represented the school in a competition.
Different members of staff to attend events so that more children can take part. (More teams etc...) |
| Participate in netball and football friendlies with local schools | Organise matches with local schools. Contact PE leaders. | As above - £430 (staffing costs) | Observations and feedback from children and staff. | Staff training Continue to do this each year. |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| **SPORTS PREMIUM PACKAGE PROVIDED BY WEST LANCSAHIRE SPORTS PARTNERSHIP TO SUPPORT ACTION PLAN** | **Funding allocated: £9030** |
- Delivery of high quality PE (1.5 days per week) with specialists rotating every term to cover the following 6 areas: dance, gymnastics, athletics, invasion, target, striking and fielding;
- Planning and delivery of high quality PE lessons using the Lancashire Scheme of Work with weekly staff CPD;
- Assessment of every child using the core tasks within the Lancashire Scheme of Work;
- Continued Professional Development opportunities with Specialists working alongside Teachers and Teaching Assistants;
- Delivery of 6 School Games Level 1 Competitions embedded within the Specialist’s curriculum delivery;
- Delivery of WLSP Champions of Character, embedding Empathy, Responsibility, Honesty, Resilience, Respect and Reflection into Specialist’s curriculum delivery. Introductory assembly content to be sent out to schools;
- Delivery of Change 4 Life lunchtime activities;
- Delivery of sports specific after school clubs;
- Benefit from collaboration, economies of scale, shared resources and shared skills;
- Access to the WLSP Website (new update planned);
- Delivery of Level 2 and Level 3 School Games competitions delivered by WLSP;
- Wider competitions delivered on behalf of Clusters and Primary PE Associations at Secondary School and other community venues, supported by trained Young Leaders;
- Access to the CPD opportunities;
- Access to New PLT Training for any PE Co-ordinators who are new in role (please contact Chris Hart to access);
- Access to West Lancashire Primary PE and School Sport Conference, which will take place at Edge Hill each year;
- Bespoke training delivered to School Welfare Staff/Lunchtime Supervisors to support the delivery of physical activity at Lunchtimes;
- Resources and guidance to deliver bespoke playground leader training to support the delivery of physical activity at Lunchtimes;
- Access 3 Gifted and Talented events - Testing and My PB, Swimming and Dance;
- 4 Festivals of Sport – 2 x Change 4 Life Festivals, Dance and a PE Plus Festival;
- Access to 4 local competitions targeting young people with SEN: KS1 Boccia and Kurling, KS2 Boccia and Kurling, KS1 Multi Skills and KS2 Sports Hall Athletics;
- Sports Leadership embedded into Specialists delivery of curriculum PE and Extra Curricular Activities;
- Access to an AGT Leadership event;
- Opportunity to send pupils to attend WLSP Primary Sports Council meetings and a day trip to a state of the art sporting venue;
- Delivery of 12-week Health and Wellbeing programme to targeted year groups within School;
- Created by: Supported by: Resources to support the delivery of Health and Wellbeing programmes;
- Support in establishing school led programmes that aim to increase physical activity levels of young people in schools;
- Delivery of Level 1 and Level 2 Bikeability programmes;
- Access to West Lancashire Schools Triathlon.
| Description | Cost |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|
| Funding allocation | £17120.00 |
| Membership to WLSP ad 1.5 days per week School Sports Specialist Provision: | £9481.98 |
| Additional swimming provision | £1249 |
| Mini wheelers | £900 |
| Forest School | £1871 + 150 =2021 |
| Extra-Curricular Clubs (Staffing) | £430 |
| Pitch Marking | £300 |
| PE equipment | £60.95 |
| Repairing & Replacing Trim Trail | £1677 |
| First Aid Training | £486 |
Total: £16605.93 (£514.07 Left Over)
| Signed off by | |
|--------------|---|
| Head Teacher: | Mrs Marie Baxendale |
| Date: | |
| Subject Leader: | Mr Adam Malley |
| Date: | |
| Governor: | |
| Date: | |
| Year Group | Ahead | On track/On track + | Below |
|------------|-------|---------------------|-------|
| **Year 1 (2018/2019) – 18 pupils** | | | |
| AUTUMN 1 2018 ‘TARGET GAMES’ | 3/18 pupils – 17% | 14/18 pupils - 78% | 4/18 pupils – 22% |
| AUTUMN 2 2018 ‘GYMNASTICS’ | | | |
| SPRING 1 2019 ‘INVASION GAMES’ | | | |
| SPRING 2 2019 ‘STRIKING & FIELDING’ | | | |
| SUMMER 1 2019 ‘DANCE’ | | | |
| SUMMER 2 2019 ‘ATHLETICS’ | | | |
| **Year 2 (2018/2019) – 16 pupils** | | | |
| AUTUMN 1 2018 ‘TARGET GAMES’ | 4/16 pupils – 25 % | 16/16 pupils - 100% | 0/16 pupils – 0% |
| AUTUMN 2 2018 ‘GYMNASTICS’ | | | |
| SPRING 1 2019 ‘INVASION GAMES’ | | | |
| SPRING 2 2019 ‘STRIKING & FIELDING’ | | | |
| SUMMER 1 2019 ‘DANCE’ | | | |
| SUMMER 2 2019 ‘ATHLETICS’ | | | |
| **Year 3 (2018/2019) – 19 pupils** | | | |
| AUTUMN 1 2018 ‘TARGET GAMES’ | 1/19 pupils – 5% | 18/19 pupils - 95% | 1/19 pupils – 5% |
| AUTUMN 2 2018 ‘GYMNASTICS’ | | | |
| SPRING 1 2019 ‘INVASION GAMES’ | | | |
| SPRING 2 2019 ‘STRIKING & FIELDING’ | | | |
| SUMMER 1 2019 ‘DANCE’ | | | |
| SUMMER 2 2019 ‘ATHLETICS’ | | | |
| Year 4 (2018/2019) – 14 pupils | AUTUMN 1 2018 ‘TARGET GAMES’ | 2/14 pupils – 14% | 12/14 pupils - 86% | 2/14 pupils – 14% |
|-------------------------------|-----------------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|
| AUTUMN 2 2018 ‘GYMNASTICS’ | | | | |
| SPRING 1 2019 ‘INVASION GAMES’| | | | |
| SPRING 2 2019 ‘STRIKING & FIELDING’ | | | | |
| SUMMER 1 2019 ‘DANCE’ | | | | |
| SUMMER 2 2019 ‘ATHLETICS’ | | | | |
| Year 5 (2018/2019) – 19 pupils | AUTUMN 1 2018 ‘TARGET GAMES’ | 4/19 pupils – 21% | 14/19 pupils - 74% | 5/19 pupils – 26% |
|-------------------------------|-----------------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|
| AUTUMN 2 2018 ‘GYMNASTICS’ | | | | |
| SPRING 1 2019 ‘INVASION GAMES’| | | | |
| SPRING 2 2019 ‘STRIKING & FIELDING’ | | | | |
| SUMMER 1 2019 ‘DANCE’ | | | | |
| SUMMER 2 2019 ‘ATHLETICS’ | | | | |
| Year 6 (2018/2019) – 28 pupils (JJ NOT ASSESSED AS HE DOESN’T GO INTO PE FOR MEDICAL REASONS). | AUTUMN 1 2018 ‘TARGET GAMES’ | 7/27 pupils – 26% | 24/27 pupils - 89% | 3/27 pupils – 11% |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|
| AUTUMN 2 2018 ‘GYMNASTICS’ | | | | |
| SPRING 1 2019 ‘INVASION GAMES’ | | | | |
| SPRING 2 2019 ‘STRIKING & FIELDING’ | | | | |
| SUMMER 1 2019 ‘DANCE’ | | | | |
| SUMMER 2 2019 ‘ATHLETICS’ | | | | |
Dear Parent / Carers,
It has been brought to my attention by your child’s class teacher, that ________________has not had the correct PE/Games kit in school on __________ occasions.
May I take this opportunity to remind you that St Joseph’s PE kit comprises a white t-shirt, navy shorts and pumps. The Games kit comprises of tracksuits and trainers. Your child currently has PE/ Games on the following days:
______________________________
______________________________
Please ensure that your child has the correct kit with him/her on the necessary days.
Yours sincerely
Mr A Malley
PE Subject Leader
Dear Parents/Carers,
It has been brought to my attention by your child’s class teacher that ________________________ has been missing PE sessions on a regular basis.
Whilst some of these may be for medical reasons, may I remind you that PE is part of the National Curriculum. Children should not be missing PE/Games sessions, unless they provide a written note from home exempting them from physical activities.
Thank you for your co-operation.
Mr A Malley
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Beijing Huijia Private School: Pioneering Self-Directed Learning with Britannica
Trailblazing IB Education in China
Established in 1993, Beijing Huijia Private School has been preparing its students for success both in China and abroad for more than 30 years. The first International Baccalaureate (IB) World School in China, Huijia is known for its forward-thinking approach to education, integrating best practices from both Chinese and Western educational philosophies.
From Classroom to Published Paper
Self-led learning is a core principle of the International Baccalaureate (IB) philosophy, and at Huijia, students are actively encouraged to develop these independent learning skills. Since its adoption in 2018, Britannica School has been a key tool in helping Huijia students across all grade levels cultivate their research abilities and take ownership of their learning.
“One of the greatest benefits of using Britannica is how well it supports our students in becoming self-directed learners,” says Epifania Paclibar, Head Librarian at Huijia. “Students can use the platform to explore topics independently, in their own time and on their own terms.”
One student, in particular, excelled through their use of Britannica School, using it to help inform a research paper titled *A History in Architecture - The Medieval Mediterranean: Confluence of Cultures*, which was recently published by the highly regarded Pioneer Academics.
“It was inspiring to see the outcome of this research project, which the student took on entirely through his own initiative” says Epifania. “It clearly demonstrates the research and independent learning skills we’ve worked hard to develop in our students: from knowing how to select good academic resources – like Britannica – to effectively applying them in an academic paper.”
Empowering Bilingual Students with Britannica
“With Huijia’s predominantly bilingual student body, Britannica School has proven to be especially beneficial for students learning English as a second language ESLs. The platform’s differentiated content and reading scaffolds help students engage with material at their own level of English proficiency.”
“We have some students who lack confidence reading in English, so being able to choose different reading levels has been very helpful,” says Epifania. “Middle and high school students can access simplified versions if needed, and the read aloud and translation functions are really useful for younger students.”
Supporting the IB Curriculum with Trusted Content
Students at Huijia are not the only ones to benefit from Britannica School. Teachers have also found the platform useful for lesson planning and classroom instruction. Britannica School offers IB curriculum-aligned content and guides, allowing educators to incorporate Britannica resources into their unit plans.
“Teachers are empowered with multimedia content like videos and articles that they can easily incorporate into their unit plans” says Epifania, “and with Britannica we’re confident that the credibility of the materials is non-negotiable.”
Fostering Lifelong Learning Skills
As Huijia builds on its legacy as the first IB school in China, preparing students for the demands of higher education and their future careers remains a central focus for Epifania and her team of Librarians.
“We work hard to make sure that by the time our students graduate, they know how to do academic research and apply the skills they’ve learned throughout their school years. That way, the transition to university won’t be difficult for them, and these skills will serve them for life.”
Key Takeaways:
- Britannica School supports Huijia students in developing self-directed learning skills, empowering them to conduct independent research and explore topics on their own.
- For bilingual learners, Britannica School’s differentiated content and reading scaffolds provide valuable language support, helping students engage with material at the right level.
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The civilizing influence of great Western thought
If there is one thing that events of the past year should have taught us it is that manners in this country have reached an all-time low – and by no means solely in the realm of political discourse.
People far too often treat each other inconsiderately, often abominably, in all spheres of life – not only in matters of political opinion, but in both business and personal relationships as well.
Blame for this lies partly in the home: Many families have abandoned the traditional evening meal – where basic manners were once imparted – in favor of individual grazing. Conversation has been replaced by television and video games.
But the education system is no less responsible for the precipitate decline in the way in which people treat each other. It is partly a matter of discipline, or, rather, the lack of it. Indeed, students routinely subject teachers to appalling rudeness and disrespect.
This is by no means a problem confined to poverty stricken inner cities. The pathologies are on view everywhere – from the middle class suburbs to the enclaves of the upper crust.
It’s not just the children of the poor who take drugs. When New York City was confiscating the drug buyers’ cars in an attempt to crack down on crack, the police department’s pound was crammed with wealthy high school kids’ automobiles.
The same is true when it comes to the problem of teenage pregnancy. Two thirds of America’s pregnant teenagers are not minority children. They’re not only white. They are very often middle and upper class.
And this despite the fact that we educate our children from yea-high up in the technicalities of reproduction and child bearing. Indeed, if children learn nothing else in school, they learn, in lurid detail, the manner in which children are brought into the world.
Ignorance, therefore, is not an explanation for why so many teenage girls get pregnant. Nor is the problem likely to be solved by ambivalent homilies on comparative ethics and morality by university professors.
But how can one put the genii back in the bottle? One sure way of ridding society of these pathologies would be at return to the ethics and morality of two or three generations ago.
Some favor doing so by adopting a vast array of social programs to serve children from before the cradle to adulthood – pre-natal care, post-natal care, pre-school programs, post school programs, holiday programs, feeding programs, health maintenance programs.
This would, of course, be costly, but advocates argue that a dollar spent on solving problems before they occur will save three dollars down the pike – the price of coping with the problems after they happen.
A primary objection to such a policy is that it would amount to a government assumption – usurpation actually – of parental rights. But there’s more to it than that. Government is likely to be a lamentable parent. Take a look at the welfare services already in place and the less than impressive way it has addressed the problems of the inner cities.
Moreover, it’s worth asking how government would propose to restore the morality and ethics of past generations when public prayer is forbidden in a wide range of venues – including schools and sports fields.
A more practical solution to the problem was advanced more than two decades ago by William J. Bennett, who served as U.S. Secretary of Education under President Reagan.
And, no matter what one thinks of Bennett’s ideology, his ideas could be implemented in a politically benign fashion because they involve harking back to ages long past.
Schools and universities, Bennett argued, should be obliged to educate their students in the great classics of Western philosophy, literature and science – works that shaped the thinking of our Founding Fathers and that form the intellectual framework upon which America’s democratic institutions have been erected.
According to Bennett, students unacquainted with the works of such great writers as Homer, Erasmus, Voltaire, St. Augustine, Thomas Hobbes, John Stuart Mill, Adam Smith and Jean Jacques Rousseau are ill-equipped to understand – and therefore operate in – the society in which they live.
His proposed curriculum encompasses a broad range of philosophical, spiritual, economic and political thought, some utterly at odds with Christian ethics and morality. But this does not mean they should not be taught – far from it.
Admittedly, Thomas Aquinas’ writings stand in contrast to those of his atheist Voltaire, who despite his brilliance and wit, was a money-grubber, ingrate and cynic, whose intellectual integrity was a variable commodity. Similarly, Augustine of Hippo’s exploration of the sinful nature of the human condition interestingly juxtaposes Jean Jacques Rousseau’s premise that man is naturally good.
That said, the ethics and morality embraced by the nation’s Founding Fathers were forged in thoughts expressed in the great works of Western civilization. But while those thoughts were refined in the crucible of Christian critical thinking, they nevertheless gave us a Constitution that guarantees the liberties of both believer and unbeliever alike.
Restoring these great works to the educational curriculum would be a step towards restoring a modicum of civility to a nation apparently intent on demonstrating the truth of Oscar Wilde’s assertion that America has gone from barbarism to decadence without a period of civilization in between. GPH*
FROM THE LADIES WHO LUNCH
Join us at Joey Chui's
On Wednesday, February 14th, the Ladies Who Lunch will be meeting for an hour or two of good fellowship and great Chinese food at Joey Chui's Restaurant at Greenspring Station. Why not join the fun and reserve your place by calling Joyce Perberg at (410) 252-2680 or the Parish Director of Pastoral Care Hasppy Riley at (410) 560-6776?
FROM ANNE HAWKINS
Inviting you to a Tea Party on Thursday, March 9th
Tea parties are wonderful affairs for meeting new friends and renewing old acquaintances. This is why St Stephen’s teas are so popular. It has been a very long time since we have had a good old fashioned tea party. Things have been so busy of late what with preparing for the Cookie Walk and decorating the church from Christmas (then taking it all down again after the Epiphany) that we just haven’t had the time to prepare for one.
However we are planning to hold a Tea Party on at 2.00 PM on Thursday, March 9th. The only variable is the weather. In case of snow and ice, we shall have to move things to a later date. To reserve your place, call Happy Riley in the Parish Office. Tel: (410) 560-6776.
Calendar of Events
WEEKLY
Monday, 6.30pm: Bridge Club
Tuesday, 7am: Fellowship Breakfast (Nautilus Diner)
Thursday, 10am: Knitting Circle
Friday, 10.30am: Bible Study
MONTHLY & SPECIAL
Parish Life Committee
Tuesday February 14th, 7.00 pm
Vestry Meeting
Wednesday February 15th, 7.00 pm
Ladies Who Lunch
at Joey Chui's, Greenspring Station,
Wednesday February 15th, 12.00 pm - 2.00 pm
Parish Tea Party
Thursday, March 9th, 2.00 pm
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Contents:
Page 2: Year 2020 and 2019 global surface air temperature overview
Page 4: Comments to the Year 2020 global surface air temperature overview
Page 5: Lower troposphere temperature from satellites, updated to year 2020
Page 6: Global surface air temperature, updated to year 2020
Page 7: Reflections on the significance of the 2020 global annual temperature
Page 8: Comparing surface air temperatures with data from satellites at the end of 2020
Page 9: Global satellite temperature trends calculated for different periods
Page 10: Troposphere and stratosphere temperatures from satellites at the end of 2020
Page 11: Sea surface temperature anomaly at the end of the years 2020 and 2019
Page 12: Ocean temperatures, uppermost 1900 m, updated to July 2020
Page 13: La Niña and El Niño episodes, updated to October-December 2020
Page 14: PDO - Pacific Decadal Oscillation, updated to 2019
Page 14: AMO (Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation) Index, updated to 2019
Page 15: Annual accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) Atlantic Basin, updated to 2018
Page 16: Arctic and Antarctic sea ice extension, updated to December 2020
Page 17: Northern Hemisphere snow cover, updated to December 2020
Page 18: Atmospheric specific humidity, updated to December 2020
Page 19: Atmospheric CO₂, updated to December 2020
Page 21: Number of daily sunspots since 1900, updated to December 31, 2020
All diagrams in this newsletter as well as links to the original data are available on www.climate4you.com
FIGURE 1. Year 2020 (upper panel) and 2019 (lower panel) surface air temperature compared to the average for the previous 10 years. Green-yellow-red colours indicate areas with higher temperature than the average, while blue colours indicate lower than average temperatures. Data source: Remote Sensed Surface Temperature Anomaly, AIRS/Aqua L3 Monthly Standard Physical Retrieval 1-degree x 1-degree V006 (https://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/), obtained from the GISS data portal (https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/index_v4.html).
FIGURE 2. Year 2020 (upper panel) and 2019 (lower panel) Polar region surface air temperature compared to the average for the previous 10 years. Green-yellow-red colours indicate areas with higher temperature than the average, while blue colours indicate lower than average temperatures. Data source: Remote Sensed Surface Temperature Anomaly, AIRS/Aqua L3 Monthly Standard Physical Retrieval 1-degree x 1-degree V006 (https://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/), obtained from the GISS data portal (https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/index_v4.html).
The present newsletter contains graphs showing a selection of key meteorological variables for the year 2020. All temperatures are given in degrees Celsius.
In the above maps showing the geographical pattern of surface air temperatures, the last previous 10 years (2010-2019) are used as reference period.
The rationale for comparing with this recent period instead of the official WMO ‘normal’ period 1961-1990, is that the latter period is affected by the cold period 1945-1980. Most comparisons with this time period will inevitably appear as warm, and it will be difficult to decide if modern temperatures are increasing or decreasing.
Comparing instead with the last previous 10 years overcomes this problem and clearer displays the modern dynamics of ongoing change. This decadal approach also corresponds well to the typical memory horizon for many people and is now also adopted as reference period by other institutions, e.g. the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI).
**The average global surface air temperature for 2020.**
Global average surface air temperature for year 2020 was high, but according to most records cooler than 2016. Both 2016, 2019 and 2020 were affected by recent El Niño episodes playing out in the Pacific Ocean. By the end of 2020, however, a cold La Niña episode has developed (p.13), likely to affect global air temperatures in 2021.
The Northern Hemisphere was characterised by regional temperature contrasts, especially north of 40°N. Quite often this phenomenon is reflecting dominant patterns of jet streams in the Northern Hemisphere. Two of the most pronounced temperature events in 2020 was the warm conditions in northern Russia and Siberia, and the continuation of relatively cold conditions in much of North America.
Near the Equator surface air temperatures were generally near or below the average for the previous 10 years. In the Pacific Ocean cooler conditions reflect the ongoing La Niña episode.
In the Southern Hemisphere surface air temperatures were near or below the average for the previous 10 years. In general conditions were cooler compared to 2019.
In the Arctic, the American and Atlantic sectors was relatively cold, while most of the Russia-Siberian sectors were relatively warm.
The Antarctic continent was mainly characterised by near average temperatures in 2020, in continuation of conditions in 2019.
Summing up for 2020, global average air temperatures were relatively high, reflecting the recent 2019-20 moderate El Niño episode playing out in the Pacific Ocean. At the end of 2020, however, this has been followed by an La Niña episode. Thus, the global surface air temperature record in 2020 continues to be highly influenced by such oceanographic phenomena.
FIGURE 3. Mean annually lower troposphere temperature anomaly (thin line) since 1979 according to University of Alabama at Huntsville, USA. The average for 1979-2008 (30 years) has been set to zero, to make comparison with other temperature data series easy.
FIGURE 4. Mean annual lower troposphere temperature anomaly (thin line) since 1979 according to Remote Sensing Systems (RSS), USA. The average for 1979-2008 (30 years) has been set to zero, to make comparison with other temperature data series easy.
FIGURE 5. Mean annual global surface air temperature (thin line) since 1850 according to the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and the University of East Anglia’s Climatic Research Unit (CRU), UK. The average for 1979-2008 (30 years) has been set to zero.
FIGURE 6. Mean annual global surface air temperature since 1880 according to the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), USA. The average for 1979-2008 (30 years) has been set to zero, to make comparison with other temperature data series easy.
Reflections on the significance of the 2020 global annual surface air temperature
According to the surface stations 2020 ranks as one of the warmest years since 1880 and 1850, although slightly cooler than 2016. Also, according to the satellite records 2020 was among the warmest years recorded.
The recent very strong El Niño terminated during 2017. Quite often -but not always- a warm El Niño episode is followed by a cool oceanographic reversal, known as La Niña, which also will influence global air temperatures, but then towards lower values. In fact, a moderate La Niña episode established itself in late 2017, lasting until early 2018 (Fig. 14). Towards the end of 2018, however a new, moderate El Niño initiated and affected global air temperatures toward their high average values in 2019 and 2020. Towards the end of 2020, a new as La Niña episode established itself, influencing global air temperatures toward lower values.
Air temperature changes do not only play out at the surface, but also at higher levels in the atmosphere (see Fig. 11). The current CO2 hypothesis projects that the initial and largest temperature increase should affect the upper Troposphere, at 6-8 km altitude. However, since 1979 the earth’s surface has warmed faster than the upper Troposphere, implying that the surface heating observed is not predominantly due to added atmospheric CO2, but is largely caused by one or several other factors (oceans, cloud cover, etc.).
FIGURE 8. Plot showing the average of monthly global surface air temperature estimates (HadCRUT4, GISS and NCDC) and satellite-based temperature estimates (RSS MSU and UAH MSU). The thin lines indicate the monthly value, while the thick lines represent the simple running 37-month average, nearly corresponding to a running 3-yr average. The lower panel shows the monthly difference between surface air temperature and satellite temperatures. As the base period differs for the different temperature estimates, they have all been normalised by comparing to the average value of 30 years from January 1979 to December 2008.
Global satellite temperature trends calculated for different periods until December 2020
FIGURE 9. Diagram showing the latest 5, 10, 20 and 30 yr linear annual global temperature trend, calculated as the slope of the linear regression line through the data points, for two satellite-based temperature estimates (UAH MSU and RSS MSU).
Global surface air temperature trends calculated for different periods until December 2020
FIGURE 10. Diagram showing the latest 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 50, 70 and 100-year linear annual global temperature trend, calculated as the slope of the linear regression line through the data points, for three surface-based temperature estimates (GISS, NCDC and HadCRUT3).
FIGURE 11. Global monthly average temperature in different according to University of Alabama at Huntsville, USA. The thin lines represent the monthly average, and the thick line the simple running 37-month average, nearly corresponding to a running 3-year average.
FIGURE 12. Sea surface temperature anomaly in late December 2020 and 2019, upper and lower panel, respectively. Reference period: 1977-1991. Map source: Plymouth State Weather Center. Please note the change of colour scale between the two years.
FIGURE 13. Diagram showing average 0-1900m depth ocean temperatures in selected latitudinal bands, using Argo data. The thin line shows monthly values, and the stippled line shows the running 13-month average.
Source: Global Marine Argo Atlas. Please note that the Argo data series is not yet updated beyond August 2020.
Year 2020 was characterized by a moderate El Niño episode in the Pacific Ocean. At the end of the year, the index is moving into the opposite situation, a La Niña episode, as shown by Figure 14 above. This diagram also shows that the recent 2015-16 El Niño is among the strongest El Niño episodes since the beginning of the record in 1950. Considering the entire record, however, recent variations between El Niño and La Niña episodes are not abnormal.
FIGURE 15. Annual values of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) according to the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean (JISAO), a Cooperative Institute between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the University of Washington. The PDO is a long-lived El Niño-like pattern of Pacific climate variability, and the data series goes back to January 1900. The thin line indicates annual PDO values, and the thick line is the simple running 7-year average.
FIGURE 16. Annual Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) detrended index values since 1856. The thin line indicates the annual values, and the thick line is the simple running 11-year average. Data source: Earth System Research Laboratory at NOAA.
The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ACE data series goes back to 1850. A Fourier analysis for the Atlantic Basin (figure above) show the ACE series to be strongly influenced by a periodic variation of about 60 years’ duration. At present, since 2002, the Atlantic ACE series is displaying an overall declining trend, but with large interannual variations. The North Atlantic hurricane season often shows above average activity when La Nina conditions are present in Pacific during late summer (August-October), as was the case in 2017.
FIGURE 18. Global and hemispheric 12 month running average sea ice extension since 1979, the satellite-era. The October 1979 value represents the monthly average of November 1978 - October 1979, the November 1979 value represents the average of December 1978 - November 1979, etc. The stippled lines represent a 61-month (ca.5 years) average. Last month included in the 12-month calculations is shown to the right in the diagram.
Data source: National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC).
FIGURE 19. Northern Hemisphere seasonal snow cover since 1972 according to Rutgers University Global Snow Laboratory.
FIGURE 20. Specific atmospheric humidity (g/kg) at three different altitudes in the lower part of the atmosphere (the Troposphere) since January 1948 (Kalnay et al. 1996). The thin blue lines show monthly values, while the thick blue lines show the running 37-month average (about 3 years). Data source: Earth System Research Laboratory (NOAA).
Water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas in Earth’s atmosphere, considerably more important than CO₂.
FIGURE 21. Monthly amount of atmospheric CO₂ (upper diagram) and annual growth rate (lower diagram); average last 12 months minus average preceding 12 months, thin line) of atmospheric CO₂ since 1959, according to data provided by the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, USA. The thick, stippled line is the simple running 37-month average, nearly corresponding to a running 3-year average.
FIGURE 22. Visual association between annual growth rate of atmospheric CO₂ (upper panel) and Oceanic Niño Index (lower panel). See also Figure 14 and 21, respectively.
FIGURE 23. Daily observations of the number of sunspots since 1 January 1900 according to Solar Influences Data Analysis Center (SIDC). The thin blue line indicates the daily sunspot number, while the dark blue line indicates the running annual average.
All above diagrams with supplementary information (including links to data sources and previous issues of this newsletter) are available on www.climate4you.com
Yours sincerely,
Ole Humlum
(firstname.lastname@example.org)
Arctic Historical Evaluation and Research Organisation, Longyearbyen, Svalbard
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Children with SEND
Identification, Assessment and Support for Children with SEND
We have regard for the Special Educational Needs and Disability (SEND) (DfE and DoH 2015) which states that local authorities must ensure that all early years providers that they fund in the maintained, private, voluntary and independent sectors are aware of the requirement on them to meet the needs of children with SEN and disabilities. When securing funded early education for two, three- and four-year-olds local authorities should promote equality and inclusion for children with disabilities or SEN; this includes removing barriers that prevent access to early education and working with parents to give each child support to fulfil their potential. Following the impact from Covid-19, we will review and update children’s SEN support plans more frequently to ensure their progress and well-being.
The term SEN support defines arrangements for identifying and supporting children with special educational needs and/or disabilities. We are required to offer appropriate support and intervention and to promote equality of opportunity for children that we care for. Children’s SEND generally falls within the following four broad areas of need and support:
- communication and interaction
- cognition and learning
- social, emotional and mental health
- sensory and/or physical needs
For the purpose of this policy, Michelle Hardy is the named SENCo Caterpillar Nursery. Julie Byrne is the nursery manager and supports children specifically with speech and language difficulties.
Graduated Approach
Initial identification and support (identifying special educational needs)
- Ongoing formative assessment forms part of a continuous process for observing, assessing, planning and reviewing children’s progress.
- Children identified as having difficulty with one or more area of development should be given support by applying some simple strategies and resources.
- For most children application of some simple differentiation approaches will be enough to build confidence and help the child develop. However, if a key person shows some concerns around a child’s holistic development, this should be recorded on an Initial record of concern form, which must then be shared with the SENCo.
- The SENCo and/or Nursery Manager will review the initial concern, alongside the key person and next steps will be made; including a discussion with parents.
Observation and Assessment of Children
Where a child appears to be below expected levels, or their progress gives cause for concern, practitioners should consider all the information about the child’s learning and development from within and beyond the setting.
- Information can be collated from formal checks such as the progress check at age two, observations from parents and observation and assessment by the setting of the child’s progress.
• When specialist advice has been sought externally, this is used to help determine whether or not a child has an additional need.
• The child’s key person and SENCo and/or nursery manager use this information to decide if the child does require some intervention to support their learning and development.
• If the decision is that the child does need support, and the parents are not already aware of a concern, then at this stage the information is shared with them. Once parents have been informed, they should be fully engaged in the process, contributing their insights to all future actions for their child.
**Planning Intervention**
• Everyone involved with the child should be given an opportunity to share their views. Parents should be encouraged to share their thoughts on the child’s challenges and be involved in the decision making for next steps.
• A first intervention option may be to carry on with applying differentiated support, using a *Low Level Individual Support Plan (LISP)* and to review the child’s progress at an agreed date. If the child’s needs are more complex, or there is no significant progress through low level intervention, then the decision maybe to prepare a *High Level Individual Support Plan (HISP)*, with detailed evidence-based interventions being applied straight away and simultaneously external referrals made.
• If possible, the child should be appropriately included in development of the action plan but only at a level which reflects their stage of comprehension.
• Any child on any level of support ensures that children who do demonstrate having an additional need are identified and will therefore receive the right level of intervention and encouragement for their learning and development as early as possible.
**Involving the Child**
• The SEND Code of Practice (2015) supports the rights of children to be involved in decisions about their education.
• Inclusion of children with SEND helps build self-confidence and trust in others.
• Ascertaining children’s views may not be easy, and a range of strategies will be needed, including observation.
• Accurate assessment helps identify children’s strengths and possible barriers to learning.
• The key person and SENCo/nursery manager will work in partnership with parents and other agencies to involve the child wherever appropriate.
• Children are involved at appropriate stages of the assessment and to their level of ability.
• Establishing effective communication is essential for the child’s involvement.
**SEN Individual Support Plans (ISPs)**
• All ISPs should show what support is required to help achieve outcomes for the child using SMART targets.
• A review date (at least termly) should be agreed with the parents so that the child’s progress can be reviewed against expected outcomes and next steps agreed. This will usually take place during the child’s focus week, unless there has been a significant change.
• A copy of the plan is stored in the child’s file so that any other member of staff or an inspector looking at the file will see how the child is progressing and what interventions have been or are being applied.
• If a child requires specific medical interventions during their time in the setting, a health care plan should also be completed and integrated into the general plans to ensure the child’s medical needs are known and safely met.
• The support plan should provide an accessible summary of the child’s needs, which can be used if further assessment is required including a statutory Education Health and Care (EHC) Assessment, and development of an EHC plan.
Preparing an ISP
• If external agencies are already involved at this stage, then they should also be invited to help decide on what appropriate interventions are needed to help meet outcomes for the child. The SENCo/nursery manager should take the lead in coordinating further actions including preparation of the action plan and setting short-term targets.
• Where there are significant emerging concerns (or an identified special educational need or disability) targeted action plans are formulated that relate to a clear set of expected outcomes and stretching targets. This will be completed on the HISP, where additional assessments, including the Developmental Journal and Teaching Talking Profiles, can be monitored and recorded.
• The LISP, highlights areas in which a child is progressing well; areas in which some additional support might be needed and any areas where there is a concern that a child may have a developmental delay (which may indicate a special educational need or disability). It describes the activities and strategies the provider intends to adopt to address any issues or concerns. Whilst the HISP, also documents the same as a LISP, it is expected at this stage that external agencies within the local authority are involved, and additional assessments of children will be required and recorded.
• Planned intervention should be based on the best possible evidence and have the required impact on progress with longer-term goals covering all aspects of learning and development and shorter-term targets meeting goals.
• The plan should focus on the needs of the child, the true characteristics, preferences, and aspirations of the child and involvement of the parents with a clear set of targets and expected outcomes for the child. Effective planning at this stage should help parents and children express their needs, wishes, and goals:
- focus on the child as an individual and not a label
- be easy for children to understand and use clear ordinary language and images, rather than professional jargon
- highlight the child strengths and capacities
- enable the child, and those who know them best, to say what they have done, what they are interested in and what outcomes they are seeking in the future
- tailor support to the needs of the individual
- organise assessments to minimise demands on families
- bring together relevant professionals to discuss and agree together the overall approach
External Intervention and Support
Where external agency intervention has been identified to help support a child with additional needs, then this intervention should be recommended in writing by a suitably reliable source such as a speech and language therapist, paediatrician or educational psychologist.
**Record Keeping**
If a child has or is suspected of having additional needs, a dated record should be kept of:
- the initial cause for concern and the source of this information, (the progress check at age two and/or outcomes of previous interventions).
- the initial discussion with parents raising the possibility of the child’s additional needs.
- the views of the parents and other relevant persons including, wherever possible, the child’s views;
- the procedures followed with regard to the Code of Practice (2015) to meet the child’s needs e.g. ISPs, referrals to external agencies and for statutory assessment.
- evidence of the child’s progress and any identified barriers to learning
- advice from other relevant professionals; and all subsequent meetings with parents and other persons and any subsequent referrals
Records **must** include the following:
- Observation and monitoring sheets
- Expressions of concern
- Assessments, including focus week and 2 year development check (where appropriate)
- ISPs
- Chronology
- Intervention Log
- Meetings with parents and other agencies
- referral to the local authority identifying a child’s special educational needs and request for statutory Education, Health, Care (EHC) needs assessment; and a copy of an EHC plan
In addition, records may also include:
- Risk assessments
- Health care plans (including guidelines for administering medication)
- Additional information from and to outside agencies
- Individual Behaviour/Biting Logs
- Forms used to refer to services, including SPA, WPAS & SaLT
- Teacher Talking Profiles
- Pathway to Change – Early Help Documentation
Seeking Additional Funding
If the child’s needs cannot be met from within the setting’s core funding, then it will be at this point that the evidence collated will be used to apply for top up/enhanced funding from Warwickshire County Council Inclusion Grant. If a new or existing child is disabled, then the setting should check if the family is in receipt or have applied for Disability Living Allowance. If so, the setting will be able to apply to their local authority for the local Disability Access Fund, the term after turn 3.
Statutory Education, Health and Care (EHC) Needs Assessment and Plan
Statutory Assessment
- If a child has not made significant progress, despite interventions put in place, then the next steps may be for the child to undergo an Education, Health and Care Needs Assessment.
- If a child is under compulsory school age, the local authority will conduct an EHC needs assessment if they consider that the child’s needs cannot be met within the resources normally available to the early years setting. This application is made by the SENCo in partnership with parents and other professionals involved in the child’s care and education, including the individual key person.
- Children aged under age two are eligible, where an assessment has indicated that the child is likely to show significant delay in their development by the time they reach compulsory school age, to access an EHC needs assessment, either through the parents or other professional, including health and education.
- When a child’s needs appear to be sufficiently complex, or the evidence suggests specialist intervention, then the local authority is likely to conclude that an EHC plan is necessary.
- The local authority should fully involve the parent and must seek advice from the setting in making decisions about preparing an EHC plan.
- Settings should prepare by collating information about the child’s SEND including:
- documentation on the child’s progress in the setting
- interventions and support provided to date
- evidence of external agency assessment, support and recommendations
- parental views and wishes (and where appropriate those of the child)
The information will then be submitted to the local authority to allow them to accurately assess the child in the context of the support already given.
- The local authority must inform the child’s parents of a decision as to whether to accept the EHC needs assessment within six weeks of receiving a request and give its reasons for their decision. If the local authority decides to conduct an assessment, it must ensure the child’s parents are fully included right from the beginning and are invited to contribute their views. If the local authority subsequently decides not to conduct an assessment it must then inform the parents of their right to appeal that decision, of the requirement for them to consider mediation should they wish to appeal.
• If the local authority decides that a statutory EHC plan is not necessary, it must notify the parents and inform the provider, giving the reasons for the decision. This notification must take place within 16 weeks of the initial request or of the child having otherwise been brought to the local authority’s attention.
• If the decision following an assessment is to compile an EHC plan, the local authority should consult collaboratively with the parents in the preparation of the plan ensuring that their views and their child’s preferences are taken into account and that plans describe positively what the child can do and has achieved to date.
• Plans are evidenced based and focus on short term outcomes and long-term aspirations for the child including family and community support. Parents have the right to request a particular provision for their child to be named within their EHC plan.
• If an early years setting is named, the local authority must fund this provision. They cannot force a setting to take a child and can only name the provision in the EHC if the setting agrees.
• Settings, alongside the local authority, should review an EHC plan for a child under age five at least every three to six months. Such reviews would complement the duty to carry out a review at least annually but may be streamlined and not necessarily require the attendance of the full range of professionals, depending on the needs of the child. The child’s parents must be fully consulted on any proposed changes to the EHC plan and made aware of their right to appeal to the Tribunal.
Transition to School or Other Setting
“SEN support should include planning and preparing for transition, before a child moves into another setting or school. This can also include a review of the SEN support being provided or the EHC plan. To support the transition, information should be shared by the current setting with the receiving setting or school. The current setting should agree with parents the information to be shared as part of this planning process.” – SEND: guide for early years settings.
• Any child transitioning to another setting (school or early years provision) must have a plan in place to support the move.
• Documentation in relation to the child’s specific needs should transferred appropriately to the new setting, with permission from parents.
• The SENCo and/or key person should make arrangements to meet with all individuals currently involved as well as those becoming involved in the care and education of the child. This may include a settings SENCo or the class teacher/key person.
• Where opportunities allow, the setting SENCo or key person should attend ‘National Transition Day’ for those children who are going to a mainstream setting, alongside the child who may have significant needs. This will allow the child to feel secure in a new environment with a significant adult in place.
• Where parents of children with an EHC needs plan have named a particular provider/school, transitions will be tailored and specified to the particular setting.
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Housing Solutions for Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care in Winnipeg: Final Lab Report
The Housing Solutions Lab for Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care in Winnipeg took place on Treaty 1 territory, the original lands of the Anishinaabeg, Cree, Oji-Cree, Dakota, and Dene Peoples, and on the homeland of the Metis Nation.
Report prepared by: Darrien Morton, Zoë Mager & Stacy Barter
Graphic design: Michael Champagne, Alex Yuzwa & Hannah Owczar
This project entitled “Housing Solutions for Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care in Winnipeg” received funding from the National Housing Strategy under the NHS Solutions Labs, however, the views expressed are the personal views of the authors and CMHC accepts no responsibility for them.
This report is accessible under limited copyright protection. As long as this report is accurately and completely credited and not used for commercial motives, you may download, distribute, photocopy, cite or excerpt this document.
To find out more about the Winnipeg Housing Solutions Lab and access supplementary knowledge products visit: www.fearlessR2W.ca
I spent my whole life surviving, so [couch-surfing] didn’t feel very different from being in CFS [Child and Family Services], honestly. I remember the first time moving in my life and it felt weird. It was just like: “We’re moving you from here to here” and like “You’re not living with this family anymore, we’re going to move you over here.” I was like “Oh.” And that was it…that was it. I was scared. It was the first time in my life I was scared and the last time I was scared of moving. Couch-surfing, it was never uncomfortable. It felt like I was just moving to another house, to another family. Like these are my bros and they care about me and they’re going to let me chill here. You know what I mean? But in the end, I learned that they weren’t my bros. But there was one [bro] who was always there when I needed to go somewhere, when everyone else was like: “Yeah, I can’t have you.” No matter what, he was like “I’ve got a place for you. You’ve always got somewhere to be.”
Tyrel, 31
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
WHAT is the Housing Solutions Lab for Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care?
Through key notions of the “Village” and “mino-pimatisiwin/mino-bimaadiziwin” (translates to the “good life”), this Housing Solutions Lab sought to better understand and respond to the challenge of Indigenous youth homelessness and housing insecurity in Winnipeg’s North End and adjacent inner city neighborhoods. Over a 20-month period, the Housing Solutions Lab convened a diverse range of youth, community members, organizations, and sectors to co-develop innovative solutions to support housing opportunities for Indigenous youth transitioning out of care toward independence and interdependence within their wider network of kinship relations and homelands.
Employing a variety of methods, tools, and sensibilities, this challenge was approached from different perspectives and worldviews, including those who:
- are or were in the system (youth in care, aging out of care or aged out of care)
- are working “in” the system (child welfare workers, service providers, administrators, policymakers, etc.)
- are working “around” the system (e.g. advocates, families, community organizers, housing professionals, etc.)
The Solutions Lab aimed to build bridges of empathy and provide advocates, service providers, policymakers, and community members with a more complete picture of the systems impacting Indigenous youth aging out of care. The solutions which were coSO WHAT did we learn and what solutions did we test?
The root causes of homelessness and housing insecurity among urban Indigenous youth aging out of care in Winnipeg are entrenched in colonization, land dispossession, institutional racism, discrimination, and the systemic incentivization and financialization of the child’s best interests. They are characterized by ongoing failures of systems and individuals to unconditionally love, support and care for young people’s sense of cultural identity, health, and overall well-being. We identified various factors that directly hinder Indigenous youth aging out of care from being able to secure stable, safe, and culturally appropriate housing.
WHY ARE INDIGENOUS YOUTH AGING OUT OF CARE UNABLE TO SECURE STABLE, SAFE & APPROPRIATE HOUSING?
- Availability/accessibility of affordable (public) housing
- Availability/accessibility of safe housing
- Availability/accessibility of employment, income & transition supports
- Ability to navigate complex, siloed systems
- Adequate life skills development & early transition preparation & planning
- Intergenerational trauma, mental health & substance use/addiction
- Entering institutional facilities (e.g. juvenile detention, prison, treatment centers, hospital emerg. rooms)
Based on learnings, Lab participants and partners identified 7 solutions ideas that had the potential to leverage change related to housing challenges for Indigenous youth aging out of care. Each of these ideas were prototyped and tested to learn about their viability, effectiveness, and acceptability. These prototypes were selected based on their relevance, potential for impact, and capacity to address multifaceted aspects of the housing challenge in a holistic way.
**PROTOTYPES**
- **Residential Transition House**
- A residential, culturally safe, and harm-reduction-focused transition house with wrap-around supports to help Indigenous youth aging out of care transition into permanent and independent living arrangements.
- **Coordinated Access to Social Housing**
- A strategy to ensure coordinated access for unoccupied social housing across various levels of policy, advocacy and service delivery.
- **Kinship Support Initiative**
- The Kinship Support Initiative provides formal and informal family type wrap-around supports and advocacy for Indigenous youth aging out of care while they secure and maintain housing.
- **Youth Aging Out Website**
- A youth aging out website that offers the necessary tools to help youth and service providers navigate relevant housing, social support and advocacy resources and services.
- **Community Safety Host Social Enterprise**
- The Community Safety Host prototype supports an alternative to library security guards and provides youth employment opportunities to ensure career mentorship, employment training, and financial security.
- **Independence Board Game**
- A youth aging out board game that acts as a tool to educate and train service providers, social workers, housing advocates, and policy decision-makers on the experiences and realities of Indigenous youth aging out of care.
- **Aging Out Party**
- The Aging Out Party provides a space for ceremony to celebrate and honor Indigenous youth as they age out of care into adulthood with loved ones.
NOW WHAT are the next steps and pathways for future action?
Each prototype team tested the above solution ideas and developed an action plan outlining next steps to build on learnings from the prototyping process. This included an assessment of ideas to test further or let go, and others which were deemed viable and ready to graduate to a pilot or to be scale up and out.
These action plans were integrated with learnings from across other Lab activities to develop a Solutions Roadmap outlining 5 areas of impact and 15 key actions to move forward.
ROAD MAP AREAS OF IMPACT
- EVALUATION & RESEARCH
- POLICY & POLITICAL MOBILIZATION
- HOUSING SUPPLY & PROVISION
- HOUSING SUPPORTS, ADVOCACY & SERVICE NAVIGATION
- EDUCATION & TRAINING
SOLUTIONS ROADMAP:
Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care in Winnipeg
1. IMPACT AREAS
2. KEY ACTIONS
3. POTENTIAL & ESTABLISHED COLLABORATORS
EDUCATION & TRAINING
- Develop a complementary training manual for a board game to educate about the experiences of Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Adapt existing Rent Smart course for Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Showcase the “Aging Out Party” as a wise practice on how to honour and celebrate the accomplishments and life-transitions of youth who are aging out of care
- Develop a website to support the service navigation needs for youth aging out of care
- Deliver & build on the Kinship Support Initiative among Indigenous youth aging out of care to enhance life skills, cultural identity, & kinship relations
HOUSING SUPPORTS, ADVOCACY & SERVICE NAVIGATION
- Hire, train, and retain a youth aging out of care housing advocate
- Support Indigenous youth aging out of care to enhance life skills, cultural identity, & kinship relations
- Develop a transition house with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Establish independent living housing with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
HOUSING SUPPLY & PROVISION
- Adopt a Wahkotowin (kinship) organizational structure and policy to support the delivery of community-based child welfare supports and advocacy resources
- Develop a centralized social housing waitlist prioritizing youth aging out of care
- Ongoing advocacy to ensure the re-inhabitation of unoccupied and empty social housing units
POLICY & POLITICAL MOBILIZATION
- Ongoing advocacy to develop a centralized social housing waitlist prioritizing youth aging out of care
- Ongoing advocacy to ensure the re-inhabitation of unoccupied and empty social housing units
- Adopt a Wahkotowin (kinship) organizational structure and policy to support the delivery of community-based child welfare supports and advocacy resources
EVALUATION & RESEARCH
- Ongoing study to explore the experiences & perspectives of Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Ongoing study to survey the needs of Indigenous youth aging out of care, social housing access, and housing stability
Potential & Established Collaborators:
- University of Manitoba, Fearless R2W
- University of Manitoba, Manitoba Advocate for Children & Youth
- Right 2 Housing, Manitoba Non-Profit Housing Association, Independent housing advocates
- North End Community Renewal Corp., Millennium Public Library, Millennium For All
- Fearless R2W
- Winnipeg Rental Network, Niiganii Wabiski Mikanaak Ogichidaa
- Manitoba Advocate for Children & Youth, Dakota Ojibway Child & Family Services, Futures Forward, Fearless R2W, Technology Manitoba
- Fearless R2W, SEED Winnipeg, Tenant-Landlord Corp., Community Elders and Knowledge Keepers
- North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant-Landlord Corp.
- Youth & supporters
# TABLE OF CONTENTS
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| EXECUTIVE SUMMARY | i - v|
| TABLE OF CONTENTS | 1 |
| BACKGROUND & CONTEXT | 2 |
| About the Housing Solutions Lab | 3 |
| WHO WE ARE | 4 |
| METHODOLOGY & KNOWLEDGE MOBILIZATION | 6 |
| Our Approach | 6 |
| Our Principles | 8 |
| Our Methodology | 10 |
| Summary of Developmental Evaluation Reflections | 13 |
| Summary of Key Lab Outcomes | 14 |
| MAJOR FINDINGS | 16 |
| Key Opportunities to Reduce Homelessness & Housing Insecurity | 17 |
| Key Insights on How Systems Perpetuate Homelessness & Housing Insecurity | 19 |
| Key Questions & Areas for Action | 20 |
| PROTOTYPE PROFILES & ACTION PLANS | 21 |
| Residential Transition House | 23 |
| Coordinated Access to Social Housing | 26 |
| Kinship Support Initiative | 29 |
| Youth Aging Out Website | 32 |
| Community Safety Host Social Enterprise | 35 |
| Independence Board Game | 38 |
| Aging Out Party | 41 |
| ROADMAP & LOOKING FORWARD | 43 |
| Concluding Reflections & Lessons Learned | 45 |
| APPENDIX: LIST OF PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS | 48 |
## SUPPLEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTS (visit: www.fearlessR2W.ca)
- LAB REPORTS & PLANS
- Report for Phase 1: Definition
- Report for Phase 2: Discovery
- Report for Phase 3: Development
- Report for Phase 4: Prototyping & Phase 5: Roadmap
- Discovery Phase Learning Report
- Developmental Evaluation Framework
- LAB INFOGRAPHICS
- Infographic: Our Project
- Infographic: What Principle Do We Follow?
- Infographic: Ideas...So Far
- Infographic: Prototype Teams
- Infographic: Potential Prototyping Questions
Indigenous youth, including First Nations, Metis, and Inuit, are drastically overrepresented in the child welfare system in Manitoba, representing 90% of all children in care.\(^1\) In the North End neighborhood of Winnipeg, which has the highest apprehension rates across Canada, 1 in 6 children are apprehended often leading to homelessness, unemployment, contact with the justice system, and poorer self-rated health outcomes upon aging out of care.\(^2,3,4,5,6,7\) In 2018, the Winnipeg Street Census reported that 51.5% of people experiencing homelessness had been in the care of child welfare at one point in their lives with the majority self-identifying as Indigenous. Among them 62.4% of respondents experienced homelessness within one year of leaving care signaling inadequate transition housing supports.\(^8\)
The negative outcomes related to child welfare apprehension and homelessness are implicated in historical and ongoing legacies of colonization, racism, land dispossession, and particularly in the prairie regions, high Indian Residential School enrolment and child apprehension rates during the 60’s Scoop.\(^9\) They continue to displace and dispossess children, families, and communities from their homes and homelands that are intimately tied to culture, identity, wellbeing, and a sense of belonging. These intergenerational challenges are evident in urban centres such as Winnipeg where many First Nations, Metis and Inuit families have migrated willingly or unwillingly over the last 60 years to pursue a variety of social, economic, familial, and educational opportunities.\(^10\)
Despite low rankings on various indicators of health and socioeconomic well-being,\(^11\) the North End has continued to persevere through sustained political mobilization and cultural revitalization in the mid-1980s by Indigenous elders, grandmothers, women, and youth as well as Indigenous-led community organizations. Within the past 10 years since *Idle No More* (2012), the *Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s Calls to Action* (2015), and the *Ministry of Families’ Report of the Legislative Review Committee*, these declarations have evolved in Winnipeg as a reminder on how cities are—and always have been—tied to the protection of ancestral homelands, waterways, and future generations of children and youth. A concerted
---
\(^1\) Ministry of Families. (2018). *Transforming child welfare legislation in Manitoba, Opportunities to Improve Outcomes for Children and Youth Report of the Legislative Review Committee*. Winnipeg: Government of Manitoba.
\(^2\) Winnipeg Street Census. (2018). *Winnipeg Street Census 2018: Final Report*. Winnipeg: Social Planning Council of Winnipeg
\(^3\) Brownell, M. D., Charlier, M., Au, W., MacWilliam, L., Schultz, J., Guenette, W., & Valdivia, J. (2015). *The educational outcomes of children in care in Manitoba*. Winnipeg: Manitoba Centre for Health Policy
\(^4\) Nickel, N. C., Turnbull, L., Wall-Wieler, E., Au, W., Ekuma, O., MacWilliam, L., Enns, J.E. Lee, J. B. McCulloch, S., Burchill, C., & Brownell, M. (2020). Overlap between child protection services and the youth justice system: protocol for a retrospective population-based cohort study using linked administrative data in Manitoba, Canada. *BMJ, 10*(7).
\(^5\) Manitoba Advocate for Children and Youth. (2020). “Stop Giving Me a Number and Start Giving Me a Person” How 22 Girls Illuminate the Cracks in the Manitoba Youth Mental Health and Addiction System. Winnipeg: Manitoba Advocate for Children and Youth
\(^6\) Here and Now. (2018). *Here and Now: The Winnipeg Plan to End Youth Homelessness*. Retrieved from https://www.homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/28239_here_now_plan_report_FIN_WEB.pdf
\(^7\) Edwards, K. (2017). *Fighting foster care: The stunning number of First Nations kids in care is a new touchstone for activists – and for rebel parents*. Retrieved from https://www.macleans.ca/first-nations-fighting-foster-care/
\(^8\) Winnipeg Street Census, 2018
\(^9\) Greenwood, M., De Leeuw, S., & Lindsay, N. M. (Eds.). (2018). *Determinants of Indigenous peoples’ health: beyond the social*. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
\(^10\) Environics Institute. (2011). *Winnipeg City Report - Urban Aboriginal Peoples Study*. Toronto: Environics Institute.
\(^11\) Winnipeg Regional Health Authority. (2015). *Point Douglas Community Area Profile, 2015*. Winnipeg: Winnipeg Regional Health Authority.
resurgence of inner city based Indigenous and non-Indigenous grassroots collectives, organizations, and families have become involved in such decolonization processes in what some refer to as the Village.\textsuperscript{12, 13}
In view of the Canadian Observatory of Homelessness’s definition of Indigenous homelessness\textsuperscript{14} and the Housing First for Youth model (HF4Y),\textsuperscript{15} housing supports for youth transitioning out of care cannot be simply addressed through narrowly defined solutions that increase housing supply and re-inhabitation. Homelessness among Indigenous youth requires a more robust response to address the urgent, complex, distinction-based, and culturally grounded housing needs and aspirations of urban Indigenous children, youth, and families.
**About the Housing Solutions Lab**
Through key notions of the “Village” and “mino-pimatisiwin/mino-bimaadiziwin” (translates to the “good life” in Cree and Anishinaabe), our Housing Solutions Lab sought to articulate and respond to the challenge of Indigenous youth homelessness and housing insecurity in Winnipeg’s North End and adjacent inner city neighborhoods. In doing so, solutions aimed to support housing opportunities for Indigenous youth transitioning out of care toward independence and interdependence within their wider supportive network of kinship relations and homelands.
As community members of the North End who have grown up in the care of child welfare, and as planners and researchers external to experiences faced by community members but recognize the cyclical nature of these challenges, our team brought together diverse knowledges, experiences, and skill-sets. We sought to reframe homelessness and propose solutions to the often dangerous and unjust outcomes threatening the wellbeing of Indigenous youth aging out of care. As much as the process we engaged in over 20 months (April 2019 to November 2020) was about co-creating and implementing innovative housing solutions, it was about strengthening and advancing the relationships, work, and resources that already exist within Winnipeg and beyond with integrity, respect, and mutual reciprocity.
\textsuperscript{12} Aboriginal Youth Opportunities. (2018). AYO Presents: The Village Walk. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4LsH3sb0Vbc.
\textsuperscript{13} Guiboche, A. (2015). Got Bannock? In honour of the village we once had. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDuPuk7_OzE
\textsuperscript{14} Thistle, J. (2017.) Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada. Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness.
\textsuperscript{15} Gaetz, S. (2017). This is Housing First for Youth A Program Model Guide. Toronto: Canadian Observatory on Homelessness.
WHO WE ARE
The Housing Solutions project was convened by a collaborative team of hosting partners and funders outlined below. However, this work would not have been possible without the support and tenacity of what we know as the Village; that is, the work of Indigenous and non-Indigenous organizations, collectives, families, and individuals located in Winnipeg’s inner city.
PARTNERSHIP COORDINATION & COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
ABORIGINAL YOUTH OPPORTUNITIES (AYO): an Indigenous-led grassroots youth collective and social movement network involved in various initiatives, programs, and campaigns to provide opportunities for and break stereotypes about Indigenous youth both locally and nationally
Represented by: Michael Champagne, Christopher Clacio
HTFC PLANNING AND DESIGN: a planning and design company that specializes in landscape architecture, community and resource planning, economic development, urban design, and interpretive design
Represented by: Tim Hogan, Zoë Mager, Adam Kroeker
RESEARCH ENGAGEMENT & COORDINATION
UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA, RADY FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES: a group of independent researchers working in the field of participatory action research, health, and cultural development with Indigenous young people as co-researchers and community-based partners
Represented by: Andrew Hatala, Darrien Morton
NIGAANII WABISKI MIKANAK OGICHIDAA (NWMO), LEADING WHITE TURTLE WARRIORS: a collective of urban Indigenous youth engaged in culture-based research training and capacity building that focuses on social action, urban community development, and health and resiliency
LAB STEWARDSHIP & SUSTAINABILITY
FEARLESS R2W: an Indigenous-led community organization supporting families dealing with Manitoba’s child welfare system through education, advocacy, and support
Represented by: Michael Champagne, Mary Lund Burton, John Morrisette, Rafael Terrain, Quinn Conlon
FUNDING SUPPORT
CANADIAN MORTGAGE AND HOUSING CORPORATION: Administering National Housing Strategy funding through their Solutions Lab program
CANADIAN INSTITUTES OF HEALTH RESEARCH: Supporting the Nigaanii Wabiski Mikanak Ogichidaa research component and additional project support through the University of Manitoba, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences
INNOWEAVE, A PROGRAM OF J.W. McCONNELL FAMILY FOUNDATION: Supporting Developmental Evaluation and additional coaching from Solutions Lab Consultant Stacy Barter
LAB FACILITATION & DEVELOPMENTAL EVALUATION
SHIFT COLLABORATIVE: a cooperative offering strategy, coaching, leadership development and tools to support community and organizational change processes related to social and environmental challenges
Represented by: Stacy Barter
HOUSING SOLUTIONS
For Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care in Winnipeg
Address the issues of housing insecurity & homelessness Indigenous youth in Winnipeg face when they age out of the child welfare system at age 18
WHAT IS A SOLUTIONS LAB?
process that provides funding and expert consultants to help solve complex housing problems using innovation methods and tools.
SPRING 2019 - SUMMER 2020
OUR PROJECT
explore needs of Indigenous youth in Winnipeg who have grown up in the care of Manitoba’s child welfare system and who are at the point where their institutional supports are removed & they face a high probability of entering into a cycle of poverty and housing insecurity or homelessness.
GET INVOLVED IF YOU...
- ARE IN THE SYSTEM
- ARE WORKING IN THE SYSTEM
- ARE AROUND THE SYSTEM
ACTIVITIES
- YOUTH ENGAGEMENT
- BI-MONTHLY COMMUNITY REPORT BACKS
- TARGETED WORKSHOPS
- SYMPOSIA
OUR HOPE
our solutions will be implemented and we will have taken up by decision makers to close the gaps and further reduce the number of young people facing homelessness year over year.
WE ARE HAPPY TO DO THIS WORK WITH PARTNERS. EXTRA LOVE TO:
- HTFC
- Atol
- University of Manitoba
- Fearless R2W
- Aboriginal Youth Opportunities
- firstname.lastname@example.org
CONTACT US!
Zavy Meyer, HTFC
email@example.com
Darren Morton
firstname.lastname@example.org
Fearless R2W
email@example.com
Aboriginal Youth Opportunities
firstname.lastname@example.org
Our Approach
Guided by several principles, our Lab methodology incorporated social innovation lab, storycatching, and developmental evaluation approaches to collaboratively explore specific needs of Indigenous youth in Winnipeg who have grown up in foster care and are at the point of aging out where institutional supports are removed. On an ongoing basis throughout the Lab, but especially at the beginning, we centred the voices of Indigenous young people and ensured Lab learnings were integrated, exchanged, and translated into action. Employing a variety of methods, tools, and sensibilities, we approached this challenge from different perspectives and worldviews, including those who:
- are or were in the system (youth in care, aging out of care or aged out of care)
- are working “in” the system (child welfare workers, service providers, administrators, policymakers, etc.)
- are working “around” the system (e.g. advocates, families, community organizers, housing professionals, etc.)
Through our engagements we aimed to build bridges of empathy and provide advocates, service providers, policymakers, and community members with a more complete picture of the systems impacting Indigenous youth aging out of care. The co-creation of solutions is intended to be scaled up among decision-makers and scaled out by communities to close service gaps and reduce the number of Indigenous youth facing housing insecurity and homelessness once they age out of Manitoba’s child welfare system.
Social innovation labs: a dynamic process that brings together diverse stakeholders to address complex social problems involving iterative and emergent research, experimentation, prototyping, and solutions testing.
Storycatching: a culture-based approach that treats research as a ceremony, including listening, witnessing and feeling, and prioritizes relationship-based practices and centres Indigenous and local wisdom and knowledges.
Developmental evaluation: an embedded, continuous and learning-centred evaluation approach that assists the development of social innovations and change initiatives in complex and uncertain environments.
Beginning the Lab with a sweat lodge ceremony with youth aging out of care in Libau, Manitoba
Our Principles
Relational Accountability
We remain mutually accountable to all our relations to all kinds of life, past, present, and future. Ongoing and genuine relationship-building and strengthening supports the creation of trust, respect, reciprocity, and transparency to ensure relational accountability. They are always approached as a ceremony with high spiritual and moral integrity.
Two-Eyed Seeing
We equally respect the contributions and co-existence of Indigenous and Western paradigms by creating an ethical space of engagement while simultaneously centering and privileging local knowledges, voices, methods, and experiences.
Indigenous Self-Determination & Sovereignty
We recognize urban Indigenous Peoples’ inherent and treaty rights to self-determination (autonomy) and sovereignty (non-interference) at all stages of engagement and collaboration through allyship and rotational leadership.
Honoring & Celebrating
We engage as humans first to distinguish the importance of laughter, humility, helping, feasting, and the role of honoring and celebration. While acting on the underlying sources of disadvantage and exclusion impacting Indigenous youth aging out of care, we simultaneously honor and celebrate the strengths and welcoming nature of local communities as well as the sacred stories and gifts we all share.
Capacity Building & Mentorship
We ensure enough time and resources are available for intergenerational and interdisciplinary capacity-building through mentorship, training, personal healing, and shared learning. We recognize, value, and compensate the expertise and labor of those offering technical and experiential knowledge based on systems literacy and lived experience.
Holistic Systems Thinking, Knowledge Sharing & Collective Action
We seek to capture and understand complex factors impacting Indigenous youth homelessness and housing insecurity as well as related demonstrations of local advocacy, activism, and resurgence. We recognize the interconnectedness of the Medicine Wheel and the significance of social and Indigenous determinants of health, wellness, and safety. Despite needing to understand these complex perspectives, knowledge must remain pragmatic to produce relevant individual and collective actions.
Cultural Safety & Reclamation
We create a safe space for shared learning and action that recognizes and accounts for unequal power relations, history, and Indigenous rights to avoid pan-Indigenization, perpetuation of stereotypes, and marginalization or appropriation of Indigenous and local knowledges and Peoples. We further contribute to processes of reclaiming cultural identity, kinship relations, and land occupation.
In addition to principles we developed for the Lab, we incorporated values used by Fearless R2W when delivering community-based education and advocacy programming and supports. These values are a result of 6 years of working and learning with the community on how best to support families dealing with the challenges of Manitoba’s child welfare system.
**Fearless R2W**
**MB Child Welfare Education & Advocacy**
WE ARE A CIRCLE OF SUPPORT AND VALUE ONE ANOTHER AS ONE FAMILY
WE TAKE CARE OF OUR OWN (HEART, MIND, BODY, SOUL)
WE AGREE TO DISAGREE WITH KINDNESS
WE BELIEVE LAUGHTER IS MEDICINE
WE BELIEVE IT IS ALL OF OUR RESPONSIBILITY TO TAKE CARE OF ALL OF THE CHILDREN ALL OF THE TIME
WE ENCOURAGE EACH PERSON TO FIND AND SHARE THEIR GIFTS WITH US
WE WELCOME DIFFERENT APPROACHES, OPINIONS AND STYLES
WE WILL NOT GOSSIP OR UNDERMINE ONE ANOTHER BUT SPEAK WELL OF EACH OTHER AND COMMUNICATE ANY CONCERNS DIRECTLY TO THE PEOPLE INVOLVED
WE WILL LOOK OUT FOR ONE ANOTHER
Our Methodology
**METHODOLOGY KEY**
- **Bi-monthly Community Consultations**: Ongoing bi-monthly community gatherings to update, consult and inform the advancement of the Lab process with diverse stakeholders.
- **Informal Stakeholder Meetings & Engagement**: Ongoing individual and informal meetings and engagement with relevant stakeholders.
- **Cultural & Ceremonial Activities**: Ongoing culture-based opportunities for engagement among youth participants and researchers (e.g., medicine picking, berry picking, sweat lodge ceremonies, beading workshops, sharing circles, midnight medicine walks, Aging Out Party).
- **Research Capacity-Building**: Ongoing culture-based training and mentorship among youth storycatchers to build research capacity related to research methods, ethics, ceremony, and knowledge translation.
- **Developmental Evaluation**: Ongoing developmental evaluation meetings with coordinators and the wider Lab leadership team to reflect, reevaluate, and enhance Lab processes and goals.
- **Youth Conversations**: Ongoing one-on-one conversations with youth with lived experience using a semi-structured interview guide.
- **Social Media Engagement & Website Development**: Ongoing social media engagement and website development to update, consult, network and exchange knowledge produced throughout the lab process.
- **Bi-annual Lab Leadership Team Meetings**: A bi-annual Lab Leadership Team meeting to update, consult and make collective decisions among Lab partners.
- **Youth Talking Circle**: A one-time youth talking circle to identify the needs and aspirations of Indigenous youth aging out of care and define expectations of the Lab process.
- **Systems Mapping**: Ongoing process which included a focused workshop, which was built on and refined in consecutive phases, to identify and visually map out the interactions between Indigenous youth aging out of care, system components and actors.
- **Communities of Practice Meeting**: A one-time meeting to widely engage and solicit expertise/information from relevant housing and child welfare stakeholders working “in” and “around” the system.
- **Ideas-to-action Workshop**: A one-time workshop to translate Discovery Phase findings among diverse stakeholders and develop questions to inform the creation of prototypes.
- **Prototype Engagement & Testing**: Ongoing prototype engagement, testing, sense-making, and reflection led by teams composed of 2 co-leads and 3-4 team members.
- **Roadmapping Workshop & Celebration**: A workshop to share the final roadmap produced through the Lab process with next steps and celebrate and honor major accomplishments and successes.
| Phase | Activities |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Phase 1: | Stakeholder engagement, consultation & capacity-building |
| Phase 2: | Informal stakeholder meetings & engagement |
| Phase 3: | Bi-monthly consultations |
| Phase 4: | Cultural & ceremonial activities |
| Phase 5: | Research capacity-building & mentorship |
**Key Pivots & Changes**
- **Phase 1:** Definition of Lab process by Lab Leadership Team
- **Phase 2:** Highest intensity of youth engagement to define process & goals
- **Phase 3:** Increasing marketization of social housing impacting housing solutions
- **Phase 4:** Identification of areas of action
- **Phase 5:** COVID-19 restrictions & lockdowns impacting prototype testing & engagement
**Relationship Intensity**
- **Phase 1:** Lowest
- **Phase 2:** Moderate
- **Phase 3:** High
- **Phase 4:** Moderate
- **Phase 5:** Low
**Key**
- Lab leadership meetings
- Systems mapping workshop
- Ideas-to-action workshop
- Roadmapping workshop & celebration
- Youth talking circle
- Communities of Practice meeting
Beading workshop with youth aging out of care at the Merchants Corner, Winnipeg
Bi-monthly Consultation at Meet Me at the Bell Tower, Winnipeg
Bi-monthly Consultation at Fearless R2W, Winnipeg
Systems Mapping Design Jam at HTFC, Winnipeg
Winnipeg Rental Network’s Communities of Practice meeting, Winnipeg
Ideas-to-action workshop at United Way, Winnipeg
Summary of Developmental Evaluation Reflections
WHAT WORKED WELL?
- Investing in relationship-strengthening, trust-building, and reciprocity to work across scales.
- Building on strong and existing community relationships and community development work with a focus on the strengths and capacities of relevant community helpers.
- Centering Indigenous youth and community voices, and embedding Lab activities in existing community spaces and priorities.
- Ensuring the ability for Lab partners, stakeholders, helpers, and relatives to work within flexible boundaries that allowed for self-organizing.
- Securing strong partnerships and collaborations among diverse stakeholders to ensure strong collaborative leadership and commitment to adequately support and steward prototype development.
- Assuming a holistic, culturally grounded, and value-based approach to understand housing challenges for Indigenous youth aging out of care.
WHAT WAS CHALLENGING?
- Upholding Indigenous self-determination (control and ownership) and sovereignty (non-interference) with limited time to interpret, centre, and follow Indigenous voice among a diverse composition of Lab funders, partners, and relevant stakeholders.
- Defining unclear boundaries on what ‘community’ means to adequately scope, target, and address the challenge within an urban Indigenous context where jurisdictional ambiguities exist.
- Building youth-inclusive spaces for mentorship and capacity-building while needing to meet Lab milestones and produce knowledge outputs.
- Balancing process and action given the urgency of the Lab Challenge and limited resources.
- Working on long-term change within a short-term project.
- Adapting Lab processes to various structural and environmental forces, including: a global pandemic, shifting organizational landscapes shaping Indigenous youth, increased public awareness on youth aging out of care, and government austerity measures directly impacting social and market housing.
Summary of Key Lab Outcomes
Enhanced community leadership through Fearless R2W by developing organizational capacity, centring and increasing supports and advocacy resources for youth aging out of care, and informing the development of a kinship-based ‘Wakohtowin Policy’
Significant learning through prototypes addressing complex and multifaceted systems level challenges
Graduation to pilot-testing for several key actions, prototypes, and partnerships
Deeper analysis and increased awareness of youth homelessness and housing insecurity among Indigenous youth aging out of care
Enhanced research capacity-building among Indigenous community based organizations and youth researchers
Leveraged and extended previous housing solutions identified among relevant stakeholders and outlined in the Here and Now: The Winnipeg Plan to End Youth Homelessness report (2018)
Enhanced relationships, networks, and collaborations through information gathering, sharing, and collaborative action
LAB HIGHLIGHTS
APR 2019 - NOV 2020
CHECK OUT HIGHLIGHTS OF WHAT WE ACCOMPLISHED WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE VILLAGE
7 prototypes formally tested
knowledge products created (so far) 12+
Indigenous youth formally employed 4
major knowledge exchange & action events 47
agencies, organizations & champions
PROTOTYPE 25
ENTIRE LAB 100
youth engaged (aging out or aged out) 60
story catching events (youth interviews) 18+
SECTORS ENGAGED
CITY PLANNING, URBAN DESIGN & INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
HOUSING & ADVOCACY
CHILD WELFARE & ADVOCACY
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, EMPLOYMENT & INCOME ASSISTANCE
YOUTH & CULTURE
FOOD SECURITY
EDUCATION & LAND-BASED LEARNING
CRIMINAL & RESTORATIVE JUSTICE
The root causes of homelessness and housing insecurity among urban Indigenous youth aging out of care in Winnipeg are entrenched in colonization, land dispossession, institutional racism, discrimination, and the decreasing systemic incentives to care for youth as they grow older. They are characterized by ongoing failures of systems and individuals to unconditionally love, support and care for young people’s sense of cultural identity, health, and overall well-being. We identified various factors directly preventing Indigenous youth aging out of care from securing stable and culturally appropriate housing.
WHY ARE INDIGENOUS YOUTH AGING OUT OF CARE UNABLE TO SECURE STABLE, SAFE & APPROPRIATE HOUSING?
- Entering institutional facilities (e.g. juvenile detention, prison, treatment centers, hospital emerg. rooms)
- Intergenerational trauma, mental health & substance use/addiction
- Adequate life skills development & early transition preparation & planning
- Ability to navigate complex, siloed systems
- Availability/accessibility of employment, income & transition supports
- Availability/accessibility of safe housing
- Availability/accessibility of affordable (public) housing
Throughout Phase 2 (Discovery), several considerations emerged to broadly identify key opportunities to reduce homelessness and housing insecurity among Indigenous youth aging out of care in Winnipeg. They relate to various aspects of policies, services, and programs located in various systems or sectors, including: child welfare, housing, health care and harm reduction, criminal justice, education, and other systems impacting community development and providing social support. Such opportunities informed and guided key questions about the challenge at hand and areas for action during prototype development and testing. While it was not possible to respond to all of these opportunities within the scope of our 20-month project, they are important when considering the implementation of future solutions and actions.
| Key Opportunity |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ensure policies, services, and supports are delivered holistically to address complex needs |
| Ensure that leaving care does not prioritize sudden “discharge” over gradual “transitioning” |
| Ensure necessary services are not denied because of “double dipping” |
| Recognize and account for how institutional staff, workers, and foster parents become family to youth |
| Ensure policies, services, and programs are culturally safe and appropriate |
| Ensure earlier transition planning and celebrate “rites of passage” during different stages of transition |
| Icon | Text |
|------|------|
| ![Hands] | “Programs and services don’t change people, good relationships do!” |
| ![Clock] | Reduce periods of waiting when communicating between systems and accessing services or programs |
| ![Network] | Centralize resources for ease of systems navigation, coordinated access, and continuity of care |
| ![Limited] | Ensure multiple options are available when accessing diverse services and programs that do not limit the choices of youth |
| ![25 Not 21] | Increase the age of extensions of care (Agreements with Young Adults) from 21 to 25\(^{16}\) |
| ![Mountain] | Develop youth-friendly and culture-based indicators of success during the aging out process that move beyond educational achievements |
| ![Vs] | Ensure government funding and supports that encourage and reward both interdependence or independence |
| ![Money] | Ensure financial supports through income assistance are equivalent to those of extensions of care when the option is unavailable |
\(^{16}\) See the short film documentary “Aging Up” (2016) produced by the 25 Not 21 Collective as they advocated for the extension of government supports up to 25 years old for youth aging out of care in Manitoba. Retrieved from [https://yt.ax/watch/aging-up-short-film-documentary-by-25not21-17804117/](https://yt.ax/watch/aging-up-short-film-documentary-by-25not21-17804117/)
The key insights below demonstrate how systems and individuals—even with the best of intentions—perpetuate the ongoing crisis of youth homelessness and housing insecurity among Indigenous youth aging out of care.
- **Criminalizing survival**: the coping strategies (e.g., stealing, gang involvement, drug use, etc.) youth aging out of care may use to survive and respond to systemic inequities and injustices (e.g., poverty, trauma, family separation, etc.) are viewed as illegal and criminalized by policies, services, and personal attitudes.
- **Pathologizing mobility**: an inflexible requirement of policies, services, and attitudes focus on housing stability, which views “unstable” or “transient” housing as a pathological condition that does not positively consider and encourage residential, geographical, historical, and familial mobility for youth aging out of care.
- **Labelling & marginalizing help-seeking**: the help-seeking behaviors of youth aging out of care often lead to (negative) labels being placed on them for the purposes of accessing services that further cause stigma, marginalization, and distrust, thus increasing the likelihood of not seeking needed help from others again in the future.
- **Forbidding generosity**: the generous nature of many youth aging out of care to help, or receive informal help from biological parents, siblings, peers or street family, is often discouraged and deemed inappropriate by policies and services.
- **Penalizing interdependence**: following the previous key insight on generosity, policies and services are constructed to create dependency prior to youth aging out of care and expect full independence once exiting care. When forming interdependent relationships with others for emotional and financial reasons, they more often than not lead to penalties and restrictions from further accessing necessary supports.
Key Questions & Areas for Action
At our Ideas-to-Action Workshop during Phase 3 (Development), diverse stakeholders and relatives were engaged in learning about what we had heard and witnessed throughout Phase 2. They then helped to identify key questions to inform relevant areas for prototyping, testing, and action. These areas were named and defined by working across different experiences and perspectives, shared dialogue, and collective decision-making.
HEALING & CULTURE
How might we enhance culture-based healing resources for youth aging out of care that prevent identity-shame early on, promote stable connections and belonging, and enable the sharing of personal gifts?
TRANSITION HOUSING
How might we support youth aging out of care with Indigenous youth-led transitional housing models?
LIFE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
How might we create an environment that enables youth aging out of care to develop life skills in order to attain a sense of home?
FAMILY SUPPORTS
How might we assist CFS-involved or vulnerable families to identify the support they need by building trust with families who need help?
COORDINATED ACCESS
How might we keep systems accountable to ensure coordinated access when providing wrap-around supports and services to youth aging out of care?
Key questions and areas for action from the Ideas-to-Action Workshop were mobilized during Phase 4 (Prototyping/Testing) to develop prototypes that would move to testing. These prototypes were selected based on their relevance, potential for impact, and capacity to address multifaceted aspects of the housing challenge in a holistic way. Over a period of 4 months, prototypes were led by teams of 3–4 individuals with various affiliations to diverse organizations and community groups. The teams were composed of two co-leads, one of which was an Indigenous youth or person with lived experience. Additionally, a Youth Advisory Circle made up of Indigenous youth who are aging or aged out of care moved across and guided the prototyping teams. Each team engaged a wider network of stakeholders and relatives at a family, neighborhood, municipal, provincial, and national level to gather feedback on solutions, iterate, and make sense of emerging learnings.
**PROTOTYPE SUMMARY RESULTS KEY**
*Partnership Identification*: the degree to which potential implementation agencies, partners, organizations and community groups have been identified.
*Funding Identification*: the degree to which potential funding agencies, partners or grants have been identified.
*Relationship Development*: the degree to which necessary relationships have been established based on trust, respect and commitment to move ideas toward pilot testing and/or implementation.
*Feasibility*: the extent to which a new innovation can be successfully used or carried out within a given agency or context.
*Appropriateness*: the perceived fit, relevance, or compatibility of an innovation for a given context, setting, provider, or consumer; and/or perceived fit of the innovation to address a particular issue or problem.
*Acceptability*: the perception among implementation stakeholders that a given service, practice, or innovation is agreeable, meaningful, or beneficial.
What is needed is some kind of transition, almost like an independent living because you have some people that might try to go back to their family. Some people don’t have families, too. And some people might come from a good place where they felt safe, like Hands of Mother Earth for me, and go back to their family where it’s f***ed up. You know? And if we could be set up to be out of care but still have someone that would be good, not just another social worker [...] just somebody there to help you get set up with EIA or employment. And I think you should be set up with whatever you need before you no longer have those supports that’s supported everything throughout your life.
Lauren, 22 (transition planning)
What’s the challenge?
An inadequate supply of accessible, safe, and culturally appropriate residential transition housing with wrap-around supports exists for Indigenous youth aging out of care.
What’s the solution?
A residential, culturally safe, and harm-reduction-focused transition house with wrap-around supports to help Indigenous youth aging out of care transition into permanent and independent living arrangements. The solution is a direct response to the lack of culture-based transition housing for Indigenous youth aging out of care.
Prototype team members
DYLON MARTIN (YIMBY Winnipeg)
ADAM KROEKER (HTFC Planning and Design)
BRANDY KOWAL (Shawenim Abinoojii)
ANTHONY NIIGAANII (Ma Mawi Wi Chi Itata Centre)
MARKUS HEAD (community helper)
What did we prototype/test?
- Feasibility to construct/manage a residential transition house
- Appropriateness of a residential transition house design among Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Acceptability of a residential transition house among Indigenous youth aging out of care
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Housing/zoning professionals
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Rapid feedback session
Key learnings
- Transition housing is a major priority for Indigenous youth aging out of care;
- Multi-unit building preferred over single-family houses;
- Mixed housing should accommodate youth with/without children;
- Prioritize close proximity to educational facilities.
### NEXT STEPS CHECKLIST
| Discard | Keep testing/adapt | Graduate to pilot | Go to scale |
|---------|--------------------|-------------------|------------|
### PROTOTYPE RESULTS SUMMARY
| | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|------------------------|------|---------|-----|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification | | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | | | |
| Relationship development| | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | | |
| Appropriateness | | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
### ACTION PLAN
#### Main milestones
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Identification of potential funding sources | Write RFP to find developer to partner with / Speak to potential funders / apply for grants | Obtain funding, land, permits, etc. | Start construction |
#### Partners & collaborators needed
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Unidentified collaborations to lead the development | Identify collaborators willing to join a development or management team | Identify architects and contractors | Building managers |
#### Resources needed
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Funding for development | Planning support | Fundraising support | Long-term fiscal agreements with public sector, organizations, and charities |
#### Questions we need to test & evaluate and learn about
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Does the “champion” need to be a registered charity? | Do youth approve of our refined prototype (re-testing)? | What type of supporting info would funders require? | Who are likely funders in this policy climate? |
It took a long time to get accepted into Manitoba Housing. I do respect they do a needs-based type thing. But you choose areas of the city where you’re willing to move. And so neighborhoods that have a safer environment—like less poverty—have a longer waitlist, because those are in higher demand. Whereas you could be housed within Manitoba Housing really fast if you choose to live in high-crime areas. But again, that’s like an attack on poverty and unresolved trauma. So Manitoba Housing was good and I appreciated it, and I would definitely use it again if my life brought me to that position. But there’s not enough housing. And the government isn’t doing anything to change poverty rates and make housing affordable. If anything, they’re making it worse. So we’re just going to see an increase of the housing crisis.
Erica, 30 (housing accessibility)
What’s the challenge?
Indigenous youth aging out of care experience perceived and structural barriers to accessing safe and affordable social housing.
What’s the solution?
A strategy to ensure coordinated access for unoccupied social housing across various levels of policy, advocacy and service delivery. The solution is a direct response to the marketization of social housing and inadequate prioritization of youth aging out of care on housing wait lists.
Prototype team members
QUINN CONLON (Tenant-Landlord Corporation)
RAFAEL TERRAIN (Fearless R2W)
JACQUELINE RIEU (Fearless R2W)
ALEX LACELLE (Fearless R2W)
What did we prototype/test?
- Appropriateness of social housing among Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Acceptability of social housing among Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Sustainability of social housing advocacy to impact policy
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Housing sector professionals
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Rapid feedback session
- Youth survey
Key learnings
- Youth aging out of care are not accessing social housing at high rates despite higher rates of homelessness and housing insecurity;
- The greatest structural barrier to accessing social housing is the lack of housing stock;
- Despite multiple access barriers, social housing should be considered a primary option;
- Access to social housing cannot benefit youth without formal and informal supports.
## Prototype Results Summary
| | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|--------------------------|------|---------|------|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification| | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | LOW | | |
| Relationship development | | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | LOW | |
| Appropriateness | HIGH | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | LOW | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
## Action Plan
### Main milestones
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Identify host organization for a housing advocate dedicated to supporting youth aging out of care. | Create a job description, including housing search support and systems advocacy. | Hire an Indigenous youth aged out of care for the position or train them | Ensure housing advocate is adequately connected to the Housing Solutions team to advocate for a centralized social housing waitlist initiative and other campaigns. |
### Partners & collaborators needed
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant-Landlord Corp. | North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant-Landlord Corp. | North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant-Landlord Corp. | North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant-Landlord Corp., other advocacy groups (Right 2 Housing, Manitoba Non-Profit Housing Association, etc.) |
### Resources needed
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Willingness to host housing advocate | Willingness to host housing advocate | Funding for housing advocate wages | Willingness to engage in policy advocacy |
### Questions we need to test & evaluate and learn about
| NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Can we find an organization willing to support us with this work? | Is this a realistic job description, or is it too much work? If so, how should it be adapted? | Is this a realistic job description, or is it too much work? If so, how should it be adapted? | How should advocacy for access to social housing proceed to have policy impacts? |
When you’re in care you already know how to do so many things by yourself because you kind of have to. But then when you turn 18 all like the technical things that people have been doing for you, you have to do by yourself. But the difference is you can’t be like “Hey mom, how do you do this?” I wish I could just send someone a text and say: “Hey, how do I do this quick fast?”
Patricia, 21 (social support)
KINSHIP SUPPORT INITIATIVE (PROTOTYPE #3)
What’s the challenge?
Although physical housing is an important determinant of health, wellness, and safety, alone it does not adequately support the holistic and culture-based needs of Indigenous youth aging out of care. They require additional support to strengthen identity and systems literacy.
What’s the solution?
The Kinship Support Initiative (KSI) provides formal and informal wrap-around supports and advocacy for Indigenous youth aging out of care while they secure and maintain housing. The solution is a direct response to develop an “Aunties & Uncles” program that provides youth aging out of care with informal family type supports.
Prototype team members
DARRIEN MORTON
(University of Manitoba)
QUINTON DELORME
(Nigaanii Wabiski Mikanak Ogichidaa)
MARY LUND BURTON
(Fearless R2W)
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Service providers
- Housing professionals
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
What did we prototype/test?
- Partnership identification for KSI model
- Feasibility of implementing KSI model
- Appropriateness of KSI model among Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Acceptability of KSI model among Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Sustainability of a kinship network to deliver support
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Youth sharing circle
- Rapid feedback session
NEXT STEPS CHECKLIST
| Discard | Keep testing/adapt | Graduate to pilot | Go to scale |
|---------|--------------------|-------------------|-------------|
| | | | |
Key learnings
- The meanings of kinship should be context specific, informal, and relationship-based;
- Provision of day-to-day supports or services cannot be performed without ensuring advocacy resources are available for youth as well;
- Prioritizing housing supports and advocacy resources for kin (e.g. grandparents) can impact positive outcomes for youth aging out of care.
| PROTOTYPE RESULTS SUMMARY | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|---------------------------|------|---------|-----|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification| | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | | | |
| Relationship development | | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | | |
| Appropriateness | | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
| ACTION PLAN | NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-------------|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Main milestones | Established partnerships with organizations for different components of KSI model | Identify public or market rental housing providers for partnership | Establish a comprehensive network of support and advocacy resources for kin (e.g. siblings, grandparents, parents, street family) | Ensuring housing policies and services adopt kinship-based approaches. |
| Partners & collaborators needed | Fearless R2W, North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant–Landlord Corp., SEED Winnipeg, Ogijiita Pimatiswin Kinamatwin, and, kin, helpers & knowledge keepers | Housing organizations and management companies | Appropriate and acceptable organizations | North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant–Landlord Corp., and other housing/child welfare advocates |
| Resources needed | Willingness to link youth to appropriate existing resources | Willingness to offer housing resources | Minimal resources needed to prototype kin supports | Funding for housing advocate; willingness to engage in policy advocacy |
| Questions we need to test & evaluate and learn about | What are the challenges and opportunities of delivering and sustaining a KSI in practice? | How do we engage housing providers when delivering kinship supports/advocacy resources? | What are the strengths and challenges of providing additional support to kin, and how do these relational supports impact youth outcomes? | How do we ensure kinships-based approaches are taken up through housing provision, policy and advocacy? |
Finding housing when I turned 18 was scary because I didn’t know what to do at all. I didn’t know where to pay the rent or pay the bills or anything like that. But I was still going to school so I had questions answered there, that was helpful. But just that sort of immediate, “You’ve got to leave now,” and then like, “Oh, I’ve got to scramble to find a place.” I didn’t know how to look through rental guides or websites or anything like that—websites that do exist out there and are very helpful [...] So I think it is also having your friends, having your extended relatives, organizations, next door neighbors or just word-of-mouth in the community, whether that’s at events or at school; people who know somebody or something. All of those are helpful.
Markus, 31 (systems navigation)
What’s the challenge?
Currently there is no centralized and youth-friendly website in Manitoba designed to help youth aging out of care navigate resources and services available to them.
What’s the solution?
A youth aging out website that offers the necessary tools to help youth and service providers navigate relevant housing, social support, and advocacy resources and services. The solution explored opportunities to adapt an aging out website from British Columbia.
Prototype team members
ZOË MAGER (HTFC Planning & Design)
MICHAEL CHAMPAGNE (Fearless R2W)
CHRIS CLACIO (Aboriginal Youth Opportunities)
ANDREW KOHAN (community helper)
What did we prototype/test?
- Funding identification for website development
- Partnership identification for hosting a website
- Feasibility of website development
- Appropriateness of website content and design among youth and website hosts
- Sustainability of website maintenance and upkeep
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Child welfare advocates/agencies
- Technology sector professionals
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Rapid feedback session
- Youth consultation
NEXT STEPS CHECKLIST
| Discard | Keep testing/adapt | Graduate to pilot | Go to scale |
|---------|--------------------|------------------|-------------|
Key learnings
- Resources listed must include personal, non-official information for youth and by youth (i.e. “What do you need to know before you go in the door?”)
- General lack of culturally safe and appropriate resources in Manitoba;
- App development is too difficult to change and adapt compared to websites;
- Potential to work with changes at Manitoba211.
| PROTOTYPE RESULTS SUMMARY | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|---------------------------|------|---------|-----|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification| | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | | | |
| Relationship development | | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | | |
| Appropriateness | | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
| ACTION PLAN | NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-------------|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Main milestones | Solidify partnership | Do further testing on how to develop a “Yelp” for services with Youth Ambassador Advisory Squad | Develop the website | Transition to youth-upkeep and ambassadors |
| Partners & collaborators needed | Manitoba Advocate for Children and Youth, Dakota Ojibway Child and Family Service, Fearless R2W TechMB, BC’s AgedOut | Funders (e.g. University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg Foundation); youth capacity/skills building program | Indigenous youth to train with website developer (e.g. Hello Social Co.) | Indigenous youth to upkeep and manage website |
| Resources needed | Willingness to host website | Funding a website builder | Funding to support website operations and upkeep | Funding to support website upkeep and operations |
| Questions we need to test & evaluate and learn about | Who are our partners and what are our roles? Do we want to build a new site or use BC’s AgedOut structure? | How do we create a suitable website in MB? How do we ensure youth have all the information they need about services? (safety, steps needed, who’s helpful or harmful) | How do we build a sustainable and accurate website? | Is this working? How can we improve what isn’t? Do we want to grow/expand/scale the website? |
I couldn’t sit at home, right? I needed to pay rent. I was able to find some employment, but it was never enough. It was nothing that would last long. I’d constantly be having to look for other ways to make money, and that’s what kind of led me back into selling drugs, because I just wasn’t making enough. I was way faster at making money selling drugs than working 9 to 5.
Candace, 36 (employment)
COMMUNITY SAFETY HOST SOCIAL ENTERPRISE (PROTOTYPE #5)
What’s the challenge?
Financial insecurity and lack of meaningful and supported employment opportunities affect Indigenous youth aging out of care to attain appropriate and secure housing.
What’s the solution?
Supporting life skill development through a social enterprise model, the Community Safety Host (CSH) prototype supports an alternative to library security guards and provides employment opportunities to ensure career mentorship, employment training, and financial security. The solution is a direct response to increased policing and security at public libraries that is viewed as unfavorable by the general public.
Prototype team members
MICHAEL CHAMPAGNE (Fearless R2W)
ANNY CHEN (University of Manitoba, Service Learning)
LISA FORBES (SEED Winnipeg)
KALEN TAYLOR (Purpose Construction)
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Public Library stakeholders
- Library Safety working group
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Community & youth survey
- Rapid feedback session
What did we prototype/test?
- Partnership identification to manage a CSH employment program
- Funding identification to employ CSH
- Feasibility of CSH employment program and training
- Appropriateness of CSH positions and security training among Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Acceptability of CSH positions among Indigenous youth aging out of care
NEXT STEPS CHECKLIST
| Discard | Keep testing/adapt | Graduate to pilot | Go to scale |
|---------|--------------------|-------------------|-------------|
Key learnings
- There is interest for alternatives to security guards by public libraries, social enterprise innovators, and concerned citizens;
- There is concern among Indigenous youth aging out of care that the role of CSH may be tokenized and exploited as another form of policing;
- Attention must be paid to potential risks of re-traumatization in the work environment;
- North End Community Renewal Corporation has an enhanced security guard training program that requires culturally appropriate adaptation;
- St. Boniface Library is a suitable placement to pilot the prototype as they incorporate people-centered and harm reduction approaches.
| PROTOTYPE RESULTS SUMMARY | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|---------------------------|------|---------|-----|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification | | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | | | |
| Relationship development | | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | | |
| Appropriateness | | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
| ACTION PLAN | NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|-------------|-----|------|-------|-----------|
| Main milestones | Apply for funding | Develop CSH curriculum | Employ youth at library as part of safety team | Establish community safety contracts with library and two other mid-size organizations |
| Partners & collaborators needed | NECRC, Fearless R2W | NECRC, Millennium for All, Winnipeg Public Library | Winnipeg Public Library | Winnipeg Public Library, large community events, and other mid-size community organizations |
| Resources needed | In-kind staff hours to apply for funding | Adapt NECRC security guard curriculum Training for library staff Wages and mentors for paid practicum placements | Pilot evaluation of CSH initiative | References from Winnipeg Public Library |
| Questions we need to test & evaluate and learn about | Are there funding opportunities to offer paid training and mentorship support? | Are Indigenous youth aging out of care interested in working as CSH? Does working as CSH offer a safe, meaningful, and sustainable opportunity for Indigenous youth aging out of care? | Are there sustainable employment opportunities following graduation? | Are there sufficient employers interested in hiring Indigenous youth aging out of care? |
My first social worker was a total nut job. My parents even took her to court over something [...] I went through a couple of social workers for a very short period of time and didn’t really get to know them that well. One of my most recent workers was just amazing. She was just out of school though and she had like fifty other kids to deal with. She’d never had an Extended Care kid, so she didn’t really know what to do. But we bounced ideas off each other [and] she really did everything she could to help and I appreciate it. She left where she was working because she didn’t feel comfortable. She felt like at any second they were just going to drop her, so she left and found a different job. But she made a point of even writing me a letter and it was so sweet. I think it’s important to mention too, she learned as much from me as I could have from her, not just as a student, but as a caregiver too. I’m glad instability I’ve experienced in life can create solid ground for others to learn from.
Sharon, 19 (cultural competence)
INDEPENDENCE BOARD GAME (PROTOTYPE #6)
What’s the challenge?
There exists a lack of knowledge on the experiences and realities of Indigenous youth aging out of care among those implementing policies and providing services and housing.
What’s the solution?
A youth aging out board game that acts as a tool to educate and train service providers, social workers, housing advocates, and policy decision-makers on the experiences and realities of Indigenous youth aging out of care. The solution is a direct response to educate and build empathy among child welfare agency staff on the experiences and lives of Indigenous youth aging out of care.
Prototype team members
HANNAH OWCZAR (University of Manitoba)
DARRIEN MORTON (University of Manitoba)
MICHAEL CHAMPAGNE (Fearless R2W)
What did we prototype/test?
- Partnership identification to market/deliver the board game
- Funding identification for board game production and training manual
- Appropriateness of the board game among housing advocates and youth aging out of care
- Acceptability of the board game among housing advocates and youth aging out of care
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
- Housing advocates
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Community consultation
Key learnings
- Increasing the complexity of the game enhances playability and engagement;
- Card games can potentially be more meaningful than board games;
- An educational board game cannot be delivered without appropriate facilitation/training.
## Prototype Results Summary
| | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|------------------------|------|---------|-----|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification | | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | | | |
| Relationship development| | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | | |
| Appropriateness | | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
## Action Plan
| Action Plan | NOW | SOON | LATER | LONG-TERM |
|--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| **Main milestones** | Finalized board game design | Create supplementary training manual | Test board game and training manual among Child welfare agencies | Mandate training on youth aging out of care across child welfare agencies |
| **Partners & collaborators needed** | University of Manitoba, Fearless R2W | Fearless R2W | CFS agencies | MACY, CFS Agencies |
| **Resources needed** | Funding | Funding | Willingness | Willingness |
| **Questions we need to test & evaluate and learn about** | How do service providers, social workers and decision-makers interact with the board game? | What is the cultural competency needs of service providers, social workers and decision-makers? | How does a youth aging out of care training manual impact service provision? | What barriers and facilitators exist to ensure the uptake of youth aging out of care cultural competency training? |
They gave me money [up to 18], and then until I was 21. Then I had to figure it out on my own, which I did. But in that time, they didn’t help me in that transition to the next stage of life. While transitioning, and at 21, they didn’t do anything. They didn’t teach me about healthy relationships, safe boundaries, about cultural connections. I didn’t even meet my biological family.
Natasha, 24 (identity-building)
AGING OUT PARTY (PROTOTYPE #7)
What’s the challenge?
There are few opportunities for Indigenous youth to celebrate their transition out of care and honor their experiences, stories, and strengths.
What’s the solution?
The Aging Out Party provides a space for ceremony to celebrate and honor Indigenous youth as they age out of care into adulthood with loved ones. The solution is a direct response to a young woman’s belief that aging out of care should be a time for celebration and increasing awareness of the experiences of youth aging out of care, and not abandonment by systems and workers.
Prototype team members
KAKEKA THUNDERSKY
(Nigaanii Wabiski Mikanak Ogichidaa)
ANNY CHEN
(University of Manitoba)
ZOË MAGER
(HTFC Planning & Design)
Who did we prototype/test with?
- Youth aging/aged out of care
- Community helpers & families
- Mainstream media
How did we prototype/test?
- Meetings & conversations
- Hosting an Aging OutParty
Key learnings
- The Aging Out Party should not be institutionalized but taken up by youth aging out of care independently with the necessary supports;
- There are opportunities for child welfare agencies, organizations, and foster parents to celebrate and honor youth in their own ways as they age out of care. These may include celebrating 18th/21st birthdays; celebrating developmental stages of life; setting them up for transition; setting up savings accounts; ensuring culturally appropriate/acceptable ‘rites of passage,’ and so on.
- Celebrating and honoring life events should be connected to and encouraged by those providing kinship-based supports.
NEXT STEPS CHECKLIST
| Discard | Keep testing/adapt | Graduate to pilot | Go to scale |
|---------|--------------------|-------------------|------------|
| | | | |
| PROTOTYPE RESULTS SUMMARY | HIGH | PARTIAL | LOW | FURTHER TESTING | N/A |
|---------------------------|------|---------|-----|-----------------|-----|
| Partnership identification| | | | | |
| Funding identification | | | | | |
| Relationship development | | | | | |
| Feasibility | | | | | |
| Appropriateness | | | | | |
| Acceptability | | | | | |
| Sustainability | | | | | |
* The following prototype relates to the kinship supports and its uptake can be applied to the piloting/implementation of the Kinship Support Initiative model
ROADMAP & LOOKING FORWARD
Phase 5 (Roadmapping)—the final stage of the Lab—advanced the development of a Roadmap with key actions that will ensure the ongoing learning and implementation of solutions beyond the Housing Solutions Lab. This final phase was facilitated with the support of the Lab Leadership Team, Prototyping Team Leads, and a few relevant organizations looking to learn from, pilot, and/or implement potential solutions. This Roadmap considers, yet goes beyond, specific next steps for each prototype. Instead, it is organized around the following components: 1) areas of impact, 2) key actions, and 3) potential & established collaborators.
Furthermore, this final stage does not signify closure of the work undertaken over the past 20 months as well as the ancestral work in this territory over many generations prior to our Housing Solutions Lab. Rather, it is viewed as a continuation—an act of perseverance and resistance in the face of ongoing systemic adversity, harm, and injustice. Many of the next steps below identify concrete opportunities for continuing to move this work forward and implement solutions identified by the Village. At the same time, it has allowed us to consider alternative courses of action, leverage new and existing resources and relationships, and reimagine a set of collective goals to address homelessness and housing insecurity among Indigenous youth aging out of care in Winnipeg.
SOLUTIONS ROADMAP:
Indigenous Youth Aging Out of Care in Winnipeg
1. IMPACT AREAS
2. KEY ACTIONS
3. POTENTIAL & ESTABLISHED COLLABORATORS
EDUCATION & TRAINING
- Adapt NECRC security guard curriculum and training for a community safety hosts employment program
- Develop a complementary training manual for a board game to educate about the experiences of Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Adapt existing Rent Smart course for Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Showcase the “Aging Out Party” as a wise practice on how to honour and celebrate the accomplishments and life-transitions of youth who are aging out of care
- Develop a website to support the service navigation needs for youth aging out of care
- Deliver & build on the Kinship Support Initiative among Indigenous youth aging out of care to enhance life skills, cultural identity, & kinship relations
HOUSING SUPPORTS, ADVOCACY & SERVICE NAVIGATION
- Hire, train, and retain Indigenous youth aging out of care as community safety hosts to develop community-relevant employment skills and opportunities
- Establish independent living housing with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
- Develop a transition house with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
HOUSING SUPPLY & PROVISION
- Ongoing study to survey the needs of Indigenous youth aging out of care, social housing access, and housing stability
- Ongoing advocacy to develop a centralized social housing waitlist prioritizing youth aging out of care
- Ongoing advocacy to ensure the re-inhabitation of unoccupied and empty social housing units
- Adopt a Wahkotowin (kinship) organizational structure and policy to support the delivery of community-based child welfare supports and advocacy resources
- Develop a transition house with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
POLICY & POLITICAL MOBILIZATION
- Ongoing advocacy to develop a centralized social housing waitlist prioritizing youth aging out of care
- Ongoing advocacy to ensure the re-inhabitation of unoccupied and empty social housing units
- Adopt a Wahkotowin (kinship) organizational structure and policy to support the delivery of community-based child welfare supports and advocacy resources
- Develop a transition house with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
EVALUATION & RESEARCH
- Ongoing study to survey the needs of Indigenous youth aging out of care, social housing access, and housing stability
- Ongoing advocacy to develop a centralized social housing waitlist prioritizing youth aging out of care
- Ongoing advocacy to ensure the re-inhabitation of unoccupied and empty social housing units
- Adopt a Wahkotowin (kinship) organizational structure and policy to support the delivery of community-based child welfare supports and advocacy resources
- Develop a transition house with kinship supports and advocacy resources for Indigenous youth aging out of care
POTENTIAL & ESTABLISHED COLLABORATORS
- Fearless R2W, North End Community Renewal Corp., Millennium Public Library, Millennium For All
- University of Manitoba, Fearless R2W
- University of Manitoba, Manitoba Advocate for Children & Youth
- Right 2 Housing, Manitoba Non-Profit Housing Association, Independent housing advocates
- Right 2 Housing, Manitoba Non-Profit Housing Association, Independent housing advocates
- Fearless R2W
- Winnipeg Rental Network, Nigaaanii Wabiski Mikanak Ogichidaa
- Youth & supporters
- Manitoba Advocate for Children & Youth, Dakota Ojibway Child & Family Services, Futures Forward, Fearless R2W, Technology Manitoba
- Fearless R2W, SEED Winnipeg, Tenant-Landlord Corp., Community Elders and Knowledge Keepers
- North End Community Renewal Corp., Tenant-Landlord Corp.
- North End Community Renewal Corp., Millennium Public Library, Millennium for All
Concluding Reflections & Lessons Learned
There are several concluding reflections we pondered, and from which lessons learned have emerged. Interpreting these lessons through the principles we defined earlier in our Lab process, we draw inspiration when naming them based on what worked well, what was challenging, what we overcame, and what we envision for the future of social innovation. As much as these lessons are based on experience, trial and error, and picking ourselves back up, they are equally our hopes and wishes of what we believe other Solutions Labs could look like and do that is in line with the spirit of social innovation; but, not always put into practice. While our solution ideas and Lab process were very much developed based on the specific place-based context of Winnipeg, we believe that these lessons, as well as the core of many of our solution ideas, have potential to be adapted, replicated, or scaled up and out within other territories and communities across Canada facing similar challenges. We offer these learnings to others that choose to pursue a similar journey.
RELATIONSHIPS: Strong, trusting, reciprocal, and flexible relationships should be responsive to stakeholder needs and are key to progress overall lab activities and goals. Relationships should be grounded in ceremony, followed through with moral integrity, and guided by a responsibility-based approach that asks us to do more than we anticipated in light of uncertainty and shifting contexts.
MAKING TIME: Adequate time is a necessity to ensure working across different perspectives and actions can be achieved, and urban Indigenous self-determination, sovereignty, and aspirations to build capacity and set a shared course of action can be defined and upheld.
ROTATIONAL LEADERSHIP & COLLECTIVE ACTION: Ensure that roles and responsibilities are well-defined, adaptive, and build in rotational leadership to account for various capacities (e.g. resources, time, energy, etc.), unique goals, and cultivating commitment and sustainable collective action with diverse stakeholders involved in lab processes.
YOUTH VOICE: Centering youth voices during lab processes may not only mean listening to and witnessing youth perspectives and lived experience, but accepting that youth may not always want to speak up, share stories, or find value in certain goals, styles, and approaches.
ONGOING KNOWLEDGE MOBILIZATION: Consider opportunities to carry out information gathering, prototyping, and action simultaneously, and not consecutively, even when iterative and emergent lab strategies are followed. Knowledge must be created and mobilized through the prioritization of methodological integrity and ethical relevance, and not through an unwavering pursuit to achieve methodological innovation and the discovery of something new.
CENTERING AGENCY & RESISTANCE: Incorporating a systems approach should not only focus on challenges of structural disadvantage and harm that systems perpetuate, but recognize the strengths and agency of individuals and families to resist and transform systems.
BUILDING KINSHIP NETWORKS: Assuming a kinship-based approach that ensures we relate to one another as relatives and family is key to addressing Indigenous youth homelessness and housing insecurity as a matter of strategy and action.
ADVOCACY & SYSTEM LITERACY: Incorporating advocacy and building systems literacy is indispensable during lab processes to enhance community leadership, move solutions into action, and actively put unwanted pressure on systems to change. Lab processes must be willing to talk back to systems through instigation, disruption, allyship, and with radical and non-judgmental acceptance of the stories and experiences of individuals and communities being served.
LAUGHTER IS MEDICINE: Addressing difficult and personal social challenges through ‘hard-work’ and ‘heart-work’ must be approached from a position that celebrates strengths, surfaces inspiration, prioritizes self-care, and uses laughter as a form of spiritual medicine.
## APPENDIX
### List of Lab Participants Engaged
| Category | Organizations |
|-----------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **INDIGENOUS YOUTH COLLECTIVES** | Aboriginal Youth Opportunities
Foster Up
Mistitc Peyistowak Katisipowak
Nigaanii Wabiski Mikanak Ogichidaa |
| **HOUSING ORGANIZATIONS** | End Homelessness Winnipeg
Immigrant and Refugee Community Organization of Manitoba
New Journey Housing
North End Community Renewal Corporation
University of Winnipeg Community Renewal Corporation |
| **ADVOCACY ORGANIZATIONS & GROUPS** | Disability Advocate
Fearless R2W
Manitoba Advocate for Children and Youth
Manitoba Non-Profit Housing Association
Right to Housing
Tenant-Landlord Corporation
Winnipeg Rental Network
YIMBY Winnipeg |
| **GOVERNMENT MINISTRIES, DEPARTMENTS & MANDATED AGENCIES** | BC's Aged Out
Canadian Mental Health Association
City of Winnipeg, Community Services
City of Winnipeg, Emergency Social Services
Dakota Ojibway Child and Family Services
Futures Forward
Manitoba Youth Centre
Metis Child and Family Services
Ministry of Families, Employment and Income Assistance
Ministry of Families, Manitoba Housing
Shawenim Abinoojii
Southeast Child & Family Services
Winnipeg Regional Health Authority |
| **NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS** | 13 Moons Harm Reduction Initiative
Bear Clan Patrol
Block by Block Community Safety & Wellbeing Initiative
CEDA Pathways
FortWhyte Alive
Inspire Community Outreach
Klinik
Knowles Centre Inc.
Life's Journey Inc.
Ma Mawi Wi Chi Itata Centre
Macdonald Youth Services |
| Category | Organizations |
|--------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS | Mama Bear Clan Patrol
Manitoba Interfaith Immigration Council
Manitoba Harm Reduction Network
Manitoba Low Income Intermediary Project
Manitoba Schizophrenia Association
MARS Community Living
New Directions
North End Women’s Centre
North Point Douglas Women’s Centre
Ogijiiita Pimatiswin Kinamatwin
Reach Youth Services
Resource Assistance for Youth
Sara Riel Inc.
SEED Winnipeg Inc.
Siloam Mission’s Exit Up
Social Planning Council of Winnipeg
Spence Neighbourhood Association
Teen Stop Jeunesse
Urban Matters CCC
VOICES: Manitoba’s Youth in Care Network
West End 24
West Broadway Community Organization
West Central Women's Resource Centre
Winnipeg Boldness Project |
| TECHNOLOGY, PLANNING & DEVELOPMENT COMPANIES | Aki Energy
BUILD Inc.
HTFC Planning and Design
Purpose Construction
Tech Manitoba |
| UNIVERSITIES | University of Manitoba, Community Health Sciences
University of Manitoba, Community Service Learning
University of Manitoba, PIKE-Net
University of Toronto, Department of Geography
University of Winnipeg, Masters of Development Practice |
| HIGH SCHOOLS | Glenlawn Collegiate
Hugh John Macdonald School |
| FUNDING ORGANIZATIONS | Canadian Institutes of Health Research
Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation
Making the Shift Youth Homelessness Demonstration Lab
McConnell Foundation, Innoweave
Taking IT Global, Rising Youth
United Way of Winnipeg
Winnipeg Foundation |
| OTHER | Millennium for All working group
Millennium Public Library
Katimavik
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Every year on September 8, International Literacy Day is observed to bring attention and recommendations concerning pressing literacy issues both locally and globally. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, or UNESCO, founded the International Literacy Day in 1966 “to remind the public of the importance of literacy as a matter of dignity and human rights.” The theme year, “Transforming Literacy Learning Spaces,” reflects on the basic significance of literacy learning spaces for fostering resilience and guaranteeing high-quality, equitable, and inclusive education for all.
There is a global challenge in the persisting 771 million total illiterate people around the world, most of whom are women, who are more vulnerable since they still struggle with fundamental reading and writing skills. The recent World Bank report on learning poverty revealed that the pandemic has likely caused a sharp increase in global learning poverty, to an estimated 70 percent and exacerbated inequalities in education. The simulation modeling for this report shows that 7 out of 10 children in low- and middle-income countries could now be suffering from learning poverty.\(^1\) Learning poverty measures the share of children who cannot read and understand short, age-appropriate texts with comprehension by age 10, or between Grade 4 and Grade 5 under the Philippines’ K-12 system. The same report also showed that 9 out of 10 Filipino children can’t read or as many as 91 percent of children late primary age “are not proficient in reading.” The large number of Out of School Youth exacerbates the issue as 5 percent of primary school-aged children are not enrolled making them excluded in learning in schools, according to the World Bank. In the 2019 FLEMMS Final Report, among the estimated 57.7 million Filipinos 3 to 30 years old, 43% or an estimated 24.8 million were not attending school in 2019.
Rural children and youth, children and youth from low-income urban households, child workers, children and adolescents with disabilities, children and youth living in conflict situations and disaster-affected areas, Muslims, and Indigenous peoples tend to have the highest rates of not attending school. The country’s increasing learning poverty rate corresponds with school closures in 2020 and 2021, forcing educational institutions to turn to online or module-based at-home classes. And to put things worst, the lack of internet access and flexible digital learning materials during the pandemic only served to widen the gap between rich and poor countries. The figures highlight the monumental work that governments and partners must undertake in order to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Target 4.6, which calls for ensuring that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men, and women, achieve literacy and numeracy by 2030. With a learner-centric approach that supports literacy learning from the perspective of lifelong learning, we must leverage, adapt, and transform actions and strategies to make sure that one is left behind. E-Net Philippines joins this international celebration of literacy day. We support the call of UNESCO to leverage the existing innovations among the countries, adapt to the ever-evolving learner needs of the youth and adults, and transform their literacy learning spaces.
\(^1\) The State of Global Learning Poverty 2022 Update
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education/publication/state-of-global-learning-poverty
We demand that the government uphold its commitment to provide inclusive, equitable, secure, and high-quality education, with literacy efforts wisely incorporated. Additionally, we appeal to all Filipinos to join us in promoting innovative, non-traditional approaches to education as well as reforms and advancements in the field.
E-Net Philippines further puts forward the following recommendations:
**LEVERAGE**
- Invest in a National Literacy Program for individuals across all ages (youth and adults), in all spheres of life (family, school, job, community, etc.), and using formal, non-formal, and informal modalities, with a focus on the marginalized, excluded, and vulnerable sectors. (MEVS).
- Continue to expand and promote the adoption of flexible learning strategies, such as those instituted during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Conduct thorough assessment of the Basic Education-Learning Continuity Plan (BE-LCP) to provide lessons on how appropriate, relevant and effective are the programs implemented, especially the multi-modal learning approach.
**ADAPT**
- Proactively seek 1 million learners from the marginalized sectors – persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, Muslims, those affected by disasters and conflict situations including learners who dropped out because of COVID19 and provide budget for their education through the ALS program.
- Expand school feeding programs as an essential of emergency and pandemic response and as part of the overall strategy to address hunger.
Review the appropriate literacy teaching and learning pedagogies appropriate during and post-pandemic.
- Expand learning outcomes to include competencies and skills that go beyond basic reading and math, and reflect the local values, needs and expectations for education.
- Increasing the quantity of teachers must be addressed as well as improving the quality of teachers so that all are well trained and motivated.
TRANSFORM
- Establish community-based learning centers (CLCs) in identified IP communities without access to government schools and intensify the delivery of the Alternative Learning System (ALS) that is appropriate to age levels and responds to the different contexts of learners.
- Ensure a Safe Learning Environment where child/human rights and positive discipline are promoted and upheld, and both learners and education frontliners are safe from the effects of pandemics and calamities.
* Supports the passage of the SOGIESC (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Expression, and Sex Characteristics)-Equality Bill
* Provide of health services and hygiene kits for learners, teachers, and personnel
* Provide of feeding and immunization services to learners
* Provide of education infrastructures and services to the last mile schools
- Conduct a comprehensive and critical review of the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers? and identify the gaps, issues, and challenges in advancing the welfare and rights of teachers as professionals and improving the conditions for effective teaching and learning, for the purpose of crafting policy recommendations and initiate complementary and amendatory legislation to further strengthen the Law and fulfill the goals enshrined therein.
- Involve stakeholders - key sectors and CSOs, in crafting the IRR of newly-passed laws – Inclusive Education for Learners with Disabilities Law (RA 11650), Excellence in Teachers Education Act (RA 11713), ensuring it is consistent with the intention and provisions of the laws.
- Strengthen Adult Learning and Education (ALE), promote and strengthen lifelong learning development in the country. ####
Envisioning a Philippine society where quality education is a basic human right; where everyone has access to multi-cultural, gender-fair, liberating, lifelong education.
REFERENCES:
https://www.manilatimes.net/2022/08/10/opinion/columns/why-9-out-of-10-filipino-children-cant-read/1854046
https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/751952/deped-on-wb-report-that-90-of-kids-suffer-from-learning-poverty-it-is-being-resolved
https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/7632864/wb-ph-learning-poverty-among-highest-in-region
https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/years-of-remote-schooling-exacerbate-learning-poverty-among-filipino-children?fbclid=IwAR0MKOhlRHCWQaDbCSXQY_u8Lyz-24vflBxYSco3CV7OR4QcdBokcYVRwbU | 7f07e3d5-f3d1-4983-9ed2-b63645cc34e8 | CC-MAIN-2024-46 | https://enetphil.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/PRESS-STATEMENT-Sept-8-2022-LITERACY-DAY.pdf | 2024-11-08T11:58:45+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477028059.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20241108101914-20241108131914-00607.warc.gz | 207,996,987 | 1,562 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.991313 | eng_Latn | 0.994196 | [
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Foreword
When Bill Hargis, the first director of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, stepped into the Gloucester County courtroom in September 1976, and looked across at the 12 jurors, he felt very much alone – abandoned. Twenty years of wall-to-wall meetings, phone calls, lectures, panels, committees – all the schmoozing, glad-handing, selling, arguing, cajoling – all the scientists, bureaucrats, staffers, governors, senators, congressmen - even presidents and foreign dignitaries. Not to mention the endless hours poring over a microscope, sketching and taking notes, compiling statistics, writing scientific papers, presenting at conferences – presiding at conferences. And the interminable, mind-numbing road trips back and forth to DC, Annapolis, and Richmond. This was the thanks he was getting – being treated like a common criminal! And this was serious stuff – grand larceny. If convicted, he could go to the state penitentiary.
At the trial, a ship’s carpenter testified that an allegedly stolen item, a boat engine, was traded in exchange for his labor. Judge James Wilkinson dismissed the charge, commenting, “It’s rather shocking to me that the Virginia State Police have wasted 9 months on something like this.” It was a victory for Hargis, but he wasn’t smiling when he left the courthouse.
No stranger to controversy and not one to keep his opinions to himself, Hargis was a force of nature. He had a rugged, handsome appearance, with a premature shock of silvery white hair. He could charm, he could sell, and if the situation warranted, he could intimidate.
He became the head of VIMS when the state’s most lucrative fishery, oysters, was in steep decline due to diseases. It was his mission to find out why. The answers didn’t come easily, and the solutions took decades.
Our story begins with stressed-out Chesapeake Bay watermen.
To access the Table of Contents, click the icon at the bottom right.
The Early Years
The Oyster Wars
Before the Civil war, the Chesapeake Bay was brimming with oysters. Captain John Smith complained about running aground on oysters, “thick as stones”.
After the war, northern cities prospered, and railroads made it possible to ship goods cheaply and quickly all over the U.S. An oyster that was harvested in the morning in Tangier Sound could be loaded onto a train and appear on a dinner plate in New York that evening. As far west as Colorado and California, prospectors and miners were consuming oysters with gusto. Steamed, stewed, raw, roasted on the half shell, oysters were as popular as hot dogs and hamburgers today. (See funny oyster ads here.)
Chesapeake Bay watermen could hardly keep up with the demand. There were lots of oysters if you knew where to find them without getting shot. It was never easy, though. The work was carried out in the cold months, months with the letter “R”. (Oysters “R” in season.)
In 1884, according to Harpers’s magazine, there were “700 boats manned by 5,600 daring and unscrupulous men.” To say that working conditions were miserable is an understatement. Back then there were no government regulations. Factory workers were expected to work 10 to 14 hours a day, 6 days a week, with no paid time off. Out on a small boat on the Chesapeake in the winter, many workers were treated like slaves. In the Baltimore area, locals refused to sign on.
In the late 1800s, oysters were as inexpensive and popular as hot dogs and hamburgers today.
So the word went out to shipping agents in Philadelphia and New York. They’d get 2 dollars for each unfortunate soul they could sign up. According to historian John Wennerton: “Many German immigrants who had come to New York or Baltimore were kidnapped and intimidated by brass knuckle and pistol into manning the windlass on an oyster boat.” The crews “began to work at five o’clock in the morning, received only scarce rations of coarse food, and had to sleep without bedding in the small forepeak of the boat. Often at day’s end the men were locked below deck to prevent their escaping, and when in port they were not allowed onshore. Men who refused to work received a cruel beating and were put ashore without pay to make their way back to Baltimore.”
When killings took place, the captains pleaded self-defense or mutiny, and the workers generally didn’t have the means or the incentive to appear in lengthy court trials.
Like the boomtowns out west, Crisfield, Maryland, attracted merchants, immigrants, gamblers, bootleggers, and prostitutes. After raw, frigid workdays out on the water, the men had money to spend and were ready to eat, drink, and be rowdy. Bare-knuckled boxing was a spectator sport, and barroom brawls often spilled out into the streets.
By 1900 there were 150 seafood processing plants in Crisfield that sent 20 to 30 railcars of oysters to market, six days a week.
By law, Virginia watermen could work only in Virginia; and Marylanders, in Maryland; but who was checking? Skirmishes broke out among the watermen, accusing each other of poaching. Boats from New York and Massachusetts, having depleted their local grounds, heard about the Bay’s bounty and entered the fray, bringing a new technology – the dredge – a heavy rake-like device fitted with a bag to catch the oysters as it was dragged along the bottom.
After 1890, oyster harvests began a slow, steady decline.
Something Had to Be Done
In the 1860s both Maryland and Virginia passed the first laws regulating the fishery. Both states created marine police forces, but quickly found out that policing the waters wasn’t easy. It didn’t help that in open water and even on land it wasn’t clear where the boundary was. A Crisfield man opened a saloon on Fox Island and blatantly violated liquor laws. He avoided prosecution in Maryland by claiming he was located in Virginia and vice versa.
A healthy oyster bed, reef, or rock as they are sometimes called, is like a coral reef. It’s a mound that builds up over time as each generation grows on top of the previous one. Wild oysters grow in clusters, sticking out in all directions; they provide a labyrinth of nooks and crannies for a myriad of tiny creatures to inhabit.
As oysters are repeatedly harvested, by a rake or dredge, the reef mounds are gradually flattened. Sediment and epiphytes begin to cover the remaining shells, making it unlikely that new larvae will attach and grow. In the late 1800s, the beds were being raked and plundered at the same time that sedimentation into the Bay was increasing. Habitat was being destroyed by fishing and siltation.
As oysters were repeatedly harvested, the reef mounds were gradually flattened.
In the early 1880s, to get a handle on the dwindling resource, the US Coast and Geodetic Survey began surveying Virginia’s oyster grounds. It was a maddening task – imagine trying to site a distant object from a telescope in a rocking boat. In the end they had mapped and annotated 200 thousand acres of oyster ground, subsequently known as “Baylor grounds” after the chief surveyor. Productive areas were designated for public use – that was the original goal. But some saw the future potential of the remaining, non-productive bottoms – they were to be leased out to private parties.
Thus began the era in which Virginia watermen could lease oyster ground and care for their “crop” in a farm-like operation, bringing in “seed” oysters as necessary, and protecting the bottoms from overharvesting. Many of the newly leased grounds were unproductive because they had been scraped bare by dredgers, or drudgers, as they were sometimes called. To make them productive again, oyster shells were spread out along the bottom to provide a clean, hard surface for larvae (spat) to adhere. To guard these private beds, some owners built watch houses on pilings in the marshes.
The First Chesapeake Bay Labs
The Chesapeake Biological Laboratory
Reginald Truitt grew up on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. His father harvested oysters in Chincoteague Bay. In 1914, after he graduated from the University of Maryland, he took a job as a high school principal. When WWI came along, he joined the Army and became a pilot. After the war he earned an M.S. degree at University of Maryland, excelling not only in science but also lacrosse, as a player and coach. He charmed the ladies on the dance floor; in those days ragtime music was popular and his friends called him “Rags”.
After earning a PhD at American University, he joined the faculty at University of Maryland where he tried, unsuccessfully, to convince them of the need for a marine lab. Taking matters into his own hands, he opened a makeshift lab in an oyster house on Solomon’s Island with a borrowed microscope. His initial goal was to find the best locations to “plant” and grow oysters. He kept the place going and named it the Chesapeake Biological Lab. He was eventually able to get state support, at which time he began to recruit marine scientists.
According to John Wennersten, Truitt was “the Jay Gatsby of the scientific community. He drove a nice car, he wore a nice suit, he was in demand at cocktail parties in Annapolis, he flourished in the highest circles. He’d put his arm around you and talk about bridge or snooker or pool or the latest yachting regatta.”
According to historian John Wennersten, Truitt was “the Jay Gatsby of the scientific community”.
Truitt’s first major achievement came early. On the west coast, along the Pacific Ocean, watermen were successfully transplanting Japanese oysters. There were local growers who wanted to try it in the Bay. Truitt experimented and found that Japanese oysters readily cross-bred with local oysters, creating a less palatable hybrid. He argued that importation would lead to degradation of native stocks. He also pointed out that the foreign oysters could bring parasites. For this, he was way ahead of his time. In 1957, the protozoan parasite MSX (*Haplosporidium nelsoni*) decimated oysters in Delaware Bay. The pathogen spread southward along the coast and into the Chesapeake. In 1996 Virginia Institute of
Marine Science (VIMS) researchers Gene Burreson and Nancy Stokes, using DNA matching, found convincing evidence that the parasite originated from Japanese oysters.
In the 30 years that Truitt was the director, he built a world class laboratory that eventually became the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science (UMCES). During retirement he championed the creation of the Assateague Island National Seashore.
The Virginia Fisheries Laboratory
In 1925, William and Mary biology professor Donald Davis began advocating for a state-owned marine science lab. In 1931 the Commission of Fisheries hired Victor Loosanoff.
Born in Kyiv, Ukraine, in 1899, Loosanoff fled to the United States to escape the Bolshevik Revolution. He worked as a logger and commercial fisherman while he learned English. In 1931 he graduated from the University of Washington in fisheries science and came to Virginia to work on shellfish culture.
That he was not entirely satisfied with the job may have been, in part, because his “lab” was formerly the men’s room at the Old Point Comfort ferry terminal, and he was frequently interrupted by those who weren’t aware that the lavatory was now a laboratory. Less than a year after taking the job, he left to work for the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries in Milford, Connecticut.
Loosanoff went on to research the life history of oysters, and devised methods to spawn and rear shellfish in a hatchery, a process that came be known as the “Milford Method”. He served as director of the Milford Laboratory from 1936 to 1962. Loosanoff and his coworkers published more than 200 scientific papers on shellfish biology, still referenced today.
In 1938, a small lab was set up in a former gas station at Yorktown, a joint venture between William and Mary, the Virginia Commission of Fisheries, and the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. In 1940 it was named the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory (VFL).
Davis had the foresight to anticipate conflicts of interest between scientists and regulators. He envisioned an independent role for researchers so that they could communicate their findings without bias or political pressure and be honest brokers in negotiations between regulators and fishermen. That, Davis believed, would be best achieved by having the marine lab affiliated with the College.
Davis’ vision has been compared to Thomas Jefferson’s “wall” of separation between church and state, and it was encoded into Virginia state law. VIMS and its predecessor, VFL, were tasked with science, education, and advisory services; and the Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC) and its predecessors were tasked with regulation and enforcement.
In 1949 the state authorized construction of a new lab across the river in Gloucester Point. It was named after Matthew Fontaine Maury, and contained offices, lab space, a library, dormitories, and a small exhibit area. In 2020 the building was renamed "York River Hall".
Also in 1949, Nelson Marshall, the VFL director, was appointed dean of the William and Mary faculty, and was expected to carry out both roles. At this time, millions of World War II (WWII) veterans had taken advantage of the GI Bill and entered colleges and universities. Intercollegiate sports were popular, and many athletic departments recruited top athletes by cutting corners academically. When William and Mary was implicated, Marshall investigated, but later resigned. "protesting the handling of the matter by the Board of Visitors". At the University of Maryland, Truitt’s boss, H.C. “Curley” Byrd, who later became president of the university, “believed very sincerely that the way for a university to become a great university was for it to become known, for it to become loved by the people, and the best way for it to become known and loved by the people was to have winning teams.”
In 1959, 35-year-old William Jennings Hargis became the VFL director.
Hargis was born in 1923, in Russel County, Virginia, near the Kentucky border. His forefathers were said to be frontiersmen who travelled with Daniel Boone. His mother was from Tangier Island, where young Hargis spent summers with his grandmother. After high school he enlisted in the Army Air Corps and was a radar operator in the Pacific theater. After the war he took advantage of the GI Bill and enrolled at the University of Richmond, but dropped out after his freshman year. He married and moved to Oxford, Md, his new wife’s hometown, and took a job as an assistant manager at a finance company. He worked two jobs on the side: selling insurance, and a part-time job at an airport where he trained for his pilot’s license. He was about to take a job as a crop duster and charter pilot when they decided to move back to Richmond for Bill to finish college. Mrs. Hargis worked to put him through college and one year of grad school for a master’s degree, after which they moved to Tallahassee where he got his PhD at Florida State in 1954.
His first professional job was as a faculty member at the Citadel in Charleston, but he soon left to join the staff at VFL to study oyster drills – snails that can rasp a hole in an oyster shell and consume the oyster. With a background in parasitology, Hargis was well suited to the challenges that awaited.
To grow the lab, Hargis needed to hire good people. He did the staffing himself – he recruited, negotiated, and made the hiring decisions without consulting anyone. He allowed researchers to spend 25% of their time on their own research, but the remaining 75% was for Hargis’ initiatives: “The state is paying your salary and that’s the way it’s going to work.” That commitment to public service has waned in modern times.
The Chesapeake Bay Institute
In 1951, VFL director Marshall and CBL President Truitt approached the Office of Naval Research to request funding to study Bay currents. It was a good time to ask. The Navy, headquartered in Norfolk, was interested in protecting the fleet from submarines, and both Virginia and Maryland required places to store dredge spoils.
Estuarine circulation was not the sort of thing that Marshall and Truitt’s labs had studied – they had focused on biological issues that impacted fisheries. The Office of Naval Research agreed to fund a new lab at Johns Hopkins University, to be called the Chesapeake Bay Institute. The lab would specialize in estuarine physics, and not compete with Marshall and Truitt’s biological labs. The first director was 27-year old Donald Pritchard.
Pritchard was born and raised in Santa Ana, California. At the California Institute of Technology he studied chemical engineering and played football – quarterback. During his sophomore year he enlisted in the Army and was assigned to a special program at Scripps Institution of Oceanography to learn to forecast weather and sea conditions for amphibious landings. He was assigned to the team of meteorologists who, during a period of stormy weather, advised General Eisenhower when to launch the Normandy invasion, based on weather observations from the mid-Atlantic that the Germans were not privy to. After the invasion Pritchard was sent to Normandy where he co-authored daily forecasts. While the Germans anticipated the allies would try to take a nearby seaport, the Navy was offloading troops, tanks, and artillery onto the beaches of Normandy.
After the war Pritchard returned to Scripps to study oceanography under two Norwegians, Jacob Bjerknes and Harald Sverdrup, who applied their knowledge of the physics of the atmosphere to the ocean and started the first graduate school of oceanography in the US. Many of their students went on to start new departments of oceanography at other US universities.
Pritchard began investigating the currents of the James River. His team crafted some of the instruments themselves; one of which was a plywood paddlewheel current meter. Analyzing the results, Pritchard described what was later to be called a “salt wedge estuary”, with light, fresh water flowing downstream at the surface, and dense, salty water flowing upstream along the bottom. Mixing occurred at the interface between the two “layers”.
Pritchard’s 1952 model of estuarine flow has held up and is still being taught today, with refinements.
Oysters
It’s hard to overstate the importance of oysters in Virginia’s history. We know from archeological digs that oyster shells are abundant in ancient waste pits.
When the early Jamestown colonists were starving, oysters may have been the one food that kept them going.
Colonial Williamsburg archeologists can examine an oyster shell and tell how old it is from tree-ring-like markings on the hinge. They can tell how salty the water was from the porosity - salty water has more boring worms - and this is a clue to where the oyster came from. A lab test, the oxygen isotope profile, indicates the temperature of the water, which, in turn, indicates what season of the year it was harvested. Finally, the length and depth and texture of the shell indicates whether they were bed, sand, channel, or reef oysters.
In 1957 the MSX pathogen infected oyster populations in Delaware Bay. It was harmless to people, but devastating to adult oysters.
Oystering was a dependable livelihood, a way of life passed down from father to son. However, over the years, fewer and fewer young men became oystermen due to declining harvests. But with higher and higher prices, it remained a viable livelihood.
Then, in 1957 the MSX pathogen infected oyster populations in Delaware Bay. It was harmless to people, but devastating to adult oysters. Anticipating its spread southward, Hargis established a temporary field lab at Wachapreague on the Eastern Shore to monitor the spread of the disease. Virginia was spared at first, but the pathogen appeared in the lower Chesapeake Bay in 1959. It crippled the industry.
In the 1980s, another microorganism, initially called Dermo (Perkinsus marinus), evolved into a devastating pathogen. This was the last straw - the oyster industry effectively collapsed. Hargis and his team investigated but had no solutions.
Something had to be done.
Crabs
Around 1900, when it was obvious to anyone who cared that the era of unlimited oysters was over, Tangier Island oystermen started crabbing in the summer months. Crabs had always been around, obviously, but they had not been harvested commercially.
At that time, the boxy chicken-wire crab pot had not been invented. Crabbers used ‘trotlines’ - a line that is baited every 3 feet or so and lays on the bottom. No hooks are used. The crabber runs his boat along the line, lifting it out of the water as he goes. Crabs cling to the bait as it rises out of the water and are caught in a net.
In the winter, crabbers started using dredges similar to those used for oysters, to catch hibernating crabs in bottom sediments.
Crabs that are about to molt, called peelers, were sorted out from a day’s catch. Watermen can identify peelers by looking at the backfin to see if a new shell is forming inside the old. A “white line” appears first, and then a “red line”. Peelers are held in water tables and harvested as soon as they molt to be sold as soft shells. In the summer, crabbers dragged dredges without teeth across the then-extensive eelgrass beds to catch peelers.
Like oystermen, crabbers rise early. By law, they can only work certain hours; nowadays that is between 6AM and 2PM. Soft crabbers rise even earlier to check their holding tanks, open tanks that contain peelers. Once the crabs molt, they are soft and command a high price. Tanks must be “bustered up”
every 6 hours, around the clock, to pick out those that have finished shedding. These soft crabs are immediately refrigerated or frozen and sent to market.
Watermen are like farmers in many ways. At times, the work can be arduous and incessant. The weather controls their work schedule, and both “crops” are subject to predators, pests, and disease. But that’s where the similarity ends. A farmer can use commercial seed and can plant when and where he wants. He can water his crop, fertilize, and spray herbicides and pesticides. He can qualify for government subsidies. Nobody pays crabbers not to crab.
Hard crabs and oysters are sold to “buy boats” and the prices are set by the buyers. The watermen are not in a position to bargain - their seafood is perishable. It’s a hard life. A 2016 report found that the number of Chesapeake Bay watermen declined from 10,000 to 3,000 since the 1990s.
Earl Swift, author of the acclaimed Chesapeake Requiem, spent time with watermen on Tangier Island. After a long day on the water, he once asked Mayor James “Ooker” Eskridge why they don’t just catch the adults and grow them in their tanks until they molt. Eskridge explained that it wouldn’t work, that crabs don’t flourish in captivity.
Crab aquaculture has been tried also, but it has proven too costly. A major problem - they must be kept separated to keep them from eating each other.
Anyone who has tried to pick up a big blue crab, especially a female, will tell you - they are feisty critters. They have almost 360 degree vision and if they snag you with that right claw - the one they use for crushing - even if you have gloves on, it’s gonna hurt. And they don’t let go.
Crab Pots
Frustrated by decades of trotlining, waterman Frank Lewis, in his late 60s, started work on the first crab trap. His son said when Pop first got the idea it was a hot summer day and he sat under a tree for several hours mulling it over and didn’t hear when his wife called for dinner. His design was a chicken-wire box with funnel-like openings on opposite sides and a bait box in the middle. Crabs would find their way inside, and then try to escape by swimming upward through a narrow opening that led to the “parlor” compartment. A hinged top enabled the crabber to shake out the crabs.
Lewis patented his crab pot in 1928. He initially charged a $4 patent fee for every 50 pots. Once the design became known, for some reason people didn’t seek him out to pay up. Lewis was one of the first car owners in his town; a Model A Ford, which he bought for his son to go around and collect
fees. According to journalist Janet Evans Hinman, “Sadly, he wasn’t able to collect even a fraction of what was due him for his invention. ... in most history books he is largely unheralded. But for those who care to know, this humble and industrious waterman can claim the distinction of revolutionizing an industry forever.”
Lewis’ design is still being copied all over the East Coast. At some point, a similar "peeler pot" was invented with a bait box designed to hold live, sexually mature males (big Jimmys), who secrete a pheromone that attracts juvenile females about to molt.
“In recent years, abandoned pots have been identified as a problem. It is estimated that 15% of deployed pots become detached from their floats - sometimes clipped by boaters’ props - and are lost. After a while on the bottom, the chicken wire gets fouled up, and crabs and other critters can become trapped. Newer pots have biodegradable panels designed to prevent entrapment.
VIMS has launched campaigns to find and remove derelict pots. They hired crabbers to do the work. In a 6-year period they removed 34,000 pots. “We estimate that crabbers harvested about 60 million more crabs due to the ghost-pot removals,” says VIMS researcher Donna Bilkovic.
VIMS was recently awarded an 8 million dollar grant to lead a 4-year national program for managing derelict fishing gear. VIMS will sponsor a nationwide competition which will award funds to state and local groups to find and remove derelict nets, pots, and traps. Applicants will need to submit detailed plans and agree to document successful removals. VIMS will collate the data and publish it on a website. The goal is to assess the ecological and economic impacts and hopefully come up with preventive measures.”
Pickers and Shuckers
Once hard crabs and oysters are harvested, they must be readied for shipping. Each can be shipped live after being packed into suitable containers, but most oysters are shucked and canned, and most crabs are cooked and the meat is picked out. By and large, this is still done the way it has always been done, manually, one at a time, and pickers are typically paid by the pound picked. Good shuckers and pickers are fast and highly coveted by employers, but the pay is low and the hours are long – and early - a tradition before air conditioning and refrigeration.
Nowadays immigrants do most of the picking. A few years ago, there was a guest worker program that allowed Mexicans to enter for seasonal work, but the program has been halted in recent years in response to public concern about immigration. Economist Doug Lipton, a VIMS graduate, calculates that for every immigrant worker, 2.5 jobs are created. “The immigrants are not taking American jobs”, Lipton says, “they are creating them”.
On Smith Island, Maryland, there has long been a tradition that the men crabbed and the women picked. The women also made a delicious confection known as Smith Island multi-layer cake. In the film, An Island Out of Time, by Tom Horton, Dwight Marshall and his wife Mary Ada talked about their work lives.
On Smith Island, Maryland, there has long been a tradition that the men crabbed and the women picked.
Like most soft crabbers, Marshall worked long hours tending the pots and his tanks. His wife, Mary Ada, said, “Dwight and I have always worked together side by side. A typical day for me would be get up at 2:00 and 2:30 in the morning, pick a bushel of crabs; stop at quarter to seven. And go to the boat, put your meat on there, come in, put in a tub of clothes, make your beds, line up what you’re going to have for your evening meal, then go down to the shanty, cut about 5 trays of soft crabs and wrap them. Come up, and if it was cool enough, you’d cut the grass. Get your supper – we’d eat our evening meal by three o’clock, and at 4:00 o’clock you were back out picking again. And by 7:00 o’clock you were done, had you shower and ready to go to bed by 8:00 o’clock.” She didn’t mention that she also cooked breakfast and got 4 kids off to school.
One day before going to school, Mrs. Marshall’s daughter, Maria, announced, “Ma, it’s one thing, you can take this to the bank. I’m not picking crabs and I’m not standing here making cakes and cooking like you do.”
Mrs. Marshall replied, “What *do* you want to do, young lady?”
Maria: “I want to wear high heels and work in the city and carry a briefcase in my hand.”
As it turned out, Maria got her wish. Most of her friends also left the island after high school.
**Crackin’ Claws and Breakin’ Laws**
In 1992, health department personnel announced that Smith Island women must adopt modern sanitation practices or be shut down. The regulators were concerned that a food poisoning incident might scare off consumers state-wide.
According to Janice Marshall, in Tom Horton’s entertaining book, *An Island Out of Time*, “I didn’t see how we could afford to do what they wanted; but I didn’t see how I could afford to chance it, either – married to a waterman with heart problems and oysters in the bay hittin’ the lowest catch in history that very winter. Lately, it takes picking as hard as some of us can go just to pay off our last year’s taxes by August 15 (the filing extension deadline).”
“They would give us a reprieve, the state lady said. We could pick the next summer, but we had to have a plan for going legal, and prove we were working on it and would meet all rules and regulations of the mainland by April of 1994. We broke up the meeting agreeable, which people from off (the island) often take to mean that everybody’s agreed on something. We served all the visitors bootleg crab balls, bootleg crab Norfolk, and bootleg crabcakes, which they agreed was some of the best they had ever ate.”
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“We served all the visitors bootleg crab balls, bootleg crab Norfolk, and bootleg crabcakes, which they agreed was some of the best they had ever ate.”
Sea Scallops
At the beginning of the new millennium, year 2000, the oyster industry was comatose and the crab fishery was suffering. It seemed that all the news about seafood was bad. However, there was one fishery that was growing – sea scallops.
Sea scallops are large bivalves, like clams, with a smooth shell that can be snapped shut to jet-propel them through the water. They range from North Carolina to Newfoundland, where they live in “beds” on the surface of the ocean bottom at depths of 100 to 300 feet.
Offshore fisheries between 3 and 200 miles offshore are regulated by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Sea scallops are regulated by the NMFS New England Fishery Management Council (NEFMC), based in Massachusetts.
Sea scallops can live up to 20 years and grow up to 9 inches long. They become fertile starting around age 4. If an annual survey finds a site with a predominantly young population, regulators will close the area to allow the scallops to reach at least 5 years old, so that they have the chance to grow and reproduce.
Sea scallops can live up to 20 years and grow up to 9 inches long.
11 - Juvenile Sea scallops. https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/8368762212/
something. According to NEFMC spokesperson Deirdre Boelke, "(Now) vessels are actually landing more pounds and more product than even when they had more days at sea because there's more scallops on the bottom and it's more efficient. Catch rates are a lot higher, and the animals themselves are a lot larger... And larger scallops happen to cost more."
Ocean-going scallop boats, typically 70 to 100 feet in length, are required to carry GPS tracking devices, to assure that they obey regulations. The crew size is restricted to 7 and the trips can be anywhere from 10 to 14 days. The work is exhausting. On land foul weather is one thing, but on the open ocean, the pitching and rolling can be incessant. The work shifts are 18 hours and the boats fish continuously. When the crew members are not manning the dredge, they shuck. Only the adductor muscle is kept; the rest is discarded at sea. The shuckers are really fast – it takes about 1 second per scallop – you have to see it to believe it.
The 2010 documentary, *The Wreck of the Lady Mary*, is the story of a scallop boat that sank in heavy seas near shipping lanes off the coast of New Jersey, and at first it was thought that it may have been hit by a container ship. Those behemoths move fast and can't maneuver well, and they can come up on a scallop boat very quickly. Much of the time the scallop boats are towing a dredge or trawl net, so they are also not maneuverable. The container ships are so massive they can hit a scallop boat and not even know it.
A typical cruise with 6-8 fishermen can net somewhere between $120,000 and $250,000. A deck hand can make as much as $20,000. It's hazardous work, though. An estimated 425 workers die on average each year per 100,000 full-time scalloping workers - more than the number who die in the Alaskan crab fishery.
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*The shuckers are really fast – it takes about 1 second per scallop – you have to see it to believe it.*
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**Bill DuPaul**
In 2018 VIMS scientist Bill DuPaul received an award from NEFMC for his part in reviving the sea scallop industry, which had declined in the 1990s and in 2018 was the second most valuable commercial fishery on the East Coast.
In particular, DuPaul was hailed for his ability to work with commercial fishermen. NEFMC Chair John Quinn said that DuPaul “earned the deep trust and respect of fishermen from his many years on deck, knee-high in scallop shells and fish slime with the best of them. He proved that cooperative research can break through seemingly insurmountable barriers and help resolve even the most challenging issues.”
NEFMC spokesperson Janice Plante added, “Bill spent countless hours at sea with fishermen conducting biological studies and annual surveys that have helped gauge abundance and distribution of scallops both on Georges Bank and throughout the Mid-Atlantic. The annual surveys also helped document incoming recruitment, enabling fishery managers to identify and close areas with large beds of immature scallops for additional grow-out. This practice is a bedrock of the current rotational area management program - and one that Bill was in on from the beginning.”
DuPaul was a highly respected participant in *Scallop RSA Share Days* where fishermen and scientists meet to discuss research results and exchange ideas about emerging issues.
DuPaul was also instrumental in setting up the [Scallop Research Set-Aside (RSA) Program](https://www.vims.edu/newsandevents/topstories/archives/2009/dupaul_retirement.php), where NEFMC sets aside a portion of income from permission-to-harvest fees, for research and development. An innovative program, it requires no state or federal funding. David Rudders, a former student of DuPaul, currently leads the [VIMS scallop research program](https://www.vims.edu/newsandevents/topstories/archives/2009/dupaul_retirement.php), mostly funded by the set-aside program.
Anyone who is old enough to have seen the movie *Jaws*, remembers when a great white lunges out of the water at Richard Dreyfuss. *Jaws* was one of the most successful disaster movies of all time, and it turned out to be a true disaster for sharks.
For many years, VIMS fishery scientist Jack Musick would tell audiences, “*You are 30 times more likely to be killed by a dog than to be bitten by a shark.*”
in 1973 Musick started a survey of shark populations in the Mid-Atlantic, and it’s now the longest-running survey of its kind. Every summer they fish a 100-hook longline at 8 stations off the Virginia coast. Each shark is weighed, measured, tagged, and the sex recorded. Nowadays a DNA sample is taken also. (video link)
The survey began 2 years before the movie *Jaws*, which was fortunate, as public sentiment turned against sharks and led to negligence, overfishing, and an irrational fear of ocean waters. Musick’s data documented the population declines.
What most people didn’t realize was that sharks are long-lived and reproduce slowly. According to Musick, “*Sharks are at the top of the food web and when you remove the apex predators, it throws*
everything out of whack. Their prey items become more abundant and tend to overeat plants and animals below them in the food chain.
What most people didn’t realize was that sharks are long-lived and reproduce slowly.
Musick’s studies of fish populations have served as a basis for management plans. During his tenure he collected a plethora of fish specimens – a collection that grew into the Nunnally Ichthyology Collection – currently 500,000 specimens used for study and research by scientists around the world.
Jack Musick
14 - Jack Musick https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/50947412561/in/album-72157718301623223/
Jack Musick was born in 1941 in Trenton, New Jersey. As a kid he collected frogs, worms, insects, snakes, and dead birds. As a teenager he fished and crabbed at local beaches. He studied biology at Rutgers, Harvard, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; then joined the faculty at VIMS. He was a prolific researcher, writer, and mentor. During his tenure he served as major professor for 89 graduate students – many of whom have gone on to distinguished careers.
Each spring Musick took a group of students headed to the Appalachians to study freshwater fishes. They called it the “Roanoke Roundup”, and it was quite popular. In Musick’s words, “The rolling hills, redbuds and dogwoods in full bloom, and the gourmet meals (which only occasionally included fresh roadkill) are all just bonuses for the trip. It’s a very special event.”
Like Darwin’s finches, fish in the mountain streams originated from the same ancestral stock, but evolved in isolation, resulting in new species with subtle differences. “Each spring, when it’s time to mate, the males take on brilliant species-specific colors. So, although closely related species have the same body and fin shape, individual species can be recognized by the decoration of bright blues, reds, yellows, and oranges.”
Like Darwin’s finches, fish in the mountain streams originated from the same ancestral stock, but evolved in isolation, resulting in new species with subtle differences.
15 - Musick’s crew pitches in to catch freshwater fish in a mountain stream. 21302970555_02c424159c_o.jpg
Three of Musick’s books, *Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives*, *The Biology of Sea Turtles*, and *Fishes of Chesapeake Bay*, have received wide acclaim. Musick’s wife, Beverly, a science writer, co-wrote some of his books including *The Shark Chronicles*, a tale of Musick’s adventures on the sea and on the land.
If you were a friend of Musick’s and owned a garage or outbuilding, you most assuredly did not want him to find out. If he did, he was likely to cozy up to you at a social event, offer to refill your drink, and mention that he may be looking for a place to store some fish specimens. What he may not have emphasized, was that to prepare a nice clean fish skeleton, he used scavenger beetles. There was only one tiny problem – a certain olfactory experience, to put it in scientific terms. “Unforgettable” was a polite way to describe it.
During the late 1970s, at the request of his students, Musick began researching sea turtles. Using some of the first satellite tracking devices, Musick and his students established that the Bay is an important nursery area for Loggerheads and Kemp's Ridleys. Musick’s group monitored abundance in Virginia waters and evaluated the impact of conservation measures. This work was popular with the public and brought favorable press coverage.
With funding from the Virginia Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Program, Musick established Virginia’s Sea Turtle Stranding Program and managed it for its first 20 years. After Musick retired, again with support from the Virginia CZM Program, the stranding program was transitioned to the Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Center. All turtle and marine mammal strandings are now reported there.
Rays
A relative of sharks, the cownose ray, *Rhinoptera bonasus*, is a pizza-sized ray with jaws that are capable of chomping through bivalve shells like clams and oysters. They have a spine at the base of their dorsal fin that has a non-fatal but painful venom. They travel in schools; in 1988, a VIMS student photographed a huge school of rays in the Bay, covering an estimated 1,000 acres.
Cownose rays have been abundant in the Bay for many years. Captain John Smith speared one near the mouth of the Rappahannock River, and apparently got stung from handling it carelessly. The sting was painful and memorable enough that they named the nearest land “Stingray Point”.
In the first decade of the millennium, there were oyster restoration projects where they would plant lab-raised "seed oysters" on depleted reefs. Predators were a problem. In the Piankatank River it was estimated that, on one occasion, cownose rays ate 90% of 775,000 recently planted oysters. Rays were also a problem for Castagna’s clams on the Eastern Shore. There was also evidence that rays uprooted seagrass while foraging for food.
Something had to be done.
A Regional Workshop on Cownose Ray Issues was held in Yorktown in 2006. The group started a campaign to encourage a recreational fishery and to promote ray wings as seafood. One of the papers was entitled *A Ray of Hope: Finding a Market for the Chesapeake Ray*. Marketers came up with the slogan, “Save the Bay, eat a ray”.
Fast forward to 2016. Researchers were now concerned that rays were overfished. “…we have no estimate of their overall population, we have no idea what level of fishing mortality this represents. It also doesn’t take into account landings in other regions along their migratory path, or from bow-fishing tournaments or bycatch. Cownose rays have one of the lowest reproductive capacities of any fish species. They don’t mature until they’re about 8 years old and produce only 1 pup per year.”
VIMS tagging studies have found that although the rays migrate up and down the Atlantic Coast, they return to the estuary where they were born to give birth and mate. Many return to the Bay.
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**Fast forward to 2016. Researchers were now concerned that rays were overfished.**
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**Abundance Surveys**
Long term monitoring is essential for effective fisheries management.
There are two types of surveys. Fishery-dependent surveys make use of commercial fisheries data - catch statistics recorded by watermen. Sometimes observers accompany fishermen as they go about their work. Fishery-independent surveys are carried out for purely scientific purposes, to assess the populations.
Collection methods vary. There’s **trawling** – towing a funnel-shaped net, **dredging** – pulling a heavy rake-like device that scrapes the bottom, and **longline** – a series of baited hooks. **Gill nets** form a vertical wall of light netting that traps the fish as they try to back out of the mesh. The juvenile striped bass survey is done by **seining**, **wading** into shallow water and dragging a shallow, wide net that looks a bit like a tennis net. Adult fish, in fresh or very low salinity water, may be sampled by **electrofishing**, where fish are temporarily **stunned** by an electrical current, and float to the surface. Consistency in timing, gear, and technique is important for multi-year data to be comparable. Occasionally improved technology warrants a change in protocol, in which case, old data may need to be "adjusted" to remain comparable.
Environmental conditions are usually noted. This information is particularly useful to modelers, who are interested in quantifying the relationships between fish populations and temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, winds, waves, and currents.
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*Consistency in timing, gear, and technique is important for multi-year data to be comparable.*
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At each sampling site, fish are identified, counted, weighed, measured, and sometimes, tagged. All this data is recorded, some of it electronically using devices that can weigh, measure, and record. Sometimes tissue samples are taken for bioassays (DNA monitoring, bacteriology, etc). Occasionally a fish or two may be taken for age and growth studies, or as a museum specimen.
For age and growth studies, researchers measure length and weight, and determine age. Sometimes age can be determined from individual scales – there are markings like tree rings. A more reliable age can also be determined in a similar way from vertebrae or ear bones, called otoliths. It is important for population studies to know these details of life history, in order to estimate current and future abundance. Many graduate students have prepared and polished otolith slices under a microscope to determine age and growth relationships for various species.
Stomach contents may be inventoried to determine diet - important for studies of food webs necessary to sustain fisheries.
After the data is collected, it is analyzed. In the past, individual species assessments were carried out to calculate a “maximum sustainable yield”. Nowadays, multi-species assessments are favored; they take into account ecological relationships, such as predator and prey. This is important for species like menhaden, on which other species feed.
Data from these surveys are used to assess the abundance of adults and juveniles, and to adjust regulations.
It is physically demanding work – wet, tedious, sometimes stiflingly hot, sometimes numbingly cold - in a boat that pitches, rolls, and vibrates. Not everyone can do it, no matter how physically fit they are.
Over the years VIMS has expanded the scope of surveys geographically and temporally. A complete listing of VIMS abundance surveys with details about sampling methods can be found here.
It is important for population studies to know the details of life history, in order to estimate current and future abundance.
Trawl Surveys
In 1955 the VFL began the first trawl surveys at 5-mile intervals in the York River. Gradually the sampling area was extended to the James and Rappahannock rivers and the Virginia portion of the Bay. The surveys were repeated on a regular basis, at a carefully monitored depth and time interval.
Now 22 stations in the James, York, and Rappahannock River are sampled each month; and in the Bay, between 39 and 45 stations are sampled each month except in January and March.
Many surveys cover areas outside Virginia. The ChesMMAP trawl survey covers the entire mainstem of the Bay. Sea Scallop dredge surveys and the NEAMAP trawl survey cover the mid-Atlantic region from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. (NEAMAP video link) In addition to Music’s offshore shark longline survey, there is a survey of shark nursery grounds in the lower Bay and the seaside bays along the Eastern Shore.
ChesMMAP samples juvenile and adult fishes in the mainstem of the Bay, from Baltimore to the Virginia capes. There are 4 cruises each year, with 40 sites sampled in March and November, and 80 in June and September.
**Single Species Assessments:** Striped Bass
Some species get special treatment. Striped bass is such an important recreational fishery, there are both adult and juvenile surveys. Striped bass are *anadromous* - they return to freshwater in the spring to spawn. Some migrate into the ocean and some remain in the Bay year-round. The adult [Striped Bass Program](#) monitors spawning striped bass by setting gill nets in the James and Rappahannock Rivers. There is also tagging program that uses electrofishing to catch the fish. This program is part of a multi-state tagging study.
[The Juvenile Striped Bass Survey](#) is also part of a [multi-state study](#). There are 40 stations along the James, York, and Rappahannock rivers; and a few auxiliary locations. There are 5 biweekly sampling periods from July through mid-September.
**Eels**
American eels are a *catadromous* fish - they spawn in the ocean and live in fresher waters. That's the opposite of familiar anadromous fish like striped bass.
Eels are a valuable commercial species. Salted eel was once a popular crab bait but now European and Asian food markets are the best customers, for smoked eel.
Eel populations are smaller than a few years ago. VIMS researchers sample them as they enter the rivers and streams.
Oysters
VIMS has been monitoring oysters since the 1940s. In recent years, they have partnered with VMRC. They use dredges and patent tongs to collect samples, and oyster shellstrings to measure spatfall. They monitor public oyster beds to determine if they need replenishment by bringing in seed (baby) oysters, or if VMRC needs to make immediate changes to current regulations. For example, in March 2023 VMRC extended the winter season 10 days into April because of better than expected abundance data.
Crabs
In 1990 VIMS teamed up with the Maryland Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and began an annual winter dredge survey. Each fall, female crabs, "sooks", migrate south to higher salinity water in the lower Bay to hatch their eggs, and overwinter buried in the sediments of the lower Bay. With all these sooks the Virginia population becomes mostly females. Winter is a good time for bottom dredge surveys because crabs are dormant and not moving around. Crews sample 1,500 sites, approximately half in each state. Assessment of the number of overwintering females is used to estimate next year’s population. (Video link, Virginia) (Video link, Maryland)
Menhaden
Menhaden are a small, abundant, schooling fish, related to shad and herring. They are filter feeders and can’t be caught on a hook and line. That’s not a big deal as they are too “fishy tasting” for most Americans, including native Americans, who used them for fertilizer. Nowadays they are harvested for crab bait or are processed (reduced) into oil and fishmeal.
Menhaden are considered a “keystone species” because of their large numbers and their importance to the Bay’s ecosystem. However, a 2015 study that surprised researchers found that menhaden are not as important as once thought, and that Bay anchovies are now more numerous and the most important forage fish in the Bay. The study was based on analysis of 12 years of data from VIMS trawl surveys along the main stem of the Bay, repeated four times a year. During that time, 391,000 fish were caught, 285,000 were measured, and the stomach contents of 35,000 fish were examined. What they found was that menhaden are important prey for only one species, striped bass; and even for striped bass, they are less important than bay anchovies.
Ed Houde of the UMCES Chesapeake Biological Laboratory estimates that there 50,000 tons of bay anchovies in the Bay at any given time, and 458,000 tons are produced each year. “That means a huge amount is being eaten and is fueling the production of Bay predators,” Houde said.
The menhaden reduction fishery once operated with dozens of factories all along the East and Gulf Coasts. Over the years, all but one plant in Reedville and two in Louisiana have closed, either from reduced stocks or odor abatement regulations.
Industrial fishing is an inherently messy business. Many people are appalled when they learn about the sheer numbers of fish involved. “Spotter” airplanes locate the schools and direct the fishing vessels. With a crew of 15 or so, each mother ship, approximately 150 feet long, launches two skiffs – purse boats. The boats surround a school with a large net and draw it in alongside the ship where the fish are vacuumed into refrigerated holds.
Schools of menhaden are often pursued by predators: Spanish mackerel, bluefish, croaker, hogchoker, and gray trout; and these may be swept up along with the menhaden. However, two studies have shown that bycatch is typically a very small percentage, much less than 1%. Nevertheless, a tiny percentage of a very large number can be significant. The most recent study was in 1992; and VIMS researchers were harshly criticized by opponents of the menhaden fishery and accused of colluding with the industry. John Lucy said, “It was like I had slapped a hornet’s nest.”
In the past, the fishery was regulated by the General Assembly - a special status for menhaden only. Now the fishery is regulated by VMRC, with annual catch limits set by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC).
The ASMFC was established in 1940 by the states along the Atlantic Coast to manage fisheries within 3 miles of the Atlantic coast that span multiple states. The premise was that "fish do not adhere to political boundaries." Each state provides 3 Commissioners: the director for the state's marine fisheries management agency, a member of the state legislature, and an individual appointed by the governor. The commission employs fisheries scientists and economists to establish annual quotas for shared fisheries. For menhaden, there are two quotas for Virginia, one for the Bay and one for offshore.
Atlantic menhaden spawn in the ocean off Virginia and North Carolina and migrate up and down the coast and into the estuaries. In the past, each fish species was assessed individually, based on population statistics. Nowadays, catch quotas (ecologically sustainable yields) are determined by modeling studies that assess the impact of fishing to predator and prey populations. Menhaden are included in a model along with predators (striped bass, bluefish, weakfish, and spiny dogfish) and prey (menhaden, herring, and bay anchovy). These are considered the top predators and most likely prey species.
Amy Schueller, of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Beaufort Lab, is the lead scientist for Atlantic and Gulf menhaden – she consults with scientists from the ASMFC to conduct modeling studies. Her detailed 2021 online presentation is available here. Schueller cites a study that found, counter intuitively, that there is very little correlation between forage fish and predator abundance. In particular, given that striped bass feed on small menhaden, and the fishery takes large menhaden, there isn't a conflict. They conclude that the controlling factor for forage fish abundance is environmental conditions. See this short video.
Although there have been overfishing incidents in the past, according to a 2022 assessment by the ASMFC, menhaden are not currently overfished. The same report also concluded that predators are not negatively impacted. The annual Bay quota for 2023 is 51,000 metric tons, same as 2022. The total quota for 2023, Bay plus ocean, is 233,500 metric tons, up 20% from the previous year.
Critics point out that the population assessments on which the quotas are based, are for the entire East Coast, and not specifically for the Bay.
There is a smaller menhaden fishery that provides bait for crabbers and lobstermen. The largest bait boats, like the 80-foot FV Hush Puppy, are called “snapper rigs”. They use purse seines but have only one purse boat. The 2022 total allocation (Bay and ocean) for the purse seine menhaden bait sector was 13,000 metric tons. A smaller, non-purse seine bait fishery had an allocation of 2,000 metric tons. The non-purse seine fishery is operated by pound netters and gill netters.
There can be natural die-offs of menhaden. According to the VIMS website, "Summer die-offs of large numbers of Atlantic menhaden are common in Chesapeake Bay, mostly associated with episodes of low dissolved oxygen (i.e., dead zones) in Bay waters."
For decades, sportfishing groups have argued that the menhaden fishery should be banned in the Bay because of the impact to striped bass and other popular recreational species, but the fisheries data do not support this view. According to Mike Avery, chairman of the Virginia Saltwater Sportfishing Association, 600,000 Virginia anglers contribute $465 million to the economy each year, and support more than 6,500 jobs.
In November 2022, the ASMFC released an updated stock assessment on striped bass. According to the report, the resource is suffering from overfishing in the past - there are not enough spawning females. Nevertheless, current regulations are sufficient. CBL fisheries scientist Dave Secor expressed concern about mortality from catch-and-release, inhospitable summer hot spells, and low oxygen levels.
There can be natural die-offs of menhaden. According to the VIMS website, "Summer die-offs of large numbers of Atlantic menhaden are common in Chesapeake Bay, mostly associated with episodes of low dissolved oxygen (i.e., dead zones) in Bay waters."
Menhaden industry spokesman Monty Deihl argues that the menhaden fishery should be allowed to continue as long as it complies with regulations. Northumberland County, where the reduction and bait fishery are located, is rural and heavily dependent on the industry. The menhaden plant employs hundreds of workers and contractors. The industry brings $45 to $88 million into the local economy each year. According to Ken Pinkard, former VP of United Food and Commercial Workers Local 400, and past Labor and Industry chair of the Virginia NAACP, the menhaden fishery is the largest employer of minority and union workers in Northumberland County.
Banning fishing in the Bay, Deihl maintains, would make the workers’ jobs more hazardous. Rough ocean seas make the boats difficult to handle and lead to on-the-job injuries. However, Diehl's employer, Omega Protein, does operate in the ocean; in fact they catch more than half their annual allocation there.
Menhaden abundance estimation is a bit tricky, as they are a near-surface schooling fish that flee from trawl nets.
In 2010, VIMS published the results of a series of laboratory experiments designed to assess the impact of menhaden on Bay water quality. Elevated nitrogen levels are of Bay-wide concern, but based on their findings, researchers believe that menhaden do not have a significant impact on nitrogen levels. There is simply too much nitrogen in the Bay for menhaden to make much of an impact.
As menhaden grow, their “filters” become more porous, and their diet shifts from microzooplankton, phytoplankton and detritus (particles of organic matter) to larger zooplankton and detritus. Under certain conditions, like large schools feeding on large algal blooms, they may have a significant impact on nitrogen, but those conditions rarely occur. They also think that schools of menhaden are likely to steer clear of harmful algal blooms (HABs), so menhaden aren’t helping with that problem either. HABs are algae that can produce toxins. VIMS scientists monitor HABs in the Bay.
Menhaden abundance estimation is a bit tricky, as they are a near-surface schooling fish that flee from trawl nets, which leads to underestimates of abundance. Recent researchers have tried to find ways to count them from aircraft. They tried LIDAR, a form of radar, but it was unable to estimate the depth of the schools. They concluded that high resolution video is probably the best option for aerial surveys.
Sometimes there are accidents that lead to fish kills. When there is a tear in the net, often from a net snagging on the bottom, fish spill out, some dead from the crowding and rough handling. According to the VMRC, there are an average of 3 reported spills per year, but between 2018 and June 2022, only two occurred in the Bay. However, there were three spills that fouled Eastern Shore beaches in 2022. One occurred near Kiptopeke, when a school of red drum got swept up along with the menhaden. When the crew found out, they released the catch, which resulted in an estimated 12,000 pounds of dead drum and thousands of menhaden. Two spills occurred at Silver Beach and spoiled the 4th of July week recreational activities. A Reedville crew cleaned up the spills a few days later.
December 2022 VMRC Hearing
In response to the summer fish spills, in December 2022 the VMRC hosted a hearing on proposed changes to menhaden regulations and got the biggest crowd of attendees ever – busloads from Northampton and Northumberland counties. The Board heard public comments and recommendations of its staff: a no-fish zone within a half mile of the CBBT and within one mile of shore in the Bay and along Virginia Beach; and no fishing during 17 days that include the three summer holidays. This would
apply to both reduction and bait fisheries – the purse seine fisheries. However, instead of issuing regulations based on staff recommendations, they negotiated a less restrictive memorandum of understanding with the menhaden industry.
**Rob Latour**
Rob Latour has been researching commercial and recreational fisheries at VIMS since the year 2000. He currently directs stock assessment programs for Bay finfish, coastal sharks, and striped bass. He served on the ASMFC Atlantic Menhaden board from 2006 to 2020, focusing on stock assessments and the move from single species modeling towards an ecosystem approach. He has received many awards for excellence in research, teaching, and advising graduate students.
Latour had the unenviable task of presenting VIMS expert testimony on menhaden at the December 2022 VMRC hearing.
He cited case studies that have shown that committees of diverse stakeholders are the most effective way to manage fisheries, as they allow affected parties and the public to participate and be heard. Since 2020 Latour has chaired the VMRC Menhaden Advisory Committee, which met the previous Friday and prepared the recommendations that were being considered.
He explained that the menhaden fishery has been around for 150 years, and that we have landings data since 1955 - the longest record of any East Coast fishery. In the 1950s there were 25 factories with 125 vessels, now there is 1 factory with 10 vessels. In the years since 1955, the largest annual harvest was 700 thousand tons; now it’s around 200. Obviously, these are huge amounts of fish, but compared to an estimated 3 million tons total; we are currently harvesting approximately 7% of the population.
The first Bay quota was put in place in 2007; it is now half of the initial amount, at 55 thousand tons.
Latour explained that a 3-year-old female menhaden can spawn every 7 1/2 days for almost six months, releasing 3 million eggs. If one out of a thousand survive, that’s 32 offspring each year. At that rate, a single female can produce over 12,000 descendants in her lifetime. “It is an unbelievably productive animal.”
He addressed two of the concerns raised in public comments:
1. The impact of fishery on striped bass. Striped bass populations have fluctuated between “overfished” and “recovered”, over the years. The Bay is a complex environment, an open system that exchanges with the ocean, and it’s difficult to establish causal linkages.
2. Local depletion. We don’t have data to assess this. We would need to know 3 things: abundance in the Bay, residence time of those fish in the Bay, and movements between the Bay and the ocean. The ASMFC does take this uncertainty into consideration by setting quotas conservatively, recognizing the ecological role of menhaden in the Bay.
While acknowledging the uncertainties, Latour concluded, “… right now moving forward, the best available science places the resource in a great place.”
At the August 2023 VMRC meeting, Bryan Watts, the director of the Center for Conservation Biology at William and Mary, spoke. The center has been monitoring osprey populations for over 50 years. According to their findings, osprey reproductive rates peaked around 1980 after recovering from DDT pollution, but have declined over the years to a level that is now too low to sustain the population. In the 1980s menhaden comprised 70% of ospreys’ diet; since 2006 it has been less than 30%. Watts’ team notes a high correlation between osprey reproductive rates and an Atlantic Menhaden Relative Abundance index, representing the entire Atlantic coast, and they infer that there is a causal relationship. Watts praised the fisheries modelers for recently incorporating ecological reference points to account for predator populations, but he suggests it’s not enough to sustain osprey populations.
Many good people would like to see the menhaden fishery shut down. Mostly they are not tied to the history and family traditions of commercial fishing in the Bay. In the Northern Neck, the fishery employs many good people who depend on a resource that, so far, has held up despite Bay health issues.
Controversy
Crabby Neighbors
With the fall exodus of females, the Maryland harvest becomes mostly males (“Jimmys”). Marylanders throw back the sooks and complain about Virginians taking them in summer pots and winter dredges, without regard for the impact of their own Maryland harvests. This animosity between Virginia and Maryland persists, and goes back to the early settlers - Protestants in Virginia, Catholics in Maryland - and the Oyster Wars.
As William Warner explained in his popular 1976 book, Beautiful Swimmers, the spring of 1968 was particularly bad for Maryland crabbers. Seafood dealers complained to politicians, who requested and were granted a Congressional hearing. Maryland’s two senators waxed eloquent about growing up on the Bay and how much crabs meant to everybody: all the crab festivals, crab races, crab-boat races, crab-boat docking races, crab picking contests, crab this, crab that, etc. It was as if the blue crab was the state bird.
Senator Daniel Brewster pointed out that Virginia had already taken 8 times as many crabs as Maryland, and that there were reports of winter dredging of pregnant females in Virginia. Hampton congressman Thomas Downing acknowledged that there was indeed a winter dredge fishery that had been active for years. He argued that in the fall, Maryland crabbers took large numbers of fertilized females as they
migrated south. Finally, Hargis and VIMS crab expert Willard Van Engel presented statistics indicating that limited winter dredging was not correlated to poor harvests.
Ironically, as the season went on, the catch improved and it turned out to be a good year, overall. No one knew why, but unknowns like this fuel speculation and opinions.
Finally, Hargis and VIMS crab expert Willard Van Engel presented statistics indicating that limited winter dredging was not correlated to poor harvests.
Hargis In the News
In 1962 the General Assembly changed the name of the lab to the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. It was commissioned as an independent state institution governed by a board appointed by the governor.
VIMS is unique in that it was established with a mission not only of education and research, but also to advise state officials on issues impacting the coastal environment. Hargis made a refinement to the Davis model of separation of research and regulation. He separated research and advisory services, to assure that the latter was not short-changed when it came to funding.
As lab director, Hargis felt obligated to weigh in on marine public policy debates, to fulfill VIMS' science mission.
As lab director, Hargis felt obligated to weigh in on marine public policy debates. Looking back over his career, he explained it this way: "In the code of the Commonwealth of Virginia we were charged with providing scientific information to the General Assembly, to the public, and to the executive branch ... so I used to go up to all the meetings of the committees of the General Assembly in which any topic that we were involved ... and sometimes the chairman would say, Dr Hargis, we didn't ask you to come up here, we didn't call you. What are you doing here?"
"Well, you're working on a problem that we're supposed to be working on and I'm going to make the information available to you. OK, and after a while, if you recommend enough against enough political people's projects, you begin to become persona non grata with either the legislature or the executive. When you stand in the way of administrators, man, they find a way to run right around you. They did it here eventually, but it took them a hell of a long time."
Hargis liked to quote Kenny Rogers, "You gotta know when to hold 'em, know when to fold 'em..."
The following initiatives were not supported by VIMS. In some quarters, this was unpopular.
Being an objective provider of information is not always an easy or welcomed position, and often all sides of an issue will respond negatively, as it affects their bargaining positions.
The James River Navigation Project
Over the years, the James River has played a key role in the oyster industry, even after MSX and Dermo. It wasn’t a great place to grow oysters, but it was consistently good for seed oysters, which were used to revitalize depleted beds all over Eastern Virginia.
In 1949, business leaders proposed widening and deepening the James River shipping channel to Richmond. The dredge spoil would be used for a manmade island in Hampton Roads, and the island would be used for a sports arena.
Hargis and his colleagues thought that VIMS should take a look at this, given the importance of the river for seed oyster production. They argued that this would increase the influx of salty water and oyster parasites. Hargis was supported by local watermen, who didn’t want to see their livelihoods put at risk.
Eventually VIMS was commissioned to do a modeling study with the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) at their headquarters in Vicksburg, MS.
At that time, in response to the disastrous Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the USACE had been building scale models of river basins to test potential flood control measures. By carefully adding water to the tributaries, they could simulate river flow. These were huge projects – the Mississippi river model occupied 200 acres and was built during WWII using German POWs as laborers. Despite the costs, the model proved its value for siting locks, levees, and diversion channels.
A scale model of the Chesapeake had been built in a 14-acre metal building on the Eastern Shore near the Annapolis Bay Bridge in Matapeake, Maryland. They nicknamed it “the Matapeake monster”. Its first application was to assess the impact of deepening the Baltimore channel. The simulations showed little impact and the project went forward.
So, for the James River deepening project, a 2.5-acre scale model was built at Vicksburg. One of the findings was that the reason the James River mouth is so productive for oysters, is that there is a slow moving gyre current that takes about a fortnight, and that’s exactly how long it takes oyster larvae to settle on substrate. The proposed island would disrupt this flow.
By the time the study was complete, people seemed to have lost interest and the project was abandoned.
One of the findings was that the reason the James River mouth is so productive for oysters, is that there is a slow moving gyre current that takes about a fortnight, and that’s exactly how long it takes oyster larvae to settle on substrate.
The James River Oil Refinery Project
Governor Mills Godwin proposed an oil refinery in Portsmouth near the mouth of the James River. Hargis again objected, speaking out against it at every opportunity. At one point Godwin summoned Hargis to his office and told him that it was unthinkable that he could not control the public statements of his agency heads. Hargis explained that VIMS was setup to be independent of political influence, and that was a good thing. Godwin replied that he would change that.
Kepone
In 1975 at Hopewell on the James River near Richmond, the municipal sewer system began failing routine water quality tests on the effluent flowing into the river. The problem was eventually traced to toxic chemicals from the manufacture of an insecticide called kepone; the chemicals had been poured down the drains at the manufacturing site, a former gas station.
When Hargis heard about it, he dispatched a team to take samples and they found kepone in sediments, finfish, and oysters. The Food and Drug administration investigated and labeled kepone a carcinogen; and as a result, the river was closed to fishing for 13 years and closed to oystering for 10 months. Consumers became wary of Virginia seafood, and watermen all over the state lost business. Bob Huggett, the lead investigator, received death threats: “I slept with a shotgun by my bed”.
Bob Huggett
Huggett grew up in Poquoson, across the York River from VIMS, the son of a waterman. "If you wanted spending money, ... you raked clams or you picked up oysters or you culled oysters on somebody's boat or you helped someone run gill nets, I did all that as a kid."
Huggett met his future wife while he was working as a lab technician at a Dow Chemical plant near Williamsburg. She was a junior at William and Mary. When she graduated, she worked to put him through 4 years at W&M. When he graduated, in chemistry, they went to San Diego, to Scripps Institute of Oceanography, where he became interested in environmental science. Following graduation, he came to VIMS for his PhD and 20 years as an environmental chemist.
He left VIMS in 1994 for an administrative job at the Environmental Protection Agency in Washington, DC. When he arrived, "I felt like I'd walked inside a beehive," he said. "People have the impression often that federal employees don't work very hard; that's certainly not my experience... The demands on them from Congress, from the administration itself, are just immense."
He found himself working 12-hour days. His biggest gripe was the bureaucracy: "It's like turning a battleship or an aircraft carrier. It took three years to implement some of the things that I wanted to get done, that the administrator wanted me to do, and I felt I should have been able to do it a lot sooner. That was frustrating."
After 4 years in DC, at the recommendation of a coworker, he took a job as Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies at Michigan State University from 1997 to 2004, followed by several years as a consultant.
'People have the impression often that federal employees don't work very hard; that's certainly not my experience... The demands on them from Congress, from the administration itself, are just immense.'
King William Reservoir
In the early 2000s, the city of Newport News came up with a plan to create a reservoir in King William County. They were granted an Army Corps of Engineers permit in 2005.
VIMS weighed in with a study that predicted negligible impact to wetlands. Pumping water from the Mattaponi would make the river saltier, but the wetlands would adapt.
However, another VIMS group had been studying anadromous fishes, marine fish that return to their birth river to spawn. They were concerned that the proposed site was an important shad nursery and recommended against the project. The Mattaponi tribe was against the plan also, arguing that it would flood former hunting and fishing sites and decimate the shad population.
In 2009 a federal court ruled that the ACE had acted arbitrarily and capriciously in awarding the initial permit, and the project was cancelled.
By this time Hargis’ reputation as a champion of the environment was well-known. As such, he was often sought out for advice on marine affairs.
Hargis on Center Stage
He was hired as a consultant to the State Department for fisheries negotiations with the Russians and the Poles. To prepare for these meetings, he studied Russian at William and Mary.
He became chairman of both the National Advisory Council on Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) and the Coastal States Organization (CSO), groups that made recommendations for research and public policy related to marine science. NACOA (now defunct) reported to the President and Congress; the CSO reports to NOAA and Congress. Hargis championed “green water oceanography”, research in coastal waters as opposed to the deep ocean. He and his colleagues advocated for a national Coastal Zone Management Program, Sea Grant colleges, and estuarine sanctuaries. Their efforts brought in grant and contracts money, and VIMS entered a growth period.
In the 1970s, VIMS became headquarters for Virginia Sea Grant. This new role expanded the advisory mission to include the seafood industry, recreation, shoreline development, tourism, and public education.
The largest contract came from the Bureau of Land Management to conduct baseline surveys of marine life in the Mid-Atlantic outer continental shelf, in advance of possible offshore drilling. To work offshore for days at a time, a large oceangoing vessel was required. For this work, Hargis acquired a surplus minesweeper from the Navy, brought it to Gloucester Point, named it the RV *Virginian Sea*, and hired a crew to refurbish it and operate it on cruises. Minesweepers were wooden ships, so as not to attract magnetic mines. This one, outfitted with added steel infrastructure, proved to be top-heavy and unstable, and a costly failure – one that Hargis would come to regret.
According to UMCES president Don Boesch, having a big ship was “part of the manhood of oceanographic institutions.”
Marine science was becoming popular worldwide. Starting in 1976, pioneer scuba diver and explorer Jacques Cousteau hosted a popular documentary TV series. Like Hargis, Cousteau was ambitious and entrepreneurial; and like Hargis, behind the scenes, he was plagued with financial problems.
There was one drawback with federal funding – in some cases, payment came at the completion of the project, and sometimes didn’t fully cover the costs. To finance these projects, Hargis took out temporary loans from the state’s general fund. He did this 11 times in 12 years, resulting in a large and growing debt. It came to the attention of state auditors.
Marine science was becoming popular worldwide. Starting in 1976, Jacques Cousteau hosted a popular documentary TV series. Like Hargis, Cousteau was ambitious and entrepreneurial; and like Hargis, behind the scenes, he was plagued with financial problems.
Don Boesch
Growing up in the 1950s, in the 9th Ward of New Orleans, where the locals sound more like they’re from Brooklyn than Louisiana, Don Boesch enjoyed fishing with his dad, but was more interested in the marsh critters than the fish. The 9th Ward borders wetlands, lakes, and the Mississippi River, and was flooded by Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Encouraged by his 10th grade biology teacher, Boesch applied for a summer program at nearby Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, but, with average grades, was not accepted. Undaunted, he continued to dream about a career as a marine scientist.
He graduated from Tulane, on the far side of New Orleans, and went off to grad school at VIMS in 1971 to study benthic ecology. Benthic ecologists study the bottoms: the seagrasses, oysters, clams, worms, snails, barnacles, and other critters that are vital to the ecosystem. He became a close friend of classmate Bob Orth.
From VIMS he went to Auckland, Australia for a Fulbright post-doc research gig. He returned to VIMS as a professor, where he spent the next 8 years conducting research and recruiting an enthusiastic group of graduate students, research assistants, and post docs.
A colleague from Louisiana State University invited Boesch to apply for a position back in Louisiana. He would be building and staffing a new lab in the swamps bordering the Gulf coast, 90 miles south of New Orleans. Boesch, 35 years old at the time, interviewed along with 4 older, qualified candidates.
He did not expect to get the job offer, but he did. And he did not expect the reaction he got from Hargis. Hargis reached out his hand to congratulate him, calling it a great opportunity, like his own experience building VIMS. Looking back on his time at VIMS, Boesch said, “I learned a lot from him (Hargis): lead with a strong vision, stand up for the truth, avoid administrative over-reach, and step down before they want you to.”
“I learned a lot from him (Hargis): lead with a strong vision, stand up for the truth, avoid administrative over-reach, and step down before they want you to.”
His new workplace at the fledgling Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium (LUMCON) was an aging mobile home, where he worked with two staffers. The site was chosen because it was state-owned with convenient access to the Gulf, and marshes as far as the eye could see. According to Boesch, the location was “neither too far east nor west, but equally inconvenient to all parts of the state.”
From the air, what Boesch and his architects came up with looks like an airport terminal photoshopped onto a post card with a caption like “The entire coast of Louisiana is occupied by extensive salt marshes”. It’s elevated on pilings with a scenic view from the front deck, which seemed a bit over-the-top when it was first presented to Boesch, but he grew to love it after seeing and hearing the reaction of visiting elementary school students.
The complex was eventually named for W.J. “Woody” DeFelice, a banker and former superintendent of schools in Lafourche Parish, who advised Boesch on the politics of southern Louisiana. “Woody told me that every day he looked his wife and children in the eyes and told them what he did that day. Thus, he avoided doing anything that he would be ashamed of.”
10 years later LUMCON had a small cadre of resident scientists, a new, spacious lab, and 2 research vessels.
After 10 years in the “outback”, Boesch was ready for new challenges. The University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science (UMCES) was looking for a new director, and Boesch was the perfect candidate – smart, young but experienced, energetic, and with a strong scientific background.
UMCES is about the same size as VIMS but split between 4 campuses. Boesch spent the next 27 years there. He had a distinguished tenure, teaching, researching, serving on state and federal committees, and advising several governors. He retired in 2017.
Like Hargis, Boesch, has been a leader on the national and international stage, and is still active.
**Scientific Progress**
19th century biogeographer Alexander von Humboldt, looking back on his prolific career, quipped that there are 3 stages of scientific progress. For any new theory, first deny that it’s true, then deny that it’s important, and finally, credit the wrong person.
**The Linear Model**
Boesch observed what he calls a “linear model”, where scientists come up with a new finding, perhaps unpleasant, and notify technical advisors. The advisors pass it along to bureaucrats at state or federal agencies, who in turn, inform their managers. The managers either act on their own or inform the politicians, who enact a solution. "That’s the food chain," says Boesch, "And that could not be farther from the truth."
In Boesch’s view, progress comes in spurts: in response to a lawsuit, a high-profile policy debate, a major hurricane, or in the case of fisheries, a financially ruinous year.
The science is often murky. Scientists are accustomed to continuously questioning themselves. Consensus on an issue may change as technology improves and more studies are done. For politicians, acting on this sort of knowledge is risky, considering that after having your name bandied about by the press, fairly or unfairly, someone else will be competing for your job in another year or so.
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*In Boesch’s view, progress comes in spurts: in response to a lawsuit, a high-profile policy debate, a major hurricane, or in the case of fisheries, a financially ruinous year.*
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**The Crescendo Model**
One of Boesch’s peers, Ann Swanson, executive director of the Chesapeake Bay Commission, has a slightly different take. According to her, there are 3 stages: crisis, crescendo, consensus. In response to a crisis there is media coverage and public outcry, which builds into an emotional crescendo, followed by political negotiation that leads to consensus for corrective action.
For science to play a part, someone must make the case in layman’s terms. Often this is someone from an advocacy NGO, like the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, The Nature Conservancy, Wetlands Watch, or the James River Association. They employ scientists to keep up with current events and to lobby for their interests. However, while pursuing their advocacy missions, some less reputable groups have been known to cherry-pick which science to promote.
Wetlands, Beaches, and Seagrass
A New State Mandate – Protecting Wetlands and Shorelines
In 1972 the General Assembly recognized that legislation was needed to prevent ongoing wetlands destruction by dredging and filling. In a farsighted move, they passed a [wetlands act](https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims) that mandated permits for any project that would disturb wetlands. The permits would be issued by the VMRC and newly established county wetlands boards. VIMS provided technical assistance before, during and after the bill was passed.
This legislation required VIMS to conduct and maintain an inventory of tidal marshlands. Using topographic maps, aerial photos, and ground survey instruments, VIMS field personnel mapped and documented [all state wetlands, county by county](https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims). It was, needless to say, a huge project, and unprecedented anywhere in the world.
VIMS field personnel mapped and documented all state wetlands, county by county. It was, needless to say, a huge project, and unprecedented anywhere in the world.
A few years later, in response to beach erosion at Virginia Beach, the General Assembly mandated that the inventory be expanded to include the entire shoreline, all 10,000 miles! The combined inventory became the Coastal Inventory Program and continues to be updated periodically.
In the 1990s, ground surveys became more accurate as GPS survey instruments became available. A surveyor’s day would begin by preparing and launching a small boat. Then they would follow the shoreline, getting in as close as possible, all the while repeatedly clicking a button to record position. Shoreline characteristics were noted. Back in the lab, the analysts would connect the dots to map the shoreline.
Over the years as technology improved, the VIMS team started using digital aerial photographs and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software. After 2000, aerial imagery became so detailed, it was no longer necessary to do field work. For example, they can now count the stones in a breakwater, whereas in the old days, they were lucky if they could see the breakwater at all.
Local, regional, state, and federal officials use this data to assess permit applications, and to prepare planning documents. The data is available online.
In 1980, after successfully inventorying tidal shorelines, VIMS was tasked with expanding the inventory once again, to include non-tidal wetlands. This initiative was never funded, and it extended the range of VIMS responsibilities from the coastal plain to the piedmont and mountains of Virginia.
The VIMS group has been much in demand, occasionally taking on research projects in neighboring states. They have had to limit this practice in order to meet their responsibilities in Virginia.
In 1992, recognizing the quality of the VIMS surveys, Maryland contracted with VIMS to map their Bay coast in the same manner. VIMS also partnered with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to develop a coastal inventory for several Gulf states.
As a result of a court ruling in 1998, which was later overturned, the right to ditch non-tidal wetlands was upheld and as a result, more than 2,500 acres of non-tidal wetlands in Virginia were ditched for development, and additional acres of isolated wetlands were destroyed.
In May 2023, the US Supreme Court ruled that the EPA no longer has jurisdiction over non-tidal wetlands. This removed federal protection from approximately half of all wetlands in the continental United States. However, Virginia's wetlands are still protected by the Nontidal Wetlands Act of 2001.
The VIMS Center for Coastal Resource Management published a comprehensive review of their past 50 years in their Summer 2023 newsletter.
Carl Hershner
“There is no greater service than service to the government and citizens of the Commonwealth.” Carl Hershner, 2020.
For someone who came to VIMS not knowing what he wanted to be when he grew up, Carl Hershner took on perhaps VIMS’ greatest challenge - guiding the management of Virginia’s wetlands and seashores.
Hershner grew up in Pennsylvania and attended college at Bucknell. During the summers, he worked as a lab technician at an EPA field lab in Annapolis. When he came to VIMS as a grad student in 1971, he found himself back in a chemistry lab doing water quality assays. In 1972 Hurricane Agnes brought heavy rains, and VIMS devoted all its resources to research the effects of the big storm. Water quality was super important – the flooding and runoff was taking a toll on the flora and fauna.
It was during field work in the salt marshes with Ken Moore and others that Hershner decided to expand his horizons. It’s hard to convey the experience of visiting a salt marsh for the first time. Most people have never experienced it, but visitors to Chincoteague get a feel for it as they motor along the causeway just inches above brownish green *Spartina* marshes and sinuous streams that the locals call “guts”. It’s true wilderness, almost completely devoid of humans, with fiddler crabs, oysters, minnows, barnacles, mosquitoes, greenhead horseflies; and sometimes-noisy marsh hens, seagulls, and ducks; and lots of mud. Unlike freshwater marshes, you can walk on *Spartina* marshes, but one false move and you’re up to your knees in muck.
The first research projects Hershner worked on dealt with the effects of oil spills. “So I set upon a multi-year project to see what happened when one repeatedly dumped oil all over a marsh. As hard as this may be to believe today, killing a couple of marshes in the name of science made a lot of sense at the time, and I learned a tremendous amount about both the pollutant’s effects and the basic biology of wetlands.”
He later studied the effects of the herbicide atrazine, which was thought to be a reason for the decline of seagrass.
In 1978 he joined the VIMS Wetlands Department. He worked with newly established local wetlands boards, which were tasked with assessing and granting permits. All this was new, so there were lots of questions. The only qualification to be a board member was willingness to serve.
During his early years at VIMS, as if Hershner wasn’t busy enough, he took on a leadership role as a volunteer medic at the Abington Rescue Squad. He recruited and trained several VIMS personnel as EMTs and drivers.
Hershner worked with the team that was mapping and cataloging county wetlands. Hershner and geologist Suzette Kimball (who later became director of the U.S. Geological Survey) were consulted about beach erosion in Virginia Beach. They recommended that unvegetated shorelines be added to the wetlands inventory, to provide guidance for regulatory decisions. Their proposal was accepted, but with less funding than requested, and VIMS was now tasked with inventorying all shorelines.
During his early years at VIMS, as if Hershner wasn’t busy enough, he took on a leadership role as a volunteer medic at the Abington Rescue Squad. He recruited and trained several VIMS personnel as EMTs and drivers.
Hershner is the kind of guy who is friends with everyone he meets. Directly across from Maury Hall, was a mobile home owned by a Mrs. Riley, know to all as “Ma”. Mrs. Riley lived there with her grandson, Ken, who suffered from dwarfism. Mrs. Riley, despite her own physical ailments, kept house and cooked for the two of them, and frequently entertained and fed graduate students, who, in turn, would run errands for Ken and her. She often told stories about growing up on the water, including one about her pet pig that rode around on the bow of her boat. Sadly, one day the swine was taken from her, without notice, for culinary purposes. Hershner was a good friend to Mrs. Riley and Ken.
Seagrass
33 - Bo Lusk sampling eelgrass beds. https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/52387664457/in/album-72177720302449217/
Marine life thrives in seagrass. It's a fertile nursery habitat for all sorts of tiny fish and crabs. Blue crabs hide in it when they mate and molt, to protect the soft and vulnerable female. It is a critical habitat for sheltering juvenile and adult bay scallops. Striped bass and speckled trout swim above the grass, feeding on the critters that emerge. During winter migrations, waterfowl feed on it.
The horizontal stems, "rhizomes", and roots stabilize sediment and the long, slender leaves dampen wave energy. The large surface area of the leaves supports prolific micro-algae production. Seagrass sequesters carbon as it carries out photosynthesis, absorbing carbon dioxide and generating oxygen – so
important for bottom dwelling animals. It also reduces ocean acidification, which may be a problem for aquaculture in the future.
For all these reasons, submerged aquatic vegetation is regarded as an indicator of ecosystem health - the canary in a coal mine. Wherever there is seagrass there’s clean water and healthy marine life.
Submerged aquatic vegetation is regarded as an indicator of ecosystem health.
Bob Orth
After graduating from Rutgers, where he worked 2 summers for oyster biologist “Hurricane Hal” Haskin, Bob Orth came to VIMS as a grad student. For his masters’ thesis project, Orth surveyed the fauna of seagrass beds. From VIMS he went to the University of Maryland for his PhD, where he witnessed the decimation of seagrass by Hurricane Agnes in 1972.
At this time Congress began funding a research initiative to investigate the ecology of the Bay. Orth conducted the SAV portion of the research and reported the damage from Hurricane Agnes. On the basis of this and related findings, researchers concluded that the Bay was in trouble. In 1983 the Chesapeake Bay Program was founded as a regional partnership between federal agencies, surrounding states, universities, and NGOs. The program’s ambitious goal was to restore the ecological health of the Bay.
When Orth returned to VIMS, he focused on seagrass restoration. At that time eelgrass was the most abundant seagrass in the lower Bay. A major milestone was when Orth figured out how to propagate eelgrass from seeds, which is much easier than from seedlings.
For their first experiments with seed propagation, Orth’s team cruised through shallow areas in a skiff, casting out seeds as they went along. Where the seeds sprouted and grew, the path of the boat could be seen in aerial photographs. Once an area was sparsely seeded, the grass spread out to fill in the gaps. To express his thanks to his funding agency, Orth seeded an area spelling out “NOAA” in large letters, and to everyone’s delight, it was clearly visible in the following year’s aerial photographs. The Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program Manager, Laura McKay, called it “eco-grafitti”.
In 1978 Orth began annual aerial surveys of Bay grasses that continue today. Each year a small aircraft logs 2,500 miles flying 181 standardized routes. It’s a laborious and tricky business. The photos must show seagrass if it exists; so anything impairing the view is problematic: sun glint, choppy waves, turbid or too-deep water. Also, tides have to be taken into consideration. Often they have to call a local scientist or riverkeeper, someone who has been out on the water, to find out if the water is clear. Satellite imagery can sometimes be used to fill in the gaps, but it’s not detailed enough to be used exclusively.
Back at the lab, GIS specialists prepare updated maps from the photographs – another labor-intensive task. At the end of each year VIMS publishes statistics and identifies trends.
Orth’s attempts to restore seagrass in the Bay have been frustratingly unsuccessful. There was a nice upward trend for a few years prior to 2019, but then came a big die-off. Currently the total acreage is about the same as the 30-year average, with some eelgrass being replaced by widgeon grass, a thinner and less bio-diverse habitat. A recent study by Maryland and Virginia researchers found that widgeon grass has supplanted eelgrass as the dominant seagrass in the Bay, primarily due to its higher temperature tolerance and ability to repopulate blighted areas from seed. There is concern that eelgrass may not continue to survive in the Bay given global warming trends – Virginia is at the southern end of its geographical range.
On the seaside of the Eastern shore, however, it has been a different story. In the 1920s eelgrass was abundant, but a few years later was almost completely wiped out by disease. Orth heard of a single patch surviving near Wreck Island, and from that he collected seed and started planting nearby areas. His strategy worked!
Subsequently, with funding from Virginia CZM, Orth partnered with The Nature Conservancy (TNC) scientists Barry Truitt and Bo Lusk, and together, they scaled up the process by building a seed curing facility. Seed collection and dispersal is now done by VIMS and a TNC team led by Lusk and Brittany Collins. Each spring, a corps of eager volunteers don wetsuits, masks, and snorkels and brave the still-cold water to gather seed-bearing shoots.
The success of the coastal bay seagrass restoration project is unrivaled anywhere else in the world, and Orth and TNC have received many awards.
Now there are 10,000 acres of healthy eelgrass behind Wreck, Cobb, and Hog islands. That’s 15 square miles, almost the size of Manhattan Island. The success of this seagrass restoration project is unrivaled anywhere else in the world, and Orth and TNC have received many awards.
Orth has also been recognized for his leadership and service to the scientific community. He has served his local community – he was elected to the Gloucester County Board of Supervisors and served for several years. He was also a member of the Abingdon Rescue Squad, the Gloucester High School Athletic Boosters Club, and coached his kids’ athletic teams.
He’s a good-natured fellow, even when he’s kidded about his love of grass – seagrass, that is.
Shoreline Erosion Control
(Graphics in this section are from Hardaway and Byrne, 1999.)
Shoreline property owners can be faced with difficult decisions about *how to protect their property*. VIMS marine geologists seek to understand the physical and geological processes that govern shoreline erosion, and provide technical support to the VMRC, local wetlands boards, and landowners.
In 2020 the Wetlands Act was amended to make “*living shorelines*” the default control method, where plants, sand, or rock are used to reinforce the shoreline. If implemented properly, these can resist erosion and provide habitat. One of the problems with vertical erosion-control structures is that there is not much room for tiny plants and animals to grow.
*In 2020 the Wetlands Act was amended to make “*living shorelines*” the default erosion control method, where plants, sand, or rock are used to reinforce the shoreline.*
*Figure 28*
*Kingsmill on the James, James City County, Va. Shore protection system utilizing headland, breakwaters, beach fill with wetland vegetation, bank grading with upland vegetation, a revetment, and an interfacing low-crested breakwater.*
VIMS provides a wealth of resources to local wetlands boards and municipal planners: consultancy, an annual workshop, a comprehensive *Shoreline Management Handbook*, and a well-designed website. In Virginia, municipal and rural planners are required to take into consideration sea level rise.
Shoreline management issues can be complex, as shorelines fall into *overlapping jurisdictions*. A recent Supreme Court *ruling* removed non-tidal wetlands from the jurisdiction of the Army Corps of Engineers.
For landowners compelled to control erosion, or for those taking a proactive approach, there is a program administered by local Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD) called the *Virginia Conservation Assistance Program* (VCAP) that currently (2022) reimburses homeowners 80% of the cost of approved projects, up to $30,000. Homeowners and businesses can request assistance, free of charge, from the [Shoreline Erosion Advisory Service](#).
**The Eastern Shore Barrier Islands**
Virginia’s Eastern Shore has the longest stretch of undeveloped barrier islands in the US. Most of the islands in this 70-mile coastal wilderness are owned by TNC and have been designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The last of these islands to have private homes was Cedar Island and those were swallowed up by the ocean or removed by 2015. Previous settlements have met the same fate, but the
islands in their natural state provide a valuable habitat for migrating birds, and the pristine coastal bays are excellent sites for aquaculture.
VIMS geologist Chris Hein has been studying these barrier islands, marshes, and coastal bays; seeking to understand the underlying geological processes. His crew has been working with historical maps, aerial photos, and satellite imagery to document erosion and deposition. They take core samples and deploy ground penetrating radar to study historical sedimentation. In one of his recent publications, Hein and Giulio Mariotti of Louisiana State University predict that erosion rates will increase in the next 50 years, whether or not sea level rise continues. (Video link - Changes in the barrier islands in recent years.)
Ecological Monitoring of the Eastern Shore Coastal Bays and Wetlands
The coastal bays that lie between the barrier islands and the mainland are high salinity, which indicates that the water is primarily ocean water, rather than freshwater runoff from land. This is good for water quality, as fresh water runoff can be high in nutrients and sediments. The northernmost county, Accomac, has poultry operations that many feared would degrade water quality, but VIMS studies of streams that feed into the coastal bays has, so far, not shown significant levels of pollutants.
With a burgeoning aquaculture industry, there is concern that there may be future impacts to water quality. To keep an eye on this, VIMS maintains continuous water quality monitors at two sites, one at Willis Wharf at a large clam hatchery, and the other at the ESL seawater labs. The data is published online.
Dick Snyder and P. G. Ross have laid the groundwork for long term ecological monitoring at ESL. An analogy in the medical world is the annual physical exam, where vital signs and blood tests are routinely taken, and the physician examines the patient looking for changes that could impact overall health. The Ecological Management Program (EMP) has standard testing and observation protocols, and each year a detailed document is published that summarizes the results. They trawl, they tow plankton nets, they deploy seines, and they collect sediment samples. Back at the lab they identify and count the fish, invertebrates, and macro algae. They monitor microalagae, oyster spatfall; and marsh die-back as observed from drone photography. The program provides opportunities for students, staff, interns, and visiting scientists to gain experience in ecosystem research, and the data is useful for planning and applying for funding for future research.
William and Mary
The Graduate School
The first marine science graduate program was offered in 1940 in the William and Mary Biology Department - a master’s degree in Aquatic Science. In 1959, at the VFL, a Department of Marine Science was established and offered an M.A. degree in Marine Science. In 1963 a joint program was established with the University of Virginia, with PhD degrees in biological oceanography and fisheries biology. In 1975 UVA moved its marine science graduate programs from VIMS into their own, newly established Department of Environmental Sciences.
The VIMS School of Marine Science now offers M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Marine Science, and a Masters of Public Policy in partnership with the College of William and Mary.
Linda Schaffner, recently retired Associate Dean of Academic Studies, credits her mentors for her success as an academic and a researcher. Her first mentor, Leland Pollock of Drew University, a distinguished invertebrate ecologist, took her to the Woods Hole Marine Biological Lab for a summer field course, and encouraged her to do a semester at the University of Miami where she took a course in marine biology and as she put it, “got my first feel for the marine lab vibe.”
She entered graduate school at VIMS in 1976, to study benthic ecology under Don Boesch. In her words, “a dirty job, but hey, someone has to do it.” To those who may wonder why someone would devote a career to studying bottom-dwelling organisms, Schaffner points out that, “Despite what they say in the popular press, the most expansive benthic habitats in most estuaries, including Chesapeake Bay, are comprised of soft sediments. This was true in the historic past and is true today. And as any former student of one of my courses knows, what lies beneath is not a featureless, boring habitat. It’s a complex
environment characterized by cryptic organisms and myriad processes that play major roles in ecosystem function.”
Working for Bob Diaz, “(she) absolutely earned the nickname ‘box core Linda’ “for hours upon hours of tedious microscope work, going through hundreds of offshore sediment samples, identifying and counting critters. She was hailed as “the Mud Queen”, a high honor among her peers, who wore “Born to Pick” T-shirts. She got her PhD in 1987 and has been on the VIMS faculty ever since. In 2011 she was promoted to Associate Dean of the School of Marine Science. At the VIMS grad school, the Associate Dean does the heavy lifting, as the Dean is also the Director and has lots of other duties.
Schaffner has taught classes, mentored grad students, and conducted research. She teamed up with the VIMS geologists to investigate the interplay between sediment transport processes and benthic communities. One of their findings was that many benthic animals are much more tolerant of seabed disturbances than was expected.
Two of Schaffner’s most successful initiatives have been a 10-week Summer Intern Program for undergraduates, and the Hall-Bonner Program for Minority Doctoral Scholars, a partnership with Hampton University and Old Dominion University.
Schaffner has served in leadership positions in several national organizations and received many honors for teaching and research.
Payback
In 1978, three years after the Hargis grand larceny trial, the VIMS board was dissolved, and VIMS was assigned to report to William and Mary’s president and Board of Visitors. Two years later Hargis stepped down as director. “I got the message from the president that it might be a good idea if I went back to the bench so I said, OK, I will, because I’m not going to permit anything untoward to happen to the institute, with my baby.”
There are two schools of thought as to why Hargis lost his job. Vengeance was one. The other was financial mismanagement. Or maybe he was just tired of the fight.
There are two schools of thought as to why Hargis lost his job. Vengeance was one. The other was financial mismanagement. Or maybe he was just tired of the fight.
Hargis’ Legacy
When Hargis became director in 1959, the lab had 6 scientists and 26 support staff. In 1981, when he stepped down, the institute had 71 scientists, 400 support staff, and was funded by 24 state and federal agencies. VIMS had become a major research, educational, and advisory institution. During Hargis’ tenure, there was no dredging of the James River, no new oil refinery, and no new toxic chemical spill. Virginia’s wetlands, shorelines, and seagrass had been surveyed, mapped and categorized; and served as a model of responsible stewardship of public lands. Also, crabs, shellfish, and finfish were being routinely surveyed and monitored.
Sixteen years after Hargis stepped down, he was honored with the Mathias Medal from the Virginia and Maryland Sea Grant programs for applying science to public policy. In 2003 he received two honors: the Thomas Jefferson Medal for Outstanding Contributions to Natural Science, from the Virginia Museum of Natural History; and the VIMS Lifetime Achievement Award. Shortly afterwards, the General Assembly named the VIMS library after him. He was a frequent library user and supporter.
Hargis died in 2008. His greatest legacy may have been his unflinching support of science in public policy. His top-down leadership style wouldn’t work well today, according to Don Boesch. Individual scientists now bring their own funding, and with that, a degree of autonomy. Hiring decisions are made by committees of managers and peers. Major reports are authored by teams of scientists, to reduce the harassment of individuals.
As we have seen, harassment has happened at VIMS: the state police investigation of Hargis; the death threats to Hugget, and the criticism of John Lucy for his observations of the menhaden fishery. But to be
an objective purveyor of science to public discourse, it is inevitable that people will be angry, and often from multiple sides of an issue. The courage these scientists displayed has unfortunately become more rare, yet they are the ones that built VIMS reputation.
His greatest legacy may have been his unflinching support of science in public policy.
40 - Hargis Library https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/50160513731/in/album-72157715299093722/
41 - VIMS Campus: https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/10405960763/
The Takeover
Calming the Waters
Biologist Frank Perkins, for whom the “Dermo” oyster pathogen, *Perkinsus marinus*, was named, was appointed acting director of VIMS while a search committee looked for his successor. A year later, when a suitable candidate was not found, Perkins was appointed director.
Perkins didn’t have the charismatic personality of Hargis, but that was OK because what was needed was a steady hand on the tiller, someone to get the financial house in order and better coordinate with William and Mary. There was no more showing up in Richmond at meetings when you weren’t invited.
As Don Boesch observed, we were entering an era of semi-autonomous researchers, committees, and further division of labor. The Director’s role would be as an administrator, a dean, and lobbyist, not inclined to make trouble for the board, the governor, or the General Assembly.
William and Mary was able to increase funding almost each year of Perkins’ 10-year term. Federal funding had declined, and most of the money was now coming from the state. In return VIMS was asked to do more advisory work.
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*Perkins didn’t have the charismatic personality of Hargis, but that was OK because what was needed was a steady hand on the tiller, someone to get the financial house in order and better coordinate with William and Mary.*
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The Chesapeake Bay Program
Much of the new research was part of U.S. EPA’s Chesapeake Bay Program, an agreement between federal, state, and local government agencies; and NGOs; with the goal of restoring the Bay ecosystem. This required monitoring fish, shellfish, seagrass and wetlands.
Despite Maryland and Virginia’s history of disagreeing on crab regulations, in 1996 they established a Bi-State Blue Crab Advisory Committee to work together to address declining harvests, but the committee disbanded in 2003 after Virginia failed to appropriate their share of the funding. However, in 2008, they both agreed to reduce landings by 34 percent. In Maryland, they shortened the fall crabbing season and in Virginia, they outlawed the winter crab dredge season.
The Budget
Under new leadership, it was time to improve infrastructure, the campus, and the fleet. Several new buildings were built, including Waterman’s Hall with an aquarium and museum exhibits in the lobby. More and more scientific work was being done on computers, and the centralized systems and personal computers needed to be periodically upgraded. It was the dawn of the era of molecular biology and DNA analysis. Scientific equipment was becoming more sophisticated and needed repair and periodic upgrades. All this required consistent funding.
Fast forward to 2016. Slightly less than half of VIMS budget is now from state funds, and slightly more than half is from grants and contracts.
Behind the Scenes
One of Perkins’ innovations was to establish a foundation for private donations in 1982. The first leader was George Roper. A native of Norfolk, Roper graduated from the University of Virginia in 1951, and joined the Army and trained as an electrician apprentice. In 1953 he joined the family business, *Norfolk Shipbuilding and Drydock* Corp, founded by his grandfather in 1914. Roper was an influential leader and a major benefactor to Tidewater Community College, William and Mary, and VIMS.
Roper was also a driving force in another of Perkins’ initiatives, the Marine Science Development Council. This was a group of eastern Virginia business and community leaders who provided guidance for long term planning.
The men and women of the Foundation and Council deserve a lot of credit for their political and financial support. Roper, the Masseys, the Nunnallys, Steve Johnsen, Marshall Acuff, and Jim Rogers - the list goes on and on.
The graduate school added faculty and new courses at Gloucester Point and at William and Mary’s undergraduate school. The campus was improved with new buildings and equipment. More funding came from the state’s general fund, a more stable source, so it was easier to retain good people. And now there was a foundation that provided private funding, and just as importantly, political support.
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*The men and women of the Foundation and Council deserve a lot of credit for their political and financial support, which ushered in a much-needed period of stability.*
Partner Universities
University of Virginia
The UVA Anheuser-Busch Coastal Research Center is a field lab located in the seaside town of Oyster on the Eastern Shore, and managed by the Department of Environmental Sciences in Charlottesville. It has lab space, boats, a conference room and can sleep up to 24 visitors. According to John Porter it’s a great place to work. “You sit down over dinner; you sit on the screened porches – fostering that level of interaction is a really critical part” of the center.
The lab is home to the Virginia Coast Reserve Long-Term Ecological Research Program. Its goal is to gather long term datasets to document changes in plants, animals, and topography. Most recently they have been engaged in studying "blue carbon" - storage of carbon in coastal marine habitats.
Old Dominion University
The ODU Department of Ocean and Earth Sciences offers BS and MS degrees in Ocean and Earth Science and PhD degrees in Oceanography. Two of the founding fathers died recently.
William Dunstan was a chairman of the department for many years. As a young researcher, he and a coworker demonstrated that nitrogen, not phosphorus, was the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton in Long Island waters. This was an important contribution to our understanding of wastewater pollution.
Larry Atkinson was a physical oceanographer who conducted deep sea research all over the world. He served as a leader on many national and international committees and boards. He was managing editor of the journal Oceanography and editor of the Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans. John Bane, of the University of North Carolina, recalled a paper Atkinson published in 1971 on nutrients in North Carolina coastal waters. "(It is) now a classic and a foundational work. When we finally met in person, it was ... a surprise to find such a young man behind the name and reputation." Atkinson was in his 20s when he wrote the paper.
Perhaps Atkinson’s greatest tribute is from his obituary. “…the superpower which he will be most remembered for, was his amazing ability to bring together people from all over the world for common goals and purposes, which he did his entire career.”
**Virginia Tech**
The Virginia Seafood Agricultural Research and Extension Center in Hampton provides technical assistance to the seafood industry to ensure quality and safety, and promote innovative processing and packaging technology. They have an aquaculture research facility where they are currently growing finfish.
Virginia Tech also has a research station in Painter, Va., on the Eastern Shore, that focuses on improving agricultural practices; including reducing nutrient runoff from agriculture important for maintaining coastal water quality.
**Aquaculture**
The first attempts at aquaculture in Virginia were during WWII, at Wachapreague. Two researchers working for Dupont opened a field station to grow ribbed mussels as a source of vitamins. Ribbed mussels are abundant and grow at the base of salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora). Unlike related blue mussels, ribbed mussels are not generally eaten; as they tend to be muddy and have an inferior flavor. At the time, they had been harvested in the wild as a vitamin supplement for poultry feed. During WWII, when international trade in industrial chemicals was disrupted, they were a potential source of vitamin D for submariners, who were cooped up indoors for extended periods. Aerial photos show their experimental plots, but we don’t know how successful they were in their quest for vitamin D.
43 - Farming oysters https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/52266192165/in/album-72177720301080705/
In the 1950s when MSX invaded, and in the 1980s, when the Dermo pathogen (*Perkinsus marinus*) set in, the oyster industry collapsed. Hargis and his team investigated but had no solutions.
*Salvation*
Like Hargis, [Mike Castagna](https://www.vims.edu/esl/_docs/crest_spring2004.pdf) served in WWII in the Pacific theatre, and took advantage of the GI Bill to attend college after the war. Castagna went to Florida State University and swam on the All-Navy swim team. He was about to graduate when he got called back to active duty in Korea, where he served as a medic. In Korea he also scuba-dived and participated in a project to compile Navy dive tables, which are still used to time descents and ascents, to avoid decompression sickness.
Castagna returned to Tallahassee to finish undergraduate work and went on for a master’s degree. Upon graduation he moved to St. Augustine where he worked at *Marineland*, swimming with dolphins and serving as a veterinary technician. In 1956 he moved to Boothbay Harbor, ME, to work for the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF). During that time, as a Naval Reservist, he went to Key West for underwater demolition training. At the age of 30, he was the oldest trainee. They called him “Grandpa”, but he finished the program at the top of his class.
In 1958 he transferred to a small BCF lab in Franklin City, near Chincoteague. He studied the local ecology and was well oriented when Hargis, a former classmate at Florida State, offered him a job in nearby Wachapreague, where VIMS had recently built a 1-story brick building with offices, two dorm rooms, and laboratory space. The year was 1962.
Castagna, gregarious by nature, made friends with local fishermen. He worked with Hargis, looking for ways to control oyster drills. They also tried, without success, to develop disease-resistant oysters.
He began studying shellfish life cycles by growing them in the lab. He and his team worked with 60 species, and found that hard clams, *Mercenaria mercenaria*, held the most promise as an aquaculture product. They were not vulnerable to disease, and, ironically, the small ones – the size of a silver dollar - are tastier and sell for more than the large ones. That reduced the growth period,
They grew larvae in rows of 20-gallon galvanized garbage cans, the big ones, like Oscar the Grouch lives in. To maintain a continuous flow of seawater, and to minimize the number of pumps, the cans were lined up and connected by siphon hoses. Saltwater plumbing was always a challenge – pipes and valves would clog up with fouling organisms if not flushed out daily with fresh water.
In a greenhouse they grew phytoplankton to feed the larvae, which they raised in tubs in an abandoned oyster shucking house that served as a hatchery. They improvised continuously, using low-cost materials. As Castagna would say, “There’s no reason to spend two dollars on a valve if pinching a hose will work just as well”. A heat exchanger was improvised from a whiskey barrel and salvaged copper tubing.
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*They improvised continuously, using low-cost materials. As Castagna would say, “There’s no reason to spend two dollars on a valve if pinching a hose will work just as well”*
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Castagna led by example. He pitched in with everyone else in Friday afternoon cleanups. There was a spirit of cooperation; team members filled in wherever they could help, regardless of their job title.
Once the hatchery was successful, it was time to “plant” the fingernail-sized clams on nearby mud flats to grow to market size. Keeping predators away was a challenge. After trying different methods, the solution was to cover the beds with netting.
At this point they had a complete system and were ready to go public. Castagna and John Kraeuter published a *Manual for Growing the Hard Clam Mercenaria* and offered a short course on clam aquaculture, affectionately known as "clam college". Several students went on to establish commercial hatcheries, aqua-farms, and packing sheds on the Eastern Shore.
Like the Wright brothers first aircraft, the system was rudimentary, but it proved the concept and paved the way for others to refine the concepts and procedures. The long-suffering shellfish industry now had a viable business opportunity, and they seized it. In 2021, the industry brought in $58 million to Virginia coffers, with 99% of landings coming from the Eastern Shore.
Castagna’s team hosted visiting scientists and students from all over the world. On one occasion, Castagna took a visiting foreigner to a nearby barrier island in a small boat. To go ashore, they had to wade through shallow water. It was warm enough to go barefoot on the sandy bottom. As Castagna took off his shoes, the foreigner proceeded to strip naked. Concerned about how this might look to the locals, Castagna tossed him a towel. The visitor caught it, rolled it up and put it on his head.
It must have been frustrating to Hargis that after all the years of research by him and his team, there was no breakthrough in the oyster disease problem. However, there was help in the offing, from a young grad student from Foxboro, Massachusetts.
After college, Standish Allen spent 2 years working construction, waiting for his girlfriend to join him in Maine, where he entered the University of Maine’s Masters program in Aquaculture. A little over a year into the program, in an unheated attic, reeking of seaweed and marsh mud, the 25-year-old was able to breed the first *triploid* oyster. Eventually, this would prove to be a very big deal, but not yet.
*In an unheated attic, reeking of seaweed and marsh mud, the 25-year-old was able to breed the first triploid oyster.*
Most plants and animals are *diploid*, with 2 sets of chromosomes, but breeders of both plants and animals have developed organisms with 3 (triploid), 4 (*tetraploid*) and 6 (*hexaploid*) sets. Most of these are larger, grow faster, and some - the triploids, are infertile. This means no seeds, like in bananas and watermelons; and in oysters, it means they can be harvested in summer months, as they are not emaciated from spawning. Fast growth is important; obviously to get to market faster, but also to avoid disease. These plump, cultured, triploid oysters are now the most sought after by restaurants and connoisseurs.
But it would take 30 years for the triploids to be a commercial success.
To breed the first triploid, a toxic chemical, cytochalasin B, had to be added immediately after the eggs meet up with the sperm. Unfertilized oyster eggs are diploid, and one set of female chromosomes is eliminated during fertilization. The chemical interferes with this process, and the egg keeps both sets of female chromosomes. Along with the single set from the male, this makes 3 sets, a triploid.
For the process to work, the timing must be precise, the water temperature must be perfect, and the eggs and sperm must be at just the right stage of development.
Allen published his results but did not think to apply for a patent. Later, in 1984, at the University of Washington, as a PhD student, Allen and coworker Sandra Downing created a triploid Japanese Oyster. This time they applied for a patent for the process \textit{and the oyster itself}. Since the process had already been published in Allen’s 1979 paper, the Patent Office denied the request, but announced that genetically altered animals could be patented. It was a \textit{landmark decision} in American patent law.
Next Allen and Downing applied for a patent for a different process to create triploids, and this time they were successful. Later, in 1993 at Rutgers, Allen and former grad student friend, Ximing Guo, applied for a patent for a tetraploid oyster, and that was also granted. This was super important, as it is way too difficult to breed triploids the way Allen initially did it. The easiest way is to breed normal oysters (diploids) with tetraploids (2 cross 4 -> 3) and that is the key to how modern hatcheries work. Tetraploids can reproduce, so they can be kept and cultured in hatcheries as broodstock - oysters cultured to produce seed.
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\textit{These plump, disease-resistant, triploid oysters are now the most sought after by restaurants and connoisseurs.}
\end{quote}
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\caption{Image description}
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In an effort to revive the oyster industry, in 1997 the General Assembly appropriated funds for an oyster breeding facility at Gloucester Point and funds to lure Allen away from Rutgers. The *Aquaculture Genetics and Breeding Technology Center* (ABC), as it was called, was housed in an existing building next to the boat basin, just inches above sea level and subject to flooding. There was no heating or cooling, so it was like working in a garage. Allen became the first director.
Similar to Mike Castagna’s quest, the goal was to develop a process for commercial aquaculture. For oysters, the challenge was harder because of disease. By this time, breeders had been successful in developing oysters that were resistant to MSX, but not to Dermo. Dermo is a pathogen that accumulates as the oysters grow. It is not harmful to human consumers, but it kills wild oysters around the age at which they fully mature, around 2 1/2 years. Triploid oysters can better resist Dermo because their average age of maturity is 1 ½ years. Also, they are heartier in the summer, as they don’t expend energy in reproducing,
At this time, researchers had been experimenting with Pacific and Japanese oysters. It was critical to prevent the non-native oysters from escaping into local waters, to prevent infestation by another non-native pathogen. One solution was to quarantine the oysters at a separate facility. At Topping, VA, near the mouth of the Rappahannock River, the *Kaufman Aquaculture Center* was built primarily for this purpose, with private funding.
The Asian oysters did well in lab tests, so Allen’s team proceeded to conduct field grow-out tests. For these tests, they bred infertile triploid oysters. Mark Luckenbach's team tested these in Wachapreague.
It is a very rare phenomenon, but it is possible for a triploid to reproduce. During experimentation with non-natives, Allen’s team had to ensure that the triploids were not reproducing. This involved checking thousands of oysters to see if they were producing gametes. Needless to say, this was tedious work.
The triploid Asian oysters did well in field tests, so a lot of people were excited about the prospect of introducing them. However, VIMS advisory personnel were concerned that they could displace the native oysters. Several federal agencies shared that concern, and also concluded that the Asian oysters were a potential carrier of human pathogens. Many considered the Asian oyster an inferior product compared to the native Virginia oyster. Consequently, they were banned.
At this point, the native *Crassostrea virginica* was the only option. After all the experimentation with Asian oysters, they had the expertise, materials, and field test sites to test the native oyster.
*Crassostrea virginica* ranges from the Gulf Coast to Maine, so out-of-state oysters with potentially unique genetics were brought in for breeding and testing, to see if they were disease resistant. A Louisiana transplant did well and has been among the successful contributors to the breeding stock.
In the end, the triploid native oyster proved to be a viable commercial species.
There are now 5 field test sites, ranging from low salinity at the Choptank River in Maryland, to the Potomac, the Rappahannock, the York, and finally the high-salinity Lynnhaven River. VIMS provides several varieties of broodstock for each of these salinity regimes.
Allen, a thoughtful lecturer, speaks of his oysters as farm animals. As such, he likens his breeding work to that of agronomists who developed the high-yield crops of today. Asked about any worries he might have about introducing these cultivars to local waters, Allen responded that you could make a case for harvesting only farmed oysters, and letting the native oysters grow undisturbed, to restore the Bay’s reefs, to provide habitat, to filter water, and to anchor and stabilize sediments.
Allen, a thoughtful lecturer, speaks of his oysters as farm animals.
48 - Stan Allen with his oyster breeding team https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/8342024803/
Along with hard clams, bay scallops were one of the first shellfish that Mike Castagna and his crew studied as candidates for aquaculture. They brought in scallops from other areas, even a separate species from Texas, to develop the broodstock. They demonstrated that a production hatchery was feasible, but at that time, it was not profitable to grow them at the price point set by wild harvests.
Bay scallops are a challenging species for aquaculture. They have a short life span, about 1.5 years. They can be an annual aquaculture crop, but given the short life span, a single bad year can be a major setback to natural restoration efforts. Unlike clams and oysters, bay scallops are mobile, propelling themselves by squirting out jets of water from gaps in their shell. These gaps cause them to dry out in storage, much faster than hard clams. Also the shells are thin, which is good for jet propulsion, but requires careful handling during harvesting.
Dick Snyder’s team at the ESL has been growing juvenile bay scallops in the lab for both aquaculture and natural restoration. In an effort to restore wild populations, they have been deploying spawning cages, juveniles, and larvae (veligers) in the now-thriving eelgrass beds. The goal is to reach a threshold population density at which adults are in close enough proximity to ensure that their eggs are fertilized, and the population sustained. ESL, the VIMS Seagrass Lab, and TNC partner each year to collect census data on these "planted" scallops.
In 2023 the Virginia CZM Program received a $2.2 million award from NOAA, through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law "Climate-Ready Coasts" initiative, to provide a grant to VIMS for eelgrass and bay scallop restoration in Burton's Bay, just offshore from Wachapreague.
VIMS is also assisting commercial growers to develop aquaculture methods, providing seed and helping with marketing. One entrepreneur uses something called a lantern net, a series of stacked nets that hang from a single rope.
Restoring and culturing Bay scallops is a work in progress. It's an exciting time to be in aquaculture.
Virginia is currently leading the East Coast in shellfish aquaculture, and nationwide only behind Oregon and Washington.
**Top 10 Virginia Fisheries**
In 2021, clams were the top species, 99.9% from Eastern Shore aquaculture.
The oyster aquaculture industry continues to grow steadily, supplementing sustainable wild harvest which is managed by VMRC - assisted by VIMS.
Virginia is currently leading the East Coast in shellfish aquaculture, and nationwide only behind Oregon and Washington. Mike Osterling credits this to three factors:
- Regulatory environment favorable to growers
- Motivation of local entrepreneurs
- Research support from VIMS
| SPECIES | METRIC TONS | DOLLARS (MILLIONS) |
|-----------------------|-------------|--------------------|
| Clam, quahog, northern| 2967 | 57.9 |
| Menhaden | 136691 | 46.6 |
| Crab, blue | 7840 | 33.5 |
| Oyster, eastern | 1648 | 30.3 |
| Scallop, sea | 865 | 29.6 |
| Flounder, summer | 811 | 4.4 |
| Spot | 677 | 3.8 |
| Bass, striped | 510 | 3.8 |
| Withheld for confidentiality | 1674 | 2.0 |
| Catfish, blue | 1411 | 1.8 |
50 - Top 10 Virginia commercial fisheries, year 2021.
When shellfish growers have a problem, who to call? Karen Hudson!
Karen Hudson, VIMS’ shellfish aquaculture specialist, is the marine counterpart of a state agricultural extension agent. If she can’t answer the questions herself, she can call on parasitologist Ryan Carnegie and others to investigate.
Hudson has gained the trust of the growers. That has paid off. Growers participate in surveys that enable her to prepare a comprehensive annual report on the industry. This has been key to winning support from the General Assembly.
VIMS has recently made major upgrades to its aquaculture research capabilities. For estuarine research, they relocated the Aquaculture Genetics & Breeding Technology Center to the new, state-of-the-art Acuff Center for Aquaculture. For high salinity work, they rebuilt the ESL Castagna Shellfish Research Hatchery & Nursery - now there are two modern seawater labs in Wachapreague. Bill Walton was hired as the aquaculture coordinator to bring expertise from commerce, regulatory, and scientific areas of the field.
The threat to growers is all too real. For years, oyster farmers from the Gulf Coast to the Chesapeake Bay have reported mortalities ranging from 30% to 60%. In the past, natural die-offs have occurred for environmental reasons, like heavy rains from Hurricane Agnes in 1972 that brought about big changes in salinity. Low dissolved oxygen or harmful algae blooms can also cause natural losses, but none of these factors has been identified as causing oyster farm die-offs. VIMS has recently received a $300 thousand grant to investigate this. They suspect that the problem may lie in the genetic composition of broodstock. Hopefully they can breed new strains that are invulnerable to these die-offs.
Modeling
The state of the art in modeling has come a long way since the massive concrete scale models of yesteryear. Now, of course, it’s all done on computers.
John Boon
Marine geologist John Boon has been retired since 2002, but you’d never know it. Since retirement he has written a book on tides, developed a website with sea level rise predictions for 48 locations in US coastal waters, developed a website with accurate short-term tide predictions, and spearheaded the development of several mathematical models.
One of Boon’s papers about Hurricane Isobel, entitled The Three Faces of Isabel: Storm Surge, Storm Tide, and Sea Level Rise, hints at Boon’s fondness for film noir.
The times of high and low “astronomical tides”, can be predicted years in advance, as they depend on the orbits of the moon and the sun. But that’s not the whole story – tides can be heavily influenced by stormy weather. Winds can force water in or out of the Bay, and water levels rise as atmospheric pressures fall.
In the long run, tides are also influenced by sea level rise.
53 - Observed (red) vs. predicted (blue) astronomical tides, tropical storm Hermine https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/28888217043/
There are many websites that forecast tides, but Boon’s site, called Tidewatch, is unique in that it takes into account meteorological forecasts. It predicts the next 36 hours, so it’s always using the latest weather forecast. When a storm is approaching, Tidewatch is the best source for tide and flooding predictions. You can view the forecasts for individual tide stations, or you can click on a map and view a pop-up graph for your location, which can be anywhere in coastal Virginia. This is useful for those who live in frequently flooded areas – they can plan whether to move their cars and what roads to avoid on the way to work. At some point, hopefully, trip-routing applications like Google Maps will use it to help motorists avoid flooded roads.
For major events, residents can “prepare for coastal flooding, whether that involves gathering sandbags, moving possessions to higher ground, adjusting mooring lines for their boat, or choosing an evacuation route.”
As if all this wasn’t enough for a retiree to take on, Boon played a major role in planning and developing fluid dynamics models for the Bay, as we will soon see.
For 39 years *Virginian Pilot* Reporter [Dave Mayfield](https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/46382769794/) had been reporting on [climate change](https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/46382769794/) and felt like his reporting was falling on deaf ears. However, living in Norfolk, people were already experiencing sea level rise whenever there was a particularly high tide, during calm weather.
In 2016 he got an idea for a way to improve the flood predictions – crowdsourcing - crowds of people spreading out all over Norfolk and recording flood boundaries with their cell phones. It would document, precisely, where to expect frequent flooding in the future.
It would require a crowd of people because it would have to be done within a narrow the time frame centered on the maximum high tide.
Mayfield was surprised when his managers approved, and it immediately caught on with VIMS, WHRO Public Media, and Wetlands Watch – a non-profit organization devoted to the restoration and protection of wetlands.
It works by having the volunteers download an app on their cell phones that records the exact location at the push of a button. On a day when an exceptionally high tide is expected, they walk along the high-water lines, clicking as they walk.
Exceptionally high astronomical tides, “king tides”, are what scientists call [perigean spring tides](https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/46382769794/). They occur about 6 times a year. In its first year, the event, called *Catch the King*, drew 700 volunteers who recorded 60,000 data points. It turned out to be a social occasion also, a chance for concerned neighbors to get to know each other. And it proved to be a teachable moment - elementary and high school classes incorporated it into their curricula.
Mayfield was surprised when his managers approved, and it immediately caught on with VIMS, WHRO Public Media, and Wetlands Watch.
SCHISM
VIMS had good reason to support Catch the King. Over the years John Boon and Harry Wang had developed mathematical models to predict tide heights. They seized this opportunity to develop a model to predict flooded areas.
They recruited Joseph Zhang, who, over the past decade or so, had developed an innovative fluid dynamics model. The model, called SCHISM (Semi-implicit Cross-scale Hydrosience Integrated System Model) uses a spatial grid with variable cell size, tailored to fit the geography. Earlier models used checkerboard-like, rectangular grids. SCHISM uses triangles and quadrangles of varying sizes to conform to irregularly shaped rivers and coastlines. The model uses a single grid to simulate the coastal ocean with large cells, the Bay with medium-sized cells, and the rivers with small cells.
Models like SCHISM are at the heart of modern scientific research. They incorporate our understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of natural phenomena.
The model has been extensively tested. It successfully simulated flooding from Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, Hurricane Harvey in Galveston, and flooding events in Portugal, Japan, Taiwan, and other locations.
When grid sizes are small, there must be lots of them to cover the spatial area of interest. For the current Chesapeake bay model, there are 45,000 grid cells. To run a 1-year simulation it computes several quantities (water level, water currents, salinity, temperature, etc) at each location, at several depth layers. Using a 2-minute time step for, let’s say, 10 calculations at 10 depths, the total number of calculations for a 1-year model run would be:
260,000 time steps x 45,000 grid cells x 10 calculations x 10 depths =
1,170,000,000,000 calculations
That’s a lot of math. And that is why these models require supercomputing centers.
To start this model, initial conditions of water currents, salinity, temperature, and nutrient concentrations, etc. are provided, along with tide and weather data. After the first time-step, only updated tide and weather data are required. The model predicts currents, flood levels, salinity, temperature, nutrient concentrations, suspended sediments, and ocean wave heights.
Joseph Zhang got his BS degree from Beijing University, then his masters and PhD from the University of Wollongong, Australia. He developed SCHISM from an earlier model developed at Oregon Health Sciences University. Zhang and collaborators from around the world have been continuously refining the model. It’s “open-source”, freely available to the public along with its source code.
Models like SCHISM are at the heart of modern scientific research. They incorporate our understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of natural phenomena. Models can be tested by “hindcasting”, comparing simulations to events that took place in the past, where we know the outcome. If the models perform well, they can be used for “what if” analyses. For example, Bay models can address the following question: how much nutrient-reduction would result from improved wastewater treatment plants, more efficient farming practices, or cleaner septic systems? Think of 3 “dials” that can adjust inputs for each simulation. Questions like this would be impossible to answer without modeling.
SCHISM has been chosen by the EPA for its next generation Chesapeake Bay model. One of the advantages of SCHISM is that it is modular and is designed to accommodate additional user-provided calculations related to water circulation. An example of this is the VIMS Tidal Marsh Model that
simulates changes in marshlands under different sea level rise scenarios. For small patches of marshland, the grid cells are as small as 1 meter in some places.
SCHISM has been chosen by the EPA for its next generation Chesapeake Bay model.
StormSense
Flood models are becoming more and more important as time goes on, due to sea level rise.
The StormSense project focuses on urban areas. In Norfolk, water level sensors have been mounted on bridges and along waterways. These are powered by solar panels and transmit data to VIMS where it is fed into the StormSense flood model. This model (another SCHISM plug-in) incorporates land elevation data derived from radar (Lidar) overflights. The surface elevation data includes the size and shape of buildings, so that the model can account for the resistance of the terrain to flooding. It can identify which buildings are likely to flood given different sea level rise scenarios.
The current version of the Tidewatch Map app is driven by SCHISM with 1,500,000 grid-cells, 13 vertical layers, and a 6 minute time step. In the city, the grid cells are 3-feet wide.
Flood models are becoming more and more important as time goes on, due to sea level rise.
Other VIMS Models
In the future, we will probably see models for SAV and shellfish. It would be great for testing proposed management practices.
Chesapeake Bay Environmental Forecast System
We now have a model to predict dead zones - areas with too little oxygen to support life. The same model has an experimental capability to predict harmful algal blooms (HABs).
It’s called the Chesapeake Bay Environmental Forecast System (CBEFS), and it also forecasts salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and acidification. All are short-term forecasts - 48 hours into the future. A series of color-coded maps is published daily on the website.
This information can be useful to aquaculture operations. In the event of poor water quality, hatcheries can suspend water intake, and postpone spawning and harvesting. During HAB blooms, health departments can consider beach closures. The data can also be used by fishermen to locate the best fishing spots, away from dead zones.
Bob Diaz
Like Don Boesch, Carl Hershner and Linda Schaffner, youngster Bob Diaz had an affinity for mud and worms. Diaz attended LaSalle College in Philadelphia and took a night-shift job monitoring dissolved oxygen at the Conowingo Dam near the mouth of the Susquehanna River. When oxygen levels got too low, he was to notify the Dam manager to start releasing water, thereby aerating the water for the shad and herring below. The first incident occurred at around 3 AM, and when Diaz called, the Dam manager thought it was a Dam hoax. Reluctantly, Diaz then called his manager, who wasn’t happy to get the Dam call, but in another half hour or so the water started flowing and the fish began jumping “in approval”.
Diaz came to VIMS as a graduate student in 1968. After earning his PhD, he joined the faculty. He worked with Linda Schaffner and others on hypoxia in the York River. One of their early achievements was to deploy an oxygen monitor from a data buoy that transmitted the results to shore every 30 minutes – an innovation at the time.
In 1976, on a research cruise off the coast of New Jersey, Diaz observed an anoxic event from water flowing into the ocean from the Hudson River. It resulted in an estimated $570 million loss to commercial and recreational fisheries.
Along the Gulf Coast there are times when fish, crabs, and shrimp appear in abundance in shallow water close to shore. In Alabama, locals call it the Mobile Bay Jubilee and feast on a bounty of fresh, delicious
seafood. It was once viewed as a minor miracle. In recent years the cause was discovered - a depletion of dissolved oxygen in deep water.
They found that the number of dead zones has increased worldwide by more than a third since 1995, and that dead zones now rank with over-fishing, habitat loss, and harmful algal blooms as global environmental problems.
In 1995, Diaz published an article with Swedish colleague Rutger Rosenberg on the ecological impacts of hypoxia. They coined the term “dead zones” to describe deep hypoxic zones where only the most resilient worms can survive. They found that these areas occur around the world and are increasing in frequency and magnitude. It’s caused by excess nutrients that trigger an algae bloom at the surface and a subsequent bacterial bloom near the bottom. It’s the bacterial bloom that consumes the oxygen. The biggest dead zone in the US forms on the Gulf Coast, and the second largest forms in Chesapeake Bay. Sometimes the causes are natural, like at the mouth of the Mississippi river, but in most cases it is exacerbated by manmade pollutants: wastewater and runoff from urban areas and agriculture of plants and livestock.
There was a shortage of striped bass in the Bay during the 1970s and 1980s, attributed mostly to overfishing, but also declining water quality, oxygen depletion, and disease. After regulations were established to restrict the catch, the fishery mostly recovered.
In 2005, Diaz and Rosenberg published their findings about the worldwide expansion of dead zones in the journal Science. They found that the number of dead zones has increased worldwide by more than a third since 1995, and that dead zones now rank with over-fishing, habitat loss, and harmful algal blooms as global environmental problems. A dead zone underlies much of the main-stem of Chesapeake Bay each summer, occupying about 40% of its area and up to 5% of its volume.
Diaz’s global dead-zone database now appears as a layer in Google Earth.
Diaz retired in 2013 after a fruitful career in which he mentored 75 grad students, served in leadership roles in national and international organizations, advisory services, and as a spokesperson for VIMS. In 2010 he joined the ranks of Hargis, Musick, and Burreson when he was honored by the Virginia Science Museum with the Outstanding Scientist Award.
Diaz’s global dead-zone database now appears as a layer in Google Earth.
RecFish
Birdwatchers have excellent phone apps to help identify birds in the field. Simply take a picture, submit, and if the picture is detailed enough, the app will identify it. If it’s a new species for you, click and it’s added to your life list. More importantly, your picture is added to a database, catalogued, and made available to researchers and the public. For users, it’s convenient – there’s no need for field guides or notebooks. For the rest of us, the data reveals what both sexes look like at all ages, and when and where species normally occur. It also enables estimates of abundance and migration patterns.
VIMS has developed a similar app for anglers. *RecFish* is now available on mobile devices and as a website. The initial version is not fully functional, as it can only recognize a few species. It takes several thousand pictures of each species to “train” the machine learning software - software also used for facial recognition and optical character readers. So, the goal of this first version is to gather pictures. As more and more are added, identification skill will improve.
The goal is to identify each fish, estimate size and weight, and determine if it is legal to keep. Future enhancements may include whether it is edible, legal regulations, and the citation size and weight. One possible enhancement - virtual fishing tournaments. Like the birder databases, this one will add to our knowledge of the appearance of both sexes at all ages, migration patterns, abundance, and will yield size and weight statistics.
*The goal of the App is to identify each fish, estimate size and weight, and determine if it is legal to keep.*
VIMS has been doing trawl surveys since 1965, but only in waters deeper than 9 feet. While the data is invaluable for managing fisheries, it misses shallow waters - important fish habitats of grass beds and oyster reefs. Only the Juvenile Striped Bass Survey samples shallow water.
There are approximately 300 fish species that regularly occur in the Bay, but only about 30 year-round residents. The rarer the species, the more important the pictures are. Anglers are not inclined to pose with throw-back fish, but by photographing them they will be doing a good deed. Those who prefer to not reveal the location of their favorite fishing spot can provide an approximate location or no location at all.
More and more anglers, like birders, are content to observe without harming the animals. For anglers, this is catch and release. Injuries to fish can be minimized in several ways, for example, by using barbless hooks, leaving the fish in the water while carefully removing the hook, and releasing promptly. Catch and release mortality can be significant - for striped bass, mortality of 10% is estimated.
**The State of the Bay**
**Invasive species**
*Invasive species* are non-native species that move into an area and displace native species, potentially disrupting the ecosystem. Some have no known predators and "take over" an ecosystem.
Some invasives, harmful as they are to the natural ecosystem, have desirable attributes. Think of Chincoteague ponies, domestic cats (bird, reptile, rodent, and insect predators), and fragrant *honeysuckle*.
As we saw earlier, MSX probably came from transplanted Asian oysters. *Rapa whelks*, thought to have been introduced from ship ballast water, were discovered in the Bay in 1998. Native to East Asia, they are a threat to clams and oysters. They grow to a size that is too large for predators of the two native whelk species. Ironically, in the Hampton Roads area, the whelks have been suffering from a chemical found in boat paint; but are slowly recovering since the chemical has been banned.
In the ‘70s and ‘80s, *Blue catfish* were *introduced* into Tidewater rivers by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. They now range outside these rivers all the way to the mouth of the Bay where they have been caught in pound nets. They displace native fish like shad and herring, and feed on small crabs and fish. *Osprey populations* have benefited, which, of course, is a good thing.
*Phragmites australis* is a tall native grass that can grow up to 14 feet high. In colonial times a variety was introduced for use in thatched roofs, and has become invasive. It often takes over disturbed soils and can displace native plants in established marshland. It has been regarded as a *nuisance* species and steps have been taken to control it. However, it has been shown to provide habitat for some bird species, and according to VIMS scientist Matt Kirwin, it’s good for ecological *resilience* because of carbon sequestration, improving water quality by taking up nitrogen, and building up marsh elevation to keep up with sea level rise.
The red macroalgae, *Gracilaria vermiculophylla* has become abundant in the Bay, its tributaries, and the Eastern Shore's coastal bays. The jury is out on whether it’s good or bad. In still waters it has a tendency to bunch up and block sunlight, but in other areas it helps vegetate areas previously occupied by seagrass and serves as a nursery habitat. During WWII, Harold Humm, who later authored *The Marine Algae of Virginia*, surveyed Atlantic coastal waters looking for marine algae from which agar could be extracted – a critical bacteriology lab supply previously sourced from Japan. Humm established an *agar factory at Beaufort*, NC, that operated during the war, processing *Gracilaria verrucosa* and *Gracilaria foliifera*.
As we will see in the next section, several species of microalgae are invasive. One of the biggest problems with invasives is that they can “sneak up” on us. At any time, an unknown species may invade and wreak havoc, and unless other areas have experienced it, there may be no known remedy.
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) have caused serious problems in most Atlantic and Gulf states. Blooms have closed beaches, closed fisheries, and necessitated seafood product recalls. So far (2023) we are lucky in Virginia that no one has gotten sick from Chesapeake Bay shellfish.
In 2021 Kim Reece gave an overview lecture on HABs, summarized below.
HABs are phytoplankton, microscopic plants: dinoflagellates, diatoms, and cyanobacteria. Mostly they’re beneficial, an important food source. But they become problematic when they produce toxins, or when they “bloom” – have a population explosion. After a bloom they die and sink to the bottom and are consumed by bacteria, thereby depleting dissolved oxygen.
Blooms are usually dominated by a single species. There are several toxin-producing species in Virginia waters. For some of these species, there are strains that never produce toxin. The ones that do produce toxins, may not do so all the time.
Every species has optimal environmental conditions. Researchers are working to understand the relative importance of temperature, salinity, nutrients, wind patterns, sediment resuspension, and light penetration.
There are several toxin-producing species in Virginia waters. For some of these species, there are strains that never produce toxin. The ones that do produce toxins, may not do so all the time.
Some species reproduce by “cysts”, which can lay dormant in sediments for years. When the conditions are right, they can bloom. VIMS and the Virginia Department of Health have a joint project to map *Alexandrium* cysts.
Other states have found that the best ways to mitigate HAB blooms is by monitoring and issuing early warnings.
Monitoring is done in a variety of ways. Optical microscopes are still used, but nowadays there are instruments that can identify and count microorganisms in water samples either in the lab, or in the case of a "flow cytobot", in the water at a buoy station. These instruments funnel tiny particles single-file through a transparent tube where they can be photographed and counted. Similarly, [cytometry](#) focuses a laser on individual particles and characterizes them based on scattered light or fluorescence. (Stan Allen uses cytometry to [identify triploid oyster larvae](#).)
Lab tests can be used to identify DNA from different organisms. It’s another way to determine the mix of species in a sample.
Remote sensing - aerial photos from a drone, aircraft, or satellite can be used to identify and quantify blooms.
Two species are so common on the western shore, they have been given nicknames. *Alexandrium monilatum* and *Margalefidinium polykrikoides* are “Alex and Marge”, a not-so-fun couple. Since 2007 Marge blooms first and then it’s typically followed by Alex. Of course, ladies first.
Alex has one redeeming feature, bioluminescence. It glows at night whenever it’s disturbed. A glowing boat wake on a moonless night is an unforgettable sight.
For swimmers, the Virginia Department of Health (VDH) cautions, “If the water is discolored, murky, has an odor, or if there appears to be a film on the water surface, swimming is not advised for human or pets. When in doubt, stay out!”
VIMS has partnered with DEQ, ODU, and VDH to monitor HABs. The coalition is called the [HAB Task Force](#).
---
*So far (2023) we are lucky in Virginia that no one has gotten sick from Chesapeake Bay shellfish.*
VIMS chemist Rob Hale was the lead author of a 2020 publication about microplastics that was recognized by the *Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans* as highly significant towards our understanding of the Earth and the solar system. Hale emphasizes that plastics are truly a global problem. In the oceans, plastic waste concentrates in large oceanic gyres, notably “the garbage patch” in the North Pacific. Plastic waste is also found along shorelines all over the world.
Microplastics are tiny particles that were either manufactured that way or broken apart from larger pieces. Popular synthetic “fleece” garments shed multitudes of particles every time they are washed and worn. Plastics are so durable that we tend to think of them as inert, but, unfortunately, some plastics, like polystyrene foam, are infused with toxic agents to enhance their properties. Examples are flame retardants and UV inhibitors. But even the inert particles can have detrimental effects, such as displacing food particles in filter feeders, thus reducing their growth rates.
Hale is concerned about changes in chemical properties as the particles weather and age. He is especially concerned about toxicity of the tiniest particles, nanoplastics.
Microplastics ingested by marine animals can end up on our dinner plates. Investigators report that the highest concentrations are found in filter feeders – mollusks (clams, oysters and scallops).
The consensus is that manufacturers need to find biodegradable substitutes or stop producing all but the most essential products. Kirk Havens has been consulting with Virginia Tech researchers on a biopolymer called PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate) for escape hatches in crab and lobster pots. PHA can degrade in nature and is currently being developed into netting and rope. It may become the material of choice for oyster bags (used in shoreline erosion barriers), clam aquaculture netting, landscape netting for newly planted slopes, and shotgun shell "wads" that cradle shot pellets and are expelled when fired. Hunters are required to pick up their empty shell casings, but the wads are harder to retrieve - they typically travel 20 to 50 yards. Wads have been found in shorebird stomachs, and they are a big problem for cranberry growers. Virginia Tech researchers are also investigating PHA for netting used to bind hay and straw bales. Cows often eat the netting, which accumulates in their stomachs.
Havens has been consulting with Virginia Tech researchers on a bio-degradeable polymer for escape hatches in crab and lobster pots. This material may prove to have a host of other uses.
Global Climate Change
The primary cause of global climate change is the greenhouse effect, brought on primarily by increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Even if we reduce the burning of fossil fuels, it will take decades to purge the carbon dioxide out of the system. So we are stuck with global warming trends for the foreseeable future.
VIMS has a website, AdaptVA, that addresses climate change and how to mitigate the impact.
Sea Level Rise
In the global ocean, sea level is rising due to melting glaciers and expansion of warming water. What exacerbates the problem in Eastern Virginia, is land subsidence. This is caused by large quantities of ground water removed by two paper mills, and *isostatic rebound* - a lingering result of glaciers retreating. As the weight of the retreating ice decreased, the (Canadian) land underneath rose - and distant land (Virginia) fell.
Rising sea levels have implications for wetlands. *Scientists disagree* on the impact. Some say that wetlands will “drown”, others think they will survive by accumulating peat from sedimentation and decaying vegetation. A recent VIMS study found that the rate of 10mm per year was a “tipping point” – above 10 the marshes drown, below 10, they survive.
We have already seen sharp declines in wetlands bird populations in coastal Virginia. Take, for example, seagull populations. There were 55,000 nesting pairs of gulls in 1993, but only 20,000 in 2018. This decline has been attributed to marsh habitat loss.
According to a recent VIMS study, by 2100 sea level rise in the Chesapeake Bay region will claim an additional 600 square miles of upland, mostly rural forests and farm fields. That’s 4 times the area of upland inundation than what we have seen since 1840, when reliable records were first available. The challenge will be for landowners and rural counties to adapt to the loss of uplands.
*Some scientists think that wetlands will “drown” with sea level rise, others think they will survive by accumulating peat from sedimentation and decaying vegetation.*
**Warming Bay waters**
Warming Bay waters may soon be as problematic as sea level rise. A 2022 report from the Chesapeake Bay Program’s *Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee* concluded that the current Bay cleanup strategy, focused on nutrients and sediments, *doesn’t account for the negative impact of rising water temperatures* on marine life. Some of the current mitigation measures, namely detention ponds, increase stream temperatures. Efforts to reduce warming, such as planting trees along streams and in urban areas, haven’t been meeting goals. Runoff from urban heat islands is also part of the problem.
We are seeing declines in eelgrass in Bay waters, at least partly due to warming Bay waters. Blue mussels and surf clams are becoming scarce - they are moving north along the coast. *White shrimp* and *pinfish* are moving into Virginia waters from North Carolina.
The consensus is that, going forward, we need to prioritize temperature along with nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediments.
---
*Species distributions are changing. Five years ago, Virginia did not have a shrimp fishery.*
---
**Acidification**
Another impact to Virginia fisheries is acidification. More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means more in the oceans, which makes the water more acidic. This is a potential long-term *problem for shellfish*, as it makes it more difficult to grow shells. Fresh water is naturally acidic; rainfall certainly is. This may ultimately be more of a problem for open ocean critters, rather than for those adapted to the fluctuating acidity of estuaries.
*Report Cards*
The *Chesapeake Bay Foundation* and the *University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science* issue annual reports on the Bay and its watershed.
Water quality is obviously an important component of the evaluation criteria. VIMS partners with the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, the EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, and the Hampton Roads Sanitation District, to collect and distribute water quality, meteorological, and oceanography data. A list of data sources is [here](#), and the data is available [online](#).
VIMS issues two report cards: [Chesapeake Bay dead zones](#) and [Sea Level changes](#) at 32 locations along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coastlines, including Alaska.
The Big Picture
64 - Satellite image of Bay and it's tributaries [https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/49090957008/](https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/49090957008/)
In 2015, to lead off VIMS 75th anniversary commemoration, Carl Hershner gave a talk on the “Chesapeake Bay: Then, Now, and Next”, summarized below.
The watershed of the Bay is huge. For every acre of Bay surface, there are 14 acres of watershed. This ratio, watershed to bay area, is the largest of any estuary in the world.
Bay health is heavily dependent on what goes on in the watershed. There are currently 17 million residents, continuously developing the land, and enjoying a pleasant quality-of-life.
Looking at the timeline above, the forested environment started changing when European settlers arrived and began clearing land for farming. As the land was cleared, runoff increased, carrying sediments into the rivers. Before that, runoff was mitigated by vegetation and beaver dams. The problem with sediments is that they settle before they are swept out to sea, smothering oyster reefs and covering sandy bottom habitats with silt. Suspended sediments increase turbidity and reduce the sunlight available to seagrass. Less seagrass means less habitat, less photosynthesis, and less oxygen produced near the bottoms.
Large scale commercial fishing began in the 1800s and for the first time, as we saw with oysters, we experienced overfishing of key populations.
Industrialization brought on faster development, and mass-produced fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. Nutrients from agricultural runoff and municipal wastewater cause algae to bloom in surface waters. This leads to a chain of events: seagrass suffers from lack of sunlight, the algae eventually die and sink to the bottom where bacteria consumes them, thereby depleting the dissolved oxygen at the bottom. This process is called eutrophication.
The opposite of eutrophic is oligotrophic, which was the case when John Smith first arrived. The water was clear, and seagrass, shad, sturgeon, and oysters were thriving.
The first indications of trouble came when shad and sturgeon disappeared, and oyster harvests declined. For the first time, people noticed blue-green algae blooms in the Potomac.
Evidence of trouble
- Collapse of shad and sturgeon fisheries
- Declining Oyster harvest
- Blue-green algae blooms in the Potomac
- Hypoxia
Later, when oysters, rockfish, and SAV declined, people again took notice.
Scientists speak of ecological regime changes, defined as major, persistent changes in the ecology of an area. Hershner defined 4 regimes, shown below. Currently we are in the “crabs, menhaden, cities and suburbs” regime. The 4th and final regime, with algal blooms, jellyfish, and bacteria; is where we will be if current trends continue.
In 1998 the Chesapeake Bay Foundation issued its first State of the Bay report. CBF scientists evaluated 13 indicators (listed below the next figure) in three categories: pollution, habitat, and fisheries. The benchmark of 100% was taken to be the state of the Bay when John Smith arrived.
dissolved oxygen
phosphorus
nitrogen
water clarity
toxics
oysters
rockfish
blue crabs
shad
underwater grasses
wetlands
resource lands
forest buffers
In 1983 the states met and agreed to work together to improve the Bay. This was the start of EPA’s Chesapeake Bay Program. One of the first conclusions was that the Bay was in trouble, and the states needed to take action to restore it. Nitrogen pollution was identified as the most serious problem. The map below shows the largest sources of nitrogen entering the Bay, mostly in Maryland and Pennsylvania.
Menhaden is the largest fishery, by tonnage, as shown below. Crabs are the second largest.
Below is the same data with Menhaden removed, to show more detail for the other fisheries.
Oysters, shad, and striped bass bottomed out starting around 1980. Since then, striped bass and oysters have recovered.
Nutrient pollution has proven to be difficult to reign in. We’ve made a lot of progress in improving wastewater treatment, but agriculture is a different story - it is now the major source and difficult to reduce.
A somewhat surprising source of nitrogen is from the atmosphere: vehicle exhaust fumes and emissions from power plants that burn fossil fuels.
Given the increasing levels of environmental stress, Hershner argues that we can’t get back to the John Smith regime, and it’s unlikely we’ll be able to go back to the wild oyster - rockfish -SAV regime.
In the diagram below, on the vertical axis, the CBF goal is 70%. Hershner argues that a more realistic goal is 50%. Hershner color-coded the 13 CBF indicators: red = highly unlikely, yellow = unlikely, and green = possible.
Hershner concludes, “For effective public policy, for the appropriate use of limited public resources, …we need to rethink what the end goal should be for this system. We may have to come to grips with a Chesapeake Bay that is always going to be cloudy. It just won’t be producing jellyfish and we hope it will be producing clams and oysters. They may come from aquaculture as opposed to wild harvests.”
“But it can still be a system that serves us very well. It just won’t be one that it looked like back in the early ‘70s and ‘50s. When we think about climate change, one of the two big drivers… we know the temperatures have increased and are going to increase, and sea level is coming up and we expect it to continue coming up”.
According to Hershner, the other big driver is population and development in the watershed. When we consider these challenges, and that the people living in the watershed have a good quality of life, we may conclude that despite our best efforts, we may be limited in how much we can improve the Bay. Therefore, we need to rethink what we consider to be success.
Our task going forward is to identify the most cost-effective and sustainable interventions. Fortunately, our models are state-of-the-art and enable us to do the what-if analyses that will assist us in making wise decisions.
A recent (2023) report from the Chesapeake Bay Program’s Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee reached similar conclusions. We should strive for a healthier Bay, but it won’t be the Chesapeake of the past.
All things considered, the outlook for the Bay may not be so bad after all.
"We may have to come to grips with a Chesapeake Bay that is always going to be cloudy. It just won't be producing jellyfish and we hope it will be producing clams and oysters. They may come from aquaculture as opposed to wild harvests."
**Advisory Services**
VIMS now has an Office of Research and Advisory Services (ORAS) that responds to requests from the General Assembly, the governor, state agencies, local wetlands boards, marine and coastal-related private industries, and federal agencies. They also provide personnel and training to support the management of wetlands and seagrass.
Two VIMS advisors attend monthly meetings of the Virginia Marine Resources Commission where the commission rules on permits and regulations. They respond to questions from the Board as its members weigh VMRC staff recommendations and public input.
Perhaps the most valuable service VIMS provides at VMRC meetings is as an honest broker to provide scientific opinions on issues that can be highly contentious. The December 2022 meeting that considered tighter regulation of menhaden fishing in the Bay drew the largest crowd ever – the VMRC auditorium was overflowing with concerned Northumberland and Northampton County residents.
Emily Hein recently gave a [talk](#) on current projects. The map below shows the locations and sizes (in dollars) of projects for the three years ending in 2023.
*Perhaps the most valuable service VIMS provides at VMRC meetings is as an honest broker to provide scientific opinions on issues that can be highly contentious.*
The largest ongoing project is the Hampton Roads Bridge Tunnel Expansion. VIMS modelers simulated the impact of the proposed project on currents, water quality, plant and animal life. Fortunately, the impacts were minimal. One of the issues was the installation of steel pilings, which when driven into the bottom, vibrate in such a way that is hazardous to marine life. One of the recommendations was to start with soft blows, slowly increasing the intensity so that finfish could flee the area.
An example of a recently completed project is the construction of gapped breakwaters just north of the Savage Neck Dunes Reserve on the Bay in Northampton County. The project was mostly successful in protecting the property owners’ shoreline, but it increased erosion at the Savage Neck Dunes Reserve – despite beach nourishment intended to prevent it.
Hein, Lyle Varnell, and Mark Luckenbach are also on-call for disaster response, such as oil spills, plane crashes, and ship fires. In March 2022 there was a crash of a Navy Hawkeye radar aircraft in a coastal bay near Chincoteague. Salvage personnel were able to offload the aviation fuel and recover the wrecked aircraft; and with VIMS guidance, there was only minimal damage to eelgrass beds.
Marine Advisory Program
VIMS has a related group of marine scientists that focus on a wide range of topics: aquaculture, commercial and sport fishing, marine education, marine business, and seafood technology and safety. This group is dedicated to advisory services; they represent VIMS at public meetings and events.
Public Education
In addition to William and Mary graduate and undergraduate degree programs, VIMS provides internships at the college and high-school levels. For college students, there are summer intern research and field courses at Gloucester Point and at Wachapreague. At Gloucester Point there is an Oyster Aquaculture Training program that prepares students to work at hatcheries or start their own business.
For 10 lucky high school juniors and seniors from the Northern Neck, Rappahannock Community College (RCC) and Virginia Tech offer an annual 3-week course in Aquaculture. Also for this age group, VIMS has a Governor’s School program for high achievers.
VIMS educators provide the Bridge, a web-based clearinghouse of digital classroom resources, and the Virginia Scientists and Educators Alliance that works with graduate students to create K-12 lesson plans. They also offer a summer field course for Virginia middle and high school teachers at Wachapreague.
As mentioned above, the VIMS Center for Coastal Resources Management offers Tidal Wetlands workshops in the spring and fall for members of citizen Wetlands Boards and other interested parties. The Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve at VIMS offers a Coastal Training Program for grades K through 12.
VIMS has many other public programs, including open houses, After Hours lectures, and an occasional grad students’ presentation at a local brewery or distillery - A Scientist Walks into a Bar.
The VIMS website provides a wealth of information, without which, this document could not have been written.
Finally, the Hargis Library provides physical and electronic access to marine science literature from VIMS and worldwide.
Acknowledgements
I (George Mapp) have recently been writing for the *Citizens for a Better Eastern Shore* newsletter. I have an MS degree from VIMS (1982), but I’ve been away from marine science for many years. I haven’t kept up with VIMS and all they have accomplished over the years, so I thought I would write an article, and it grew into this document, available online at:
https://bit.ly/VIMShistory
I chose the web format because it’s easy to distribute the document, including color photos, to anyone who shares my appreciation for the scientists, educators, and staff members who work diligently to understand, describe, and document the intricacies of our natural marine environment.
I am grateful to Carl Hershner, Bill Rue, and Laura McKay for their advice and encouragement; and I particularly thank Dick Snyder for his many comments and corrections. Any remaining errors are, of course, mine alone.
I welcome your comments – email me at firstname.lastname@example.org.
Appendix
The Virginia Marine Resources Commission
In 1875 the General Assembly established a Fish Commission to study and recommend legislation to the Governor and General Assembly. Over the years the Commission was granted more and more authority over fisheries, bottoms, wetlands, shorelines, dunes, and beaches. The agency was renamed the Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC) in 1968.
VMRC regulates saltwater fisheries. Offshore species and species that range across state boundaries may also be regulated by NMFS or the ASMFC. State fisheries that violate ASMFC or NMFS regulations or catch limits [may be shut down](#) by the U.S. Secretary of Commerce.
The 8 VMRC Board members are appointed by the governor to 4-year terms. The commissioner is also appointed by the governor and may be replaced anytime. One board member has to be a commercial fisherman and another, a recreational fisherman.
VMRC currently has approximately 150 employees, with 33 in Fisheries Management, 11 in Shellfish Management, and 14 in Habitat Management. These employees work with stakeholders, the public, and with regional and national fishery management groups (ASMFC and NMFS).
VMRC monthly board meetings are held in Hampton, open to the public, with opportunities for public comments. Examples of agenda items are shoreline permit appeals (forwarded from local wetlands boards) and public hearings for changes in fisheries catch limits or season schedules. Each agenda item is presented by a VMRC staffer, with staff recommendations. VMRC staffers and VIMS Advisory personnel are available to answer questions. A representative from the Attorney General’s office is available to address legal issues. VMRC can make formal requests to VIMS to present expert testimony at future meetings.
A critically important part of fisheries management is stakeholder and public participation. Accordingly, VMRC has 9 Management Advisory Committees: Aquaculture, Crab, Finfish, Commercial Fisheries, Recreational Fisheries, Menhaden, Saltwater Fisheries, Shellfish, and Seaside Eastern Shore Oyster Replenishment. VMRC staffers facilitate committee meetings, either in-person or online or both. All meeting agendas and minutes, and some video recordings, are published on the VMRC website.
Each committee is composed of board members with diverse backgrounds, from communities impacted by their decisions. Members discuss the issues, hear public comments, and submit recommendations to the monthly VMRC Board meetings, where the commissioners vote to accept, modify, or reject them.
Committee chairmen can be VMRC Board members, VIMS advisors, or other members – not VMRC staffers. Facilitating the meetings may entail presiding in partnership with the chairman. It’s an understatement to say that this requires a lot of patience, as some speakers digress and exceed their allotted time. Was it Mark Twain who said, “People who love sausage and respect the law should never watch either one being made”?
VMRC has 5 divisions, 3 of which are related to fisheries. The other 2 are Law enforcement and Administration.
Habitat Management
According to Virginia law, the state owns bottomlands below Mean Low Water. The Baylor survey of 1884 is still used to delineate public oyster grounds. VMRC can lease areas outside of the Baylor grounds to private parties for shellfish cultivation, so long as it is not covered by submerged aquatic vegetation. Leaseholders can hold onto to a lease indefinitely if they pay rent on time, and they have a transfer right. Transfers have sold for hundreds of thousands of dollars.
Conflicts with waterfront property owners are becoming more frequent as aquaculture takes up more bottomland. Homeowners have objected to arrays of floating or tidally-exposed cages, complaining that they are a hazard to navigation and recreation, and they interrupt scenic views and lower property values.
VMRC manages a public oyster reef replenishment program with participation by VIMS, USACE, the Rice Rivers Center at Virginia Commonwealth University, CBF, TNC, and others. For example, over 400 acres in have been restored on the Piankatank River by spreading granite rock over the bottoms to provide surfaces for oysters to grow.
There is also a program to help private lessees improve their bottomland, administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Not all restoration projects have been successful. Recently a project on the Lynnhaven River that used recycled paving concrete was ordered by VMRC to remove 190 barge loads of material because of complaints from landowners about asphalt, rebar, metal wires, and plastic. Also, VIMS found low levels of polycromatic hydrocarbons. PAHs, a toxic material, in the asphalt and concrete. The project was halted, and the sponsoring organizations were ordered to remove the material.
VMRC issues licenses for commercial fishing. Some fisheries can only support a limited number of fishermen. For these fisheries, there are limits on the number of active licenses. Some new licenses may be available after a waiting period; some may be purchased from an existing license holder.
For shellfish, regulations are so complicated that online training is required. Not only are there rules as to when and where you can fish, but also there are health department regulations to guard against pathogens like Vibrio. In summer months, the catch must be shaded from direct sunlight, and must be offloaded from the boats by 10 AM. These regulations are important for seafood that is eaten raw.
The strict oyster regulations are also important to sustain the wild (non-aquaculture) fishery, which has recovered from severe declines in the 1990s.
VMRC also regulates commercial and recreational crabbers: size, season, time of day, and possession limits. They also set aside sanctuary areas that cannot be fished, and "harvest areas" that can be fished at designated times only.
Fisheries Management
For recreational fisheries, VMRC establishes catch limits and license requirements. The [Department of Wildlife Resources](https://www.dwr.virginia.gov/) publishes the regulations and sells the licenses. VMRC offers an informative [Angler’s Guide](https://www.vmrc.org/angler-guide) online. VMRC also manages an annual [Saltwater Fishing Tournament](https://www.vmrc.org/saltwater-fishing-tournament), and awards commemorative citations for record catches.
VMRC participates in the NMFS [Marine Recreational Information Program](https://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/) whereby staffers interview anglers as they unload their daily catch. They record the number of fishermen, they weigh and measure the fish, and they record information about fish that were released. The individual reports are confidential.
VMRC also conducts age and growth studies, a program they took over from Old Dominion University. Each year personnel process hundreds of fish otolith and scale samples.
Pat Geer
“Nobody (who) goes into fisheries management does it to get rich. We do it because we have a passion for fisheries, and I will say that about all my staff. I mean they all have a strong passion. We’re dedicated to the job we do, and we do the very best we can.” Pat Geer, 2022 (Video link)
Pat Geer was a seasoned fisheries manager when he joined VMRC in 2018.
After completing his master’s degree at Old Dominion University, he joined the Fisheries group at VIMS where he served for 14 years in a variety of project management roles including the Juvenile Fish and Blue Crab Survey. For the next 16 years he worked at the Georgia Department of Natural Resources – for 8 of those years as the Chief of Marine Fisheries. He came to the VMRC in 2018 and was promoted to Chief of Fisheries Management the following year.
A long-term member of the ASMFC, Geer is also the designated state official from Virginia on the NMFS Mid Atlantic Fishery Management Council.
As fisheries chief, Geer manages commercial and recreational saltwater fisheries. Aside from collecting landings and related statistics, preparing management plans, and setting catch limits, his division issues commercial fishing licenses and bottomland leases. To regulate fishing pressure, some licenses are restricted, available only by lottery or purchase from a previous owner. Similarly, some bottomland leases are only available by purchasing from a previous lessee. Complex issues arise when license fees or lease rents are not paid on time.
Geer is concerned about the future of some of the traditional fisheries, like crabbing and oystering. Many watermen are getting old, as are their boats and gear. Operating costs are going up and licenses can be difficult to obtain. To recruit young fishermen, there is now a *Commercial Waterman’s Apprentice Program* for young people, 12 years and older.
We are fortunate to have Geer as the leader of this organization. He has just the right amount of experience, patience, expertise and moxie, and is the voice of reason at many drawn-out meetings.
Moreover, Commissioner Jamie Green, the board members, and staffers do a good job of running VMRC meetings. They carry out their duties above board, with integrity and fairness. It’s a good example of democracy in action.
**The Bolide**
By 1970, Luis Alvarez had achieved more than most scientists could dream of – he had recently won the Nobel Prize in Physics. At that time his son, Walter, was grappling with a puzzle that had long eluded geologists, something called the K-T boundary -- a half inch layer of clay sandwiched between older sediments known to have dinosaur fossils and younger sediments without. What could have caused the dinosaurs to go extinct? Walter discussed this with his dad, who up until that point had little interest in geology.
The two approached a friend at Berkeley who had developed a new technique to analyze clay particles. They found a surprisingly high concentration of iridium, an element rare on earth but abundant in space. That led them to conclude that a meteorite impact followed by a “nuclear winter” had triggered the demise of the dinosaurs.
This did not sit well with paleontologists. Aside from not appreciating a crack by Alvarez comparing them to stamp collectors; one of the first big, fundamental debates in the 1800s was how geologic changes occurred. Was it by a series of catastrophic events, or was it slow, gradual change, like erosion? By 1900 "catastrophism" had been rejected. What the early scientists had no way of knowing was the extent of destruction of a comet or meteor strike, and that was provided by the Hubble space telescope in 1994. A series of comet fragments impacting the planet Jupiter delivered a destructive blast way more powerful than expected, equivalent to hundreds of nuclear weapons. NASA astronomer Heidi Hammel described it as a "punch in the gut", a wakeup call that the earth could be next.
So if dinosaurs died off from an impact, where was the crater? Luis Alvarez died before it was discovered – a 100 mile wide, 12 mile deep crater buried off the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico.
In 1999, US Geological Survey scientists found "shocked quartz" in deep wells drilled in Eastern Virginia. This is a mineral found only in impact craters. To confirm this was an ancient crater, they were able to convince Texaco to share their proprietary seismic profiles, from which the crater could be detected. They were able to piece together the boundaries of a 35-million-year-old, 50-mile wide crater buried under sediments in the lower Chesapeake Bay, centered on the town of Cape Charles. It’s the largest known impact crater in the US and Canada.
They were able to piece together the boundaries of a 35-million-year-old, 50-mile wide crater buried under sediments in the lower Chesapeake Bay, centered on the town of Cape Charles. It’s the largest known impact crater in the US and Canada.
The impact, from a comet or meteorite, disrupted aquifers and left a lasting depression that formed the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. The discovery explained layers of hard granite and pools of salty water found in nearby deep wells. At first geologists thought some of the current land subsidence could be attributed to the crater, but later concluded that after 35 million years, too much time had passed for subsidence to still be active.
VIMS geologists had been studying the geological history of the Bay, to help understand sedimentation and erosion processes. Their research focused on the most recent 100 thousand years or so, which, in geologic time, is like yesterday. It was a time of multiple ice ages with the rise and fall of sea level, when the Virginia portion of the Eastern Shore peninsula was formed. The rising Chesapeake Bay is an example of what geologists call a “drowned river valley” – the river being the Susquehanna.
The Codfish Ball
“All the Swordfish love to play. Every clam is here today.
To shell-a-brate this holiday at the Codfish Ball.
Shark and Salmon play backgammon till the break of day.
And each Seahorse is here of course, this is the place where the plaice all play!”
From At the Codfish Ball, by Sidney Mitchell
75 - Releasing hatchery cobia: https://www.flickr.com/photos/vims_photos/7314895970/
By George
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Nonfiction interests and reading habits of third grade students
Kimberly Astacio
Rowan University
Follow this and additional works at: https://rdw.rowan.edu/etd
Part of the Elementary Education and Teaching Commons
Recommended Citation
Astacio, Kimberly, "Nonfiction interests and reading habits of third grade students" (2016). Theses and Dissertations. 573.
https://rdw.rowan.edu/etd/573
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NONFICTION INTERESTS AND READING HABITS OF THIRD GRADE STUDENTS
by
Kimberly Astacio
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Department of Language, Literacy, and Sociocultural Education
College of Education
In partial fulfillment of the requirement
For the degree of
Master of Arts in Reading Education
At
Rowan University
December 18, 2015
Thesis Chair: Susan Browne, Ed.D
© 2015 Kimberly Astacio
Dedications
This thesis is dedicated to my family; Bert, Maya and Zachary. Thank you for your continued support and caring about my research within reading education.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my class of students as well as my colleagues for listening to me share new ideas. I would also like to acknowledge my classmates in the Reading Specialist program, as well as professors that have seen me through. You all have been so supportive in helping me with my study.
In recent years there has been a push for informational text use in the areas of reading and writing. The Common Core State Standards was introduced in 2009 as an initiative to have all students, no matter where they live, be prepared for college and careers. The NAEP (2007) developed a framework to look at the distribution of literary and informational passages. By fourth grade the literary and informational passages are evenly split for state testing. By eighth grade, state tests suggest a slight increase with informational texts at 55% and literary passages at 45%. Thus, it is important that these types of texts are introduced and apparent in the classroom. This is based on what students will need to live a successful life. “Informational literacy is central to success, and even survival, in advanced schooling, the workplace, and the community” (Duke, 2013). As a result of this increase in demand of non-fiction, this thesis looks at how students are currently viewing and using nonfiction when they have a choice in their literature. It further examines what teaching practices can be used to shape students view of informational texts. The goal of this study is to understand if students choose nonfiction when their interests are considered in the nonfiction selection.
# Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................. v
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ viii
Chapter I: Scope of Study ......................................................................................... 1
Story of the Question ............................................................................................ 2
Statement of Research Problem and Question ................................................... 4
Purpose Statement ............................................................................................... 4
Organization of the Thesis .................................................................................... 8
Chapter II: Literature Review ..................................................................................... 9
CCSS and the Shift .............................................................................................. 9
Current Practices and Student Choice ............................................................... 11
Significance of Nonfiction Texts in the Elementary Classroom ....................... 13
The Goal of Engagement ...................................................................................... 15
Chapter III: Context and Research Design ............................................................... 19
Research Design .................................................................................................. 19
Procedure of Study ............................................................................................. 20
Timeline ............................................................................................................. 21
Data Sources ....................................................................................................... 23
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 24
Context ............................................................................................................... 25
Community ..................................................................................................... 25
District .......................................................................................................... 25
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| School | 26 |
| Classroom | 26 |
| Participants | 27 |
| Chapter IV: Data Analysis | 28 |
| Introduction | 28 |
| Revisiting the Study | 28 |
| Finding Commonalities Among Third Graders | 30 |
| Gaining Insights into the Preferences of Reading Genre | 32 |
| Judging a Book by its Cover | 35 |
| Learning, Choice, and New Literacies | 39 |
| Summary of Data Analysis | 40 |
| Chapter V: Conclusions | 42 |
| Summary | 42 |
| Conclusions | 44 |
| Limitations | 45 |
| Implications for the Field | 46 |
| References | 49 |
| Appendix A: Student Interest Inventory | 51 |
| Appendix B: Library Checkout Log | 53 |
| Appendix C: Reading Log | 54 |
| Figure | Description | Page |
|--------|-------------|------|
| Figure 1 | Third grade student’s interests | 30 |
| Figure 2 | Interests based on library checkout | 31 |
| Figure 3 | Before increasing nonfiction in the classroom | 32 |
| Figure 4 | During the increase of nonfiction in the classroom | 33 |
| Figure 5 | Student responses to reading nonfiction | 34 |
Chapter I
Scope of Study
It all began when I was wondering how to bring nonfiction into my classroom. I thought I was already doing it being an up-to-date best practicing teacher. I have heard through district grade level meetings, the common core, and professional development courses that there has been a need to increase nonfiction reading. I can’t say that I knew why exactly, but there was no doubt that things were changing. So many questions that I had didn’t seem to get answered and I continued to teach the same way as before. There was not a neat and tidy package that got dropped off telling me how to fit nonfiction into the curriculum perfectly. Therefore it mainly showed up during cycles of guided reading. But that had its issues as well. Where do I get the materials from? How do I know if it is on the child’s instructional level? Are they interested in this topic, really? That being set in place, I still didn’t see students reading nonfiction. I tried to incorporate Nonfiction Friday a few years ago. That meant on Fridays, the students had to read a nonfiction magazine that I had in my classroom. They complied and possibly even enjoyed it. It was a break from their regularly scheduled fiction reading. My grade level partners and I even switched up magazines each month so we had new offerings. As the next year or two passed, it seemed to lose its luster. I wasn’t actively engaged and neither were the students. I found that more was needed and that I needed to reflect on my own teacher practices as well as what the students would want.
Story of the Question
Nonfiction. I don’t prefer it. When I was in elementary school, the only students who were interested in it were of higher intelligence or boys. It did not seem appealing or interesting in the least. I read it when I had to, but then usually didn’t understand it. I remember the silver social studies textbook and the dread of having to answer questions from the book. I didn’t understand the content which further led me to believe that I wasn’t smart. It led me away from content area understanding altogether. I did not have the strategies to read a textbook. However I never minded reading a Babysitter’s Club or R.L. Stine mystery. I liked to read, but I certainly preferred fiction.
This followed me through high school where I do not remember reading for pleasure at all. This occurred again in college. I was not prepared and had to take remedial courses to get ready for college. What? How can this be? I was always an A/B student with the occasional C. How did I successfully pass high school and then need remedial support for county college. This was frustrating, made me feel like I was not smart, and led me to believe that I just needed to get through the system. And I did. I barely cracked textbooks and studied when I needed to. But I did not enjoy learning. Then I became a teacher.
In the first years everything was great. My students loved to read! Reader’s workshop was their favorite time of day to slip away into a fantasy, a mystery or a humorous tale. The kids would groan when the time was over. I had a plethora of books and the students loved fiction read aloud. Enter the Common Core Standards. At first glance nothing changed during reader’s workshop. Students still read their pleasure book of choice. The district strongly encouraged the use of nonfiction during guided reading.
So I was to instruct students how to read a nonfiction text. Easy enough. I learned a few strategies, emphasized text features and tried to engage them in an interesting text on their level. The students usually really enjoyed the articles or texts and liked guided reading. However they weren’t choosing these texts on their own free reading time.
In the meantime I became a mother of two beautiful children. Both love to read of course! My daughter is in 3rd grade and reads well above grade level. That being said, she does not choose to read nonfiction. My son is in preschool and he seems to like fiction stories as well, but also like trucks and machines. However both of my kids watch TV programs that are educational (mostly). The programs they enjoy include nonfiction elements. *Wild Kratts* teaches about different animal species and habitats through a cartoon as well as *The Magic School Bus* series that explores so many science topics. They love these types of shows and really obtain background knowledge through them. However, will they be college and career ready? So much of their adult life will need to revolve around nonfiction texts and it is not being supported at home. Am I not preparing them for success?
This brings me back to my classroom. How much nonfiction am I exposing to my students? I have some nonfiction in my room. There are magazines that they can choose. That is enough, right? Well when I observed their choice preferences at reader’s workshop it does not show that they are even aware of the nonfiction sections. I had to check my own biases. The only nonfiction I read is for graduate studies, information about common core, professional development texts and articles, files on students, information from the internet about every area of life. Wait…the only thing I really read is nonfiction? This is where my shift began. I actually consume nonfiction all day long.
Now I buy into it. I really do want to help my students and kids love nonfiction. There is so much to offer but they are being underexposed. I just have to find the authentic purpose for my students.
**Statement of Research Problem and Question**
The problem that I am pondering is the lack of exposure and use of nonfiction texts in elementary school. Further it is important to take into consideration what students are interested in reading. When students’ interests are met, they are more likely to be motivated to read. Therefore, I am looking to find out what happens when students are exposed to nonfiction regularly and within their interest areas. Will the regular promotion of nonfiction texts through a few teaching strategies affect students reading choice?
**Purpose Statement**
Nonfiction was once just a boring, heavy textbook. It was straightforward with information and less than captivating with its pictures. These types of texts were primarily used in the content areas. It would be rare to see a student reading one for pleasure. Long over are the days in which students are told what to read. Students indulge in pleasure reading in the classroom for sustained reading time. They are allowed choice and are exposed to a variety of genres. Guthrie (2010) found five motivation practices that can be used daily within the classroom. They include success, thematic units, choice, relevance, and collaboration. SSR (silent-sustained reading) or Reader’s Workshop have been a place to encourage students to read on their success levels with choice and relevance to their own life. Students choose a book on their independent reading level and sink into a good book. Teachers have full libraries and
work to separate the library by genre. Students choose nonfiction as well as fiction. Teachers often read aloud an interesting fantasy that the whole class will enjoy. They buy Scholastic books that are new and fresh and keep their students updated and interested with a plethora to choose from. The names may differ, but students love Reader’s Workshop for the uninterrupted time to read their own book. There are arguments for and against Silent Sustained Reading. The research seems to show that “it could be that if you read more, you are a better reader; but it also seems possible that better readers choose to read more” (NICHD, 2000, p. 3-21). This leads to wondering how effective the SSR program is. Teachers must be mindful of the literature their students are reading. Chall, Jacobs and Baldwin (1990) found students to hit a fourth grade slump; particularly those in a lower income. The students in their study had the greatest difficulty with word meaning. Nonfiction text may pose a way to expand vocabulary at this age, when more common vocabulary needs to be improved upon. Students need exposure to words multiple times and within context to expand their vocabularies. Teachers also need to provide direct instruction on word meanings. They may confer with students about their reading to ensure comprehension and help make further book choices. More currently teachers have applied The Daily Five and Cafe as approaches to enhance the Reader’s Workshop Model. These systems help manage students reading and suggest strategies for becoming better readers. While the goal for students to love reading has been met, all students are not being exposed to a variety of text; particularly those that fall under non-fiction. Chall (1983) notes that in traditional practice primary grade levels have almost exclusively used fiction as a way to teach mechanics of reading, while nonfiction texts have been used to teach content to upperelementary readers. Duke and Kays (1998) found that experience is a large determining factor in what students will read in their future. In their study, kindergarten students were exposed to a large number of information books for 3 months. The students were able to reflect informational text features and language after this exposure. Students benefit from exposure in class and will quickly gain the tools that they need if given the opportunity. The young age of the students is less of a factor than that of exposure. The implications were to have students exposed to nonfiction regularly and given lots or practice to gain this experience. This research supports the notion that paying attention to the specific interests students have when choosing informational texts may increase students’ choice in reading nonfiction.
Teachers feel that students are uninterested in nonfiction reading material. This is exactly the concern I am looking at when I am looking at my teacher research question. Through an interest inventory survey, researchers Vent & Ray (2007) collected data and found that 85% of fourth graders like non-fiction books. When compared against the actual amount of books selected in the library, only 35% of these books were nonfiction. This leads to further questions including: why don’t students choose non-fiction?, and how can teachers support students to like nonfiction? Of the reasons explored, they found that students felt that nonfiction is too hard to read and follows a different text format. There is also lack of exposure by parents and teachers. Duke (2004) found the students are only exposed to 3.6 minutes of non-fiction per day and that number is even less in lower socio-economic schools. The study further looks at strategies to promote nonfiction reading. They include books on display, book talks, specific interests, authentic purpose, comprehension strategies, and book pass. The researchers used 4 of
these strategies and found that students were more interested in nonfiction, more nonfiction books were checked out and students developed a wider understanding of nonfiction topics.
Duke (2009) discusses that informational text is for young children. The reasons to give young students opportunities to read informational text include that it is an important learning tool, gives students a bigger idea in other content areas, and state testing is comprised of it. It is also important to keep in mind that some students prefer this type of reading material. She further looks at the types of books grouped under informational texts and highlights their purposes and features. This includes: Expository, Persuasive, Procedural and Nonfiction Narrative. This helped me redefine my research question to nonfiction rather than informational, though it seems the two words are used interchangeably. Duke suggests that students may be interested in nonfiction features including topics, languages and graphics that are engaging. She further makes suggestions of where to incorporate nonfiction into your classroom including classroom libraries, displays, classroom walls, and teacher read aloud. This directly correlated with my own thinking with my teacher research. I do not read aloud nonfiction! It is always fiction. This is an easy way to open up the genre and interest to my students. Duke then discusses five ways to incorporate teaching informational texts to students. She includes using books with rich content that builds on their background knowledge but also offers them something to learn. Vocabulary is important to informational text and should be taught to all students in a content area regardless of reading level. Duke discusses strategy instruction that should be paired with informational text as well as the importance of discussion opportunities.
In conducting teacher research, teachers have the accessibility into their own current practices through a reflective lens. A goal of all teachers is to help their students succeed and improve their academic learning. Therefore, enhancing the students' desire for the nonfiction genre will allow students to improve their learning into their adult life. Book floods, read aloud, and book displays are three effective strategies for incorporating nonfiction texts in the classroom library. These strategies will help promote nonfiction texts for students to choose during their independent reading time.
It is hoped that this particular study will further explore the ways in which nonfiction texts can be used and sought after within the classroom library. It is further a goal to find effective teacher strategies. The next section of the thesis will examine the research study design, methodologies, and context.
**Organization of the Thesis**
Chapter two provides a review of the literature surrounding the issues of nonfiction use in the elementary classroom. Chapter three describes the design and context of the study, including my plan for implementing strategies that encourage nonfiction. Chapter four reviews and analyzes the data and research and discusses the findings of the study. Chapter five presents the conclusions of this study and implications for teaching and learning. It also includes suggestions for further research regarding the use of nonfiction texts in the elementary classroom.
Chapter II
Literature Review
“Frankly, most teachers still don’t quite know what to do with nonfiction…There is a general feeling among teachers that they ought to be doing something about nonfiction, but they don’t know where to begin, how to begin, or how to carry on” (Trussell-Cullen 1999, p. iv).
CCSS and the Shift
The Common Core State Standards, introduced in 2009, is an initiative to have all students, no matter where they live, prepared for college and careers. The standards were developed by the best state standards already in existence, the experience of teachers, content experts, states, leading thinkers, and feedback from the public (CCSS 2010). The Common Core therefore called for an action plan to include literacy achievement that would support students with skill they would need to live in the 21st century. The standards (CCSS 2010) called for the following approach;
“Part of the motivation behind the interdisciplinary approach to literacy promulgated by the Standards is extensive research establishing the need for college and career ready students to be proficient in reading complex informational text independently in a variety of content areas. Most of the required reading in college and workforce training programs is informational in structure and challenging in content; postsecondary education programs typically provide students with both a higher volume of such reading than is generally required in K-12 schools and comparatively little scaffolding.”
Further the reading panel of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) requires a high proportion of informational text on its assessments particularly as children advance through the grades. The NAEP (2007) developed a framework to look at the distribution of literary and informational passages. By fourth grade the literary and informational passages are evenly split for state testing. By eighth grade, state tests
suggest a slight increase with informational texts at 55% and literary passages at 45%. However, the passages really show a shift with testing in the twelfth grade as the passages are 70% informational and 30% literary. Thus, it is important that these types of texts are introduced and apparent in the classroom. Explicit instruction is also necessary when dealing with different text structures and differing comprehension strategies. The CCSS (2010) further explains,
“To build a foundation for college and career readiness, students must read widely and deeply from among a broad range of high-quality, increasingly challenging literary and informational texts. Through extensive reading of stories, dramas, poems, and myths from diverse cultures and different time periods, students gain literary and cultural knowledge as well as familiarity with various text structures and elements. By reading texts in history/social studies, science, and other disciplines, students build a foundation of knowledge in these fields that will also give them the background to be better readers in all content areas. Students can only gain this foundation when the curriculum is intentionally and coherently structured to develop rich content knowledge within and across grades. Students also acquire the habits of reading independently and closely, which are essential to their future success.”
The standards and state testing mandates call for informational text to move out of the background and step into the limelight. For this to occur, teachers need to reflect on current practices and their effectiveness.
Teachers have been aware of the CCSS for 5 years and have strived to meet the standards within their grade level. Informational text, however, is only making a slight increase into the literature that teachers teach from. Possibly found in guided reading, nonfiction is still stigmatized as for those who only want to read to learn something specific. It may even only be read by a student if it is teacher-led. Teachers have the quest to find topics to meet students’ interests at their reading level and use explicit instruction to engage the students in using comprehension strategies. However, during
SSR, students are exposed largely to fiction. Duke (2000) found first grade students were only exposed to 3.6 minutes per day to non-fiction. Duke’s study observed 10 first-grade classrooms of the highest socioeconomic status and 10 first grade classrooms of the lowest socioeconomic status to compare print environments and text experiences. Duke observed displayed print, the classroom library, and written language activities. “Results of this study reveal an overall scarcity of informational text in these first grade classrooms” (Duke 2000, p. 212). It also showed that there was even a smaller percentage of this type of text in the lower SES classrooms. There was little informational text displayed on walls or in classroom libraries and in written activities.
This study leads to the idea that many teachers are unaware and underprepared to meet the needs that research and standards are suggesting. Several studies have shown students are greatly interested in nonfiction even in the primary grades. Smolkin and Donovan (2001) found that both students and teacher appeared more excited about nonfiction topics and were more engaged in meaning making. This could improve overall reading performances. The possibility is that if a child is reading in their interest area their overall reading performance can improve.
**Current Practices and Student Choice**
Teachers must cover many standards in a short amount of time. This combination is a lost opportunity for students to engage in authentic reading and learning on their own terms (Gallagher, 2009). Students are therefore reading a mile wide and an inch deep. This type of reading does not promote deep understanding or the enjoyment of reading. Gallo and Ness (2013) found that students are underexposed to informational text in elementary school. They looked at third-grade students’ attitudes and perceptions of
informational text. They used student surveys about text preference, interviewed individual students and had the students keep logs of what they read. They found that students preferred fiction to nonfiction text. The students also read nonfiction less frequently than what had been suggested on their reading survey. Another study in Canada (Dorion 2003) found that classroom libraries offered majority of fiction texts. Though when checked with the types of books that students check out from their school library; they chose nonfiction twice as much as they chose fiction. This study suggests that students are identifying their preference for nonfiction but that they do not have daily accessibility to it. These are the types of texts that will make up most of their needs in college and in their adult life. Classroom libraries have the potential to fulfill students needs for the future. Williams (2009) found students should be offered new literacies as well as traditional text. She found that over 80% of adults read informational genre in their adult life and it is usually digital. Teachers can also consider how using technology can benefit their readers with nonfiction.
When considering students preferences, it is important to highlight student choice in reading. In several studies it has been found that students would prefer to read nonfiction (Moss, 2005). Student’s attitudes have an impact on their motivation to read certain texts. Students chose to read informational texts for a variety of reasons. Motivation stems from a desire to learn, connections to personal interests, and preferred text structures (Gallo & Ness, 2013). Student choice allows for the feelings of control, purpose and competence (Perks, 2010). Gambrell (2010) found several suggestions that improve reading motivation. The research conducted in the Literacy Motivation Project “suggests that classroom cultures that foster reading motivation are characterized by a
teacher who is a reading model, a book-rich classroom environment, opportunities for choice, familiarity with books, social interactions about books, and literacy-related incentives that reflect the value of reading” (Gambrell, 1996, pg. 20). Informational texts explored through this culture can enhance student motivation and choice in reading.
**Significance of Nonfiction Texts in the Elementary Classroom**
To increase the amount of non-fiction text in the classroom is just a small step in the right direction. Many nonfiction books in the classroom are at inappropriate reading levels for elementary students (Palmer & Stewart 2005). Teachers have to carefully select quality nonfiction literature that would appeal to that grade level. Teachers will need to highlight and display non-fiction texts in an exciting way. In Duke’s (2000) findings, calling for more informational text in the early grades may help lessen difficulties of students in later grades. Teachers need to find kid-friendly topics that inform and entertain their audience. Hot topics that are relevant to students’ lives need to be considered. Students need to have a purpose for reading nonfiction. Moreover teachers need to expand students understanding of nonfiction that includes a larger umbrella of categories. Kelsey (2011) suggests that “the school librarian should be actively involved in curriculum development, serving on related committees, and proactively seeking out teachers to discover what units they teach and when” (Kelsey 2011 p. 37). Kelsey (2011) further discusses that teachers need to demonstrate that nonfiction texts are worthy of reading and should engage in nonfiction read aloud. When teachers show enthusiasm for a certain type of book, it can be contagious and compel students to want to read the same. Nonfiction book talks may be a helpful strategy for teachers to draw attention to nonfiction.
Another idea to consider is that some students actually prefer the informational genre. “Some young children find a way into literacy through informational texts that they do not find through narrative and other forms of text (Caswell & Duke, 1998). They found that informational texts can capitalize on children’s curiosities and provide opportunities for children to apply and develop areas of expertise. Students that are encouraged to pursue their interests are plausibly more engaged in their learning and can have a strong impact on their academic development. Other students to consider are reluctant readers and those considered ELL. Reluctant readers may be drawn to nonfiction and can be engaged by the assortment of topics. Students who are ELL can benefit from reading nonfiction due to the photos highlighting major points in the text. This also includes other text features that are found in nonfiction. This can help the reader make better sense of the information being explained. “Reading nonfiction is a chance to experience something real and highly unusual from the safety of home” (Kelsey 2011, p. 39).
Topping (2015) conducted a study in text preference and gender with Accelerated Reader software. In similar studies, he found that readability increased when the students were interested in the text and their actual reading level did not impact their understanding of more challenging texts. These similar studies also found that boys had a preference for nonfiction. Nonfiction could also be an avenue to support the reading achievement of boys. In Topping’s (2015) study, he found that in the lower grades (K-5) students were able to read at a difficulty level above the actual age of the pupils. Once beyond fifth grade, the nonfiction books read were not as challenging and were not read or understood as carefully as the fiction books. Males began to show more preferences
for nonfiction once in sixth grade and students began to develop preferences for particular nonfiction authors. The study also found that the students showed a preference for short stories, magazines and digital sources. This is an area to consider when offering students more nonfiction text in the classroom library.
**The Goal of Engagement**
“Children will be processing information for the rest of their lives, so it is essential that their minds be engaged with nonfiction at an early age. “They need to know how to effectively read it and even enjoy it” (Kelsey 2011, p. 36). The goal is to compel students to want to read appealing nonfiction. Children are naturally curious and a teacher’s job is to find a way to deliver the information to do it. In the text genre preference study (Gallo and Ness 2013), it was found that third grade students found a preference for fictional text. It matches the information that Duke (2000) made apparent in her seminal text. There is a gross underrepresentation of nonfiction text in the classrooms. The implications are that students are not being exposed to nonfiction text at home or in school. It is suggested that the students are preferring texts that are familiar to them. Further Gallo and Ness (2013) found that students’ expressed an interest in reading nonfiction texts. Therefore it is a goal to begin exposing students to an increased amount of nonfiction text within the classroom. Though much of the research points in favor of adding nonfiction into the classroom, improvement is needed with the way in which it is introduced. Guthrie’s (2010) principles of choice, success and relevance are motivators to consider when selecting nonfiction texts for students. The texts need to be on their independent reading level, relevant to third grade lives and have plenty of choices in their area of interest. Palmer and Stewart (2005) found three models to use for nonfiction in
the primary grades. They include teacher-directed instruction, scaffolding student investigation, and encourage student investigation. Each step of the model includes a gradual release of responsibility and includes explicit instruction, guided practice and the freedom to pursue a meaningful assignment that is relevant to the student. This suggested model is similar to the goal of enhancing students’ choice with nonfiction text. Teachers need to know students particular interests and then create a place for students to view those texts in which they deem interesting. Young, Moss, and Cornwell (2007) found several reasons for including nonfiction books in the classroom. These include; book browse to spark curiosity; provide students with authentic reading experiences that connect to their lives; motivate reluctant readers with attractive formats; expand background knowledge needed to understand content area concepts; build vocabulary; expose readers to a variety of text features and structures; develop critical reading skills; combine reading for pleasure with reading for information; and expose students to text types found on standardized tests. (Young, Moss & Cornwell 2007, p. 2). The assumption here is that nonfiction belongs in the classroom library. With similar thinking to Guthrie in the beginning of this section, Routman (2003) finds that students reading interests must be considered when selecting books for the classroom library. Routman also found that when students have a higher motivation to read, they are engaged. “Reading comprehension scores are more influenced by students’ amount of engaged reading than any other single factor” (Routman 2003, p. 69).
Another area to improve upon is how the books are arranged within the classroom. Teachers need to do more than just have nonfiction in the classroom library. According to Routman (2003), teachers can make it easier for students to find nonfiction
by involving them in organizing and maintaining the classroom library even when existing systems work well. Texts can be organized in baskets and grouped by various topics. Students can be a part of this process and by doing so will learn that all nonfiction texts are not the same.
Teachers play a huge role in promoting reading. Teachers need to make careful decisions when thinking about the types of books they introduce. Kelsey (2003) suggests several ways to create enthusiasm for nonfiction. One way to encourage this type of text is by reading aloud nonfiction. Another suggestion is through Reader’s theatre scripts. Students can be involved in the reading, hold their interest and build fluency. Kelsey (2003) also states teachers should give book talks to spark student interest. Teachers can read a portion of the book, summarize it or discuss an opinion about it in two minutes time. She further suggests playing a game such as two truths and a lie that would stem into student interest. Another important consideration is the placement of the books. The books full cover should be seen and the display should be enticing and accessible. A final suggestion includes the idea of a book pass where students sample a book for 3 minutes and then write a comment about it. Then the students pass it to the right and begin again. Classroom libraries and teachers surely play a big role in promoting nonfiction.
According to Gay (2010), culturally responsive teaching practices connect students’ cultural knowledge, prior experiences and performance styles to their academic knowledge. This allows classroom cultures in which students have the opportunity to learn and grow. This includes how teachers and students make their decisions on the texts
they will use. Students must be active participators in their selection of texts that they read and their interests should matter.
This study intends on looking deeply at third grade students’ interests when it comes to the nonfiction genre. The students will continue to choose texts that are available to them through reader’s workshop, while they are being exposed to more interest-specific nonfiction text. Students will be exposed to a wider variety of nonfiction as well as different strategies that support the reading of nonfiction. The results will look at if interest persuades nonfiction frequency that is read by choice.
Research Design
“Research is a process of discovering essential questions, gathering data, and analyzing it to answer those questions” (Shagoury and Power, 2012, pg. 2). The qualitative research paradigm is the framework of this study. “The notion of ‘scientifically based research’ and its complement, ‘evidenced-based education,’ reflect renewed confidence in the power of science to solve social and educational problems” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009, pg. 10). The use of qualitative data brings change to the classroom, increase achievement in students and help to solve larger problems within education. Whereas quantitative data is looking to quantify the data, qualitative research is helpful in gaining an understanding for reasons and motivations. The use of qualitative research is best used by a teacher researcher to explore insights into a problem and possibly generate ideas for later research. Qualitative data relies on open ended responses, while quantitative data is limited to pre-made questions. In considering this study it is important to note that the population sample is children. The sample is diverse in ability and attitudes. To remain objective in teacher research is not plausible and subjectivity must be considered. The teacher practitioner must consider their role as the researcher, collaboration within the learning community, and be regarded as a knowledge base. (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). The knowledge created by teacher practitioner qualitative research can “enhance conceptual frameworks, alter practices, and/or reconstruct curricula” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009, pg. 42) at the local level. The qualitative research framework is also best used when the teacher is the researcher as they
will be in the professional context at all times and may have to think, make decisions, and interpret ideas that unfold. “Teacher research is a natural extension of good teaching in which the teacher observes students closely, analyzes their needs and makes adjustments to meet those needs” (Shagoury & Power, 2012, pg. 3). This study aligns with the qualitative research design because the goal is to increase the use of nonfiction through teacher promotion within the classroom setting.
This study analyzes the results of using nonfiction text within the classroom library. The teacher research method was used as the framework of this study in order to gather, interpret and analyze data. The teacher research method is used for the purpose of this study because my research will be based on my students’ choices and interests for book preferences. Qualitative inquiry strategies used to conduct this study include pre and post survey questions of a reading interest inventory, informal notes on conversations with students, a log of their reading during choice time, and my teacher-research journal.
**Procedure of Study**
Before I began collecting data, I observed the literature displayed in my classroom. I looked out the amounts of each genre, their locations and how they were labeled. I also collected reading logs of the students in order to compare their choices in reading before and after I began promoting the reading of nonfiction. I observed the students during reader’s workshop and noticed student’s individual behaviors during this time. This includes frequency of students changing books, sustained amount reading (time on task), and students choice of fiction and nonfiction. I decided the most appropriate time for this study would during the reader’s workshop block of the day as it is a time when all students are able to choose what they would like to read and is an
uninterrupted time to read. Through the survey I was able to familiarize myself with students’ interests which would further help me plan for nonfiction books to bring into the classroom. I was also able to observe the classroom library and plan on how to make changes to it that would enhance nonfiction.
After observing the classroom during reader’s workshop time I was able to plan several strategies that promote the use of nonfiction. I first began to choose nonfiction that the students would be interested in to flood the classroom with those books. The students would be exposed to different types of nonfiction and where they may find it in the classroom and school library. The students would be exposed to nonfiction at a higher frequency than previously. They would hear read alouds and have more exposure to interesting nonfiction through displays in the classroom. Additionally, time was going to need to be managed so that students had a full 20 minutes of reader’s workshop each day. Another area that needed to be considered was that all students were completing their weekly reading log.
**Timeline**
The first week of the study was used to collect parent consent forms and observe the current classroom situation. I collected their regular reading logs to note habits of reading of fiction and nonfiction. The classroom library was observed to notice how it was currently functioning and what changes could be implemented. I observed students during this week and took note of behaviors and choices during reader’s workshop.
During week two, students took an interest survey. I used this information to decide the types of nonfiction interests that students might have. Students were reintroduced to their reading logs and emphasis was put on filling them in as well as
noting the genre. This material will be used to chart students’ interests. Students continued reading and logging in their books. By the end of the week, I read aloud a small passage from a few different nonfiction texts. I made them available to the students if they wished to read them. Discussions took place on why we read nonfiction books, genres under the nonfiction umbrella, and authentic purpose for third graders.
I was able to plan for extra library periods and model where students could find books based on their interests in their survey. Time was spent in the school library to point out where nonfiction informational text could be found. Students were reminded of the surveys they took and were encouraged to choose books that they had suggested an interest in. Students were allowed to choose three nonfiction books in addition to their regular library books. I created a book bin for our classroom for students to return books once they were done reading them. This allowed them to borrow books that their peers recently read and added to the options of nonfiction text within the classroom. It also created a space for students to return the books that they were not reading, rather than have six library books in their desk. When they were finished with their book they could place it in the book bin and also have a chance to peruse through it to see what some of their peers had already read.
In week three, I flooded nonfiction books into the classroom based on students’ interest survey. The nonfiction books were highlighted in easy access displays that were labeled. Each day I highlighted an area of the room that stored nonfiction. I created new labels and sorted the nonfiction in the classroom under more specific categories. For example, I showed the students where they might find a book on a specific animal and which bin it would be in. On a different day I introduced the class to the magazines and
showed them a variety of the selections we have. We also discussed that you did not have to read a magazine in its entirety and to look for specific articles they may be interested in by using the table of contents. I also cleared out two spaces of fiction picture books and created nonfiction book displays that feature new books I checked out from the library. Students continued to read daily a free choice book (Reader’s Workshop). Students kept a log of their weekly readings. I began teacher observations and asked informal questions on book choice. I kept anecdotal notes (teacher researcher journal) and began looking for patterns in text choice. Students were introduced to Google classroom and created posts about the text in which they were reading. The students could also see what their peers were posting about their reading.
Throughout week four, students continued their independent reading daily and completed their reading logs. New books were introduced into the classroom displays and daily read alouds of nonfiction occurred. I collected all reading logs for analysis. Students took a post-survey to accumulate information in nonfiction interests. The survey will be compared to the results of the pre-survey. Through the use of individual reading logs and pre surveys, comparisons were made to understand if students choose the nonfiction that they suggest they are interested in. They are looked at to see if nonfiction readings increase when nonfiction is being promoted. The amount of nonfiction read was noted and compared to the first week’s reading log.
**Data Sources**
To begin the study I gathered data about students reading interests by using a reading interest inventory that included options to choose from as well as open-ended responses. I used this knowledge to plan for book choices within the nonfiction area to
promote and expose students to in the classroom library. I began to collect students reading logs before and during the study to compare their reading preferences.
Additionally, I kept a teacher research journal which allowed me to record something that I changed or implemented and my own thoughts or feelings about it. Through the journal I could reflect on my own behavior and that of the students throughout the course of the study. I further collected a record of students’ responses to books they read to gain further insights into their reading habits and preferences. This was recorded on Google Classroom and students could see each other’s posts. All of these sources were collected to compare what happens when student’s interests are considered with nonfiction text preferences.
**Data Analysis**
The data collected throughout the study was used to help draw conclusions regarding the impact of preference of nonfiction literature in the classroom library. I used the student reading interest inventory to gauge what students might prefer to read about. Using this information, I was able to carefully choose which nonfiction to present in the classroom displays. By charting this data I was able to find interests that students had in common and learn what they may like to read about. My teacher research journal allowed me to find trends in my thinking each day. It also allowed me to highlight informal conversations with students and get to know their interests better. It allowed me a place to plan and implement changes with the classroom. It is also documentation to the things that took place over the course of the study. This tool allowed me to reflect on teacher practices and strategies that would promote third
grade students to read nonfiction. It allowed current thinking and emerging new ideas to be present in the study.
**Context**
**Community.** Dormount Elementary School is one of the seven elementary schools in the Lorberm Township public school district. There are a total of 42, 275 people living in Lorberm Township which is located in Burlington County, New Jersey. According to the 2000 Census, these 42, 275 people reside in 16, 436 housing units. Of these 16, 436, 72.2 are family households and 38.2% are families with children under the age of 18. Among these family households, 61.2% are led by married couples, and 8.5% are female led households with no husband present. Out of this 8.5% of female-led households, 4.6% have children under the age of 18.
The racial makeup of this township as taken by the 2000 Census was 91.3% white or Caucasian, 3.1 % black or African American, 4.1% Asian, 1.3% Asian Indian, and 2.0% Hispanic or Latino. The population by age consists of 72.8% over the age of 18 including 8.9% age 65 and over. The percentage of the population under the age of 18 is 27.2%, and the median age for residents of Lorberm Township is 36.
Lorberm Township median income as of the 2000 Census was $67,010 per household and the median family income was $77,245. The per capita income in dollars was $29, 494. At this time 1.7% of families in Dormount were considered to be living in poverty and of these 2.6% were families with children under the age of 18.
**District.** Lorberm Township School District is public school district made up of seven elementary schools and two middle schools. There are over 4, 500 students’
enrolled and approximately 370 teachers. The average student to teacher ratio is 13:1. It is in District Factor Group I, the second-highest of eight groupings.
**School.** Dormount Elementary School currently serves over 475 students ranging in grade from kindergarten to fifth grade with a staff of about 70 individuals. The ratio of teachers to students is 1 to 13. The ethnic makeup of the student population is 86.3% white or Caucasian, 2.1% black or African American, 2.7% Hispanic or Latino and 7.2% Asian. 3.1% of the students are considered economically disadvantaged. As per testing results, 77% of the students school wide at Dormount Elementary School are considered proficient in Language Arts and 88% are considered proficient in Math.
**Classroom.** The third grade classroom is consisting of 18 students. Of the students, 10 students are males and 8 are females. The makeup of the class is very homogenous with 17 white/Caucasian students and 1 black/African American student.
There are 7 students with IEP’s. Five of those students have behavioral issues. Academically, they are lower in general than their average peers. The rest are average or below average. There are a few students who are above average and complete most academic work at an independent level. There is a one-on-one aide present during the entire day for two of the students. Her main job is redirecting, keeping those two students on task, and managing their behaviors. She is also there to help support their academics. Three of the students receive occupational therapy and five students receive speech services. The students with IEP’s receive additional support from the in-class support teacher for reading, writing, and math. These seven students are accommodated and have varying academic and behavioral needs. Students demonstrate kindness toward each other but tend to socialize exclusively with the groups that they are familiar with, such as
neighbors or friends from extra-curricular activities. There is a sense of learning community. Students often work in small groups and partnerships to create work and are comfortable with a collaborative dynamic. The classroom is decorated with various examples of student work and colorful posters and pictures that cover the walls. Some serve as motivation and reminders to students of classroom rules and routines and others are anchor charts that remind students of current learning. The majority of information is presented using an ACTIVboard and the children are often involved in using this educational tool throughout the day. Students also rotate through centers on a daily basis and work together on skills such as word study, math, reading, and writing.
**Participants.** All students in the class will be participating in this study. This includes a variety of learners, reading levels and includes different sexes.
Chapter Four of this thesis discusses the results of the student surveys, daily discussions of student responses and class discussions, my personal teacher research journal, and student preferences and work samples. Chapter Five then presents the conclusions and implications of the study as well as recommendations for further topics of the study.
Chapter IV
Data Analysis
Introduction
Chapter 4 discusses the findings of my study, focusing on answering the question, “What happens when the interests of third grade students is considered when reading nonfiction?” As I sorted and categorized my data sources I identified key data to report. The main sources include student interest reading inventory, reading logs, and teacher-research journal. Further there are library checkout logs and informal student conversations that were documented. A look across all data sources seems to suggest the interest areas and habits of third grade readers. These areas include findings on their interests, their reading habits, and overall their preferences with reading.
Revisiting the Study
As chapter 3 explained, I collected data over a 4 week time period during which children were exposed to an increase in nonfiction text. I began the study by giving the class a Reading Interest Inventory survey to learn about the interests of the third graders and also to help me decide which texts to flood into the classroom. This information was charted on a bar graph to decide which books should be added into the classroom library. I also collected their reading log in the first week before the push of nonfiction so that I could see what genre they were reading. This information was charted in a pie graph to see how much fiction and nonfiction was being read. Over the next three weeks of the study, students were introduced to nonfiction. Students were exposed to what nonfiction is and is not. The students were shown where to find nonfiction in the classroom. New labels were created and the nonfiction section of the classroom library was cleaned up. I
went through the texts and got rid of ones that were too old for third graders and reorganized the genre into more specific categories. I further made a section to display nonfiction magazines in a hanging pocket organizer and let the students know where to locate them and that they were allowed to access these texts whenever they wanted to during reader’s workshop. Another display included new nonfiction that I added into the classroom weekly. From the students’ interest survey; I selected books that were grade level appropriate as well as interesting to third graders from our school library. To determine interest I used the students’ previous library checkout logs and discovered what topics they chose. I also gleaned their interests from information from their surveys. This allowed me to see quite a variety in things they like that were not necessarily about reading. I further took the class to the library and showed them where they could find nonfiction genre specific books. The class was allowed to take out additional books to add to our classroom library for the week. Students were able to read these books as well as put them back on the shelf in our classroom for others to share. I further created a bin of where to return extra books that I also began to read aloud nonfiction to the class.
Most class periods of reader’s workshop, I would read aloud a passage of a nonfiction text or a magazine article.
Finding Commonalities Among Third Graders
The results on the Student Interest Inventory shows what students in my third grade class are suggesting they are interested in. While this was a reading survey, it did not specifically ask if you like to read about these topics. There were open ended responses that told about the child as well as a wide variety of pre-selected topics that students could choose from. This survey felt more as a get to know you survey rather than a reading inventory. Only one section (see appendix A) of this inventory asked specific questions about reading. It listed multiple genres of reading and asked them to rate the genre. While looking over the results of the students interests I have found that many students suggest the same areas of interest. Some of these areas include; sports, bicycling, video games, basketball, swimming, and soccer. There were other areas that
showed up in common as well. This information was used in order to understand third grade students’ interests when selecting nonfiction texts to add to our classroom library.
Figure 2. Interests based on library checkout.
To further understand students’ preferences when reading nonfiction I took the class on a mini field trip to the school library. After a mini lesson about nonfiction, I modeled how to find books in the nonfiction sections of the library. I reminded the students of their recent survey that they completed about their interests. Students were then allowed to peruse these sections and choose three additional texts than that of their regular library book checkout. Afterwards, I collected the data by getting a print out of their recent selections. From there I could glean their interests by what they selected.
The bar graph represents the most common findings in their interests. Sports and animals were the most commonly selected texts.
Figure 3. Before increasing nonfiction in the classroom.
Gaining Insights into the Preferences of Reading Genre
During the first week of the study, the students recorded their reading into their reader’s workshop log. This is a regular habit that students have when they read independently. Students write down the title of the book, the author’s name, how many pages they read, and the genre (fiction or nonfiction). Students were also asked to write down a specific genre if they knew what it was. This would help the students be aware of
their choices and interests. The results show that 82% of what the students were reading was fiction. 18% was nonfiction. These results were based on their independent choice reading time and were before they were introduced to nonfiction on a daily basis.
**Figure 4.** During the increase of nonfiction in the classroom.
During the following three weeks, the students were exposed to nonfiction in a higher volume than they were previously. Students engaged in book talks, read alouds and book displays of nonfiction texts. They visited the library, learned about nonfiction genres, and had a flood of interesting books enter into the classroom. The students continued to log their reading into their reading logs. At the end of the three weeks, I collected their reading logs and coded the amount of fiction and nonfiction books they read. The results in the graph above show that the students were reading 57% nonfiction texts and 43% fiction texts. This was their reading during their independent free choice reading time.
During the study I had a chance through using Google Classroom to ask the students a question. I posed, “Why did you choose the book you are currently reading.” Students had a variety of responses and you can see them at the data in the line graph below. A majority of students said that they thought the book was going to be funny, that they like the cover of the book, that it was fun or that it was part of a series. This helped me to select future nonfiction texts to bring into the classroom display. I knew they had to be fun, funny, and have good covers that would attract the young reader’s attention.
**Responses: Why did you chose the book you are reading?**
*Figure 5. Student responses to reading nonfiction.*
Judging a Book by its Cover
Through much of the study I kept a journal of what I did that day to increase nonfiction and to keep track of what I saw happening. I thought about different ideas and wondered how I could reach more students. I noticed that students often mimicked what I showed them. If I read from a nonfiction magazine, several students were sure to check out those magazines as well. Over and over again students would choose a text because the cover looked appealing. That could mean a great picture or a catchy title. I also saw many students take a book walk. If the book seemed easier they would typically choose it. If the text had too many words and not enough pictures and other interesting text features, they would put it back. I noticed the students who were not choosing nonfiction even after I would make it so appealing. I saw that many students would read an increase in nonfiction after I modeled or read aloud an interesting passage. But a few days later, the nonfiction trickled away unless I introduced something else. I realized that I had emotions attached to the study. I wanted a certain outcome, but I reminded myself of the purpose of the study before I got to ahead of myself.
I decided to note several conversations with students that I observed pick nonfiction on a regular basis. The conversations below discuss why these students believe they prefer nonfiction over fiction. I identified the students by a number and included their gender. Also included is a snapshot about the student and what their response means through analysis.
Mrs. Astacio: “I noticed that you like to read nonfiction. Why do you prefer it?”
Student #18-B: “I like reading nonfiction. I like it because I can learn more about stuff that I like to learn about.”
Student 18 is a boy that only reads nonfiction. He reads below grade level and primarily chooses books on animals; particularly dinosaurs. He has difficulty reading for a sustained amount of time and often just looks at pictures. He does not pick books that are appropriate for his reading level, mostly just books that he is interested in. He will persevere on a certain topic for a long time. Student 18 is part of a social and behavioral support classroom. He is now spending greater than 70% of his day in the mainstream general education setting. He is in the classroom during independent reading time, but during reading instruction. His response is telling about the books he chooses.
Student #4-B: “It gives me information and I like to read football because I know a lot about football and it gives me more advice. It tells me older things about things that happened before with a team. I like to read about all the different teams.”
Student 4 is a boy that has an IEP. He reads above grade level. He needs support to stay on task and with task completion. He requires redirection often and prompting to stay on task. Though he does read for sustained amounts of reading time, he also will sit and stare at times. He seems to choose nonfiction and states that he prefers it, but also reads a lot of fiction. He does choose a lot of football texts like he states.
Student #11-G: “There are a lot of interesting topics that tell you more facts than fake books. I like cooking and dogs.”
Student 11 is a girl with an IEP for academic support. She reads below grade level and often does not self correct when she is reading, thus impacting her comprehension. She does choose to read cook books and books about dogs. She also reads a lot of fiction books as well. She prefers nonfiction, but her reading log shows an equal amount of reading fiction and nonfiction genres.
Student #3-B: “I like to read stuff that is true. I can learn about something I don’t know too much about, like football. I like to read biographies so I can learn about their life. I can have a little background information about a topic if I have a test.”
Student 3 is a boy in the general education population. His response informs me that students like to learn about facts and things that they do not know about. His response was insightful when he said he likes to have background information about different topics. A new category that is emerging is introducing students to informational texts that are not within their topics of interest, rather that exposes them to new topics.
Student #1-B: “I like to learn about real stuff that really happened and I like biographies. I like to learn about people’s life. I write it down on post-its on home and look up the questions I still have.”
Student 1 is a boy in the general education population that reads right at the grade level benchmark. Though he reads both genres, he tends to prefer nonfiction. I am seeing that many students like to learn about real information. I also see that he relies on new literacies to find out more information.
Student #2-G: “I like to read it at home. I like to read about cooking and animals because I like to learn new things about them. I like to see what they eat and stuff and I like to check for more information on the computer.”
Student 2 is a girl in the general education population. She often reads fiction. She reads slightly above level and reads quickly. She prefers to read more nonfiction at home which is another category that could be emerging. She also likes to learn new ideas and find out more about them on the internet. This furthers the idea that students like to use digital literacies.
Student #7-B: I prefer nonfiction because it is information and I can learn new stuff that I haven’t learned before. I like to read sports books and biographies. I want to know what their life is like and how they became famous.”
Student 7 is a boy in the general education population and reads well above level. Though he reads a great deal of nonfiction, he also states that he prefers to read nonfiction. He reads to learn new information about people’s lives. He also falls under the category of enjoying learning new topics.
Student #9-G: “I prefer to learn about the solar system because it has cool stuff…meteors, asteroids, black holes, I just think it is cool.”
Student 9 is a girl in the general education setting. She chooses different topics than her peers. She is an above level reader. She chooses topics that can be difficult to understand, but due to her interest she is able to read them. She also reads a lot of easy fiction books.
Student #17-G: “I like to learn about new things. I like to see how many animal species are left. I like facts that are interesting. I also learn new words.”
Student 17 is a girl that is within the general education population. She reads below the grade level benchmark, requires a lot of support and has a lot of anxiety when she comes to tasks that she feels she doesn’t understand. I see her that she reads a lot of fiction but she states that she prefers nonfiction. The opportunity for her to read an increased amount of nonfiction will benefit her since it is her preference. She seems to find nonfiction interesting.
Student #8-G: “So I can learn about stuff that I did not know about. If I am interested in Anne Frank, I can learn more about her by reading a book about her. I can write down any questions and search them online.”
Student 8 is a girl who is ELL. She reads at grade level and has been in the country for just under two years. She also shows that she uses digital literacies as a way to consume information. She chooses more in depth topics than most of her third grade
peers. It seems that she likes topics that go deeper than just a few neat facts. She reminds me of the need to learn about other cultures. It can help open minds for those who have not had different experiences, make her feel comfortable with her culture and bring interesting topics that offer worldly insights. I am noticing that nonfiction can expose us to critical literacy in third grade.
Student #6-B: “It looks good. It has crazy (big or new) words. It’s teaching me something. It tells you something that already happened. I like to learn about Indians. So I can learn about something that I want to learn about.”
Student 6 has an IEP and has cochlear implants. He was delayed with language and is making progress, but behind his peers. At times, he can be inattentive and emotional when he becomes frustrated. He reads very easy fiction and nonfiction texts. He has an enthusiasm for learning new things and shows his excitement when he understands ideas.
**Learning, Choice, and New Literacies**
From these conversations, I found a few common ideas emerging. One is that students seek information from the internet. They are not limited to text just found in physical books. Digital literacy is playing a role in students’ daily lives. This is an area to explore with increasing nonfiction text use. If students are more apt to look online for information, then this is an area teachers of even young students can explore.
A second category is choice. Students are stating over and over that they like to learn about topics that they find interesting. They want to choose. The options are endless. The students wanted to read nonfiction that they found an interest in. It was a
topic that they wanted to learn more about. Nonfiction allows them to explore topics that they prefer more in depth. When given academic choice, we put the learning in the students’ hands. The students are able to have more choice when it comes to the variety of nonfiction topics.
A third category is synthesis. Students used the words “to learn” and “it teaches me.” The students want to learn new information. They want to be taught and find out new and interesting information. Nonfiction text does not necessarily have to be an exact match to something they are interested in. Rather it needs to be interesting and provide them an opportunity to learn and grow. It is a chance to expose students to new topics that they don’t already know about.
**Summary of Data Analysis**
In order to answer my teacher researcher question, “What is the outcome of third grade students’ attitudes toward nonfiction texts compared to their actual reading habits?” I used a variety of data sources. By looking at their text genre preferences in Figures 3 and 4, I could see that the outcome was an increase in the amount of nonfiction being read. According to the NAEP (2007), a framework was developed to look at the distribution of literary and informational passages. By fourth grade the literary and informational passages are evenly split for state testing. The results of the classroom study showed similar results to what is necessary for state testing. Therefore when given the opportunity and availability of nonfiction, the students will choose it.
I have found that students have many interests that should be considered when creating a classroom library. Smolkin and Donovan (2001) found that both students and teacher appeared more excited about nonfiction topics and were more engaged in
meaning making. This could improve overall reading performances. The possibility is that if a child is reading in their interest area their overall reading performance can improve. Students do choose books that they say they are interested in but are not committed to just those books. The students’ interests did match when it came to the area of sports in both Figures 1 and 2. However they did not match up when it came to the content of animals. Very few students had this as an area of interest, however many students chose to read about animals according to their library checkout log. I am noticing a connection in Figure 5 that the students chose particular books based on a judgments; the cover, and if it looks fun or funny. The students want nonfiction that is easier to read than that of their instructional level. They want to literally judge the book by its cover. If it is enticing they will try it. If there are good pictures and not a large volume of words they will sustain it. The data shows that students will read nonfiction when their interests are considered and when there are effective strategies used by the teacher to promote nonfiction. When the teacher showed an interest, the students tended to follow. When the students were presented with topics that they were interested in, they were more likely to read nonfiction. When the teacher expressed a like for nonfiction, the students showed a preference for it also. Therefore the data suggests that the teacher and strategies used play a large role in students reading of nonfiction. Another idea to consider is that some students actually prefer the informational genre. “Some young children find a way into literacy through informational texts that they do not find through narrative and other forms of text (Caswell & Duke, 1998).
Summary
In concluding my research, I found that students showed a higher rate of reading nonfiction texts when there was promotion of such texts. Reading of nonfiction text also seemed to increase when students’ interests were considered. After spending four weeks exploring nonfiction closely with third graders, I found that they were eager to examine nonfiction more closely than before. Awareness was created about nonfiction within the classroom. Students were made aware of the locations and genres within nonfiction. I found that students generally do show preferences towards nonfiction and they prefer the topics that nonfiction texts offer.
Four weeks were dedicated to finding out more about third grade students and their use of nonfiction texts. Students were given a reading interest inventory so information could be gathered about things they are interested in. With this and a view of their library checkout logs, I was able to find common interest areas of the class as well as individual interests. With this information I provided the class with many nonfictions texts within these interest areas. Students also had the opportunity to take a visit into our school library. There they were given a mini lesson about what nonfiction text is and where they can locate various topics. Students were asked to think about the areas they might be interested in and were allowed to select an additional three nonfiction texts (in addition to their regular library books).
Multiple strategies were employed. I began many sessions with nonfiction read aloud in which I would sell a particular new book that I discovered. Every week I would add books to a wire rack display. I also created a new sign that said new nonfiction books. These books were covered with exciting topics and covers in areas of interest that the class surveys suggested. Book floods of a particular interest area were also occurring every few days. Here I would select new library books based on the students’ interests to highlight in our classroom. The students were able to use them and return them or switch with a friend when they were finished. With such a multitude of books in the classroom, I found a need for a book bin. The amount of books that the students had in their desks was overwhelming at times. They were able to return books early that were our school library books. They were also able to peruse these library books if they wished to read something a friend may have returned. I also decided to take an inventory on the nonfiction texts that I had. I looked into separating them by topics as well as weeded out books that were not grade level appropriate or lacking visual interest. I reorganized these texts and put them in bins. I also created new label for each category. From there I made sure that the nonfiction magazines were organized and available. I also used these as a read aloud to demonstrate how to find an article that I might want to read. Ultimately there was an overall understanding and enthusiasm for nonfiction text.
Students were able to choose any text that they wished to read during their independent reader’s workshop time of day. Students logged in their reading and also noted if they were reading fiction or nonfiction. Each day a strategy was used prior to beginning reader’s workshop. From there I recorded what I did each day in my teacher journal. I noted the strategy employed as well as peculiar and interesting findings. I also
took this time to informally ask students about the book they read. I was able to record their responses in my teacher journal. The students seemed to benefit in an understanding of nonfiction text and were given opportunities to explore them right in their own classroom.
**Conclusions**
After several weeks of being exposed to nonfiction texts, I found that my study was beneficial to students in my classroom. The students became far more aware of the nonfiction texts as a reading choice and increased their reading of nonfiction text. This is important because Williams (2009) found that over 80% of adults read informational genre in their adult life. This places a large importance on teaching students how to make meaning with nonfiction text as well as encouraging them to prefer the genre. This will benefit students for their adult life. Further when preferences are considered, it has been found in several studies that students would prefer to read nonfiction (Moss, 2005).
Student’s attitudes have an impact on their motivation to read certain texts. Students choose to read informational texts for a variety of reasons. Motivation stems from a desire to learn, connections to personal interests, and preferred text structures (Gallo & Ness, 2013). Student choice allows for the feelings of control, purpose and competence (Perks, 2010). Therefore the study aimed at choosing texts that were specific to what the students were interested in. Due to the fact that student had choice in what they read and their interests were highlighted throughout their selections, there was an increase in the amount of reading within the nonfiction genre.
At the time of the study, several conclusions could be made. Many students prefer nonfiction texts to read. This was found by understanding student’s interests’
survey and allowing more of the nonfiction genre to flood the classroom. Students are readily available with topics that they would like to know more about or have an interest in. It is our job then as teachers to find ways to harvest this information and allot the students a time and place to choose these texts. Students read more when their interests are considered.
In conclusion, students show an increase with reading nonfiction when it is being promoted by the teacher. There are many effective strategies that help increase nonfiction within the classroom that will get students intrigued and looking for a new piece of nonfiction to sink their teeth into. The strategy that was found to be most successful was just having an overall enthusiasm for the genre.
**Limitations**
There are several limitations when conducting this research. Students were limited to the texts that were brought into the classroom. Therefore, their particular interest area may not have been met. This could impact the results of the study as it was looking at what happens when students’ interests were considered. Students who were already engaged in reading a series were also not likely to shift what they were reading. More time and a larger population would consider outcomes through a larger lens.
Students reading levels were not considered. Rather texts were chosen that appeared to be around the third grade level. They were chosen based on interests, visual appeal and content. Peer influence was another factor to consider. Some students chose to read a book that a friend had just read. This can have a positive outcome on reading nonfiction as well. It may also lead students to read a topic that did not state they had previous interest in. To suggest that I could exactly match readers to their interests would
be false. It was easier to consider the interests of the mass and therefore are more general.
About 3 out of 18 students were not consistent with logging in their reading logs, and I was rather diligent about the students logging in their reading. This means that not all of the reading that occurred in the classroom may be accounted for. This study also did not account for any other reading that occurred in the classroom and any at home reading. Further, some students had an extensive amount or reading on their logs while others had only a few texts. Multiple suggestions to this causation can be explained. This includes; some students read faster or slower than their peers, the texts chosen varied in size, it was a magazine article, and the lack of remembering to log in everything they read. I also had to decide if the same text was being read or is a multiple read of same text was occurring. There were places in which a student would read a book on Monday and then again on a Thursday. Those texts that were considered multiple reads counted as individual texts while the texts that were listed on multiple (not necessarily sequential) days were only counted as one text.
**Implications for the Field**
As the needs for education continue to shift toward a demand for reading and understanding nonfiction, so does the need to keep teachers educated and informed. This study has created awareness that what may have been thought of engaging students with nonfiction texts, was rather grossly lacking. Though assumptive, many teachers have some nonfiction available and are trying to meet students’ interests. Teachers need support to understand the impact and need for nonfiction in the elementary school classrooms. They need to understand the deeper implications to what it means for their
students. Teachers need to look closely at this topic and have a chance to reflect on the opportunities that are currently in their classroom. From there, they should be made aware of easy to use classroom strategies to enhance nonfiction in their classroom.
Effective teaching strategies that encourage the reading of nonfiction should be promoted in the classrooms.
Further, I want to explore other strategies that are effective for teachers to involve in their classroom. Though I found several to be effective, I would be curious to look more closely at the strategy and the reaction of the students. For example, if a teacher read aloud a particular magazine article, what would the students choose to read during that session?
I also found that students seemed to be greatly influenced by their peers. I feel that more research on peer influence with nonfiction would be beneficial. I am wondering if students are able to engage socially during this time how their choices in reading will be affected.
Another area to look at deeper is the instructional level and independent reading levels of the nonfiction texts. What are the outcomes of students reading choices if they are able to read more nonfiction books at their reading level? If the texts are easier, the students may be inclined to sustain reading about a particular topic. Or does interest outweigh reading level? Many students are able to read texts with greater difficulty when the topic is of specific interest. In conjunction with reading levels, I am wondering if students have strategies with how to read nonfiction. Do they have an awareness of how to navigate through a nonfiction text? Students need a variety of strategies to use when reading nonfiction and are aware when to use them.
Finally, the big idea for reading any text: authentic purpose. When students have a real reason to read, what are the outcomes? Do they explore more and read more about a topic if they have a reason to learn about it. Does it have to connect to their personal life to make it interesting and sustainable? Must their reading have to be for a real audience, all of the time? These are areas that I would be interested in observing more closely as a teacher researcher.
In conclusion, the use of nonfiction texts benefits all elementary school students. It is important to include a plethora of teaching strategies to engage students in such reading and create an awareness of the genre as a preference. Several suggested strategies that were found effective include; read aloud, book displays, book bins, organization, and flooding the room with nonfiction texts. The overall most effective strategy was teacher enthusiasm. Further students will be more likely to read the texts when the choices are considering the areas of interest that a child may have.
Cambria, J. & Guthrie, J.T., (2010). Motivating and engaging students in reading. *The NERA Journal*. 46(1) 16-29.
Caswell, L.J., & Duke, N.K. (1998). Non-narrative as a catalyst for literacy development. *Language Arts*, 75, 108-117.
Chall, J.S., (1983). *Stages of Reading Development*. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chall, J.S., Jacobs, V.A., & Baldwin, L.E. (1990). The Reading Crisis: Why Poor Children Fall Behind. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Duke, Nell K. (2000). 3.6 Minutes per Day: The Scarcity of Informational Texts in First Grade. *Reading Research Quarterly*. 35(2). 202-224.
Duke, N.K., & Kays, J. (1998). “Can I say ‘once upon a time’?” Kindergarten children developing knowledge of information book language. *Early Childhood Research Quarterly*, 13, 295-318.
Gallo, G. & Ness, M.K. (2013). Understanding the text genre preferences of third-grade readers. *Journal of Language and Literacy Education*, 9(2), 110-130.
Gambrell, Linda B. (1996). Creating Classroom Cultures that Foster Reading Motivation. *The Reading Teacher*, 50(1), 14-25.
Gay, G. (2000). *Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Practice, & Research*. New York: Teachers College Press.
Kelsey, Marie (2011). Compel Students to Read with Compelling Nonfiction: Reversing Readicide. *Knowledge Quest*, 39(4), 34-39.
Reading framework for the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2008). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Topping Keith J. (2015). Fiction and Nonfiction Reading and Comprehension in Preferred Books, *Reading Psychology*. 36:4, 350-387.
Assessment Governing Board. (2007). Writing framework for the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress, pre-publication edition. Iowa City, IA: ACT, Inc.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Palmer, R.G. & Stewart, R.A., (2005) Models for using nonfiction in the primary grades. *The Reading Teacher* 58(5), 426-434.
Perks, Kevin. (2010). Crafting Effective Choices to Motivate Students. *Adolescent Literacy in Perspective* March/April 2-17.
Routman, R. (2003). Reading essentials: The specifics you need to teach reading well. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Smolkin, L.B., & Donovan C.A. (2001). The contexts of comprehension: The information book read aloud, comprehension acquisition, and comprehension instruction in a first-grade classroom. *Elementary School Journal*, 102, 97-122.
Trussell-Cullen, A. (1999). Starting with the real world: Strategies for developing nonfiction reading and writing, K-8. Carlsbad, CA: Dominie Press.
Vent, Cheryl T. & Ray, Julie A. (2007) There is more to reading than fiction! Enticing elementary students to read nonfiction books. *Teacher Librarian* 34.4 Apr: 42-44.
Williams, Lee T. (2009). A Framework for Nonfiction in the Elementary Grades. *Literacy Research and Instruction*. 48(3). 247-263.
Young, T. A., Moss, B. & Cornwell L., (2007). The Classroom Library: A Place for Nonfiction, Nonfiction in its Place. *Reading Horizons* 48(1). 1-18.
Your favorites list
Name: ____________________________
Favorite movie of all time:
Annie
Favorite TV show:
Liv and Maddie
Favorite band or type of music:
Pop
List 3 things you like to do when you’re not in school:
1. Dance and Sing
2. Playing with my puppy
3. Playing outside
Favorite video games include:
Just Dance
Mark(s) you love:
- Animals
- Sports
- Nature
- Dancing
- Art/Drawing
- Writing
- Singing
- Acting/Theatre
- Bike riding
- Computers
- Cooking
- Board games
- Video games
- Photography
- Science
- Mechanics
- Construction
- Church
- Watching TV/movies
- Travel
- School
- Swimming
- Music
- Other: ________________________
Your favorites list
5 important people in your life:
1. Mom
2. Dad
3. Sister
4. Friends/care
5. Teachers
5 important things in your life:
1. Dogs
2. TV
3. My baby black
4. Stuffed animals
5. iPad
Who are your heroes (real people or fantasy characters)?
Mom
Mark your favorite activities:
- Basketball
- Football
- Soccer
- Fishing
- Baseball
- Softball
- Skiing
- Motor racing
- Hockey
- Skateboarding
- Bicycling
- Wrestling
- Volleyball
- Tennis
- Dancing
- Swimming
- Cheerleading
- Gymnastics
- Ice skating
- Musical instruments
- Mini golf
- Others: Golf
Circle a number for each type of reading:
| | 1 Hate it! | Not my fav. | It's OK. | Like it. | Love it! |
|---------------------|------------|-------------|----------|----------|----------|
| Mystery/Suspense | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Fantasy | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Action/Adventure | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| How-to books | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Biography | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Poetry | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Science fiction | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Historical fiction | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Realistic fiction | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Nonfiction/Informational | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
©2010 Smekens Education Solutions, Inc. • www.SmekensEducation.com • Grades 3-8 Reader Interest Inventory 3
## Appendix B
### Library Checkout Log
| Due Date | Title | Call Number | Price | Checked Out |
|------------|--------------------------------------------|-------------|--------|-------------|
| 10/12/2015 | Junie B., first grader: toothless wonder | EF Par | $11.95 | 10/5/2015 |
| | (Copy: T_12006) | | | |
| 10/12/2015 | Miss Mary is scary! | F GUT | $15.89 | 10/5/2015 |
| | (Copy: T_89884) | | | |
| 10/23/2015 | Chocolate | 641.3 JON | $13.95 | 10/16/2015 |
| | (Copy: T_85608) | | | |
| 10/23/2015 | Cool cuisine for super sleepovers: easy recipes for kids to cook | E 641.5 WAG | $16.95 | 10/16/2015 |
| | (Copy: T_88842) | | | |
| 10/23/2015 | My Pet: Dog | 636.7 BER | $16.95 | 10/16/2015 |
| | (Copy: T_85326) | | | |
©2002-2015 Follett School Solutions, Inc. 13_0_AU3_RC6 10/16/2015 11:25 AM
| Name of book | Author | Day | Number of pages | Genre |
|----------------------|--------------|------|-----------------|-------|
| Surf's Up | Geronimo Stilton | Wed | 1-2 | F |
| The Ruffles | | | 2-5 | F |
| Monster Goose | Judy Sierra | Thurs| 1-4 | E |
| Princess Cookbook | Sarah L. Schuette | Wed | 4-8 | F |
| | | | 8-9 | F |
| N. Paridias' Marmum | NG Kids | | 4-8 | F |
| Special H. | | | 4-8 | F |
| Princess Cook Book | Sarah L. Schuette | Mon | 6-17 | F |
| | | | 17-18 | F |
| Special Halloween Issue | NG Kids | | 6-10 | F | | <urn:uuid:c13fa803-58e1-4424-a7a3-904973c75937> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | https://rdw.rowan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1572&context=etd | 2019-09-19T10:30:25Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573476.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20190919101533-20190919123533-00046.warc.gz | 628,176,795 | 18,898 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.95823 | eng_Latn | 0.998971 | [
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Members answer the question:
What can you do to improve your watershed?
**Identify the Problem**
- Clubs must research their watershed and identify an environmental concern
- Work in a group of up to 4 members per project
- Club leaders MUST REGISTER THEIR CLUB online before the proposal can be submitted
**What’s the Solution?**
- Come up with one realistic solution
- The team must explain their idea in approximately 1,000 word proposal (include visuals)
- Entries are judged on innovation, comprehensive scope, budget, communication, environmental impact, realistic solution and visuals
**Submit Online**
| Deadline | Central AB | Southern AB | SK | MB | ON |
|----------|------------|-------------|----|----|----|
| Entry | 03/17/2020 | 03/13/2020 | 03/13/2020 | 03/13/2020 | 03/11/2020 |
| Finals | 04/25/2020 | 04/25/2020 | 05/02/2020 | 04/25/2020 | 04/22/2020 |
Community judges select 10 finalists in each contest
**Finalists Competition**
- Community mentor provided
- 5 minute verbal presentation
- First place $1,000 for the team and $1,000 for their school or club
**$50,000 Implementation Funding**
All realistic entries are eligible. If clubs want to take action, we can help make it happen!
Free workbooks, mentorship and funding available.
Proposal guidelines can be found at CaringForOurWatersheds.com
LOCAL ACTION, GLOBAL REACH
Caring for our Watersheds™ is an education program which weaves together the combined strengths of clubs, schools, industry, environmental organizations and communities to engage students in preserving and improving their local watersheds. By taking action you join students from all over the world who want their voice to be heard. This program is offered in Canada, USA and Argentina.
FINALIST AWARDS IN EACH CONTEST
| 1st Place | 2nd Place | 3rd Place | 4th Place | 5th Place |
|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
| $1,000 | $900 | $800 | $700 | $600 |
| 6th Place | 7th Place | 8th Place | 9th Place | 10th Place |
|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
| $500 | $450 | $400 | $350 | $300 |
SCHOOL/CLUB AWARDS
$11,000 available in each contest
All finalists win cash for themselves plus a matching cash prize for their school or registered non-profit club. Schools/clubs are also eligible for $100 for every 10 entries they submit to the contest.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
$10,000 available in each contest
To share amongst realistic entries. Both finalists and non-finalists are welcome to apply. The primary goal is to turn members’ ideas into environmental solutions!
CONTEST DETAILS
**Central Alberta**
- Grade 7-12, north of Airdrie within the AB border
- Nathalie Olson, 780-672-0276
- email@example.com
**Southern Alberta**
- Grade 7-12, south of and inc. Airdrie within the AB border
- Cody Field, 403-826-7870
- firstname.lastname@example.org
**Saskatchewan**
- Grade 7-12, provincial within the SK border
- Sue Bouchard, 306-665-6887
- email@example.com
**Manitoba**
- Grade 7-12, provincial within the MB border
- Amanda Benson, 204-467-3401
- firstname.lastname@example.org
**Ontario**
- Grade 7-9, must live in the Lower Trent Watershed region.
- Corinne Harris, 613-394-3915
- email@example.com
The Program Coordinator reserves the right to change or adjust reward amounts and contest deadlines based on the level of participation. The first 500 participants will receive a gift. The first 500 entries will receive the school/club award. This program is open to schools and clubs, such as 4-H. Restrictions may apply. | fad6f755-4082-4c4f-b461-dfc0ecdc7ccd | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://caringforourwatersheds.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/How-It-Works_4H_2020.pdf | 2023-09-24T17:49:38+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506658.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20230924155422-20230924185422-00364.warc.gz | 179,647,615 | 933 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.992344 | eng_Latn | 0.992567 | [
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Common Threads
Globalization, sweatshops, and the clothes we wear
Teacher Resource
Teaching Materials
Integrated Video and CD-ROM
Lesson Plans
Evaluation Rubrics
The *Common Threads Project* resource package consists of high quality “classroom-ready” lesson resources for Ontario secondary school teachers. These materials help develop awareness in Ontario’s high school students of the global impact of their choices and actions, and help them make responsible choices for the sake of our collective future. The lesson resources are complete and “ready to use”, designed using specific Ontario Ministry of Education curriculum expectations. They utilize multimedia elements but are available in various formats to provide maximum flexibility.
**Project Director:**
Domenic Bellissimo
**Common Threads Project Team:**
Niki Bales
Susan Grabek
Robert Crowther
Grant Sundal
Daniel Fewings
Marty Wilkinson
Special thanks to the Provincial Executive, OSSTF/FEESO for their support of this project.
Video directed by Daniel Fewings and Michael Craig
Written by Grant Sundal and Michael Craig
Edited by Christiane Galley and Daniel Fewings
Host & narrator Tanya Roberts-Davis
Teacher Resource cover and inside design by Grant Sundal
Edited by Domenic Bellissimo and the Common Threads team.
Website developed by Robert Crowther
We would like to acknowledge the participation of:
Maquila Solidarity Network
Rights Action
Mountain Equipment Co-op
COVERCO
FESTRAS
Grupos de Apoyo Mutuo (GAM)
Ministry of Labour, Guatemala
Produced with the assistance of the government of Canada through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
Produced by the Ontario Secondary School Teachers’ Federation
OSSTF/FEESO, 60 Mobile Drive, Toronto, ON, M4A 2P3.
Telephone: 416.751.8300; Toll free: 1.800.267.7867;
Fax: 416.751.3394. On the web at www.osstf.on.ca
© OSSTF/FEESO 2003
# Common Threads
Globalization, sweatshops, and the clothes we wear
| Contents | Page |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| Program Overview | 4-8 |
| Teacher Resources | TR |
| Lesson Activities: | |
| • Civics, Grade 10 Open CHV2O | CHV2O|
| • Fashion and Creative Expression, Grade 11, Open HNC30 | HNC3O|
| • Philosophy: The Big Questions HZB301 | HZB3O|
| • Canadian and World Politics, Grade 12, University Preparation CPW4U | CPW4U|
| Activity Masters | AM |
| Assessment Rubrics | AR |
Note: All materials in this teacher resource will be included on the CD ROM when available. These materials can also be found on the Common Threads website—www.commonthreads.ca.
Program Overview
Common Threads
Program Overview
The Common Threads Teacher Resource is designed to meet a pressing need among Ontario’s secondary school teachers and the students they teach.
The new Ontario Curriculum has created unique challenges and opportunities for Ontario’s teachers. There are a number of new and potentially valuable courses that allow exploration of global issues, but textbooks and specific resources for many have not yet been produced. As a result, teachers often struggle to find suitable teaching materials for these new courses. Excellent resources may be available, but require significant time to modify into lesson plans, activities and assessments suitable to the new curriculum.
The Common Threads Teacher Resource addresses this need. The Common Threads resources are designed to be:
- “Ready to use” with no time-consuming modification or adaptation needed on the part of teachers;
- Designed using specific Ministry of Education curriculum expectations to allow for seamless integration within existing courses;
- Comprehensive and complete with all needed resources, materials, activities, handouts, and assessment rubrics provided;
- Multimedia in nature and engaging for students and teachers alike;
- Available in various formats to provide maximum flexibility.
The Common Threads Project focuses on the sweatshop conditions in Guatemala’s 300 “maquilas” or garment factories, and the complex social, political, and economic factors surrounding the problem. The materials allow students to access first-person narratives from a number of stakeholders involved in the issue of the maquilas in Guatemala and so provides a case study approach. This approach allows students to explore a number of important global themes.
Among the themes highlighted in the Common Threads Project lesson resources are:
- Basic human needs, including child labour and war-affected children;
- Human rights, democracy and good governance, including respect for and understanding of human rights, the rights of women and children;
- Gender equality, including empowerment opportunities for women and men, boys and girls, equal participation as team leaders, community leaders, decision-makers, and reducing inequalities in access to education, employment, and property rights;
- Fair Trade and Globalization.
The Common Threads Teacher Resource has been designed in accordance with *The Ontario Curriculum, Ontario Ministry of Education, 2000-2002*. Each of the individual lesson modules is specifically adapted to address the curriculum expectations for each particular course included in the program.
Teachers using the *Common Threads* lesson resources can be confident that the lessons will enable students to meet Ontario Ministry of Education mandated overall and specific expectations. Moreover, assessment rubrics created using specific course expectations and achievement chart criteria for each discipline are also provided.
The *Common Threads* Teacher Resource consists of lesson resources and supporting materials for the following Ministry of Education courses of study:
- Civics, Grade 10, Open (CHV2O)
- Fashion and Creative Expression, Grade 11, Open (HNC3O)
- Philosophy: The Big Questions, Grade 11, Open (HZB3O)
- Canadian and World Politics, Grade 12, University Preparation (CPW4U)
The *Common Threads* Teacher Resource consists of a comprehensive package of “classroom-ready” lesson resources including:
1. Hands-On Lesson Modules
2. Program Video
3. CD-ROM/DVD
4. Interactive Website
5. Supporting Print Resources
Each hands-on lesson module outline for teachers specific lesson objectives and *Ontario Ministry of Education* mandated curriculum expectations addressed within the lesson. The modules also outline the lesson sequence and provide a detailed “step-by-step” description of lesson activities. All required resource materials, student activity sheets and assessment rubrics are provided in the form of easy to photocopy “black-line masters” included in Teacher Resource.
The program video consists of short documentary featuring interviews with the various “players” in the maquila sector: government officials, factory owners, union activists, human rights groups, monitoring organizations, and maquila workers themselves. The video also provides a brief backgrounder of the historical, political and economic context. The video will be produced in VHS and later a CD-ROM/DVD format to allow for both current and future compatibility and use.
The website provides interactive lesson activities, downloadable versions of all lesson resources, links on the world-wide-web, and a searchable database. Additionally, the website will be used for lesson updates and the launching of future lesson modules.
Supporting print materials include “backgrounder” and “context” articles, full interview texts, and video transcripts. The support materials allow teachers the flexibility of further adaptation and extension of lesson activities. All lesson resources are available in print form and in printable PDF files on a CD-ROM in the teacher’s kit.
Program Considerations
Resources. All the resources needed for all lessons are contained in this package except for a VCR/DVD player and television, which are essential to viewing the lesson video. An optional overhead projector will be needed if you wish to reproduce activity masters as overheads.
Student Sensitivity. Given the nature of the *Common Threads* subject matter, care must be taken in this lesson to respect the feelings and sensitivities of students, and to ensure that students are not made to feel uncomfortable or guilty during the course of the lesson. Bear in mind that students regularly buy and wear apparel from these companies.
Students should be reminded that the lesson is not meant to imply a criticism of themselves, their families or the lives they lead, but to raise awareness about the potential impact of choices they make every day.
Education for Exceptional Students. The *Common Threads* curriculum provides teachers with meaningful and effective opportunities to address the needs of exceptional students in their classrooms. The materials are designed incorporating a variety of delivery methods; moreover, the lesson activities will enable students to experience “real life” applications of concepts and skills, to gain experience in the use of technology, and to engage in learning that promotes personal growth and enrichment. The *Common Threads* lesson resources will ensure that struggling students or special needs students can feel fully included by providing necessary information in various forms and in forms appropriate to their level and ability.
The Use of Technology in the Curriculum. Students will be able to access primary resources in the Common Threads project through our Internet website and the CD-ROM/DVD. These resources will allow students to conduct more diverse and more authentic research into the issues than has ever been possible for students at this level.
English As a Second Language and English Literacy Development (ESL/ELD). The *Common Threads* lesson resources are well suited to students in ESL/ELD programs because the resources invite rich cross-cultural sharing in an ESL classroom. ESL students from around the world will have many and varied personal experiences to draw upon and express, and they will see their experience reflected in the curriculum materials. These materials also give ESL/ELD students an opportunity to use English in the context of practical situations encountered in daily life.
Education Across the Curriculum. The *Common Threads* lesson resources lend themselves exceptionally well to cross-curricular learning, with ready application to such diverse subject areas as social studies, history, English, art, fashion, economics, law – and more. The obvious advantage to students of cross-curricular activities is that they come to view school subjects as connected and interrelated, rather than isolated and divided. Cross-curricular activities involving the *Common Threads* can be simple or complex, depending on the resources available in a particular school.
In the push towards a globalized world community, it is increasingly important to think of ourselves as global citizens. More and more we have to consider what effects our individual choices and actions will have on other human beings far away around the globe; it often means we are forced to challenge our preconceptions of ethical action and moral responsibility.
The *Common Threads* lesson resources will allow students to consider the implications of their own choices as consumers and as human beings, and will also provide students with opportunities to take positive and measurable action to improve the lives of others in the global community. In so doing it will take students beyond the theoretical and let them see real the importance of seemingly abstract concepts of “choice” and “action” in their daily lives and the lives of others. It will also enable students to see themselves as fellow citizens and neighbours in an increasingly interconnected and globalized world community.
The *Common Threads* Teacher Resource provides students not only with information and perspective, but also with practical, effective opportunities to improve the lives of workers in Guatemala’s maquilas.
The lessons are meant to help encourage the integration of a global perspective in teaching and instil a sense of global citizenship and increasing awareness of the difference that individual and collective actions can make on issues of global importance. The lessons should also raise awareness of the role Canadian individuals and organizations play in development assistance.
Additionally, the comprehensive nature of the support materials and the objectivity is meant to increase knowledge of international-development and cooperation issues, and help teachers deliver related resources and curricula; instil an understanding of global interdependence and Canada's responsibilities as a member of the global village; and promote tolerance and respect for the many diverse cultures in Canada and around the world.
We hope you find the materials useful and engaging and we certainly appreciate your feedback and suggestions.
*Remember that we are on the web at www.commonthreads.ca*
Teacher Resources
| Contents | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| A word about the Teacher Resources | TR-3 |
| What is a Maquila? | TR-4 |
| What is a Sweatshop? | TR-5 |
| What is Globalization? | TR-7 |
| The labour behind the label: How our clothes are made | TR-9 |
| What are Human Rights? | TR-12|
| Universal Declaration of Human Rights | TR-14|
| Maquiladora means murder zone | TR-18|
| Political map of Guatemala | TR-19|
| Guatemala: A brief history | TR-20|
| Nineth Montenegro: | TR-24|
| Ríos Montt reversal sets back rights | TR-26|
| Anti-union violence in Guatemala’s maquilas | TR-27|
| Working Conditions in the Maquilas of Guatemala | TR-28|
| Home life for maquila workers | TR-30|
| Unions in Guatemala: A history of fear | TR-31|
| Guatemalan maquila workers win major victory | TR-33|
| Coverco: Model of an independent monitoring agency | TR-35|
| What are Codes of Conduct? | TR-36|
| The Guatemala Apparel and Textile Industry | TR-38|
| VESTEX Code of Conduct | TR-39|
| MEC Supplier Code of Conduct | TR-40|
| Websites of maquila solidarity groups | TR-42|
| The Canada-Guatemala connection | TR-43|
| CIDA and Guatemala | TR-45|
| Common Threads - Script, Video Narration and Statements | TR-46|
A word about the Teacher Resources
The resource package contains a variety of resource material, including backgrounders, news articles, samples and more. These resource materials work hand in hand with the lesson materials and the Common Threads video documentary. They also tie into our interactive website, www.commonthreads.ca. You will see that many of the visuals from the video appear in the resource materials.
The package is meant to be flexible—teachers can pick and choose, use, adapt the materials to suit their needs. Teachers should be able to use these materials in courses beyond those for which we have provided sample lessons.
Although the Teacher Resources are not meant to be used as a “textbook”, the materials are organized logically, starting with broad definitions of the various key terms and issues such as “maquilas”, “sweatshops”, “globalization”. The materials then focus on the specifics of the Guatemalan context. The materials then turn to looking at possible solutions.
Some resources serve as core activities to certain activities outlined in the lesson modules while others are meant to supplement activities in the lessons.
The difficulty level of the resources varies, so teachers will need to be selective and choose pieces that are appropriate to the ability level of the classes with which they will use the materials.
We hope you and your students find them challenging and rewarding.
What is a Maquila?
Maquila is the short form of the word maquiladora. It was originally associated with the process of milling. In Mexico it became the word for another kind of processing -- the assembly of imported component parts for re-export.
The maquilas in Mexico began as a border phenomenon over 30 years ago. US firms set up assembly plants on the Mexican side of the border. They were allowed to import components and raw materials duty-free and re-export the finished product to the US.
Now maquilas are in many parts of Mexico and Central America.
The lure of the maquilas is low wages, a lack of environmental or labour regulations, low taxes, and few if any duties. Products produced include apparel, electronic goods, auto parts, etc.
In Guatemala there are about 300 “maquilas” or garment factories, and the majority are owned by foreign interests rather than Guatemalans themselves.
The maquilas in Guatemala are like those in Mexico and other parts of Central America, although the social and political conditions of Guatemala are unique and add an extra dimension to the issue.
Questions for Discussion
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. What is a maquila?
2. What advantages do maquilas provide to North American companies that rely on them?
3. What benefit does the presence of maquilas provide for the countries in which they are located?
What is a Sweatshop?
A sweatshop is a workplace where workers are subject to extreme exploitation, including the absence of a living wage or benefits, poor working conditions and arbitrary discipline. Sweatshops are often lawless operations in other ways, evading not only wage and hour laws, but also paying no taxes, violating fire and building codes, seeking out and exploiting undocumented immigrants and operating in the underground economy. Sweatshop workers experience long hours, sub-minimum wages, unsafe workplaces, and sometimes sexual harassment, verbal and physical abuse, and child labour.
The word sweatshop was originally used in the 19th century to describe a subcontracting system in which the middlemen earned their profit from the margin between the amount they received for a contract and the amount they paid the workers with whom they subcontracted. This margin was said to be "sweated" from the workers because they received minimal wages for excessive hours under unsafe conditions.
Today's sweatshop is a product of the global economy. Large retailers and manufacturers, seeking greater profits in a highly competitive industry, contract production to a global network of contractors located wherever labour costs are low, whether in China or Guatemala, Toronto or Montreal.
This results in lower wages and deteriorating working conditions in Canada and exploitative conditions abroad. Sweatshops and exploitative forms of child labour are direct results of this global general lowering of living standards and corporate attempts to evade responsibility for workers and their working conditions.
Domestic production still has a significant advantage in its ability to respond quickly to a changing market. However, thousands of apparel workers in cities and towns across Canada are forced to compete directly with workers in the developing world who work in oppressive conditions. Again this leads to lower wages and deteriorating working conditions in Canada and exploitative conditions abroad.
Sweatshop conditions exist in an increasing number of manufacturing and service industries. Subcontracting is being used for auto parts, building maintenance and many kinds of public sector work. Apparel sweatshops are just the extreme version of the general lowering of living standards.
and corporate attempts to evade responsibility for workers and their working conditions.
Source: The Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees (UNITE)
Questions for Discussion
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. List the conditions workers are faced with in sweatshops.
2. Where does the term “sweatshop” originally come from?
3. Why are sweatshops an increasing problem in today’s economy?
4. How does the existence of sweatshops in other countries affect workers in Canada’s apparel industry?
Thinking Beyond
1. Think about it. You may not know it, but right now you could be wearing clothes produced in a sweatshop. What difference does it make to you whether your clothes are made in a sweatshop?
2. Do you have a part time job? If so, what are conditions like at your place of work? Are there things about your workplace that you think are unfair? Do you know what your rights are as a worker?
One Step Further
The Maquila Solidarity Network (MSN) is a Canadian network promoting solidarity with groups in Mexico, Central America, and Asia organizing in maquiladora factories to improve conditions and win a living wage. In a global economy it is essential that groups in the North and South work together for employment with dignity, fair wages and working conditions, and healthy workplaces and communities.
www.maquilasolidarity.org
Globalization is a word that has recently become commonplace. To some people, globalization means "a global village" linking the world's people economically, culturally and politically through the use of technology and other tools. To others, globalization is something to fear. Globalization, to them, means a complete reorganization of the world's economic and political activity with multinational corporations and the international trade bureaucracies that they establish taking over global control.
Critics of economic globalization are worried that public discourse – in the media, academia, and among governments – has not seriously questioned the commonly held belief that a globalized economy would "lift all boats". They see a worldwide drive toward a globalized economic system dominated by multinational corporate trade and banking institutions that are not accountable to democratic processes or national governments. In particular, they see globalization policies leading to a number of negative outcomes such as the following:
- Diminishment of local powers as economic and political power is transferred to global and transnational institutions.
- The domination of southern countries by northern countries while widening the gap between rich and poor in all countries.
- A sharp increase in unemployment in both the North and South, as work becomes increasingly mechanized and automated.
- Corporate activity becoming more mobile, unrestricted, opaque, and unaccountable.
- Massive population shifts from rural to urban areas, with commensurate poverty, famine, ethnic friction, and degradation of living and working conditions and human rights.
- The accelerated invasion of the earth's remaining wilderness, bringing a loss of biodiversity, depletion of natural resources and the breakdown of the planet's life support systems.
- The loss of lands and rights of native peoples.
- Homogenization of diverse, local and indigenous cultures.
Perhaps there is another definition of globalization. There is another view. Many of the critics are searching for ways to create a more equitable world order that will have international agreements that place the needs of people, local economies and the natural world ahead of the interest of corporations. In particular these critics advocate:
- Revitalization of local communities by promoting self-reliance.
- Establishing economic enterprises and institutions that enhance democratic control.
- Emphasizing the use of local resources for local production and consumption to produce a better balance between local commerce and long-distance trade.
- Abandoning the paradigm of unlimited economic growth which is blind to ecological limits.
- Recognizing the rights and sovereignty of indigenous peoples Encouraging biodiversity, cultural diversity, and diversity of social, economic, and political forms.
• Developing autonomous, regional and local cycles of production and consumption based primarily on renewable resources of energy and raw materials, and recycling all types of wastes.
However, there is no one voice. There is a divergence of opinions about globalization even among those who are wary of the concept.
**One Step Further**
There are many organizations and websites devoted to the issue of globalization. Of course, some are in favour and some opposed to the idea of globalization,
As an activity, visit some of the following websites. Where do they stand on the issue of globalization? What arguments do they present to support their views? Which do you feel is the most accurate or persuasive point of view?
**Questions for Discussion**
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. What does globalization mean?
2. Why are critics worried about the effects of globalization? What, specifically, do they think globalization might cause? Identify five concerns.
3. What is an alternative definition of globalization? What does it place ahead of the interests of corporations?
**Thinking Beyond**
Whether you have thought about it or not, globalization is already affecting Canada, and affecting you. Through international treaties such as NAFTA and the World Trade Organization (WTO), Canada has become linked to this new global economy.
1. In what ways has globalization affected or changed our lives here in Ontario, or in your local community? Has this change been for the better or for the worse? (For example, have new “foreign” businesses opened up in your area? Has a local industry or business closed down or moved away?
Shopping for clothes today can be quite a geography lesson.
Take a moment and do a label check. Students today are wearing sweaters and shirts from Korea, Madagascar, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka, China, Honduras, and El Salvador, jeans from Canada, Mexico, and Hong Kong, and bras from the Dominican Republic, Canada and Guatemala.
Check out any department or retail store and you’ll find clothes from countries around the world. A huge percentage will probably come from China and Hong Kong. On a recent trip to the local Gap Kids store, we identified labels from more than 35 countries.
And just as quickly as styles change, so do the countries where our clothes are made.
In the globalized economy, retailers and super-labels are constantly searching for new opportunities to have their clothes made at a lower cost.
Together, the apparel and textile industries are the largest industrial employer in the world. The apparel sector represents about half that global industry. More than 23.6 million workers are employed in the garment industry worldwide. Close to 75% are women.
In the globalized economy, retailers and super-labels are constantly searching for new opportunities to have their clothes made at a lower cost. Countries such as Guatemala, China, and Canada are forced to compete over who will accept the poorest wages and working conditions and the weakest labour, health and safety, and human rights standards. The lowest bidder gets the jobs.
An Industry Turned on Its Head
Fifteen years ago, manufacturers — such as those in the old garment districts of Toronto or Montreal — did the designing, marketed their samples to hundreds of retailers, and then produced the orders. Globalization and free trade have turned that process on its head.
Today, retailers and super-label apparel marketing firms design the clothes and then contract out their production to manufacturers around the world. Retailers and super-labels dictate the price of production and the turnaround time. Manufacturers compete for orders.
Return of the Sweatshop
Until quite recently the term “sweatshop” conjured up images of turn-of-the century garment districts in New York, Montreal and Toronto.
In the early years of the industrial revolution, working conditions in many North American and European factories resembled those in today’s Asian and Latin American export processing zones. But the growth of unionization and government regulation mitigated the worst abuses.
Today, as many unionized factories have been closed in the North and government regulation is being dismantled, sweatshop abuses are making a comeback. The abusive treatment women workers face in Asia and Latin America is also reappearing in some large, non-union factories here in Canada.
No unions, no rights
Not surprisingly, the countries favoured by multinational retailers and super-labels tend to be those that provide abundant cheap labour and a labour force that is strictly controlled through repression of union organizing or independent unions.
In the 70s and early 80s, as unions became stronger and wage levels rose in Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, national companies shifted production to other Asian
countries like Bangladesh, Indonesia, Burma, China, and Vietnam, as well as to Mexico and Central America.
In China, the state-controlled All-China Federation of Trade Unions is the only legal union in the country. Any attempts to organize independent unions are severely repressed. In Sri Lanka and Bangladesh employers in free trade zones are not legally required to respect the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively.
In Guatemala’s maquilas, independent unions are legal, but they are not tolerated. Unions are also legal in Central American free trade zones, but whenever workers attempt to organize, they face violence from security guards, death threats against leaders and their families, mass firings, possible plant closures, and the prospect of being put on the blacklist and denied future employment. If a union organizing drive succeeds, the factory owners can always relocate within the country or to another country, or the giant retailer can shift orders to another factory. Although there have been many attempts to organize unions in Guatemala’s maquilas, to date there is only one collective agreement in the over 300 maquila factories.
**How Cheap is Cheap?**
Hourly base wage in the apparel industry (1998, US dollars)
| Country | Wage |
|---------------|--------|
| United States | $8.42 |
| Canada | $6.70 |
| Philippines | $0.62 |
| El Salvador | $0.60 |
| Guatemala | $0.54 |
| Honduras | $0.43 |
| China | $0.30 |
| Nicaragua | $0.25 |
| Indonesia | $0.22 |
| India | $0.20 |
| Bangladesh | $0.17 |
By MSN, May 2000.
**Question:** Based on the information on this chart, where would you expect the big apparel labels to want to source their clothing in the future? What will this mean for workers in countries like Guatemala?
Impact on Canadian workers
As protections for the Canadian industry were eliminated, many Canadian manufacturers simply closed down, unable to compete. Others laid off their sewers and converted into importers. Or they became “jobbers,” arranging quick turn-around production for retailers through a maze of small contractors and subcontractors. Some survived by moving production to low-wage countries. A few went high-tech, producing high-end apparel, such as men’s wool suits, for export to the US market.
In the past two decades, the Canadian industry, like the garment industry globally, has undergone a profound restructuring. Garment workers have suffered most from the changes. Workers have experienced a devastating loss of full-time, standard jobs, and a disproportionate loss of unionized jobs.
Between 1988 and 1993, employment in Canada’s garment industry went from 115,500 to 83,000 workers. In Ontario, employment declined from 25,000 jobs in 1988 to 14,300 in 1991. Between 1980 and 1992, union membership in the industry declined from 81,000 to 38,800, representing a drop in the rate of unionization from almost 44 percent to under 28 percent.
Working for change
The problems facing workers in the garment industry seem insurmountable. But garment workers around the world are organizing to challenge sweatshop abuses. Small but important victories are being won, and precedents set.
Labour, women’s and human rights organizations are building alliances locally, nationally and across national borders. International solidarity has succeeded in winning the reinstatement of some garment workers who were fired for union organizing.
Consumers in the North are increasingly asking questions about where and how their clothes are made and demanding guarantees that clothes are made under humane conditions.
Students in the US and Canada are campaigning for codes of conduct for school and university-licensed apparel.
Groups in the North and South are challenging ineffective company codes of conduct, and demanding tougher standards and independent verification.
As business goes global, so is the movement against sweatshops.
Questions for Discussion
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. How has the garment and apparel industry changed in the last fifteen years?
2. How have the changes in the apparel industry affected workers in foreign countries? How have these changes affected Canadian workers?
3. What is currently being done to address and prevent sweatshop abuses?
Thinking Beyond
Who do you think is most responsible for making sure conditions for workers in the apparel industry are fair and humane? Government? Apparel companies? Factory owners? Individual consumers? Workers?
What are Human Rights?
A statement from the United Nations Office of Information says: "Human Rights are fundamental to our nature; without them we cannot live as human beings." But what are these rights? Put simply, a right is something to which all people are entitled, such as the right to life or the right to vote, the right to education or the right to express views freely. These rights are necessary if we are to live in freedom, security and dignity.
Human rights can be divided into two broad groups: civil and political rights, which concern people's right to fair and equal treatment, to justice and political freedom, and to protection from abuses of power; and social, economic and cultural rights, which concern the right to an adequate standard of living, to freedom from hunger and to health and education.
It is impossible to say that one group of rights is more important than the other. They are always interrelated and interdependent. Although the achievement of civil and political rights may seem immaterial in the face of near starvation or mass illiteracy, they are essential to ensuring the protection of a proper standard of living. The right to participate in government may bring about health and education for all, but ill, hungry people lack the energy to win that right in the first place. Human rights should therefore be seen collectively as, in the words of the Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world."
Civil and political rights
The civil and political rights to which we are all entitled are many. They include the right to vote and to choose a government, the right to equality before the law and to protection against arbitrary arrest or detention, the right to a fair trial and humane treatment, the right to own property, the right to leave and return to any country, the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association, and the right to freedom from slavery.
Today, most of us take it for granted that we can believe what we want and can express these beliefs freely, even though others may disagree with them. We do not expect to be imprisoned, tortured or even killed because of our beliefs. If we are imprisoned for an offence, we expect it only be after a fair and proper trial, and we would expect to be treated fairly and humanely in prison. Yet these rights are frequently violated, despite the many international agreements signed to protect them.
Rights and responsibilities
People need to know their rights and their responsibilities. They need to be aware of how rights can be violated – for what is done in one country can be applied to another country. They need to know the international agreements that are intended to protect human rights. They need to know how individuals can work to protect their own and other people's rights.
In order for society to function fairly, it is considered that a right also usually involves a responsibility. An individual has the right to freedom of speech, but there is the responsibility not to stir up hatred of other people or to undermine their human rights. A government, whatever its beliefs, claims the right to direct the affairs of its citizens. It is part of the concept of
human rights that an authority claiming this right has a responsibility first to draw up a constitution and enact laws which protect human rights, and second to respect the constitution, laws and those human rights in the policies it carries out.
In legal and constitutional terms this is known as "the rule of law". This means that people should not be treated arbitrarily; the laws should be the same for everyone and should treat everyone fairly and equally. These laws should be administered by a truly independent legal system. In return, the citizens have a responsibility to abide by the rule of law and to recognize the rights of all other citizens.
**Human Rights as a business issue**
The *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* calls on "every individual and every organ of society" to play its part in securing universal observance of human rights. The UDHR is the world's most important human rights accord, and was unanimously adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948.
Human rights abuses can occur in countries where corporations are active. For example,
- Private security forces can be hired to protect company assets and employees and can use thuggery and worse in carrying out their roles.
- Government forces can intimidate, harass and evict landowners to clear the path for resource development projects. Indigenous people can be particular targets.
- Trade union leaders can be threatened, kidnapped and murdered.
- Non-violent protests against development activity can be ruthlessly suppressed.
- Workers employed by suppliers overseas — especially vulnerable groups such as children and migrant labour — can be beaten and coerced to work in dangerous and unhealthy conditions.
- Revenues from development projects can help to exacerbate bloody civil wars.
**Questions for Discussion**
1. According to the article, what is a "human right"?
2. What two main groupings are rights divided into? Give examples of each.
3. What is the distinction between rights and responsibilities?
4. What is the concept of "the rule of law"?
5. How can private businesses and corporations be involved in human rights abuses? Give examples.
**Thinking Beyond**
When the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* says "every individual and every organ of society" has a role in securing universal observance of human rights, it means individuals, government, and private businesses too.
1. How does this idea differ from what we normally consider the role and responsibility of private business?
2. Why should private companies be made accountable for their human rights record?
3. How can we ensure that private companies live up to their human rights responsibilities?
On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the full text of which appears in the following pages. Following this historic act the Assembly called upon all Member countries to publicize the text of the Declaration and "to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories."
PREAMBLE
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Article 1.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2.
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3.
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4.
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5.
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6.
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7.
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8.
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10.
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
Article 11.
(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13.
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Article 14.
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15.
(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 16.
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
Article 17.
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18.
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 19.
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20.
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Article 21.
(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22.
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 23.
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Article 24.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25.
(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26.
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
Article 27.
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
Article 28.
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
Article 29.
(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
(3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30.
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
Maquiladora means murder zone
By Paul Knox, Globe and Mail
MEXICO CITY -- For eight years, somebody -- probably several somebodies -- has been raping and killing women in the Mexican border city of Ciudad Juarez. To date, more than 60 deaths fit the rape-murder pattern, although about 260 women have died violently since 1993.
The string of gruesome sex attacks abated in 1999, but eight more corpses turned up earlier this month. Then, last week, there was a ninth.
Many of the victims are slim, dark-skinned women in their teens or 20s, workers at the in-body assembly plants known as maquiladoras that produce electrical goods and car parts. They come to the border from poverty-stricken towns farther south, drawn by the promise of steady work and a more exciting life. The plants, famous as examples of unfettered free trade, provide jobs but few amenities to the cities where they are installed.
Some of the women were strangled, some mutilated, some tortured and beaten to death, many after leaving work to return to their shantytown homes.
It's a shocking story, and a stain on the conscience not only of Mexico but also of Canada and the United States. We have embraced Mexico as an economic partner, but are too often indifferent to the social fallout from continental integration. At bottom, however, the women of Juarez -- both the dead and the survivors -- are victims of Mexican things: Machismo that leads to indifference, and a deeply flawed justice system.
Despite several arrests, the killings are largely unexplained. An Egyptian-born engineer, Abdel Latif Sharif, was arrested in 1995, questioned in several murders and found guilty of one in 1999. The conviction was thrown out on appeal last year after his lawyer pointed out that the alleged victim's description didn't fit the body produced as evidence. Mr. Sharif remains in custody pending further appeals.
The killings continued while Mr. Sharif was in jail, but that was no obstacle to police and prosecutors, who continued to insist that he was the mastermind. They arrested several members of a gang known as the Rebels and said Mr. Sharif had paid these men to murder women in order to draw suspicion away from himself. Most were later freed.
Then, in 1999, authorities said several bus drivers had confessed to murdering women, and contended that they, too, were hired by Mr. Sharif. Their cases apparently are still pending.
This month, two more bus drivers -- including one who had previously been a suspect -- were detained after the decomposed remains of eight young women were found in a vacant lot. A local newspaper published photographs of the men bearing wounds and cigarette burns. One of the men said he had been beaten and forced to confess at gunpoint. Women's advocates say they doubt the drivers are to blame.
Mexico has stabilized its economy and brought transparency to its politics, but President Vicente Fox Quesada needs to give urgent attention to the institutions of law and order. Too many so-called investigators are far better at extracting confessions than doing forensic scutwork to actually solve crimes. In a newspaper column this week, Mr. Fox's own public security minister described the federal prosecutor's office as "an institution which almost no one trusts."
There is a positive side to these chilling tales: the growing organization of women in Juarez and throughout Mexico. "Not one more in Ciudad Juarez!" screamed newspaper advertisements they placed this week, demanding action from vacillating local and national authorities.
Of that, nothing but good can come.
Copyright 2001 Globe Mail
Political Map of Guatemala
Guatemala
- International boundary
- Departamento boundary
- National capital
- Departamento capital
- Railroad
- Road
Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative.
Base 504917 (547180) 2–82
Guatemala: A brief history
The Mayans of Guatemala and the surrounding regions had one of the most advanced civilizations of the ancient world. Their cities flourished across Central America, complete with remarkable pyramids, temples, observatories and libraries, and their scholars produced works of literature, philosophy, art and architecture. Particularly skilled in mathematics and astronomy, Mayan scientists developed a calendar more precise than that used by NASA even today.
With the invasion of the Spanish Conquistadors in the early 1500s, the world of the Mayans, like all of the other Indigenous societies in the western hemisphere, came to a fiery and brutal end. Although medieval Europe was in many ways far less developed, the Conquistadors arrived with enormous military advantages: specifically, gun powder, steel swords, and horses. Within a few years, the Mayans had become slaves in their own homeland, deprived of their lands, their rights, and any political or social representation of any kind. Their libraries and cities were burned and sacked, and their religion and culture were banned. War, disease and slavery wiped out nearly 90% of the Indigenous population within a century.
Despite the odds, the Mayans of Guatemala survived and maintained their heritage, religion and languages intact, although often in secret. Today the socio-economic structure in Guatemala is reminiscent of the old South Africa, with the Mayans constituting the majority of the population--some 80%--yet subjected to extreme racial discrimination and repression. Stripped of both their lands and political representation, they remain a virtual serf population. The villagers suffer an 80% malnutrition level, 80% functional illiteracy level, and the highest infant mortality rate in the hemisphere, second only to people of Haiti. Meanwhile, the lighter skinned descendants of the Conquistadors and other colonists live on large plantations and enjoy great wealth and social prestige. Nevertheless, the Mayans cling fiercely to their own cultural identity, wearing their own hand-woven clothing, complete with mythical symbols, celebrating their own cultural and religious ceremonies, and speaking their own languages.
The Mayans have not accepted their fate lightly. A study of their history shows that in every generation since the invasion of the Spaniards, the Mayans have risen up in rebellion, armed only with rocks and machetes. Every generation, these slave revolts have been quickly crushed by the well armed forces of the ruling elite.
From 1944-1954, Guatemalan society enjoyed what is now referred to as the "Ten Years of Spring" with two popularly elected and reformist Presidents. President Arbenz, himself a former military officer, permitted free expression, legalized unions and diverse political parties, and initiated basic socio-economic reforms. One key program was a moderate land reform effort aimed at alleviating the suffering of the rural poor. To set an example, President Arbenz started with his own lands.
Unfortunately for the people of Guatemala, the United Fruit Company was, at that time, one of the largest landowners in the country and they did not want to lose control of their lands. In 1954, at the height of the McCarthy era, the Company leaders hurried to Washington and cried "Communism." The results were swift and predictable. The CIA promptly organized a group of Guatemalan military dissidents, trained, armed and funded them, and helped them to plan and carry out a violent coup d'etat against the legally and popularly elected Arbenz. Arbenz himself was driven out of Guatemala and died heartbroken in exile. A blood bath ensued, peasant cooperatives were destroyed, unions and political parties crushed, and dissidents hunted down. Thousands were killed and many more fled the country. A military dictatorship was installed in the presidency and remained there until the 1986 election of civilian President Venizio Cerezo.
Although the "Ten Years of Spring" attempt lay in ruins, the experience had whetted the popular appetite for reforms. Rural literacy campaigns flourished, and health promoter teams set to work in the aldeas. Cautious efforts to unionize in the cities began anew, and social commentary and criticism emanated from the University circles. A Mayan civil rights movement began, with demands for equality and an end to the repression. Simultaneously, a fledgling armed resistance movement laid roots in countryside, forming a united front called the U.R.N.G. in 1981.
By the late 1970s, the powers that be were alarmed by the growing popular demands for reforms. As had happened so many times in the past, they responded with great cruelty and force. The Guatemalan military set about to wipe out all such "subversive" activities for once and for all.
In 1981 small group of Mayan leaders marched to the capital and peacefully occupied the Spanish Embassy to protest the repression against their people. Despite the calls of the Spanish Ambassador to leave them in peace, the authorities burned the building to the ground, killing all of the protesters as well as all of the Embassy staff. The Ambassador, badly injured, was the only survivor.
These horrifying events have become symbolic of the wave of repression carried out by the Guatemalan military against the civilian population throughout the 1980s.
Recently released secret "Death Squad Dossiers" show how citizens were systematically targeted for execution by government and paramilitary squads
Often referred to as the "Silent Holocaust", the campaign left 200,000 civilians dead at the hands of the military death squads, and 440 Mayan villages wiped from the map. Torture became commonplace as a method of coercion and intimidation. The union, health and literacy movements were crushed as well.
Repression against leaders of the Catholic Church was so intense that nuns and priests were finally evacuated from the Mayan highlands, their abandoned Churches used as barracks and often torture centers by the military. Thousands of catechistas were "disappeared". Hundreds of thousands of Guatemalans either fled the country or fled inwards into the jungles, forming the CPRs, or civilian resistance populations. Many others chose to pick up weapons and leave for the mountains to join the U.R.N.G. forces.
Despite the extreme and obvious repression, the U.S. continued to send massive military aid throughout most of the war. Even when such aid was temporarily suspended, arms and equipment supplies continued. The School of the Americas continued to train and graduate Guatemalan officers who became notorious for their human rights violations. Training manuals used clearly indicate practices which would violate human rights. Meanwhile, CIA officials worked closely with Guatemalan intelligence officers linked to death squad activities. Many such officers were on CIA payroll as "assets" or paid informants, despite their well known record for serious human right violations. The CIA, moreover, knowingly paid "assets" for information obtained through the use of kidnapping, torture and extrajudicial execution. Worse yet, it was not unusual for North Americans to enter areas where prisoners were being secretly detained and tortured, ask some questions, then leave the victims to their fates. The Red Cross, United Nations, police and family members were never notified.
The civil war continued for more than thirty five years, the final peace accords being signed in December 1996. The United Nations sponsored Truth Commission, or Commission for Historical Clarification, ("CEH"), presented its findings in March 1999. The Commission found that the Guatemalan army had committed some 93% of the total war crimes, and had carried out over 600 massacres.
In 1999, the UN Truth Commission found that the Guatemalan army had committed some 93% of the total war crimes.
Questions for Discussion
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. How did the arrival of the Europeans affect Mayan civilization? How did the Mayan's preserve their culture and traditions?
2. What was the "Ten Years of Spring"? What role did foreign companies and the U.S. government play in stopping it?
3. What was the "Silent Holocaust"?
Thinking Beyond
Consider Guatemala's violent history and it's recent emergence from a brutal civil war. What do you think would be the lasting effects of such an experience on the society?
Why would this make it more difficult for Guatemalan workers themselves to advocate for their rights and organize against sweatshop conditions in their factories?
FOR DEPUTY ASSISTANT SECRETARY ROBERT SAYRE ARA FROM VAKY
1. I AM REPEATING BELOW "EYES ONLY" MESSAGE RECEIVED TODAY FROM GENERAL PORTER SINCE IT NOT INDICATED IT REPEATED STATE AND SINCE I THINK YOU SHOULD BE AWARE OF IT:
SECRET SC6091A
EYES ONLY AMBASSADOR MEIN AND COLONEL WEBBER COMUSHILGP
SUBJECT: REQUEST FOR SPECIAL TRAINING
1. HAVING RETURNED FROM WASHINGTON THIS MORNING (3 DECEMBER), I WISH TO INFORM YOU OF THE FOLLOWING UNUSUAL DEVELOPMENT: JUST BEFORE MY RECENT DEPARTURE FOR USA, COLONEL SOSA, GAF INTELLIGENCE CHIEF, BROUGHT AN INTERVIEW WITH MINISTER CORRIGAN AND PRESENTED IN ARRIAGA'S NAME A VERBAL REQUEST FOR USSOUTHCOM ASSISTANCE IN COVERT TRAINING SPECIAL SQUADS TO KIDNAP CERTAIN SELECTED INDIVIDUALS IN CAPITAL WHOM MOD. CONSIDERS KEY MEN IN COMMUNIST-INSPIRED INSURGENCY AND TERRORIST EFFORT. IT WAS INDICATED TARGET PEOPLE WOULD BE EXILED.
2. WASHINGTON AGENCIES POSITIVELY RECOMMEND AGAINST ANY SUCH TRAINING SUPPORT BY MY COMMAND AND STATE THEY ALSO WOULD NOT SUPPORT SUCH AN ACTIVITY THROUGH OTHER INSTRUMENTALITIES. THEY DO STRONGLY RECOMMEND, HOWEVER, THAT WE FULLY SUPPORT CURRENT POLICE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS AND INITIATE MILITARY PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE TRAINING AND ADDITIONAL COUNTER-INSURGENCY OPERATIONS TRAINING.
3. SINCE MOD ARRIAGA SCHEDULED BE HERE AS GUEST MY COMMAND MONDAY, 5 DECEMBER, I INTEND INFORM HIM USSOUTHCOM UNABLE SUPPORT REQUEST TRANSMITTED THROUGH SOSA BUT THAT WE STAND READY ASSIST IN EVERY WAY POSSIBLE IN TRAINING GUATEMALAN ARMED FORCES IN FIELDS MILITARY PSYOPS AND CI OPERATIONS.
4. PERTINENT CORRIGAN MEMO TOQ ME FOLLOWS IN "EYES ONLY" MESSAGE FOR YOUR INFORMATION.
GP-1
2. I UNDERSTAND CORRIGAN DISCUSSED THIS MATTER WITH YOU AND I ASSUME YOU AWARE OF CONTENTS HIS MEMO REFERRED TO IN LAST PARA PORTER'S MESSAGE. I HAVE THAT MEMO AND CAN CABLE TEXT YOU DO NOT HAVE IT SINCE CONTENTS IMPORTANT TO FLAVOR WHOLE MATTER.
SECRET
Recently de-classified documents like this one reveal the startling clandestine involvement of the United States in training and supporting the Guatemalan government and paramilitary forces against so-called “communist-inspired” counterinsurgents. Support of this policy led to the deaths of tens of thousands of individuals in the dirty war of the 1970s and 1980s.
Nineth Montenegro: Hope of real democracy in Guatemala
When Pope John Paul II visited Guatemala City in 2002, his motorcade followed a route covered in a brilliant carpet of coloured sawdust. It had taken young catholic faithful three frantic days to prepare it.
An apt metaphor for a country struggling in the wake of 35 years of brutal civil war, and with a government proud to boast of peace accords with which it has never intended to comply. Guatemalan President Alfonso Portillo stood beside the Pope and spoke of a nation of “peace and reconciliation”. Cynical words belying a country that is poorer than ever, where the people are forgotten by government, and the society is increasingly without hope.
Nineth Montenegro, a congresswoman for the FDNG (The New Guatemala Democratic Front) party, outlines the difficulty in fighting for the interests of the victims – the real majority of Guatemalan society.
Defense Patrols or “PAC”, organized and legalized by dictator Efrain Rios Montt in the early 1980s. They acted as cannon fodder for the government’s counterinsurgency campaigns in the rural villages, and were responsible for the majority of the rural massacres.
They have recently demanded the government compensate them for their so-called service. The governing FRG (Guatemalan Republican Front) has responded by promising to pay former PAC member 20,000 Quetzales each, about $4,000 Canadian.
There are nearly a million eligible former PAC members.
The indemnification package breaks the terms of the 1996 peace accords. Worse, the government has indicated it will be paid for through a new national tax.
Montenegro is: “It’s terrible. Victims forced to pay for the crimes of the assassins.”
Her own husband, Edgar Fernando Garcia, was kidnapped by the military and “disappeared” in 1984. A woman of extraordinary courage, Nineth Montenegro relentlessly hounded military and government officials in an effort to establish his fate. It turned into the crusade of her life. Along with Edgar’s mother Maria Emilia Garcia and two other women, Montenegro founded GAM, the Mutual Support Group, an organization dedicated to helping the families of Guatemala’s 45,000 “disappeared”. It is now the leading human rights group in Guatemala.
Emilia Garcia, a soft-spoken 75 year-old grandmother, continues to help spearhead the efforts of GAM.
One of the most important jobs they undertake is to work with forensic anthropologists to locate the sites of the mass graves for excavation. They then go into the communities to help prepare the survivors for identifying the victims, providing psychological counseling.
“It is difficult work, she says. “The bodies have to be identified by the clothing they were wearing the last time their relatives saw them. The families have to deal with finding loved ones with bullet holes in their heads, their hands still bound, evidence of torture. It is very hard to deal with.”
GAM also continues to press the government to live up to terms of the peace accords, but with admittedly little effect.
“El gobierno tiene palabras vacías y oídos sordos” says Emilia García – it’s a government of empty words and deaf ears.
To date not one of the 45,000 cases of the “disappeared” has been resolved, even though this was also one of the conditions of the peace accords. Montenegro laments the failure of the left to mobilize more active support. She notes that after years of repression and bloodshed, people are afraid to get involved and speak out. And she admits that the political opposition is very fragmented, with many small groups pushing their individual concerns. She also points to the success of the FRG as a party of populists and demagogues. It is the party of Ríos Montt, an avowed evangelical who remains a popular and influential figure in the government and who is President of Congress.
And Montenegro believes that the way the peace accords were created is very much a source of their current problems.
“The peace negotiations were only between the government and the URNG guerrillas. No one else was consulted, especially not the victims.” Because of this she argues the peace accords are at heart hollow.
“What they created was a paper democracy, not a real one.”
The continuing irony of the peace process, says Montenegro, is that it has only benefited the very people responsible for the worst crimes of the civil war. And, she says, it has given the FRG a ready-made public relations campaign with which to “hoodwink the world.”
As for the Papal visit, both Nineth and Emilia agree it was essentially positive for the country. While it will do nothing to change the current government, it did – if only briefly – focus world attention on the struggles of ordinary Guatemalans. It also provided ordinary Guatemalans with a window of hope, something Montenegro feels Guatemalan’s are in desperate need of. As is she herself.
“After 18 years of constant searching, I know I’ll never see my husband again. But I now live in the hope that Guatemalans will come to their senses and awaken, come to know and experience what real democracy is. That “democracy” does not have to be just an empty phrase of cynical politicians.”
Ríos Montt reversal sets back rights
New York, July 15, 2003
The decision by Guatemala's highest court to authorize the presidential candidacy of former dictator Efrain Ríos Montt is a disturbing setback for human rights in the region, Human Rights Watch said today.
"General Ríos Montt is implicated in some of the most egregious human rights violations committed in Latin America in the twentieth century," said José Miguel Vivanco, Executive Director of the Americas Division of Human Rights Watch. "He is clearly unfit to serve as president of Guatemala."
"Twenty years ago General Ríos Montt ran a military regime that killed thousands of people. Today he should be on trial, not running for president."
José Miguel Vivanco
Executive Director
Americas Division
Human Rights Watch
General Ríos Montt was put in power by a military coup in 1982 and served until 1983. During his term as president, the Guatemalan military carried out a "scorched earth" campaign of hundreds of massacres, tens of thousands of extrajudicial executions, and -according to a U.N.-sponsored truth commission - "acts of genocide."
Ríos Montt made two attempts to run for president in the 1990s but his candidacy was barred by a provision of the 1985 Constitution that prohibited people who had participated in military coups from becoming president. Guatemala's electoral court and the Supreme Court both reaffirmed that prohibition in recent weeks, ruling against his candidacy. But the Constitutional Court, the Guatemalan judiciary's highest authority, ruled yesterday that the constitutional prohibition did not apply.
The court's ruling directly contradicts its own holdings from previous years. However, this time around, three of the seven judges on the court have close ties to Ríos Montt and his party.
Ríos Montt is currently the President of Congress and the head of the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG), the political party of the current president, Alfonso Portillo.
"Twenty years ago General Ríos Montt ran a military regime that killed thousands of people," said Vivanco. "Today he should be on trial, not running for president."
Question: What effect do you think the presidential candidacy of Ríos Montt would have on Guatemalan society?
Anti-union violence in Guatemala’s maquilas
August 2001
On July 25, 2001, a week after violent mobs attacked unionists in the Cimatextiles and Choishin factories in Guatemala, union leaders and the factory management came to an agreement to end the worst violations of the workers’ rights.
The meeting, held at the office of the Maquiladora Association of Guatemala (VESTEX) between the union and the factory management, was called by the Guatemalan Labour Minister to find a solution to the violent intimidation against union organizing in the factories. The Government of Guatemala was apparently motivated by the possible impact of the dispute on its US preferential trade benefits, which are legally conditioned on respect for worker rights.
The Labour Minister also announced that the papers confirming the legal recognition of both unions, SITRACIMA and SITRACHOI, would be available as of July 26, 2001.
Harassment Continues
On July 26, 2001, 23 workers returned to work for the first time since they had been attacked by a mob of non-union co-workers armed with bottles, rocks, and blank pieces of paper and pens on which to sign resignations. This mob attack was apparently orchestrated by factory management and supervisors, who had threatened to close the factory and said workers would be permanently blacklisted if the union was allowed to form.
Since the agreement was signed, the company management is reportedly still involved in anti-union activity.
Management is threatening to file criminal charges against union activists and has not yet taken any steps to suspend any of those who led the violent intimidation against union members as it promised in the agreement;
Management is reportedly sowing confusion by falsely stating that the union has two months to get 50% of the plant affiliated. If not, all union members will be fired after the two months.
The secretary general of the Choishin union, Camilo Rodriguez Pojoy, has twice received telephone calls at 1 a.m. and awoken to find a man watching his house.
Leaders of the labour central FESTRAS have received repeated death threats through phone calls and graffiti written on their homes. FESTRAS has supported the workers in their struggle to organize unions at Choishin and Cimatextiles.
The factory management is demonstrating its lack of willingness to comply with the July 25 agreement and respect workers' rights.
Working Conditions in the Maquilas of Guatemala
The working conditions inside maquilas are often appalling. Unventilated workrooms, unsafe workshops, verbal abuse, sexual harassment and abuse, firings for pregnancy, arbitrary dismissals and forced overtime are just some of the issues workers face in Guatemalan maquilas. Given this grim reality and the fact that conditions vary from factory to factory, most maquila workers do not work in the same plant for very long. In fact, somewhere between 10% and 30% of the maquila workforce resigns or is fired every month. Most maquila workers move from job to job, seeking the best rate for their time. Many work only long enough to save money to start their treacherous trek to the U.S.
Currently, the industry minimum wage is $3.70 (Q29) per day plus a variety of production bonuses arbitrarily calculated and inconsistently awarded by the owners of the maquila. With production bonuses and overtime, a good machine operator in a large maquila earns about $170 (Q1300) per month. Minimum living expenses for an average family (5.38 members) calculated by the national institute of statistics for April 2000 was $284 (Q2185) per month. According to the UN Mission for Guatemala, the majority of Guatemalan workers would need a 140% salary increase to reach a decent standard of living.
In addition to the stress of supporting a family on a maquila wage, many workers incur health problems due to factory conditions. Bathroom access is restricted causing kidney infections. Permission to see a doctor is usually denied, allowing illness to reach a critical stage before it is treated. Respiratory problems are common due to poor ventilation. The legal workweek is 44 hours long; nevertheless, it is not uncommon to work 70 to 80 hour weeks in the maquila. This increases the number of industrial accidents and causes repetitive motion injuries. All told, many workers do not work more than a few years in the maquila before health problems force them back into the informal economy.
Worker Solidarity
In an effort to change these conditions, maquila workers have repeatedly attempted to organize unions in Guatemala. However, this has proved to be extremely difficult. There are currently only two independent maquila unions in Guatemala, and neither have collectively bargained contracts yet. Although both the Guatemalan Constitution and Labor Code guarantee workers' freedom of association hardly any of these laws are enforced. This leaves workers extremely vulnerable to employer attacks. Unionization campaigns by workers are routinely met with retaliatory firings, psychological intimidation, the relocation of factories, and even attempted murder. The history of the union campaign at the Camisas Modernas plants, owned by Phillips Van Heusen, reveals the obstacles to union organizing in Guatemala. After 10 years of union struggle and a well-organized U.S. solidarity campaign, workers won their union and the first union contract. However, one year after the victory, PVH shut down the factory and shifted production to five different non-union plants in the area.
The Future
With changes in international trade rules in store, the maquila in Guatemala will be facing serious restructuring. As of 2005, Central America and Caribbean basin countries will no longer have privileged access to U.S. markets, as textile quotas across the world come to an end, trade preferences disappear, and tax incentives are abolished. At the same time, China will become fully integrated into the world market, unleashing on to the market a huge productive capacity for both high and low value products, and approximately 1 billion extremely poorly paid workers.
If Central America cannot compete in the maquila sector based on its previous selling points (low salaries, preferential access to the US market, and special tax incentives) it must develop new attractions for maquila investors. Central American and Caribbean countries biggest asset is their proximity to the U.S. market, which would allow them to specialize in high value fashion sensitive products that are subject to change every four to six weeks according to consumer trends. Perhaps Guatemala, more than any other Central American country, is well positioned to do just that. In response to the changing strategies of U.S. transnational clothing corporations that no longer want the logistical risk and cost of actually producing the clothing, nor the direct responsibility for working conditions in the production chain, the Guatemalan business sector has been promoting “full package production” in its maquila sector. This means that their contracting firm is producing under agreement to supply the client with a completely finished good. Rather than simply assembling imported pieces into low value goods, maquilas in Guatemala are in some cases designing, sourcing, cutting, sewing, assembling, labeling, packaging, and shipping their products. Along these lines, the maquilas can cater their full package production to high value fashion sensitive clients.
In order to survive, the Guatemalan maquila must continue developing the “full package production” outfit so that it is both highly flexible and capable of rapid response. Yet for workers this means even less employment stability, more forced overtime requirements, and increased intensity of work. Furthermore, many fear that if the changes in 2005 do not actually result in massive job loss, it will cause working conditions and labor relations to spiral downwards as China and other Asian countries redefine the race to the bottom.
Questions for Discussion
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. According to the article, why do most maquila workers not stay in the same factory for very long?
2. Are maquila workers in Guatemala paid a fair living wage? Support your answer.
3. Why has it proved difficult for workers to organize to improve conditions in the maquilas?
4. How will the full integration of China into the world market affect workers in Guatemala’s maquilas?
Thinking Beyond
1. What is meant by “the downward race to the bottom”? What hope is there that Guatemala might avoid being caught in this cycle?
Just south of Guatemala City, the shanty town of Alioto sprawls for miles, thousands of tin and wood shacks tumbling over each other and stretching up the side of the hill across dusty, treeless land. Eight years ago, this asentamiento (squatter settlement) did not exist, but now is crowded with more than 55,000 people who have come from rural areas in search of work. Many, like Gloria, are employed in one of the nearby maquila plants.
“Work hours are supposed to be from 7:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., but normally, we don’t get out until 7 p.m.,” she says. “When we say we work extra hours, they say, ‘no, it’s voluntary,’ but it’s really obligatory, because if we don’t work, they don’t give us our cards back.” Without the cards, akin to time sheets, workers would be docked the entire day’s pay.
Gloria, who shares her own nearby one-room shack with her four youngest children, is allowed only one bathroom break during the entire workday—and frequently finds her paycheck does not include overtime or bonus pay for exceeding work quotas. Making the equivalent of $78 every two weeks for a work-week that includes Saturdays, the family lives on beans and eggs and scrimps on water, which they purchase by the barrel at roughly $1.50 per day—more than one-fourth of Gloria’s wages.
Past rows of indistinguishable corrugated metal and cement walls and behind an eight-foot cinder block fence topped with strings of barbed wire, Gloria’s daughter Marisol, 25, lives with her uncle and two children in a one-room shack her mother helped build. A free-standing cabinet acts as a partition between the kitchen and the corner of the room with bunk beds. A single electric bulb dangles above the table, but as in the rest of Alioto, there is no running water.
Sitting at a table, Gloria (who requested only her first name be used) describes her 11-hour days at a Korean-owned textile factory, where she sews clothes that ultimately bear a major North American label.
But Gloria is among a handful of women in Guatemala’s booming textile industry taking part in a daring experiment—organizing a union.
“I would want to get a raise, or at least get paid what we’re owed,” Gloria says, describing her goals for a union organizing campaign that, if successful, would make her factory the only unionized textile plant in Guatemala. Nearly 90,000 workers, most of them women, are employed in maquilas, more than half of which are Korean-owned. The only other union campaign at an apparel-export factory, Phillips Van Heusen, was crushed after workers won a contract and the plant closed in 1998.
Unions in Guatemala: A history of fear
In Guatemala, a general fear of unions is shared by hundreds of thousands of workers across the nation. This fear is grounded in the country's bloody, 36-year civil war, in which more than 200,000 Guatemalans were killed, including hundreds of union leaders and members, almost all by paramilitary forces, according to an international commission charged with investigating the atrocities.
Between 1944 and 1954, Guatemalans had lived under a new constitution and labor codes that gave them collective bargaining rights, required employers to withhold union dues from paychecks and required equal pay for men and women in the public and private sectors. After a 1954 coup that launched years of bloody dictatorships, the government immediately outlawed union organizing, cut wages by as much as 50 percent and made it illegal for unions to participate in politics. In one year, union membership dropped from 100,000 to 27,000, with some trade unionists murdered.
By the 1970s, Deborah Levenson-Estrada, author of the book *Trade Unionists Against Terror*, says the horror had reached the point where the new military president declared if it was necessary to turn the entire country into a "cemetery in order to pacify it," he would not hesitate to do so. Some trade unionists fought on, but by then, the banners they carried in the rare demonstration had only one demand: "For the Right to Live."
The signing of the 1996 Peace Accords, ending the armed conflict by the government and opposition forces, brought new hope to union leaders—yet since then, groups have become more passive and the government is trying to weaken or eliminate unions, which represent only 2 percent of the workforce, says Homer Fuentes, coordinator of a Danish trade union-funded project to organize maquilas in Guatemala.
In addition to recent massive privatization of government services, Fuentes cites more direct government interference: "Sometimes they provoke unions to take action, then legally fire workers and the union disappears." The government also offers money to union leaders, already desperately poor, to leave their unions, says Fuentes, speaking to the STITCH delegation at a meeting over dinner in Guatemala City. Outside the restaurant, one of the nation's ubiquitous camouflage-attired guards—holding a semiautomatic weapon—casually paces in front of the window.
Even while under attack by a hostile government, unions also face another challenge: Changing their structure to adapt to organizing. Historically, unions in Guatemala have relied on workers coming to them for help in joining a union. When they do, union leaders repeat the nation's labor law requirement: Sign up 25 people (no matter the size of the worksite) who want to join a union, then register with the government, says Marion Traub-Werner, STITCH's staff person in Central America and delegation coordinator.
"The next day, they hold a rally," says Bob Perillo, a Guatemala-based representative of the U.S./Labor Education in the Americas Project. “Management identifies them and fires them—and the union won’t be able to organize for another 10 years.”
As a union organizer, Marie Mejia says one of the biggest obstacles she faces is to show that “even though I’m a woman, I can do the job.”
Marie Mejia, one of two FESTRAS organizers, says her family opposed her decision to become a maquila organizer. Now, she faces another obstacle: “Being in FESTRAS, it is a challenge to show even though I’m a woman, I can do the job.”
A former maquila worker, Mejia endures a grueling two-hour bus ride to Villa Nueva, the area that encompasses Alioto, and often must visit workers at night—dangerous even when accompanied by a male organizer because of the high crime rate.
Once at the women’s homes, she must request permission of the husband to speak to his wife. “If the husband refuses, I ask the woman separately if I can talk with her. Sometimes she says ‘yes,’ sometimes, ‘no.’”
Questions for Discussion
After reading the article carefully, answer the following questions:
1. Why do Guatemalans generally fear unions?
2. Why have Guatemala’s unions had difficulty recovering even after the signing of the 1996 Peace Accords?
3. Why has the emergence of the maquila sector had such an impact on union organization in Guatemala?
Thinking Beyond
1. Imagine you were a worker in one of Guatemala’s maquilas, and union activists started an organizing drive. What would be your response? Would you want to join the union? Or would you be unwilling to take the risk of losing your job, or worse?
Guatemalan maquila workers win major victory
On July 9, 2003, workers at two twin Guatemalan garment factories owned by the Korean manufacturer Choi & Shin achieved a precedent-setting victory when their unions and company management signed a first collective bargaining agreement. In addition to signing the contract, management and the unions also reached agreement on a declaration of principles and an action plan to address labour relations issues in the factories.
The agreement was reached at a crucial moment when workers feared the factories would be shut down in order to get rid of the two unions, SITRACIMA and SITRACHOI, the only legally recognized unions in the country's maquila sector. In the midst of negotiations for the US/Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), the Guatemalan government had threatened to deprive the company of its export license if it failed to negotiate a first collective agreement with the unions, reinstate unjustly fired union members, and gain agreement with the union on a plan to resolve problems in the factories.
While the Guatemalan government had done little to protect the Choi & Shin workers' rights in the past, and had failed to prosecute those responsible for anti-union violence, the prospect of the case becoming an issue in CAFTA negotiations seemed to motivate the government to use the tools available to achieve a resolution to the long-standing dispute.
However, while the CAFTA negotiations and the government's intervention provided an opportunity for the unions to negotiate with the employer, it was the courage and determination of SITRACIMA and SITRACHOI members and the support of their national and international allies that won the victory. The successful negotiation of the agreements was assisted by the Guatemalan union federation, FESTRAS and the International Textile, Garment and Leather Workers Federation (ITGLWF). The US/Guatemala Labor Education in the Americas Project (US/LEAP) helped to facilitate communication between the workers and Liz Claiborne, a major client with the factories. Liz Claiborne and the Fair Labor Association (FLA) also played an important role in pressuring the company to negotiate with the union. The Guatemalan independent monitoring group, COVERCO, carried out
the verification of the negotiation process and are continuing to play a role through the implementation of the agreements.
The agreements come after two years of struggle to win union recognition and defend SITRACIMA and SITRACHOI members against the employer's union-busting campaign. In September 2001, union members were physically attacked inside one of the factories by anti-union workers. The attacks were reportedly orchestrated by management, which had threatened that buyers would stop placing orders and the factories would close if workers didn't get rid of the unions. At that time, an international solidarity campaign, in which MSN participated, and the intervention of COVERCO were successful in stopping the anti-union violence and convincing Liz Claiborne to write a letter to the workers pledging to continue placing orders and to respect their right to be represented by a union.
Questions for Discussion
1. What did workers at the Choi & Shin factories in Guatemala achieve for the very first time?
2. What factors led to the negotiations between management and the unions?
3. Identify all those who played a role in securing the agreement.
Thinking Beyond
1. What does the success at the Choi & Shin factories show about the problem of maquilas and potential solutions?
2. Do you think all the problems in the factory are going to be immediately solved? What needs to happen to ensure conditions really improve for the workers?
The Factories
Choi Shin and CIMA Textiles are related companies that share production facilities at a site about 30 km from Guatemala City in the town of Villa Nueva. Both are Korean-owned. As of March 2001, Choi Shin had 750 workers and 12 production lines. CIMA Textiles had 417 workers and 7 production lines. Each production line has about 30 workers and 2 supervisors.
Unions in Guatemala
According to Guatemalan law, a union must have at least 20 members to gain legal recognition. Furthermore, it must represent at least 25 percent of the workforce before it can undertake collective bargaining with management.
At the beginning of July 2001, two unions registered themselves with the Guatemalan government as representing workers at the Choi Shin and CIMA Textiles manufacturing plants. They bear the names SITRACHOI and SITRACIMA. Both are members of FESTRAS, one of several labor federations in Guatemala.
The Commission for the Verification of Codes of Conduct (Coverco) is a Guatemalan non-profit organization dedicated to providing accurate and credible information about working conditions. Coverco conducts independent monitoring and investigations of workplace compliance with labor standards in Guatemala's major export industries - including apparel, bananas, coffee, and electricity - for multinational companies and international organizations. Objectivity, transparency, non-substitution and independence are the principle tenets of Coverco's work.
In 1996, Peace Accords put an end to 36 years of bloody civil war and removed a major obstacle to foreign investment in Guatemala. While many civil society organizations had emerged to advocate for peace and human rights, labor rights had still been largely unaddressed. It was clear, however, that Guatemala's growing export sectors and the working conditions in those sectors would play a major role in determining future social and economic conditions in Guatemala.
Coverco was founded in 1997 by a group of labor, human rights and religious leaders in Guatemalan civil society who saw an urgent need to address this void. Their objective was clear: to work towards establishing the rule of law and a culture of compliance with labor rights in Guatemala.
Coverco's formation coincided with a visit from the CEO of Liz Claiborne - a major American apparel company - who expressed a desire for civil society-based independent monitoring of their conduct in Guatemala. At the time, there were no Guatemalan organizations with monitoring experience and it had been difficult for advocacy organizations to switch into objective monitoring work. Coverco seized the opportunity and entered a year-long process of negotiation with Liz Claiborne. This gave Coverco the opportunity to develop a concrete proposal about how independent monitoring should be done, while giving Liz Claiborne the opportunity to determine under what terms and conditions they would engage in independent monitoring. This process led to Coverco's first pilot monitoring project with Liz Claiborne and provided a "laboratory" for establishing Coverco's methodology and mandate.
Coverco is currently one of the few non-profit organizations in the world devoted to the ongoing monitoring of local labor conditions, and is recognized internationally as a leader in the field of independent monitoring.
What are Codes of Conduct?
A corporate code of conduct is a document outlining the basic rights and minimum standards a corporation pledges to respect in its relations with workers, communities and the environment. Increasingly, retailers and apparel, shoe and toy manufacturers are adopting voluntary codes of conduct that also cover the labour practices of their suppliers, who are contracted to make their products.
What is in a code?
Most company codes of conduct include provisions on forced labour, discrimination, child labour, and health and safety. Codes that address hours of work, wages and overtime issues seldom go beyond local legal requirements. Few codes include provisions on freedom of association, and fewer still mention the right to organize unions and bargain collectively.
The language in company codes of conduct is often purposely vague, in order to limit corporate responsibility and public accountability.
For example, one major athletic apparel company’s code says the company “will only do business with vendors/suppliers who provide reasonable wages and benefits that equal or exceed the prevailing local industry standard.” Nowhere in this clause is there a requirement that workers producing these products receive a living wage. It doesn’t even clearly require that they receive the legal minimum wage!
Company codes seldom provide independent means for verification that the company or its suppliers are complying with the code.
Companies usually rely on internal monitoring by their own personnel. Some go further and hire financial auditing firms to verify that they and/or their suppliers are following the code.
In a very few instances, companies have responded to public pressure about specific sweatshop abuses by mandating local non-governmental and human rights organizations to monitor conditions in specific factories for limited periods of time.
Reports from internal monitors or external auditors are rarely made public. And companies generally do not disclose the locations of the factories where their clothes are manufactured, making it virtually impossible for labour or human rights organizations to confirm whether the company is living up to its standards.
However, some companies are responding to demands for greater transparency in monitoring. In 1999, Liz Claiborne allowed the Guatemalan independent monitoring group COVERCO to release a candid report on worker rights violations in one of its supply factories. The report also outlined the steps the supplier would need to take to comply with the Liz Claiborne code and Guatemalan law.
So, are codes positive or negative? Among labour rights, women’s and non-governmental organizations, there is a lively debate about the merits and limitations of voluntary codes.
Some fear that voluntary codes will be promoted as an alternative to government regulation and worker organizing. Others think voluntary codes can help to extend the application of minimum labour standards across national boundaries and governmental jurisdictions.
Others accept codes of conduct as a condition of doing business with public institutions. For example, many US universities now require companies producing licensed products to live up to standards expressed in a code of conduct.
**What’s different about the new codes?**
Many of the new codes include provisions for independent verification that code standards are being met. Increasingly, university codes require companies to disclose the locations of manufacturing facilities as a condition for producing university-licensed goods.
Most new codes are based on ILO core labour rights, but some go beyond core rights and establish minimum standards on wages, hours of work, overtime pay, and health and safety.
**What are the ILO standards?**
- freedom of association and the right to bargain collectively;
- prohibitions against forced and bonded labour;
- no child labour;
- non-discrimination;
- health and safety;
- hours of work and overtime compensation;
- wages;
- security of employment (no abuse of labour only subcontracting to avoid social security obligations)
The proliferation of company codes with different and competing standards and requirements has caused confusion for consumers, suppliers and workers. To lessen that confusion, and bring more consistency to code language, companies and their associations have begun to develop industry-wide codes. This is certainly a step forward, as long as the standards are high.
Labour, faith and non-governmental organizations are also getting into the act, pressuring companies to adopt model codes that are firmly based in International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions, and/or engaging with companies in the development of multi-stakeholder codes.
These new codes are being developed in the hope that companies across one or more sectors will sign on to a common set of standards.
Some companies might sign on to these codes to receive a seal of approval or the certification of themselves or their suppliers as meeting minimum standards.
The Guatemala Apparel and Textile Industry generates approximately 97,074 jobs (direct employment) which represents 1.4% of the total labor force. The industry receives the necessary training required to meet the increasing demands of a specialized and highly qualified skills.
To turn the labor issue in a competitive advantage in its long term work plan, the Exporters Association has concluded that addressing the labor issues is essential to accomplish competitiveness for the country’s exports. In addition, there are needs to be done to raise awareness among exporters about the importance and the existing commitment regarding the issue of compliance with labor laws.
The members of the Apparel and Textile Industry –VESTEX- of the Non Traditional Products Exporters Association –AGEXPORTN- are aware of the fact that in view of the globalization taking place in the world, the Guatemalan worker-employer relationship must be adapted to the dynamics of this process in order for the country to be competitive.
VESTEX is committed to comply with the laws and to cooperate with the authorities in charge of their enforcement implementing them properly. Likewise, we support the efforts being made through education by the apparel and textile sector to strengthen the observance of the laws, as well as the efforts being made to develop the industrial activity within a framework of mutual respect.”
You can find out more about VESTEX on the internet: http://www.vestex.com.gt
VESTEX Code of Conduct
LABOR AND ENVIRONMENT PRINCIPLES
- **NON DISCRIMINATION**: Full respect for human dignity will be promoted in order to achieve equality between men and women, preventing all discrimination in the workplace because of race, color, religion, or political affiliation.
- **FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION**: It is recognized that workers have the right to join the organizations of their choice, based on the principles of freedom and democracy.
- **EQUALITY**: The same wages will be paid for the same job performed under the same conditions and with the same efficiency.
- **NO CHILD LABOR**: There must be strict observance of the conditions and restriction regarding the use of child labour.
- **WAGES AND WORKING HOURS**: Wages and working hours will be subject to laws in force in the country, which provide for the payment of a minimum wage. Overtime will be compensated as provided by law. Overtime work is to be performed on voluntary basis.
- **LABOR ENVIRONMENT**: A safe working environment which is in compliance with hygiene and security laws is to be provided. Our members must promote an atmosphere of mutual respect.
- **NO FORCED LABOR**: All restrictions regarding forced labor must be respected.
- **CONSERVATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT**: The conservation of the environment is an essential issue that must go hand-in-hand with the economic and social development of the country. The industry will respect environmental standards and environmental laws in force in the country.
- **RESPECT FOR THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL INTEGRITY OF PERSONS**: This principle seeks to enhance the work and productivity atmosphere of companies to foster and strengthen mechanisms to prevent sexual harassment and improve the physical and mental health of workers of the apparel and textile industry.
Supplier Code of Conduct
Our goal is to ensure safe and healthy workplaces for the people who make our products, where human and civil rights are respected. MEC will apply our Supplier Code of Conduct in our selection of business partners; all of our suppliers are expected to follow the Supplier Code of Conduct.
CHILD LABOUR
MEC suppliers will not hire people under the age of 15, unless local minimum age law stipulates a higher age for work or mandatory schooling, in which case the higher age would apply, as defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 138.
We acknowledge that according to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, a person is a child until age of 18. In keeping with ILO Convention 182, MEC suppliers will ensure young workers in the age group 15-17 are employed according to the protective restrictions prescribed by local laws.
FORCED LABOUR
MEC suppliers will not:
- Use forced, illegal, or prison labour, including indentured or bonded labour, or any form of compulsory labour to manufacture our products.
- Require workers to lodge deposits or their identity papers as a condition of employment, or financially penalize workers for resigning.
DISCIPLINARY PRACTICES/COERCION
MEC suppliers will:
- Treat workers with respect and dignity and ensure workers are not subjected to any form of physical, sexual, psychological, or verbal harassment or abuse.
FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION
MEC Suppliers will recognize and respect that workers, without distinction, have the right to form or join trade unions of their own choosing and to bargain collectively.
Where the right of freedom of association and collective bargaining is restricted under law, the supplier will facilitate and not hinder the development of parallel means for independent, free association and bargaining.
WAGES AND BENEFITS
MEC suppliers will:
- Meet legal requirements for wages and benefits within the country of manufacture, or according to prevailing local industry standards, whichever is higher.
- Pay workers directly and provide workers with clear, written accounting of hours worked, deductions, and regular and overtime wages.
- Not make deductions from employee pay for disciplinary infractions.
WORKING HOURS
MEC suppliers will:
- Ensure total working hours do not exceed 60 hours per week (48 regular hours and 12 overtime) on a regular scheduled basis, except under exceptional unforeseen circumstances. Suppliers will ensure working hours are in compliance with local law and regulations.
- Ensure overtime is voluntary; when overtime is needed, workers are compensated either according to law, or where the law is silent, at a premium.
- Ensure workers are provided at least one day off during every seven-day period.
DISCRIMINATION
MEC suppliers will:
Consider employees for positions on the basis of their qualifications and abilities. We will not work with suppliers who discriminate on the basis of race, gender, political or religious beliefs, social, ethnic or national origin, marital status, age, union affiliation, sexual orientation, or disability.
Ensure pregnant workers are assigned work tasks appropriate for, and not threatening to, their condition.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
MEC suppliers will:
Provide their workers with safe and healthy work environments, which, as a minimum standard, is in compliance with country and local health and safety laws and regulations.
Take adequate steps to prevent accidents or injuries to health arising out of, associated with, or occurring in the course of work.
Ensure that any living facilities provided for personnel are safe and clean and meet the basic needs of personnel. Suppliers will ensure that workers have a vehicle to communicate these needs.
ENVIRONMENTAL COMMITMENT
MEC suppliers will:
Implement and maintain systems to minimize negative impacts of manufacturing and packaging on the environment.
Ensure all waste materials, as a by-product of production, are disposed of properly in an environmentally responsible manner, and according to the local and international laws and regulations.
Compliance and Implementation
1. Providers of MEC-labelled products are subject to monitoring and auditing to assure compliance. Audits may be conducted by MEC staff using our STEP program, or by the use of external auditors.
2. If MEC feels conditions do not meet the standards outlined in our Sourcing Policy, we will request changes to be made before conducting business. If MEC finds violations taking place within current supplier relationships, we will notify the management of the violation, the corrective actions required and a time frame in which these actions are to be completed. If corrective action is not achieved by the end of this time frame, MEC reserves the right to cease business with the supplier in question.
3. Suppliers must maintain current sufficiently detailed records to substantiate their compliance with this policy. These documents must be made available on request to MEC employees or anyone acting on behalf of MEC. Such documents should include, but are not limited to: (i) Personnel files on each employee reflecting proof of age; (ii) Employee working hours and payroll records; (iii) Local health and safety evaluations; (iv) Employee grievances, suggestions, and employer responses; (v) Documentation of any exemptions from local law; (vi) Personnel Policies that describes management’s and worker’s rights and responsibilities regarding: wages, benefits and deductions, vacations and leave, regular and overtime hours, discipline and termination, grievance procedures and harassment.
4. MEC reserves the right to have any manufacturer audited by an Independent Auditor at any time.
5. MEC suppliers will comply with national and other applicable law and, where the provisions of law and the Code address the same issue, the provision that is most stringent will apply.
Websites of maquila solidarity groups
- AFL-CIO - http://www.aflcio.org/
- Alliance for Responsible Trade www.art-us.org
- Association of Women in Development www.awid.org
- BananaLink www.bananalink.org.uk
- Campaign for Labor Rights - http://campaignforlaborrights.org/
- Center of Concern www.coc.org
- Clean Clothes Campaign http://www.cleanclothes.org/
- Coalition of Labor Union Women - http://www.cluw.org/
- Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador www.cispes.org
- Community Shares - http://www.korinet.org/cshares/
- Development Gap http://www.developmentgap.org/
- Economic Policy Institute http://epinet.org/
- Global Exchange http://www.globalexchange.org/
- Human Rights Watch http://www.hrw.org/
- International Confederation of Free Trade Unions http://www.icftu.org/
- International Textile, Garment and Leatherworkers Federation www.itglwf.org
- International Food, Agricultural Hotel, Restaurant, Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers’ Associations (IUF) http://www.iuf.org
- Labour Behind the Label www.labourbehindthelabel.org
- Maquila Solidarity Network http://www.maquilasolidarity.org/
- National Interfaith Center for Worker Justice http://www.nicw.org/
- Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala http://www.nisgua.org/
- Nicaragua Network http://www.nicanet.org/
- Pineros y Campesinos del Noroeste www.pcun.org
- Resource Center of the Americas http://www.americas.org/
- Service Employees International Union - http://www.seiu.org/
- Solidarity Center of the AFL-CIO www.solidaritycenter.org
- Student Action with Farmworkers - http://cds.aas.duke.edu/saf/
- Sweatshop Watch http://www.sweatshopwatch.org/
- United Auto Workers - http://www.uaw.org/
- United Farmworkers of America - http://www.ufw.org/
- United Food and Commercial Workers http://www.ufcw.org/
- UNITE! http://www.uniteunion.org/
- United Students Against Sweatshops http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~fragola/usas/index.html
- US/Labor Education in the Americas Project - http://www.usleap.org/links/linkstemp.html
- Walmart Watch http://www.walmartwatch.com/index.cfm
- Witness for Peace http://www.witnessforpeace.org
- Women’s Edge www.womensedge.org
- Workers Rights Consortium http://www.workersrights.org/
Canada and Guatemala established diplomatic relations in 1961. Due to civil conflict and concerns over human rights, Canadian development assistance was delivered through non-governmental organizations and other multilateral channels throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. During the negotiation of the Peace Accords in 1995, Canada reinstated its bilateral program to Guatemala as a sign of support for the peace process.
Over the course of the 37-year civil conflict, Canada provided asylum to thousands of Guatemalans. As a result there is now a community of more than 50,000 Guatemalan immigrants in Canada, sending back financial remittances as well as knowledge of Canadian values to relatives in Guatemala.
Demonstrating Canada’s real commitment to the Peace Accords, former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lloyd Axworthy, represented Canada at the signing of the Accords on December 29, 1996. Canadian officials continue to remind the Government of Guatemala of its stated commitments to implement the Peace Accords.
Canada’s primary objective in supporting the Guatemala Peace Process is to assist with the peaceful transition to an open society where all Guatemalans can actively contribute to the political, economic and social development of their society.
Canadian and Central American leaders have a tradition of meeting periodically for consultations on issues of shared interest and importance. Prime Minister Chrétien visited Guatemala City, in September 2000, for the Canada-Central America heads of Government meeting. During the visit, the Prime Minister also met with Guatemalan President Alfonso Portillo.
President Portillo visited Canada in April 2001, for the Third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City.
Canada exported $121.2 million worth of goods to Guatemala in 2002, comprised mostly of pulp and paper products (including newsprint), durum wheat, fertilizers, and telephone equipment. Canada imported $143.9 million worth of Guatemalan goods in 2002. The main imports from Guatemala are sugar (both raw and refined), coffee, fruit and vegetables, toilet soap, and articles of clothing. The total two-way trade between the two countries was $265.1 million.
On November 21, 2001, International Trade Minister Pierre Pettigrew announced the launch of free trade negotiations with El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, aimed at further enhancing Canada’s trade relationship with Central America. Parallel agreements on labour and the environment are also being pursued.
Canada, through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), has provided $176 million in net Official DeDevelopment Assistance (ODA) to Guatemala between 1969-70 and 2000-01, with an annual average of approximately $11.8 million over the past four years.
For the year 2001-2002, CIDA provided a total of $17.96 million in ODA to Guatemala. The main objective of Canadian assistance to Guatemala is to support the peace building process using the 1996 Peace Accords as a benchmark. CIDA's strategic focus is on the most marginalized groups (rural poor, indigenous and women) supporting basic social services, agricultural development in rural areas, and fostering respect for human rights, democratic development and good governance.
Guatemala is a member of the Organization of American States and the United Nations. Cooperation with Guatemala on key issues of common interest, e.g., indigenous rights, Americas Summit Process, has been key in advancing important Canadian interests in these multilateral fora. Since 1994, the United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) has played an important role in the country, monitoring the human rights situation, verifying the implementation of the Peace Accords, and supporting institutional strengthening under General Assembly mandates. Canada has provided up to six police officers and up to fifteen military personnel to MINUGUA. Canada has repeatedly co-sponsored the annual United Nations General Assembly resolutions, most recently in December 2002, which extend and adjust MINUGUA's mandates for the following year.
April, 2003
GOVERNMENT OF CANADA CONCERNED OVER VIOLENT ACTS AGAINST GUATEMALAN CITIZENS
The Canadian Embassy expresses its concern at the increase in acts of violence, threats and attacks against members of human-rights organizations, journalists and justice officials, along with the growing climate of insecurity in the country. Recent events, such as the unwarranted attack against José Rubén Zamora and his family, on Tuesday, June 24, are a blow to freedom of expression, respect for human rights and democracy in Guatemala.
It is imperative that the Government of Guatemala and key players in all sectors take the necessary steps to ensure that this election period takes place peacefully and democratically, putting an end to the climate of insecurity, confrontation and violence.
The Canadian Embassy urges the appropriate authorities to take prompt and effective action to investigate this case and others, and to bring those responsible to justice.
James Lambert,
Canada’s Ambassador to Guatemala
The Canadian Embassy in Guatemala website:
www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/guatemala/menu-en.asp
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) supports sustainable development activities in order to reduce poverty and to contribute to a more secure, equitable and prosperous world.
Development is a complex, long-term process that involves all of the world’s people, governments and organizations at all levels. Working with partners in the private and public sectors in Canada and in developing countries, and with international organizations and agencies, we support foreign aid projects in more than 100 of the poorest countries of the world. The objective: to work with developing countries and countries in transition to develop the tools to eventually meet their own needs.
CIDA manages a bilateral assistance program involving signed agreements between the governments of Canada and Guatemala. Specific projects are delivered through partnerships with Canadian businesses, non-governmental organizations, professional associations, labour, educational institutions, and all levels of government. Guatemalan counterpart organizations are full partners in all bilateral initiatives.
Guatemala also receives assistance from Canada through CIDA’s support of organizations like the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Bank, and the Inter-American Development Bank. In addition to providing funding, CIDA uses its influence within these organizations to improve their leadership and effectiveness in aid coordination, and to promote measures that are consistent with Canada’s development priorities.
CIDA’s partnership program provides financial support to projects undertaken in Guatemala by Canadian institutions, associations, and non-governmental organizations, as well as by private-sector companies involved in development.
From the CIDA website http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/home
Common Threads - Script
Video Narration and Statements
Introduction
Tanya Roberts-Davis, host and narrator:
Identified on screen: Tanya Roberts-Davis, Maquila Solidarity Network
Tanya, seated, looks up from something she's reading on the table.
"Hi there! Have you ever stopped to think about who makes the clothing you are wearing, or how these workers are treated? If you check out the labels, you'll see that much of it comes from Asia and North America. But some garments also come from countries in Central America, like Guatemala and El Salvador."
"This clothing, whether it is marked by a brand name, no name or your own school's logo, was probably sewn by a worker who was paid a fraction of the price you paid for it. And as for working conditions in clothing factories, it's usually hot, dusty, dangerous and unfair. You know what we call these factories: sweat shops."
"Off the job, most of the workers who sew clothes live in poverty - in shacks or, in some cases, company barracks - without running water and electricity. And because of the low wages, their kids often don't have enough to eat!"
"You may be shocked to learn that sweatshop conditions exist in Canada too. Women here sew clothing in their homes, and often end up making way less than the minimum wage, sometimes as little as $2.00 per hour."
"In Canada we spend more than 12 billion dollars a year on clothing. Most of the big clothing companies spend a fortune trying to convince young people that their styles are cool. But, if millions of people conclude that a particular company is tolerating the abuse of workers, sales can plummet. So, as consumers we have a lot of power to demand that the basic rights of workers are respected."
"We have to ask questions about how and where our clothing is produced. And we have to find ways to support workers in their struggle for decent working conditions. That's what this video is all about!"
Case in point: Guatemala
Shots: start with a map of Central America, then zero in on Guatemala; followed by various shots of Guatemala depicting poverty, the countryside, the people.
Narrator:
"Most countries in Central America have free trade, or maquiladora, zones which allow companies to set up factories without paying local taxes. Guatemala is typical: there are currently over 300 garment factories - called maquilas - that produce our clothing."
"The problem is that many of these factories are sweatshops where workers sew for up to twenty hours a day under unsafe conditions, with wages so low that they can't meet basic needs for food, clothing, housing and health care. The workers need the jobs, but they also want respect, dignity and a living wage."
Mario Polanco from GAM (Spanish with voiceover):
"On one hand, there is the abuse on the part of the employers in these maquilas. But on the other hand, throughout the past ten or fifteen years, they have become an important source of employment for workers."
Narrator:
"There are a number of players in this situation: the factory owners and managers; the workers and the trade unions; the governments of Guatemala and Canada; retail companies; and human rights organizations like GAM."
"The challenge is to improve pay and working conditions without causing the companies, which are driven by the need to maintain profits, to move their production, and the jobs, to another country."
A bit of background
Narrator:
"To understand Guatemala today, it is important to understand the history of oppression and resistance in this country. With the invasion of the Spanish Conquistadors in the early 1500s, the Mayans, the original inhabitants of Guatemala, became slaves in their own homeland, deprived of their lands, their rights, and political representation. Within a century of the arrival of the Europeans, disease and slavery wiped out nearly 90% of the indigenous population, destroying a civilization."
"Despite centuries of oppression, Maya culture has survived. Mayans cling fiercely to their cultural identity, maintaining their language and religion, wearing their own hand-woven clothing, whose patterns and symbols date back more than a thousand years."
"In the 1960's and 70's, an armed resistance movement sprang up in the countryside. The military responded with a brutal campaign of terror which reached a peak in the 1980s. 200,000 civilians were killed by military death squads, and 440 Mayan villages were wiped off the map."
"In 1996, the 35-year civil war ended with the signing of peace accords. Today, human rights groups continue to deal with the legacy of the violence, and demand justice for the traumatized families of the victims. Bodies are exhumed in order to gather evidence of torture and mass executions."
Emilia Garcia, GAM (Spanish with voiceover):
"There is going to be an exhumation that will take place in San Gualpa in Quiche. My colleagues are going to organize a workshop with the families of the people who are going to be exhumed. It's going to be a very difficult experience, a very painful experience, because they are going to find the bodies dismembered, violence inflicted on the bodies, evidence of gunshots or their hands still tied - horrible things that happened to those people."
Pieces in the puzzle:
The Workers
Narrator:
"Most of the workers in Central American maquilas, including those in Guatemala, are women - and all of them are poor. They work long hours on unsafe machines for subsistence wages. Ventilation is poor, and exits may be locked, so imagine what happens if a fire breaks out! "Meanwhile, unions have been kept out of all but two of over 300 maquila factories."
Victoria Rafaela Cordoba Miranda (Spanish with voiceover):
“At Cimatextil, the union has been organized for a year. Before that it was terrible: shouting, they even hit us - lots of bad treatment. They didn't allow us to go freely to the bathroom; there was a schedule. People had to hold it, and they got urinary tract infections. It was terrible.”
Narrator:
“Workers who speak out about the working conditions are often the targets of intimidation.”
Hilda Esperanza de Cunzas (outside the Choishin factory, Spanish with voiceover):
“When we gave notice that we already had a union, there was a persecution. When she was going home about seven o'clock at night, she was chased by an armed man. She lived far away from here, over the hill, and when she was moving up the hill, she was followed by that man.”
David Morales, head of FESTRAS union (Spanish with voiceover):
“Another woman was visited by the head of personnel, who is still in the company. She was asked to drop charges against the company and resign. When she refused, he asked how secure she was, and whether she thought her children were safe when she went to work.”
David continues from above:
“We are indignant that they don't have the courage to confront us directly, but they threaten our children. That's repugnant.”
Victoria Rafaela Cordoba Miranda (Spanish with voiceover):
“They are only interested in production, it's production, they're not at all interested in how we're feeling physically. If someone has a fever or pain, they don't care. All they're interested in is people working. Š But now that we have the union, it's still difficult but things have improved.”
Quality of Life, Rich and Poor
Narrator:
“In Guatemala, the rich are getting richer.”
“Meanwhile, the majority of Guatemalans, including the maquila workers and their families, are struggling to survive.”
Mario Polanco from GAM (Spanish with voiceover):
“The unjust distribution of land, the unjust distribution of wealth, the social exclusion in this country, the low wages and exploitation, have led to the people in three towns, for the last few months, facing famine conditions. The conditions which exist are similar to those which you might find in Rwanda or Ethiopia or any country in Africa; children malnourished because they lack food and the nutrients they need.”
Woman at squatter camp – (not identified, Spanish with voiceover):
“We've been living in this place for seven years because there's no housing. Š There are a lot of poor families squatting here, most from the countryside. Little by little we've made some progress to improve the area, but it's been very difficult.”
Humans Rights Groups and NGO's
Narrator (back on camera, from medium to CU):
“Guatemalan workers and peasants are much like us, full of hopes and dreams and determination. Supported by labour and human rights groups, they persist in their struggle for decent working and living conditions. Many international development organizations are also active in Guatemala. It’s a joint effort in an uphill battle!”
Annie Bird, Rights Action:
“One of our focuses is making the connection between the repression and whatever causes the repression and the connection between the economic interests and the actors which are never held responsible for the role that they play.”
Narrator:
“In recent years, deplorable conditions in the maquila factories have received critical media coverage in Canada and the US. High school and university students have organized “Sweat Shop Fashion Shows” to tell consumers about the human costs of the clothes they wear. They are also trying to get their schools to adopt purchasing policies to make sure that school clothing--like spirit wear and team uniforms--is made under fair conditions.”
“For example, for three years I have been involved in a No Sweat campaign at Trent University in Peterborough. We raised awareness on campus and negotiated with administrators; and finally the university passed a No Sweat policy for all clothing purchases.”
“Big clothing companies have been bombarded with letters and emails asking that they take responsibility for improving working conditions in the factories that supply their products. To find out what’s really going on, some companies have agreed to send in people from independent monitoring agencies.”
Dennis Smith, COVERCO representative:
“The apparel industry in the globalized economy, beginning in the nineties, began to demonstrate its awareness of the power of consumers by developing corporate codes of conduct. Because consumers increasingly began to base their buying decisions on how the products were made, and whether or not the companies were able to demonstrate that workers and the environment had been respected in the production process.”
Narrator:
“The Guatemalan Ministry of Labour says that they are investigating factory conditions and imposing fines on maquila owners who break the law.”
Inspector General Juan Castillo, Min/Labour (Spanish with v/o):
[his name/ title up followed by: 4000 quetzels = $700 Cdn]
“At 4,000 quetzals each, maquila owners have paid 750,000 quetzals in just one year. In over 55 years of the labour code, it’s the first time that the owners have paid fines.”
“They pay the fines because, if they don’t, they will have trouble doing business in Guatemala and overseas.”
Narrator:
Factory owners and the Guatemalan government, claim that working conditions have improved; that free trade helps the Guatemalan economy; and that jobs in the maquilas, even at low wages, create prosperity.
“But the union representing workers is skeptical. They suggest that owners abuse workers rights in order to keep labour costs down, while the government looks the other way to make sure that the companies continue to do business in Guatemala. Who do you believe?”
**Carla Johana Cruz, organizer with FESTRAS (Spanish with voiceover):**
“The inspectors go to the factories, but they are not considering what the workers say, but what the owners say about the problems. It’s all so sad because, in many instances, the workers and factory owners are sitting together; and the inspector just watches how they argue.”
**David Morales, General Secretary, FESTRAS (Spanish with voiceover):**
“The fact of the matter is that we see that government and factory owners are coordinating activities in order to cover up the serious problems that exists in the maquila sector. They are trying to create a Coordinating Council, but they are not inviting the participation of unions.”
**Narrator:**
“Recently we learned that workers represented by FESTRAS, the union in two maquila factories, have won a contract which includes improvements in working conditions, and guarantees that the North American brands won’t pull their production from the plants.”
“So the news isn’t all bad! In fact, some North American manufacturers and retailers are convinced that they can prevent abuse in their suppliers’ factories - and still make a profit.”
**Statement from Manager of Mountain Equipment Co-op, Toronto**
Sean McSweeney describes their Supplier Code of Conduct and explained that they perform rigorous audits of all their 31 supplier factories, demanding changes where problems are identified.
**Narrator:**
“Many manufacturers complain that it is difficult to ensure that every one of their supply factories is abiding by a code of conduct. But if they have hundreds of suppliers, they also have enormous sales, and should accept their large responsibilities. However, according to COVERCO, worker rights abuses in the maquilas are not an exception-they are the norm.”
**Dennis Smith:**
“We have yet to monitor a factory that did not have major issues.”
**Narrator/host (on camera):**
“Manufacturers need to exert pressure on the maquilas to improve working conditions, rather than taking the easy way out by moving to another supplier or another country.”
**Carla Johana Cruz, organizer with FESTRAS (Spanish with voiceover):**
“We don’t want to adversely affect workers in Guatemala. It’s important that people buy the product. It’s important that factories are able to make the product. But it’s extremely important that students understand that they have a right to demand good treatment of workers in the maquila sector.”
Narrator:
“As buyers of clothing made in maquilas, students have an important role. Students across Canada have taken action via “No Sweat” campaigns, trying to ensure that school sweat shirts and sports equipment are made under decent conditions.”
Two Toronto high school students explain to two from Cobourg that their committee includes more teachers than students; that they used t-shirts as a petition in eight schools to develop a presentation for the school board; and that an anti-sweat policy is in the works but will a long time to negotiate and implement.
Narrator/host on camera, slow zoom in:
“You may not feel that as an individual you can influence corporations and governments. But when we, as students, come together with workers and their support groups, we have strength in numbers. Our voices will be heard.”
Tanya picks up a page about Rigoberto Menchu Tum from the table
A Mayan woman, Rigoberto Menchu Tum, won the Nobel Peace Prize for her work to end the war in Guatemala. Never give up, she said: “We have to focus on solutions in this time of great challenges. If we just wait around, the problems will overwhelm us.”
Camera back to a close up of Tanya
“So let’s get to it!!”
Music continues over titles
Questions for Discussion
1. What did you learn from the video about the issue of sweatshops that you did not know before?
2. What images, ideas or phrases stood out for you from the video? Why?
3. Do you think the video portrays an objective view of the issue? What biases, if any, can you identify in the video?
4. What points of view were not considered in the video? Why not?
5. What solutions are identified in the video? Which of these do you think is the most effective? Why?
Thinking Beyond
Did the video leave you thinking you could make a difference or contribution in solving the problem or not? Explain your reasoning. What evidence does the video provide to support the view that you CAN make a difference? What practical steps are in your power?
Civics, Grade 10 Open CHV2O
Key Curriculum Expectations
These lessons have been designed in accordance with the Ontario Curriculum, Grades 10, Social Sciences and Humanities.
They will help enable students to achieve a number of overall and specific expectations for Civics, including:
**Informed Citizenship**
**Overall Expectations**
ICV.05 — demonstrate an understanding of citizenship within a global context.
**Specific Expectations**
IC5.01 — analyse contemporary crises or issues of international significance (e.g., health and welfare, disasters, human rights, economic development, environmental quality) in the context of the global community;
IC5.02 — summarize the rights and responsibilities of citizenship within the global context, as based on an analysis of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948);
IC5.04 — compare the contributions of individuals, as explored in the student summaries, to arrive at a definition of the term “global citizen”;
**Purposeful Citizenship**
**Overall Expectations**
PCV.03 — demonstrate an understanding of the challenges of governing communities or societies in which diverse value systems, multiple perspectives, and differing civic purposes coexist;
**Specific Expectations**
PCI.01 — describe fundamental beliefs and values associated with democratic citizenship (e.g., rule of law, human dignity, freedom of worship, respect for rights of others, work for common good, sense of responsibility for others, freedom of expression);
PCI.02 — explain, based on an analysis of cases in local, provincial, national, and global contexts, how democratic beliefs and values are reflected in citizen actions;
**Active Citizenship**
**Overall Expectations**
ACV.01 — demonstrate an ability to research questions and issues of civic importance, and to think critically and creatively about these issues and questions;
**Specific Expectations**
AC1.01 — demonstrate an ability to formulate questions; locate information from different types of sources (e.g., texts, special references, news media, maps, community resources, Internet); and identify main ideas, supporting evidence, points of view, and biases in these materials;
AC1.02 — demonstrate an ability to organize information effectively (e.g., using summaries, notes, timelines, visual organizers, maps, comparison organizers);
AC1.03 — demonstrate an ability to effectively use strategies within the inquiry process when studying questions of civic importance in their school or local community.
AC4.04 — participate effectively in a civil action or project of interest to them and of importance to the community (e.g., join special interest group, write letters to editor).
Lesson Activity — Introduction: Learning about Guatemala
Coded Expectations:
ICV.05 — demonstrate an understanding of citizenship within a global context.
IC5.01 — analyse contemporary crises or issues of international significance (e.g., health and welfare, disasters, human rights, economic development, environmental quality) in the context of the global community;
ACV.01 — demonstrate an ability to research questions and issues of civic importance, and to think critically and creatively about these issues and questions;
ACV.04 — demonstrate a knowledge of different types of citizenship participation and involvement.
Resources
- Political Map of Guatemala (In Activity Masters)
- Mapping Activity (In Activity Masters)
- “A brief history of Guatemala” (In Teacher Resources)
- Guatemala Timeline Activity (In Activity Masters)
Supplementary Materials
- Atlases
- Overhead projector
Groupings
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in pairs
- Students working individually
- Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will be learning a little about Guatemala in order to have some context for the video and issue of maquilas as they pertain to Guatemala.
2. Give students copies Mapping Activity. You may display the Political Map of Guatemala as an overhead, or make copies for each student. Inform students that the Mapping Activity will be collected for evaluation.
3. Give students the article “Guatemala: A brief history.” Have students read the article and then answer together the “Questions for Discussion” and “Thinking Beyond” question.
3. Distribute copies of the Timeline Activity to students. Instruct the class to work in pairs to complete the Timeline, using information from the article “Guatemala: A brief history”.
4. After students complete the Timeline, be sure to review the information with the class.
Assessment:
- Process: working in pairs; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: Mapping assignment, Timeline assignment, small group discussion, class discussion
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Timeline
- Mapping Activity rubric
- Teacher observation
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Video
“Your Clothes and the Maquilas that Make Them”
Coded Expectations:
ICV.05 — demonstrate an understanding of citizenship within a global context.
ICS.01 — analyse contemporary crises or issues of international significance (e.g., health and welfare, disasters, human rights, economic development, environmental quality) in the context of the global community;
ICS.02 — summarize the rights and responsibilities of citizenship within the global context, as based on an analysis of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989);
ICS.03 — research and summarize civic actions of individuals and non-governmental organizations that have made a difference in global affairs
ICS.04 — compare the contributions of individuals, as explored in the student summaries, to arrive at a definition of the term “global citizen”;
ACV.01 — demonstrate an ability to research questions and issues of civic importance, and to think critically and creatively about these issues and questions;
ACV.02 — demonstrate an ability to apply decision-making and conflict-resolution procedures and skills to cases of civic importance;
ACV.03 — demonstrate an ability to collaborate effectively when participating in group enquiries and community activities;
ACV.04 — demonstrate a knowledge of different types of citizenship participation and involvement.
Resources
- Common Threads video
- Key Terms handout (In Activity Masters)
- Video graphic organizer handout (In Activity Masters)
- TV and VCR
Supplementary Materials
- Common Threads Video Script (In Teacher Resources)
Groupings
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
- Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four.
2. Give students copies of the “Common Threads Video Key Terms” handout (Activity Masters). Review with students prior to viewing the video.
3. Give students the Common Threads Video Organizer” (In Activity Masters) for the short documentary video “Globalization, Sweatshops and the clothes we wear”.
3. View the video (length - 18 minutes). Instruct students to complete the organizer using information from the video as they watch.
4. After viewing the video, groups should briefly review information and help each other to complete the organizer. The questions on the organizer should help students share opinions about what they saw.
5. As a class, review the information from the video. Use the “Questions for Discussion” and “Thinking Beyond” from the end of the video script (Teacher Resources 51) to help generate discussion. Have students write responses.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, class discussion
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Video organizer
- Teacher observation
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Learning More
Coded Expectations:
**AC2.03** — demonstrate an ability to apply conflict-resolution and decision-making strategies (e.g., identify points of view and values, collect data) to public issues affecting their own lives.
**AC3.01** — demonstrate an ability to contribute to a positive climate in group settings (e.g., respect rights and opinions of others, accept personal responsibility for group duties, provide leadership when appropriate, encourage others to participate);
**AC3.02** — communicate their own beliefs, points of view, and informed judgements, and effectively use appropriate discussion skills (e.g., persuasion, negotiation);
**PC3.05** — describe ways citizens can be involved in responding to issues in which contrasting value systems, multiple perspectives, and differing civic purposes coexist, and determine their own sense of responsibility in relation to these opportunities for involvement;
**PC3.06** — demonstrate an ability to anticipate conflicting civic purposes, overcome personal bias, and suspend judgement in dealing with issues of civic concern.
**ACV.01** — demonstrate an ability to research questions and issues of civic importance, and to think critically and creatively about these issues and questions;
**ACV.03** — demonstrate an ability to collaborate effectively when participating in group enquiries and community activities;
**AC1.01** — demonstrate an ability to formulate questions; locate information from different types of sources (e.g., texts, special references, news media, maps, community resources, Internet); and identify main ideas, supporting evidence, points of view, and biases in these materials;
**AC1.02** — demonstrate an ability to organize information effectively (e.g., using summaries, notes, timelines, visual organizers, maps, comparison organizers);
Resources:
The following are located in the Teacher Resources:
- “What is a Sweatshop”
- “What is Globalization”
- “Guatemala—A Brief History”
- “The Labour Behind the Label: How Our Clothes are Made”
- “What are Human Rights”
- “Working Conditions in the Maquilas of Guatemala”
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
- Students presenting to class
Scope and Sequence:
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four.
2. Groups will each be assigned a reading on one of the topics relating to the issue of maquilas.
3. Groups are to carefully read the article and discuss the content together.
4. Groups are then to prepare a brief presentation on their reading, highlighting the most important ideas.
5. Groups will then present their findings to the class in the form of a brief presentation.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, presentation
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Presentation Activity Sheet
- Presentation Rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative Evaluation
Lesson Activity — The Future of Human Rights
Coded Expectations:
**ICV.05** — demonstrate an understanding of citizenship within a global context.
**IC5.01** — analyse contemporary crises or issues of international significance (e.g., health and welfare, disasters, human rights, economic development, environmental quality) in the context of the global community;
**IC5.02** — summarize the rights and responsibilities of citizenship within the global context, as based on an analysis of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989);
**IC5.03** — research and summarize civic actions of individuals and non-governmental organizations that have made a difference in global affairs
**IC5.04** — compare the contributions of individuals, as explored in the student summaries, to arrive at a definition of the term “global citizen”;
**ACV.01** — demonstrate an ability to research questions and issues of civic importance, and to think critically and creatively about these issues and questions;
**ACV.02** — demonstrate an ability to apply decision-making and conflict-resolution procedures and skills to cases of civic importance;
**ACV.03** — demonstrate an ability to collaborate effectively when participating in group enquiries and community activities;
**ACV.04** — demonstrate a knowledge of different types of citizenship participation and involvement.
Resources
- The groups will have access to the Common Threads web site at http://www.commonthreads.ca
- Common Threads video,
- Materials in the Teacher Resources.
- Role Play Activity Sheet (In Activity Masters)
- Role Play Assessment Rubric (In Assessment Rubrics)
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights (In Teacher Resources)
Supplementary Materials
- Access to internet for access to websites
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
Scope and Sequence
1. **Preparation**
Students should have prior knowledge of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (contained in the Teacher Resources of the Common Threads materials).
2. The class is divided into groups of no more than 4. Each group is to take on the role of one of the “stakeholders” in the maquila sector in Guatemala. One group will be comprised of UN investigators who monitor human rights in the world.
3. The investigators” are focusing on Guatemala’s human rights record in the area of maquilas, especially in relation to the following articles from the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights*:
* Article 20: You have the right to organize or take part in meetings or work together in a peaceful way.
* Article 22: You have the right to social security (a roof over your head, enough money to live on and medical help if you are ill). Also the chance to take part in and enjoy music, art, crafts, sport and anything which helps you to develop your personality.
* Article 23: You have the right to work, to choose work freely and to receive payment for it, which allows you and your family to live decently. Men and women should receive the same pay for doing the same work. You have the right to claim unemployment benefit or social security if necessary. You have the right to join a trade union to protect your interests.
* Article 24: You have the right to rest and leisure, to work reasonable hours and to take regular paid holidays
4. Using material in the www.commonthreads.ca web site, kit and video, the groups are to examine and compare statements made by various “stakeholders” involved in the garment industry in GuateLesson Activity — The Future of Human Rights, continued.
mala. These groups include:
- Union representatives
- Factory owners
- Independent monitoring groups
- Human Rights Organizations (Rights Action and GAM)
- Guatemalan Ministry of Labour
- Apparel Industry Executives
- Canadian Consumers
- And of course, the United Nations Investigators
Groups should learn as much as they can about their assigned “stakeholder”.
Students will be expected to participate in a “role play activity” involving a meeting between all the “stakeholder” and the United Nations investigators. At the end of the investigation, the United Nations group will present their findings to the class.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, role play
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Role Play Activity Sheet
- Role Play Rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative Evaluation
The Fashion Industry,
Grade 11 Open HZB3O
Common Threads
Key Curriculum Expectations
These lesson activities have been designed in accordance with the Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12, Social Sciences and Humanities.
The activities will enable students to achieve a number of overall and specific expectations for *Fashion and Creative Expression, Grade 11, Open, HNC3O*, including the following:
**Functions of Clothing**
**Overall Expectations**
FCV.02 — demonstrate an understanding of psychological, sociological, and cultural attitudes towards beauty, fashion, and apparel;
**Specific Expectations**
FC2.04 — describe how the choice of clothing and adornments is affected by both personal considerations and external social factors (e.g., the media, peers, status, social role, occupation);
**The Apparel Industry**
**Overall Expectations**
AIV.01 — identify the agencies and regulations that influence the production and labeling of apparel and textiles;
AIV.02 — demonstrate an understanding of the nature and evolution of the fashion retailing industry;
AIV.04 — analyse the impact of the clothing industry on society, and societal influences on the clothing industry;
AIV.05 — summarize the contributions of various countries to the apparel industry.
**Specific Expectations**
AI1.01 — identify and interpret existing legislation pertaining to the textile and apparel industries (e.g., Textile Labeling Act, Canada Standard Sizing);
AI2.06 — identify the factors that contribute to the cost of goods produced in Canada and abroad (e.g., standard of living, climatic factors, transportation, market size, design, unionization of workforce, government regulation of industry);
AI4.04 — evaluate the impact on Canadian society of issues relating to the apparel industry, such as the redistribution of jobs brought about by globalization, the exploitation of workers both in Canada and abroad, and the role of unions in the garment industry;
AI5.03 — demonstrate an understanding of Canada’s place in the international fashion, apparel, and textile industry.
**Research and Inquiry Skills**
**Overall Expectations**
ISV.01 — use appropriate social science research methods in the investigation of topics related to fashion, clothing, and textiles;
ISV.02 — use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in conducting research;
ISV.03 — correctly use terminology associated with fashion, clothing, and textiles;
ISV.04 — communicate the results of their inquiries effectively.
**Specific Expectations**
IS1.03 — locate and access primary sources (e.g., interviews with designers and fashion forecasters) and secondary sources (e.g., magazine articles, TV programs) of information relating to fashion.
IS2.02 — demonstrate an ability to organize and interpret information gathered through research, summarizing the main points of articles, interviews, and other research materials;
IS2.04 — evaluate information to determine its validity and reliability;
IS2.05 — differentiate between research evidence and opinion.
IS3.01 — compile information and key ideas from their research, and document sources accurately, using correct forms of citation;
IS3.02 — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries, using a variety of methods and forms (e.g., graphs, charts, diagrams, oral presentations, written reports, newspaper-style articles, videos).
Lesson Activity — Introduction to the Issue
Coded Expectations:
AIV.04 — analyse the impact of the clothing industry on society, and societal influences on the clothing industry;
AI2.06 — identify the factors that contribute to the cost of goods produced in Canada and abroad (e.g., standard of living, climatic factors, transportation, market size, design, unionization of workforce, government regulation of industry);
AI4.04 — evaluate the impact on Canadian society of issues relating to the apparel industry, such as the redistribution of jobs brought about by globalization, the exploitation of workers both in Canada and abroad, the role of unions in the garment industry.
AI5.03 — demonstrate an understanding of Canada’s place in the international fashion, apparel, and textile industry.
IS2.01 — formulate appropriate research questions to frame their inquiries;
Resources
• “The cost of your clothes” handout (In Activity Masters)
• “The Real Cost of your clothes” overhead (In Activity Masters)
• “You are what you wear quiz” (in Activity Masters)
Supplementary Materials
• Fashion magazines and advertisements from major apparel labels
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Students working individually
• Students working in pairs
Scope and Sequence
1. If you have fashion magazines available, or advertisements from major apparel labels, display some of the covers and advertisements to the class. Allow students to look over the magazines, paying special attention to the ads.
2. Give students the “You are what you wear quiz”. Give time to complete, then discuss responses.
Ask students the following questions:
• What makes the clothing from the major apparel labels so appealing?
• Why are clothes from these labels so expensive?
• How much does it really cost to produce this clothing?
• Where does this clothing come from?
2. Have students check the labels of their clothing—they will have to help each other in this activity. Make a list on the board of all the countries that are represented.
Ask students the following questions:
• What do you notice about most of the countries represented?
• Why do you think apparel labels produce clothing in these countries? What are some of the advantages? What are some of the disadvantages?
3. Have students work in pairs to discuss these questions. Students should write responses to the questions. Discuss these questions together as a class.
4. Give students copies of the handout “The Real Cost of Your Clothes”. Review the figures with students. Try and calculate how much—in dollars and cents—of the cost of each sweatshirt actually gets into the pockets of the workers who produce them.
Assessment:
• Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: individual notes, group discussion
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• “The real cost of your clothes handout”
• “You are what you wear quiz”
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Video
“Globalization, sweatshops, and the clothes we wear”
Coded Expectations:
AIV.04 — analyse the impact of the clothing industry on society, and societal influences on the clothing industry;
AI2.06 — identify the factors that contribute to the cost of goods produced in Canada and abroad (e.g., standard of living, climatic factors, transportation, market size, design, unionization of workforce, government regulation of industry);
AI3.02 — identify possible hazards related to occupations in textile production or fashion, and the protections available to workers in these fields;
AI4.04 — evaluate the impact on Canadian society of issues relating to the apparel industry, such as the redistribution of jobs brought about by globalization, the exploitation of workers both in Canada and abroad, the role of unions in the garment industry.
AI5.03 — demonstrate an understanding of Canada’s place in the international fashion, apparel, and textile industry.
ISV.01 — use appropriate social science research methods in the investigation of topics related to fashion, clothing, and textiles;
ISV.02 — use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in conducting research;
IS2.01 — formulate appropriate research questions to frame their inquiries;
IS2.02 — demonstrate an ability to organize and interpret information gathered through research, summarizing the main points of articles, interviews, and other research materials;
Resources
• Common Threads video
• Key Terms handout (In Activity Masters)
• Video viewing graphic organizer handout (In Activity Masters)
Supplementary Materials
• “What is a Sweatshop” article
• “What is Globalization” article
• Common Threads Video Script
(All found in the Teacher Resources)
Groupings
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four.
2. Give students copies of the Key Terms handout. Review with students prior to viewing the video.
3. Give students the graphic organizer for the short documentary video “Globalization, Sweatshops and the clothes we wear”.
3. View the video (length - 18 minutes). Instruct students to complete the organizer using information from the video as they watch.
4. After viewing the video, groups should briefly review information and help each other to complete the organizer. The questions on the organizer should help students share opinions about what they saw.
5. As a class, review the information from the video.
6. Either before watching the video or after viewing, you may want to have students read the articles on “What is a Sweatshop” and “What is Globalization” and assign the “Questions for Discussion” and “Thinking Beyond” questions.
Assessment:
• Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, class discussion
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• Video organizer
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Learning More
Coded Expectations:
AI2.06 — identify the factors that contribute to the cost of goods produced in Canada and abroad (e.g., standard of living, climatic factors, transportation, market size, design, unionization of workforce, government regulation of industry);
AI3.02 — identify possible hazards related to occupations in textile production or fashion, and the protections available to workers in these fields;
AI4.04 — evaluate the impact on Canadian society of issues relating to the apparel industry, such as the redistribution of jobs brought about by globalization, the exploitation of workers both in Canada and abroad, the role of unions in the garment industry.
ISV.01 — use appropriate social science research methods in the investigation of topics related to fashion, clothing, and textiles;
ISV.02 — use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in conducting research;
IS2.01 — formulate appropriate research questions to frame their inquiries;
IS2.02 — demonstrate an ability to organize and interpret information gathered through research, summarizing the main points of articles, interviews, and other research materials;
Resources
The following articles from the Teacher Resources:
• “What is a Sweatshop” article
• “What is Globalization” article
• “Guatemala—A Brief History” article
• “The Labour Behind the Label: How Our Clothes are Made” article
• “What are Human Rights” article
• Other articles you may choose
The following Activity Masters and Rubrics:
• Presentation Activity (From Activity Masters)
• Presentation Assessment Rubric (From Assessment Rubrics)
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four.
2. Groups will each be assigned an article on one of the following topics relating to the issue of maquilas.
• “What is Globalization.”
• “What is a Sweatshop?”
• “Guatemala: A Brief History.” (2 groups)
• “The Labour Behind the Labels.” (3 groups)
• “What are Human Rights?”
3. Groups are to carefully read the article and discuss the content together.
4. Groups are then to prepare a brief presentation on their article, highlighting the most important ideas.
5. Groups will then present their findings to the class in the form of a brief presentation.
Assessment:
• Process: working in groups; discussing as a class;
• Product: individual and group notes, small group discussion, group presentations, class discussion
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• Presentation Activity Master
• Presentation rubric
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
• Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Create a Flyer or Letter
Coded Expectations:
ISV.02 — use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in conducting research;
ISV.03 — correctly use terminology associated with fashion, clothing, and textiles;
ISV.04 — communicate the results of their inquiries effectively. IS2.01 – formulate appropriate research questions to frame their inquiries;
IS2.02 — demonstrate an ability to organize and interpret information gathered through research, summarizing the main points of articles, interviews, and other research materials;
IS1.03 — locate and access primary sources (e.g., interviews with designers and fashion forecasters) and secondary sources (e.g., magazine articles, TV programs) of information relating to fashion.
IS3.02 — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries, using a variety of methods and forms (e.g., graphs, charts, diagrams, oral presentations, written reports, newspaper-style articles, videos).
Resources
• “Creating a Flyer” activity sheet (Activity Masters)
• “Writing a Letter” activity sheet (Activity Masters)
• Sample Letter handout (Activity Masters)
• Sample Flyer handout (Activity Masters)
• Creating a Flyer rubric (Assessment Rubrics)
• Writing a Letter rubric (Assessment Rubrics)
Supplementary Materials
• Access to internet to examine sample flyers and letters at the Maquila Solidarity network website: www.maquilasolidarity.org
• Paper, art supplies etc. as necessary for the creation of the flyers
• Access to word-processing and graphic design programs for writing the letter and/or designing the flyer
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this activity students will be given time in class to work on producing either a letter to an apparel company executive (or government official) or a flyer directed at other students in the school.
2. Provide students with the sample flyer and/or sample letter adapted from the Maquila Solidarity Network materials.
3. Discuss with students the effectiveness of these action items:
• Why are flyers an effective way of raising awareness of an issue?
• Why does this make letters an effective tool to influence the policy of corporations and government?
4. Give students copies of the Flyer or Letter assignment sheet. Also provide them with the evaluation rubrics. Review the criteria for the assignment with students, as well as the evaluation.
5. Provide students with class time to work on the assigned activity. If possible, arrange time in a computer or word-processing lab so students may properly format and print their letters, or use desktop publishing to create their flyers.
6. When you collect the letters, you may have students sign the letters and enclose them in addressed envelopes.
7. Display flyers in the classroom and have copies made for distribution to other students in the school.
8. Be sure to follow up on responses received from apparel companies (or government officials) that students may receive.
Assessment:
• Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: letters and flyers, group discussion
Recording Devices:
• Assessment Rubrics
• Teacher observation
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
• Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Sweatshop Fashion Show
Coded Expectations:
AIV.04 — analyse the impact of the clothing industry on society, and societal influences on the clothing industry;
AI4.04 — evaluate the impact on Canadian society of issues relating to the apparel industry, such as the exploitation of workers both in Canada and abroad, and the role of unions in the garment industry;
ISV.02 — use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in conducting research;
ISV.03 — correctly use terminology associated with fashion, clothing, and textiles;
ISV.04 — communicate the results of their inquiries effectively.
IS1.03 — locate and access primary sources (e.g., interviews with designers and fashion forecasters) and secondary sources (e.g., magazine articles, TV programs) of information relating to fashion.
IS3.02 — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries, using a variety of methods and forms (e.g., graphs, charts, diagrams, oral presentations, written reports, newspaper-style articles, videos).
Resources
- “Designing a Sweatshop Fashion Show” handout (In Activity Masters)
- Sweatshop Fashion Show Rubric (In Assessment Rubrics)
Supplementary Materials
- Internet access to research apparel companies and gather information about specific sweatshop abuses
- Access to computer graphic design programs for the design of flyers and other promotional materials
- Access to video camcorders to record the show
- Necessary sound and light equipment
- A facility or location in which to stage the fashion show
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
- Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. This activity can be done as a one or two period “hypothetical activity” or an intensive culminating activity developed over a week or more of classes.
2. Students should be provided with the “Designing Your Sweatshop Fashion Show” handout. The teacher should review the content with the class and the class should brainstorm ideas together.
3. Provide students with the “Designing a Sweatshop Fashion Show,” Activity Sheet and assist students in organizing tasks and specific responsibilities:
- Identify your objectives and audience
- Research companies and brands
- Design the production
- Prepare the script
- Choose a venue
- Promote the show
- Collect the costumes
- Choose the music
- Test the sound system
- Rehearse the show
4. Allow students sufficient class time to plan and organize the Fashion Show. If facilities exist, arrange time in a school computer or internet lab so students can do research of the companies and their products, work on designing promotional materials, and finding information on specific sweatshop abuses that have been reported.
5. Try to arrange for the show to be presented to other students in the school. You may invite classes to attend during the day, or arrange to have it staged at lunch time in the cafeteria. You may sell tickets as a “buy-in”, and send monies raised as a donation to the MSN or other organizations who are trying to help workers in sweatshops.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group discussion, rubric
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Teacher observation
- Assessment Rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Philosophy: The Big Questions
Grade 11 Open, HZB3O
Key Curriculum Expectations
These lessons have been designed in accordance with the Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12, Social Sciences and Humanities.
The lesson activities will help enable students to achieve a number of overall and specific expectations for *Philosophy: The Big Questions, Grade 11, Open*.
In particular, the lesson is designed to enable students to meet overall and specific expectations in the following two strands:
- Philosophy and Everyday Life
- Research and Inquiry Skills
**Philosophy and Everyday Life**
**Overall Expectations**
**ELV.01** — relate the big questions of philosophy to their own experience, reports in the news media, and their society;
**ELV.02** — demonstrate the application of philosophical theories and skills to jobs, occupations, and everyday life.
**Specific Expectations**
**EL1.02** — describe the strengths and weaknesses of alternative responses to questions of applied philosophy (e.g., What obligations, if any, do humans living in North America to those in countries like Guatemala?);
**EL1.03** — apply philosophical skills such as precise writing and critical analysis to solve problems that arise in jobs and occupations (e.g., What obligations do employers have to the public, to their employees, and to themselves?)
**Applications of Philosophy to Other Subjects**
**Overall Expectations**
**OSV.02** — demonstrate how philosophical skills that are used to address the big questions of philosophy can be used effectively in other subjects.
**Specific Expectations**
**OSI.02** — contrast alternative philosophical viewpoints in controversies discussed in other subjects (e.g., over what is just in politics or society);
**OSI.03** — identify examples of fallacies in reasoning in writings from other subjects (e.g., sociology, psychology, political science).
**Research and Inquiry Skills**
**Overall Expectations**
**ISV.01** — apply research and inquiry skills related to philosophy appropriately and effectively;
**ISV.03** — formulate and defend a response of their own to one or more of the big questions of philosophy;
**ISV.04** — effectively use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in research related to the big questions of philosophy;
**ISV.05** — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries.
**Specific Expectations**
**Using Reasoning Skills**
**IS1.01** — correctly use the terminology of philosophical argumentation (e.g., logical validity, begging the question, vagueness, argument from authority);
**IS1.04** — illustrate common fallacies in reasoning (e.g., using ambiguous language to reach a conclusion, dismissing an argument because of who advanced it instead of evaluating its intrinsic merits).
**Using Communication Skills**
**IS3.01** — discuss their own views in philosophical exchanges in class with others;
**IS3.02** — clearly explain their views and display their use of philosophical reasoning skills in short written papers, using accepted forms of documentation as required.
Lesson Activity — Introducing the Issue
Coded Expectations:
ELV.01 — relate the big questions of philosophy to their own experience, reports in the news media, and their society;
ELV.02 — demonstrate the application of philosophical theories and skills to jobs, occupations, and everyday life.
ELI.01 — describe what difference the answers people accept to three (or more) of the big questions of philosophy should make to their values, behaviour, and life plans;
ELI.02 — describe the strengths and weaknesses of alternative responses to questions of applied philosophy;
ELI.03 — apply philosophical skills such as precise writing and critical analysis to solve problems that arise in jobs and occupations
OSV.01 — identify philosophical theories and presuppositions in natural science, history, art, social science and humanities, and other subjects;
OSV.02 — demonstrate how philosophical skills that are used to address the big questions of philosophy can be used effectively in other subjects.
Resources
• “Where do our clothes come from” overhead (In Activity Masters)
• “The real cost of our clothes” (In Activity Masters)
• “You are what you wear quiz” (in Activity Masters)
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in pairs groups
• Students working individually
Scope and Sequence
Step One:
The first thing to do is to get the class to start thinking in the most general terms about the issue. Just get the kids to start talking about their clothing. What fashions are cool? What brands are ‘in’? Where are the best places to shop? Just listen and let the conversation take place naturally. Don’t spend too much time, but let the students engage.
Most kids are really into clothing - of course much of it has to do with image. But at heart it’s also about control. High school is the time when kids start making their own clothing decisions. Many have jobs and have the power to buy their own clothing. So clothing is important because it is a real expression of their increasing individuality and control. And it’s one of the few areas in which high school kids really have control.
Step 2:
Gently lead the conversation toward the topic with a simple question:
1. “Where do your clothes come from?” Ask it directly of a student, as in: “Jenny, where do your clothes come from?” The answer may be “a store”, “the mall”, “The GAP”, “my parents”. Follow it up: “Where do your clothes really come from? I mean, where are they made?”
2. As an “experiment” have them conduct an informal survey: have students check the care labels of each other’s clothes to find out where they are made. This should be fun, but be careful: Let students pair or team up with friends. Make sure that the class culture is such that this can be done in a fun and non-threatening way. And no undergarments!
3. Make a list on the blackboard. Play it up: How many are country names are unfamiliar? How many clothes are made in Canada? Where, according to the data collected in your class, are most of the clothes made? Compare this to the data on the “Where do our clothes come from” overhead (In the Activity Masters)
Lesson Activity — Introducing the issue, continued
4. Unless you have a weird group of patriotic students who only buy Canadian made clothes, the next obvious question is “why” are our clothes made in countries all over the world.
The obvious answer is that it is cheaper for the companies. But then, what is the real cost of our clothes?
5. Ask: “How much do your clothes cost?” - literally, how much does an average pair label jeans or shoes, or a T-shirt or sweatshirt or whatever cost in the store? If you like, record these on the blackboard as well.
6. Ask: “Why do the workers get such a small share?” “What are their lives like?” “What are their working condition?” “What effect does you clothing choices have on the people who make them”
At this point you are ready for the video
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, class discussion
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- “The real cost of our clothes” activity sheet
- You are what you wear Quiz
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
Then press: “But what do the clothes really cost?” This is the point that should start generating some shrugs, blank stares, and “I don’t knows”. Use the handout or the overhead *The real cost of our clothes*” (In Activity Masters). There are various formats, depending on the amount of time you have. Use the one that best fits your time constraints. You can give students the bank ones, and then have them fill out the percentages as you reveal each one at a time from the overhead. Have students guess at the percentages as you go along. The last one, the percentage paid to the workers, then leads naturally into discussion about fairness, about working conditions. It will have gotten students thinking about the workers in these countries.
Lesson Activity — Common Threads Video
“Globalization, sweatshops, and the clothes we wear”
Coded Expectations
EL1.01 — describe what difference the answers people accept to three (or more) of the big questions of philosophy should make to their values, behaviour, and life plans;
EL1.02 — describe the strengths and weaknesses of alternative responses to questions of applied philosophy
OSV.01 — identify philosophical theories and presuppositions in history, art, social science and humanities, and other subjects;
OSV.02 — demonstrate how philosophical skills that are used to address the big questions of philosophy can be used effectively in other subjects.
ISV.01 — apply research and inquiry skills related to philosophy appropriately and effectively;
ISV.04 — effectively use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in research related to the big questions of philosophy;
ISV.05 — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries.
Resources
• Common Threads video
• Key Terms handout (In Activity Masters)
• Video graphic organizer handout (In Activity Masters)
Supplementary Materials
• Common Threads Video Script (In Teacher Resources)
Groupings
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four. (Teacher tip: for this exercise you want might organize groups in advance to save some time.)
2. Give students copies of the Key Terms handout. Review with students prior to viewing the video.
3. Give students the graphic organizer for the short documentary video “Globalization, sweatshops and the clothes we wear”.
3. View the video (length – 18 minutes). Instruct students to complete the organizer using information from the video as they watch.
4. After viewing the video, groups should briefly review information and help each other to complete the organizer. The questions on the organizer should help students share opinions about what they saw.
5. As a class, review the information from the video.
6. Use the “Questions for Discussion” and “Thinking Beyond” from the end of the video script (Teacher Resources 51) to help generate discussion.
Assessment:
• Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, class discussion
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• Video organizer
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Learning More
Coded Expectations:
IS1.01 — correctly use the terminology of philosophical argumentation (e.g., logical validity, begging the question, vagueness, argument from authority);
IS1.04 — illustrate common fallacies in reasoning (e.g., using ambiguous language to reach a conclusion, dismissing an argument because of who advanced it instead of evaluating its intrinsic merits).
IS3.01 — discuss their own views in philosophical exchanges in class with others;
IS3.02 — clearly explain their views and display their use of philosophical reasoning skills in short presentations, using accepted forms of documentation as required.
Resources:
The following are located in the Teacher Resources:
- “What is a Sweatshop”
- “What is Globalization”
- “Guatemala—A Brief History”
- “The Labour Behind the Label: How Our Clothes are Made”
- “What are Human Rights”
- “Working Conditions in the Maquilas of Guatemala”
- “What is a Code of Conduct”
- Other articles you may choose
As well, students will need:
- Presentation Activity Sheet (In Activity Masters)
- Presentation Rubric (In Assessment Rubrics)
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
- Students presenting to class
Scope and Sequence:
I. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four.
2. Groups will each be assigned a reading on one of the topics relating to the issue of maquilas.
3. Groups are to carefully read the article and discuss the content together. They should use the Presentation Activity Sheet to help make notes on the reading.
4. Groups are then to prepare a brief presentation on their reading, highlighting the most important ideas.
5. Groups will then present their findings to the class in the form of a brief presentation.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, presentation
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Presentation Activity Sheet
- Presentation Rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative Evaluation
Lesson Activity — Checking out the apparel retailers on the web
Coded Expectations
IS1.01 — correctly use the terminology of philosophical argumentation (e.g., logical validity, begging the question, vagueness, argument from authority);
IS1.04 — illustrate common fallacies in reasoning (e.g., using ambiguous language to reach a conclusion, dismissing an argument because of who advanced it instead of evaluating its intrinsic merits).
IS2.02 — compile information related to the big questions of philosophy, using the Internet.
IS3.01 — discuss their own views in philosophical exchanges in class with others;
EL1.02 — describe the strengths and weaknesses of alternative responses to questions of applied philosophy
OSV.02 — demonstrate how philosophical skills that are used to address the big questions of philosophy can be used effectively in other subjects.
ISV.01 — apply research and inquiry skills related to philosophy appropriately and effectively;
ISV.04 — effectively use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in research related to the big questions of philosophy;
ISV.05 — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries.
Resources:
The following resources are found in the Activity Masters
• “Checking out the apparel retailers on the web” Activity sheet
• “Organizer: How do the apparel labels stack up”
• “Activity: Rating the company Codes of Conduct”
Students will also need the following materials from the Teacher Resources:
• Vestex Code of Conduct
• MEC Code of Conduct
• “What is a Code of Conduct” article
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Students discussing in class
Scope and Sequence:
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in pairs or small groups.
2. Groups will go on the internet to examine the corporate sites of several major apparel retailers. Students will look especially at the web pages devoted to Social Responsibility, Ethical Sourcing, and Codes of Conduct.
3. Teams will use the activity sheets provided to record information about the company ethical sourcing policies of several retailers. They should record their results on the organizer provided.
4. Student will then rate various retailers’ codes of conduct against International Labour Organization (ILO standards). Students will use a rating scale to compare the codes of conduct.
5. Groups will then present their findings to the class in the form of a class discussion.
Assessment:
• Process: working in pairs or teams; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion,
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• Activity sheet
• Graphic organizer
• Rating scale
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Informal Debate
Coded Expectations
IS1.01 — correctly use the terminology of philosophical argumentation (e.g., logical validity, begging the question, vagueness, argument from authority);
IS1.04 — illustrate common fallacies in reasoning (e.g., using ambiguous language to reach a conclusion, dismissing an argument because of who advanced it instead of evaluating its intrinsic merits).
IS2.02 — compile information related to the big questions of philosophy, using the Internet.
IS3.01 — discuss their own views in philosophical exchanges in class with others;
EL1.02 — describe the strengths and weaknesses of alternative responses to questions of applied philosophy
OSV.02 — demonstrate how philosophical skills that are used to address the big questions of philosophy can be used effectively in other subjects.
ISV.01 — apply research and inquiry skills related to philosophy appropriately and effectively;
ISV.04 — effectively use a variety of print and electronic sources and telecommunications tools in research related to the big questions of philosophy;
ISV.05 — effectively communicate the results of their inquiries.
Resources:
Students should be given access to the Teacher Resources, the Common Threads video, and the Common Threads website
The following Activity Masters and Rubrics will also be needed:
• “Preparing an Informal Debate”
• Debate Assessment Rubric
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Students conducting a debate in class
Scope and Sequence:
1. For this activity, students will work in small groups to prepare for an informal debate about the issue of Guatemala’s maquilas.
2. Groups will have time to research arguments and collect evidence to defend the point of view of one of the “stakeholders” in the maquila issue. They should be able to go on the internet, use the Teacher Resources, review the Common Threads video.
3. Teams will use the “Informal Debate” Activity sheets to help organize their arguments.
4. Student should be given sufficient class time to prepare for this activity. The will also be expected to prepare at home.
5. Groups will then conduct the debate in front of the entire class. You may want to record the debate on video is a camera is available.
6. The debate will be evaluated using the “Debate” Rubric provided in the Assessment Rubrics.
Assessment:
• Process: working in pairs or teams; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion,
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• Activity sheet
• Graphic organizer
• Rating scale
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
• Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Create a Flyer or Letter
Coded Expectations:
EL1.02 — describe the strengths and weaknesses of alternative responses to questions of applied philosophy
EL1.03 — apply philosophical skills such as precise writing and critical analysis to solve problems that arise in jobs and occupations
IS1.01 — correctly use the terminology of philosophical argumentation (e.g., logical validity, begging the question, vagueness, argument from authority);
IS3.01 — discuss their own views in philosophical exchanges in class with others;
IS3.02 — clearly explain their views and display their use of philosophical reasoning skills in short written papers, using accepted forms of documentation as required.
Resources
- “Creating a Flyer” activity sheet (Activity Masters)
- “Writing a Letter” activity sheet (Activity Masters)
- Sample Letter handout (Activity Masters)
- Sample Flyer handout (Activity Masters)
- Creating a Flyer rubric (Assessment Rubrics)
- Writing a Letter rubric (Assessment Rubrics)
Supplementary Materials
- Access to internet to examine sample flyers and letters at the Maquila Solidarity network website: www.maquilasolidarity.org
- Paper, art supplies etc. as necessary for the creation of the flyers
- Access to word-processing and graphic design programs for writing the letter and/or designing the flyer
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
- Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this activity students will be given time in class to work on producing either a letter to an apparel company executive (or government official) or a flyer directed at other students in the school.
2. Provide students with the sample flyer and/or sample letter adapted from the Maquila Solidarity Network materials.
3. Discuss with students the effectiveness of these action items:
- Why are flyers an effective way of raising awareness of an issue?
- Why does this make letters an effective tool to influence the policy of corporations and government?
4. Give students copies of the Flyer or Letter assignment sheet. Also provide them with the evaluation rubrics. Review the criteria for the assignment with students, as well as the evaluation.
5. Provide students with class time to work on the assigned activity. If possible, arrange time in a computer or word-processing lab so students may properly format and print their letters, or use desktop publishing to create their flyers.
6. When you collect the letters, you may have students sign the letters and enclose them in addressed envelopes.
7. Display flyers in the classroom and have copies made for distribution to other students in the school.
8. Be sure to follow up on responses received from apparel companies (or government officials) that that students may receive.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: letters and flyers, group discussion
Recording Devices:
- Assessment Rubrics
- Teacher observation
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Canadian and World Politics,
Grade 12 University Preparation
CPW4U
Key Curriculum Expectations
These lessons have been designed in accordance with the Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12.
They will help enable students to achieve a number of overall and specific expectations for *Canadian and World Politics, Grade 12, University Preparation, CPW4U*.
In particular, the lessons are designed to enable students to meet the following overall and specific expectations:
**Participation in the International Community**
**Overall Expectations**
- ICV.01 - explain the rights and responsibilities of individual citizens, groups, and states in the international community;
- ICV.03 - evaluate the role of Canada and Canadians in the international community;
- ICV.05 - evaluate the role and operation of the international human rights protection system.
**Specific Expectations**
- IC1.01 – evaluate the extent to which the rights and responsibilities of states in the international community are parallel to the rights and responsibilities of citizens in democratic national communities;
- IC1.02 – describe the rights and obligations of international groups (e.g., the International Monetary Fund, transnational corporations, environmental lobby groups);
- IC2.03 – explain the effects on national sovereignty of the trend towards global decision making (e.g., the decreased power of states to make policies to control the flow of goods and services, ideas, and cultural products);
- IC3.03 – evaluate the extent to which key agreements and treaties signed by Canada (e.g., NAFTA) contribute to the well-being of Canadians and the world in general;
- IC5.01 – identify the most important international human rights documents (e.g., the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) and assess their significance;
- IC5.03 – explain the role of state and non-state participants in international controversies about certain rights.
**Power, Influence, and the Resolution of Differences**
**Overall Expectations**
- POV.03 - evaluate Canada’s role and influence in international relations.
**Specific Expectations**
- PO3.04 – evaluate the role and influence of Canadian individuals and groups on the world stage;
**Values, Beliefs, and Ideologies**
**Overall Expectations**
- VBV.03 - demonstrate an understanding of the many similarities and differences in the aspirations, expectations, and life conditions among the peoples of the developed and the developing nations.
**Methods of Political Inquiry**
**Overall Expectations**
- PIV.02 - develop supportable conclusions about political events, issues, and trends and their relationships to social, economic, and cultural systems;
- PIV.03 - communicate knowledge, beliefs, and interpretations of politics and citizenship, using a variety of formats;
- PIV.04 - use political knowledge, skills, and values to act as responsible citizens in a variety of contexts.
**Specific Expectations**
- PI4.01 – think creatively and analytically to develop potential resolutions to a series of given issues and issues that they select;
- PI4.02 – work effectively both individually and in groups;
- PI4.03 – demonstrate the ability to seek and respect the opinions of others.
Lesson Activity — Introduction to the Issue
Coded Expectations:
PI4.03 — demonstrate the ability to seek and respect the opinions of others;
PI4.05 — communicate and exercise their own political views and convictions in a responsible, democratic manner.
PIV.03 — communicate knowledge, beliefs, and interpretations of politics and citizenship, using a variety of formats;
PIV.04 — use political knowledge, skills, and values to act as responsible citizens in a variety of contexts.
PII.01 — formulate meaningful questions that lead to a deeper understanding of a political issue and of the different ways to approach an issue;
PO3.04 — evaluate the role and influence of Canadian individuals and groups on the world stage;
VBV.03 — demonstrate an understanding of the many similarities and differences in the aspirations, expectations, and life conditions among the peoples of the developed and the developing nations.
VB2.04 — explain the key arguments for and against the processes of “globalization” in economics, politics, and culture, as well as their relationship to values, beliefs, and ideologies.
Resources
- “The Real Price of a Sweatshirt from Guatemala” handout (From Activity Masters)
- “The Real Price of a Sweatshirt from Guatemala” overhead (From Activity Masters)
- “Where our clothes come from” pie chart (From Activity Masters)
Supplementary Materials
- Fashion magazines and advertisements from major apparel labels
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Students working individually
- Students working in pairs
Scope and Sequence
1. If you have fashion magazines available, or advertisements from major apparel labels, display some of the covers and advertisements to the class. Allow students to look over the magazines, paying special attention to the ads. Ask students the following questions:
- What makes the clothing from the major apparel labels so appealing?
- Why are clothes from these labels so expensive?
- How much does it really cost to produce this clothing?
- Where does this clothing come from?
2. Have students check the labels of their clothing—they will have to help each other in this activity. Make a list on the board of all the countries that are represented. Use the handout or overhead “Where our clothes come from” to compare the class results.
Ask students the following questions:
- What do you notice about most of the countries represented?
- Why do you think apparel labels produce clothing in these countries? What are some of the advantages? What are some of the disadvantages?
3. Give students copies of the handout “The Real Price of a Sweatshirt Made in Guatemala.” Review the figures with students. Try and calculate how much—in dollars and cents—of the cost of each sweatshirt actually gets into the pockets of the workers who produce them.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group discussion
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- “The Real Price of a Sweatshirt from Guatemala” handout
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Video
“Your Clothes and the Maquilas that Make Them”
Coded Expectations:
ICV.01 – explain the rights and responsibilities of individual citizens, groups, and states in the international community;
IC1.02 – describe the rights and obligations of international groups (e.g., the International Monetary Fund, transnational corporations, environmental lobby groups);
IC3.03 – evaluate the extent to which key agreements and treaties signed by Canada (e.g., NAFTA) contribute to the well-being of Canadians and the world in general;
IC3.05 – explain the role of federal and provincial government agencies (e.g., Canada’s Departments of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, the Canadian International Development Agency) in formulating and implementing Canada’s foreign policy;
IC3.06 – evaluate the role of pressure groups in formulating and implementing Canada’s foreign policy
Resources
• Common Threads video
• “Key Terms” handout (From Activity Masters)
• “Video viewing graphic organizer” handout (From Activity Masters)
Supplementary Materials
These materials from the Teacher Resources may be used as well:
• “What is a Sweatshop” handout
• “What is Globalization” handout
• Common Threads Video Script
Groupings
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Individual students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four.
2. Give students copies of the Key Terms handout. Review with students prior to viewing the video.
3. Give students the graphic organizer for the short documentary video “Globalization, sweatshops, and the clothes we wear”.
4. View the video (length - 18 minutes). Instruct students to complete the organizer using information from the video as they watch.
5. After viewing the video, groups should briefly review information and help each other to complete the organizer. The questions on the organizer should help students share opinions about what they saw.
6. As a class, review the information from the video.
Assessment:
• Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
• Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion, class discussion
Recording Devices:
• Written responses (students)
• Video organizer
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Learning More
Coded Expectations:
VB2.04 – explain the key arguments for and against the processes of “globalization” in economics, politics, and culture, as well as their relationship to values, beliefs, and ideologies.
VB3.04 – demonstrate an understanding of the commonality of human aspirations for a better, more secure life.
PIV.01 – correctly use social scientific methods to gather, organize, and synthesize information;
PIV.02 – develop supportable conclusions about political events, issues, and trends and their relationships to social, economic, and cultural systems;
PIV.03 – communicate knowledge, beliefs, and interpretations of politics and citizenship, using a variety of formats;
P1I.01 – formulate meaningful questions that lead to a deeper understanding of a political issue and of the different ways to approach an issue;
P1I.02 – collect data from a range of media and sources (e.g., print or electronic media, interviews, government and community agencies);
P1I.04 – prepare summary notes in a variety of forms and for a variety of purposes (e.g., for recording research findings, making oral presentations).
P12.01 – distinguish among opinions, facts, and arguments in sources;
P12.03 – draw conclusions based on an effective evaluation of sources, analysis of information, and awareness of diverse political interpretations.
P13.01 – present ideas, understandings, and arguments effectively in a variety of contexts (e.g., in role plays, interviews, simulations, debates, group presentations, seminars), using graphic organizers and displays (e.g., graphs, charts, images);
Resources
These resources are located in the Teacher Resources:
- “What is a Maquila?”
- “What is a Sweatshop”
- “What is Globalization”
- “Guatemala—A Brief History”
- “The labour behind the label: How our clothes are made”
- “What are Human Rights”
- “Anti-union violence in Guatemala’s maquilas
- “Working conditions in the maquilas of Guatemala”
- “Coverco: Model of an independent monitoring agency”
- “What are Codes of Conduct?”
- “The Canada-Guatemala connection”
- “Presentation Assessment Rubric” (In Assessment Rubrics)
“Preparing a Brief Presentation” (In Activity Masters)
“Discussion Assessment Rubric” (In Assessment Rubrics)
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
Scope and Sequence
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in small groups of no more than four. Each group will each be assigned a reading on one of the following topics relating to the issue of maquilas.
2. Groups are to carefully read the article and discuss the content together.
3. Groups are then to prepare a brief presentation on their reading, highlighting the most important ideas.
4. Groups will then present their findings to the class in the form of a brief presentation.
5. The presentations should generate a discussion about possible solutions to the problem. The teacher should monitor and assess this discussion rather than lead it.
Assessment:
- Process: working in groups; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group presentation, group discussion
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- “Preparing a brief presentation”
- Presentation Rubric
- Discussion Rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Informal Debate
Coded Expectations
PI4.01 – think creatively and analytically to develop potential resolutions to a series of given issues and issues that they select;
PI4.02 – work effectively both individually and in groups;
PI4.03 – demonstrate the ability to seek and respect the opinions of others;
PI4.05 – communicate and exercise their own political views and convictions in a responsible, democratic manner.
PI2.01 – distinguish among opinions, facts, and arguments in sources;
PI2.02 – describe some of the key methods of analysis used by political scientists;
PI2.03 – draw conclusions based on an effective evaluation of sources, analysis of information, and awareness of diverse political interpretations.
PI3.01 – present ideas, understandings, and arguments effectively in a variety of contexts (e.g., in role plays, interviews, simulations, debates, group presentations, seminars), using graphic organizers and displays (e.g., graphs, charts, images);
Resources:
Students should be given access to the Teacher Resources, the Common Threads video, and the Common Threads website.
The following Activity Masters and Rubrics will also be needed:
• “Preparing an Informal Debate”
• Debate Assessment Rubric
Groupings:
• Class working as a whole
• Student working in small groups
• Students working individually
• Students conducting a debate in class
Scope and Sequence:
1. For this activity, students will work in small groups to prepare for an informal debate about the issue of Guatemala’s maquilas.
2. Groups will have time to research arguments and collect evidence to defend the point of view of one of the “stakeholders” in the maquila issue. They should be able to go on the internet, use the Teacher Resources, review the Common Threads video.
3. Teams will use the “Informal Debate” Activity sheets to help organize their arguments.
4. Student should be given sufficient class time to prepare for this activity. The will also be expected to prepare at home.
5. Groups will then conduct the debate in front of the entire class. You may want to record the debate on video is a camera is available.
6. The debate will be evaluated using the “Debate” Rubric provided in the Assessment Rubrics.
Assessment:
- Process: working in pairs or teams; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion,
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Activity sheet
- Graphic organizer
- Rating scale
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Checking out the apparel retailers on the web
Coded Expectations
IC5.03 – explain the role of state and non-state participants in international controversies about certain rights.
PO1.03 – analyse the rise and development of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and corporations as world powers.
PI1.01 – formulate meaningful questions that lead to a deeper understanding of a political issue and of the different ways to approach an issue;
PI1.02 – collect data from a range of media and sources (e.g., print or electronic media, interviews, government and community agencies);
PI1.03 – classify and clarify information by using timelines, organizers, mind maps, concept webs, maps, graphs, charts, and diagrams;
PI4.02 – work effectively both individually and in groups;
PI4.03 – demonstrate the ability to seek and respect the opinions of others;
PI4.05 – communicate and exercise their own political views and convictions in a responsible, democratic manner.
Resources:
The following resources are found in the Activity Masters
- “Checking out the apparel retailers on the web” Activity sheet
- “Organizer: How do the apparel labels stack up”
- “Activity: Rating the company Codes of Conduct”
- “Discussion Rubric” (in Assessment Rubrics)
Students will also need the following materials from the Teacher Resources:
- Vestex Code of Conduct
- MEC Code of Conduct
- “What is a Code of Conduct” article
Groupings:
- Class working as a whole
- Student working in small groups
- Students working individually
- Students discussing in class
Scope and Sequence:
1. For this part of the lesson, students will work together in pairs or small groups.
2. Groups will go on the internet to examine the corporate sites of several major apparel retailers. Students will look especially at the web pages devoted to Social Responsibility, Ethical Sourcing, and Codes of Conduct.
3. Teams will use the activity sheets provided to record information about the company ethical sourcing policies of several retailers. They should record their results on the organizer provided.
4. Students will then rate various retailers’ codes of conduct against International Labour Organization (ILO standards). Students will use a rating scale to compare the codes of conduct.
5. Groups will then present their findings to the class in the form of a class discussion.
6. You can use this opportunity to assess some or all students’ discussion skills using the “Discussion Assessment Rubric”
Assessment:
- Process: working in pairs or teams; discussing as a class; working independently in class
- Product: individual notes, group notes, small group discussion,
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Activity sheet
- Graphic organizer
- Rating scale
- Assessment rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Writing a Report
Coded Expectations:
IC5.02 – describe the role of agencies responsible for ensuring the upholding of human rights (e.g., the Human Rights Commission, the Commission on the Status of Women);
IC5.03 – explain the role of state and non-state participants in international controversies about certain rights.
PI3.02 – use political terms accurately;
PI3.03 – write clear, coherent, and logically organized reports, papers, and essays that include correctly documented citations and bibliographies, demonstrate academic honesty, and avoid plagiarism.
POV.03 - evaluate Canada’s role and influence in international relations.
PO1.03 – analyse the rise and development of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and corporations as world powers.
PIV.02 – develop supportable conclusions about political events, issues, and trends and their relationships to social, economic, and cultural systems;
PIV.03 – communicate knowledge, beliefs, and interpretations of politics and citizenship, using a variety of formats;
PIV.04 – use political knowledge, skills, and values to act as responsible citizens in a variety of contexts.
PII.01 – formulate meaningful questions that lead to a deeper understanding of a political issue and of the different ways to approach an issue;
PII.02 – collect data from a range of media and sources (e.g., print or electronic media, interviews, government and community agencies);
Resources
Students should have access to the materials in the Teacher Resources, as well as the Common Threads video, the Common Threads website, as well as other materials on the internet and in the school library.
In addition, students will need the following specific resources:
- “Writing a Research Report” activity sheet (from the Activity Masters)
- Research Report Rubric (From the Assessment Rubrics)
Groupings:
- Students working in pairs
- Students working individually
- Students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this activity, students will work individually to prepare a research report on the issue of globalization and sweatshops.
2. Students will be expected to formulate a thesis, conduct research and collect evidence to support that thesis, and prepare a written report summarizing the findings of the research and communicating the student’s thesis.
3. Students should be given sufficient class time to conduct research and investigate the materials in the Teacher Resources.
Assessment:
- Process: working in pairs; working individually;
- Product: individual and pair notes, Research Report self and peer-assessment; teacher assessment
Recording Devices:
- Written responses (students)
- Writing a Research Report activity sheet
- Research Report Rubric
Assessment Strategies
- Diagnostic evaluation
- Formative evaluation
- Summative evaluation
Lesson Activity — Creating a Multimedia Presentation
Coded Expectations:
PI2.03 – draw conclusions based on an effective evaluation of sources, analysis of information, and awareness of diverse political interpretations.
PI3.01 – present ideas, understandings, and arguments effectively in a variety of contexts (e.g., in role plays, interviews, simulations, debates, group presentations, seminars), using graphic organizers and displays (e.g., graphs, charts, images);
PI3.02 – use political terms accurately;
PI4.01 – think creatively and analytically to develop potential resolutions to a series of given issues and issues that they select;
PI4.02 – work effectively both individually and in groups;
PI4.03 – demonstrate the ability to seek and respect the opinions of others;
PI4.05 – communicate and exercise their own political views and convictions in a responsible, democratic manner.
PIV.02 – develop supportable conclusions about political events, issues, and trends and their relationships to social, economic, and cultural systems;
PIV.03 – communicate knowledge, beliefs, and interpretations of politics and citizenship, using a variety of formats;
PIV.04 – use political knowledge, skills, and values to act as responsible citizens in a variety of contexts.
PII.01 – formulate meaningful questions that lead to a deeper understanding of a political issue and of the different ways to approach an issue;
PII.02 – collect data from a range of media and sources (e.g., print or electronic media, interviews, government and community agencies);
Resources:
Students should have access to the materials in the Teacher Resources, as well as the Common Threads video, the Common Threads website, as well as other materials on the internet and in the school library.
In addition, students will need the following specific resources:
• “Preparing a Multimedia Presentation” activity sheet (in Activity Masters)
• Multimedia Presentation Rubric (In Assessment Rubrics)
Groupings:
• Students working in pairs
• Students working individually
• Students working with teacher
Scope and Sequence
1. For this activity, students will work in groups of four or five to prepare a multimedia presentation on the issue of globalization and sweatshops.
2. The audience for the presentation may be other students in the school, teachers, even school board officials.
3. Students will be expected to formulate a thesis, conduct research and collect evidence to support that thesis, and prepare a presentation that communicates the student’s thesis in an engaging, multimedia presentation.
3. Students should be given sufficient class time to conduct research and investigate the materials in the Teacher Resources.
Assessment:
• Process: working as a class, working in groups, multimedia presentation
Recording Devices:
• Rubric
• Preparing a Multimedia Presentation handout
• Teacher observation
• Research Report Rubric
Assessment Strategies
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Formative evaluation
• Summative evaluation
Activity Masters
You are what you wear Quiz
Evaluate your own clothing habits and attitudes by indicating the degree to which you either agree or disagree with a series of statements. Use the following rating scale:
1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree strongly agree
A. First write down the names of three apparel brands you like and often purchase:
__________________________________________________________
B. Now respond to the following statements:
1. I tend to like these clothes because of their quality and durability.
1 2 3 4 5
2. I tend to wear these clothes because they make me look good.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I tend to wear whatever is in style with my friends
1 2 3 4 5
4. I tend to like these clothes because of the image associated with the labels
1 2 3 4 5
5. When I buy these clothes I often think about where they come from.
1 2 3 4 5
6. It would matter to me if I found out my favorite clothes came from manufacturers that supported child or slave labour, sexual exploitation of women or violence against workers.
1 2 3 4 5
Where do our clothes come from?
Clothing Imports into Canada by value, 1999
- China and Hong Kong: 33%
- United States: 17%
- India: 7%
- S. Korea: 6%
- Rest of the world: 22%
- Taiwan, Italy, Indonesia, Mexico, Bangladesh: 3% each
Source: Statistics Canada
The real cost of your clothes
How the price of a typical sweatshirt breaks down
Adapted from The Maquila Solidarity Network 2003
The real cost of your clothes
How the price of a typical sweatshirt breaks down
Retail Store 50%
Apparel Company 33%
Transport and Tax 5%
Materials 8%
Profit 2%
Other Costs 1.6%
Wages 0.4%
Adapted from The Maquila Solidarity Network 2003
Map of Central and South America
Mexico
Guatemala
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Belize
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
Colombia
Venezuela
Guyana
Suriname
French Guiana
Ecuador
Peru
Brazil
Bolivia
Chile
Paraguay
Argentina
Uruguay
Political Map of Guatemala
Guatemala
- International boundary
- Departamento boundary
- National capital
- Departamento capital
- Railroad
- Road
Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative.
Base 504917 (547180) 2-82
Activity: Mapping Guatemala
1. On the map of Guatemala, clearly and accurately identify and label the following:
Guatemala City
Quezaltenango
Mexico
Honduras
North Pacific Ocean
Flores
Cobán
Belize
El Salvador
Gulf of Honduras
2. Use colour appropriately to distinguish between countries.
Maps will be evaluated using the assessment rubric provided by your teacher.
Guatemala Quick Facts
**Guatemala:** located in Central America
**Population:** 12,974,361 (Jul '01)
**Land Area:** 108,890 sq km
**GDP:** $3,700 (US) per capita.
**Languages:** Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages 40% (more than 20 Amerindian languages, including Quiche, Cakchiquel...)
**Religions:** Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous Mayan beliefs
**KEY TERMS**
**Maquilas** — Maquila is the short form of the word maquiladora. Now maquilas are in many parts of Mexico and Central America. The lure of the maquilas is low wages, a lack of environmental or labour regulations, low taxes, and few if any duties. Products produced include apparel, electronic goods, auto parts, etc.
**GAM**—*Grupo Apoyo Mutuo*, or the Mutual Support Group. The GAM is a leading human rights organisation in Guatemala and plays a prominent role in the transition to democracy that has followed after 36 years of dictatorship and civil war.
**Mayans** — The original indigenous inhabitants of Guatemala. Mayans still make up the vast majority of Guatemala’s population.
**Peace Accords** — A long and difficult peace negotiation process ended in 1996 between the government and leftist rebels with the signing of the most comprehensive and ambitious peace accords in the history of peace agreements. Five years later, the accomplishments of the accords are limited.
**Exhumations**—the digging up of bodies of people murdered in civil war. There are hundreds of secret mass graves all across the Guatemala.
**Subsistence wages**—wages sufficient only to barely keep someone from dying of starvation.
**Rights Action** — a tax-charitable organization in both the USA and Canada that raises funds for community development, human rights & emergency relief projects in Southern Mexico, Central America & Peru. In North America
**MINITRAB** — The Guatemalan Ministry of Labour.
**VESTEX**— the organization representing the Guatemalan Apparel and Textile Industry—the factory owners. The goal of VESTEX is to increase Guatemala’s apparel and textile exports.
**FESTRAS**—the food, agro-industrial, and allied workers union of Guatemala. FESTRAS is the union that represents workers in the maquilas sector in Guatemala.
**COVERCO** — an independent monitoring agency, COVERCO employs teams of monitors to observe and document conditions in the workplace.
**Code of Conduct** — codes of conduct are a statement of a company’s commitment to decent working conditions. Codes of conduct tend to be a succinct expression of labour laws and international conventions on worker rights. They outline a company’s position on issues like freedom of association, health and safety conditions, the environment, etc.
**Maquila Solidarity Network**—MSN is a Canadian network promoting solidarity with groups in Mexico, Central America, and Asia organizing in maquiladora factories and export processing zones to improve conditions and win a living wage.
| Question | Answer |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| What is a sweatshop? | According to COVERCO, how has the apparel industry responded to consumer demands? |
| How much do we spend on clothes in Canada? | What does the Ministry of labour claim to be doing for the first time? |
| Note Guatemala’s history of violence | Why are Guatemalan Union skeptical of government and factory owner claims? |
| According to GAM, what is the continuing effect of the civil war on Guatemalan society? | What have workers in two of Guatemala’s maquila’s recently achieved? |
| What abuses did these workers suffer? | What does Carla Johana Cruz think Canadian students have the right to do? |
| What is the focus of groups like Rights Action? | What can Canadian students really do? |
Activity: Checking out the apparel retailers on the web
Many large clothing retailers and apparel labels now devote significant space on their corporate websites to informing the public about their policies on “social responsibility”, “ethical sourcing” and “worker conditions”. Below is sample from the “Social and Environmental Responsibility” page from the Mountain Equipment Co-op website.
How do other apparel retailers stack up?
1. For this activity, work in pairs or threes and share a computer. In your teams, explore the social responsibility pages of three familiar apparel retailers:
- http://www.gapinc.com/social_resp/social_resp.htm
- http://www.hbc.com/hbc/socialresponsibility/intro.asp
- http://www.nike.com/nikebiz/nikebiz.jhtml?page=24
3. Have one team member record the results of your investigations on the organizer provided. Be as accurate and detailed as possible within the time provided for this activity.
4. When you have completed your research, each group will present their results to the class as a whole.
Organizer: how do apparel retailers stack up?
In your teams, complete this organizer using information from the corporate website addresses provided
| | The GAP [http://www.gapinc.com/social_resp/social_resp.htm](http://www.gapinc.com/social_resp/social_resp.htm) | HBC [http://www.hbc.com/hbc/socialresponsibility/intro.asp](http://www.hbc.com/hbc/socialresponsibility/intro.asp) | Nike [http://www.nike.com/nikebiz/nikebiz.jhtml?page=24](http://www.nike.com/nikebiz/nikebiz.jhtml?page=24) |
|----------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Source of product**| How many suppliers and/or factories in how many different countries? What are some of those source countries? | | |
| **Sourcing philosophy**| What is each company’s policy about “social responsibility” and “ethical sourcing”? Record 3 key ideas from each website | • | • |
| **Code of Conduct** | Does the company have a code of conduct? When did they first institute their code of conduct? | | |
| **Compliance** | How does the company make sure their suppliers/factories comply with the code of conduct? (For example, do they use third party auditing companies, do they have internal “compliance teams”?) What happens if a supplier fails to meet the standards? | | |
Activity: Rating the company Codes of Conduct
For this activity you will take a closer look at the codes of conduct for a number of apparel retailers. If possible, print a copy of each code of conduct from the corporate website. Your teacher will also provide you with a copy of the MEC code of conduct and the code of conduct produced by VESTEX, the Guatemalan factory owners association, for comparison.
1. In your teams of two or three, examine and compare each code of conduct for the presence or absence of the International Labour Organization (ILO) standards. Then look carefully at the language in the provisions of each code of conduct. Is the language in the code clear and strong or purposely vague and unclear?
2. Rate each code of conduct on the nine ILO provisions using the following scale:
1 2 3 4 5
1 = extremely vague or weak language and 5 = very strong clear language and protections.
If the code of conduct does not contain a listed ILO provisions, give it a zero for that category.
3. Be prepared to present and discuss your findings with the class.
| ILO provision | VESTEX | MEC | The GAP | HBC | Nike |
|----------------------------------------------------|--------|-----|---------|-----|------|
| Guarantees freedom of association and the right to bargain collectively (form unions) | | | | | |
| Prohibits forced or bonded labour | | | | | |
| No child labour | | | | | |
| Guarantees of non-discrimination | | | | | |
| Health and safety guarantees | | | | | |
| Hours of work and overtime compensation | | | | | |
| Guarantees of security of employment | | | | | |
| Guarantees of a fair living wage | | | | | |
| Clear language about monitoring and compliance | | | | | |
Mr. Somebody
Chief Executive Officer
Some Clothing Company
555 Something Street
Toronto, ON
M5A 5A5
Fax: (416) 555-5555
Dear Mr. Somebody,
As a high school student who wears your clothing, I want to be sure that workers who make your clothes are not paid poverty wages, forced to work unacceptably long hours, experience discrimination, physical and verbal abuse or sexual harassment, or are fired for organizing to improve conditions. In order to make sure that the people making your company’s clothing are not working under sweatshop conditions, I am calling on you to publicly disclose the names and addresses of all manufacturing facilities where your products are made.
I would like to be confident that my clothes are made under humane working conditions, but I cannot be until your company discloses where your clothing is made and agrees to accept independent monitoring of factory conditions.
Other companies, such as Nike, Jansport, Gear For Sports and Russell Athletics have taken a lead by agreeing to publicly disclose where their products are made. I believe that your company can, and must, also take this important step toward assuring your customers that your products are made under humane working conditions. Once that information is publicly available, it can then be verified whether the people who sew our school clothing are indeed treated with dignity and respect.
I am not asking that you cut off suppliers, but rather that you work with them to ensure respect for local laws and accepted international labour standards.
In the coming months, I will also be urging my school board to pass an ethical purchasing policy requiring that their uniform and clothing suppliers disclose the names and addresses of the manufacturing facilities where the apparel products are made and accept independent monitoring of factory conditions.
This effort is supported by a broad based coalition of faith groups, non-governmental organizations, unions and students.
I look forward to hearing from you about the steps your company is prepared to take to help eliminate sweatshop abuses.
Sincerely,
cc: To School Board Director and the Maquila Solidarity Network
Apparel companies don’t want their customers to know who’s producing their goods. And with good reason. Many major brand-names are using sweatshop labour. The Ethical Trading Action Group is campaigning to make full disclosure of factory locations a federal requirement. That way you can find out whether your clothes are made under fair labour conditions. It’s a small step for government. But it’s a big step towards worker rights worldwide.
You can make it happen:
www.maquilasolidarity.org/nosweat
or call 416-532-8584
Activity: Creating a flyer or brochure
Purpose
In this activity you will create a flyer or brochure for fellow students, which succinctly outlines the issue of Guatemala’s maquilas and which provides a rationale for a specific action.
Audience
The audience for this activity is other students in your school, in particular, other students of your own age.
Criteria
In your flyer you should deal with the following ideas:
- Succinctly outline for your audience the issue of the maquilas
- Identify your position on the issue
- Provide a specific argument (or arguments) to defend your position
- Suggest a practical action people can take that will help improve the situation
The flyer should also engage your audience through:
- Use of interesting and appropriate graphics and symbols
- Careful placement of elements on the page
- Proper formatting of text and other elements
Use the sample provided as a guide only.
Design Tips:
Effective flyers use elements like bulleted lists, eye-catching graphics, an intriguing title, and colour. All these elements should work together to create an effective message. Remember to keep the text brief and large—flyers are not essays.
Notes/Teacher Instructions:
Your flyer will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Your flyer will be due: ________________________
Activity: Writing a letter to a Corporate Executive
Purpose
In this activity you will write a letter to an apparel company executive (or alternatively a government minister, your member of parliament, or a school board official), advocating fair trade policies for Guatemala’s maquila workers.
Audience
The audience for this activity is an executive of an apparel company (or alternatively a government minister, your member of parliament, or a school board official).
Criteria
In your letter you should deal with the following ideas:
- Succinctly outline for your audience who you are and why you are concerned about the issue of the maquilas
- Clearly identify your position on the issue
- Provide specific arguments defending your position
- Suggest a practical action that your addressee can take that will help improve the situation
Your letter should also appeal to your addressee through:
- Logical reasoning and compelling arguments
- Ideas expressed using clear and engaging language
- Use of appropriate and formal tone
- Proper formatting of text
Use the sample letter provided as a suggested guide only.
Notes/Teacher Instructions:
Your letter will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Your letter will be due: ____________________________
Activity: Designing your sweatshop fashion show
A Sweatshop Fashion Show is an easy, fun and creative educational tool to inform ourselves and students in our schools about the sweatshop abuses hidden behind the labels of the major brands.
Models walk the runway, wearing the latest fashions of well-known US and Canadian brands.
Announcers describe the brand-name products worn by the models, and then reveal the wages and working conditions of the women who made the products.
Students collect brand-name clothes made in countries around the world. They visit stores and websites to compile information on prices, wages and working conditions. They learn about workers’ issues and demands, and their actions we can take to support them. They design a script, choose music, and rehearse. They publicize the event and prepare campaign materials.
Many fashion shows have attracted media attention, thereby reaching a much larger audience. Targeted corporations are taking notice.
Key steps to prepare your fashion show:
1. Researching Companies and Brands
Research the companies and brands you want to target. Search for up-to-date information and attention-grabbing facts about companies and their practices. This information will be useful in developing your script, as well as your group’s knowledge of the issues.
Visit company websites and check out annual reports for information on world-wide sales, profits, CEO salaries, and expenditures on advertising and promotion.
Visit websites of campaigning organizations for information on wages, working conditions, and to identify specific cases of labour rights violations.
Visit stores and check magazine and newspaper ads for information on prices and the images and messages associated with the brands.
2. Designing the Production
To be effective and entertaining, a fashion show needs to be choreographed like a stage show. How you structure and pace the production can add to or detract from its effectiveness.
Announcers: One graphic way to contrast labour practices and brand image, which we’ve found effective, is to use two announcers. The first announcer describes the clothes being modeled. The second describes the working conditions.
Models, Brands and Music: Decide how many models are needed, the order they and their clothing brands will appear, and how and when you will use music. To keep the show a reasonable length, we usually use no more than eight models. If more students want to be models, consider having them model in pairs.
Finale: For an effective finale, you might invite all the models back on stage while the announcers reiterate key messages and offer suggestions on how audience members can get involved in local Stop Sweatshops campaigns.
4. Preparing the Script
The script is made up of a series of scenes. It should be informative, but also attention-grabbing and funny. The more personal the stories, the more people will identify with
them. A sample fashion show script is available online at: http://www.magulasolidarity.org/tools/campaign/sfsccscript.htm
5. Choosing a Venue
Don’t worry about finding a venue with a formal stage or runway. A “catwalk” can be improvised at almost any site.
If possible, organize the seating to allow sufficient room for the models to perform and interact with the audience. If you’re using a stage, consider having the catwalk run up a centre aisle to the stage, so the models can perform as they enter, model and exit.
6. Promoting the Show
If you’re inviting other students or the public to your fashion show, try to make the flyers and posters as entertaining as you hope the show will be. A mock fashion show deserves a mock poster. Use and manipulate the images and logo’s associated with the major brands.
“Star” models can also be a draw. Consider recruiting your school principal or a popular teacher to perform as announcers or models.
8. Collecting Costumes
Rule #1: You don’t need to buy new clothes for your fashion show. Borrow, borrow, borrow. If you have to buy something, check first at the local second-hand stores.
Rule #2: If possible, try to find the brand-name clothing made in the countries that you highlight in your script.
Rule #3: Improvise.
9. Choosing the Music
Try to pick music that lends itself to your message, and/or music that will attract your audience. Your choice of music can add energy, humour and irony to the show.
Consider using up-beat popular music before and during the show.
10. Testing the Sound System
If you are holding the show in a noisy area or a big space like the school cafeteria, be sure to have a good sound system and an experienced person to run it. You want everyone to hear your message.
Be careful that the music doesn’t drown out the announcers’ presentations.
Plan ahead where you want the music to fade in and fade out.
11. Rehearsing for the Show
It is essential to have at least one rehearsal before the show and to appoint one or two “stage managers” to make sure everything goes smoothly, and to “trouble-shoot” when small problems arise.
If at all possible, rehearse with the sound system and music. This will allow you to anticipate possible technical problems.
Make sure all models know the order of the presentation and have had a chance to read over the script, and particularly their scenes. Most importantly, each model needs to know their cues for entering and exiting the runway.
Take a few moments during the rehearsal for models to experiment with different modeling styles, poses and actions.
Script Tips
Keep each scene brief and to the point.
Try not to repeat information—use different clothing brands to highlight different problems in different parts of the world.
Don’t forget to include stories of sweatshop practices in Canada.
Activity: Preparing for an Informal Debate
The rules and procedures for an informal debate are more relaxed and flexible than those for formal debates. The number of speakers on each side or for each position can vary, as can the number of positions or points of view. Often each speaker only represents one argument, and the speeches are relatively short.
In this debate, speakers representing each of the “stakeholder groups” represented in the Common Threads video will take turns presenting arguments about their role in the issue of Guatemala’s maquilas. After all the arguments have been presented, each team will be given a few minutes to question the other. Each team’s questions should address the central arguments and claims the other team presented. After questioning, each team may be asked to make a closing statement.
Team members:
Group you are representing (circle one):
- Unions
- Workers
- Human Rights Groups
- Factory Owners
- Apparel Retailers
- Guatemalan Government
- Independent Monitoring Agency
- Canadian Government
- Canadian Consumers
Topic: What is your group doing to solve the problem of sweatshops, and why is this the right solution?
1. Brainstorm as many points and arguments for and against your position as you can
| Pro | Con |
|-----|-----|
2. Review each potential argument. Highlight the ones that are likely to be most effective.
3. Assign each team member to research and present one point or argument. Find evidence and examples supporting your argument.
4. Meet to review the evidence. Work together to revise the arguments.
5. Decide what speaking order will be most effective speaking order.
6. Decide how you will work together to organize and present your position.
7. Select one person to make the closing statement for your team.
Your group’s role in the debate will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Activity: Preparing a brief presentation
1. For this activity you will be researching and preparing a brief presentation on a topic relating to the issue of maquilas.
Group members: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
2. Your group will be assigned one of the following readings (circle one):
- “What is a Maquila”/“What is a Sweatshop?”
- “What is Globalization”
- “Guatemala: A brief history.”
- “The labour behind the labels: How our clothes are made.”
- “What are Human Rights?”
- “Working conditions in the maquilas of Guatemala”
- “Unions in Guatemala: A history of fear”
- “Coverco: Model of an independent monitoring agency”
- “Guatemalan maquila workers win major victory”
3. Groups are to carefully read the article and discuss the content together.
4. Groups are then to prepare a brief presentation on their reading, highlighting the most important ideas.
5. Groups will then present their findings to the class.
Format:
- Introduce your group members
- Identify your topic
- Briefly outline the main ideas about your topic
- Present the supporting evidence for each of your main ideas
- Recap your main points in turn
- Ask for questions
- Thank your audience
Your presentation will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Activity: Preparing a Multimedia Presentation
In this activity, you will be working in a group of four to five students to prepare a multimedia presentation on the issue of sweatshops. Your audience may be your class, other students in your school, teachers in your school, or school board officials.
Use the outline below to plan your multimedia presentation:
1. Choose an aspect of the problem that is interesting and meaningful to everyone in your group.
2. Discuss your understanding of the problem with other members of your group. Reach a consensus about what you feel are the core causes of the problem of sweatshops.
3. Discuss possible solutions to the problem. Which do you feel are the most important? What actions can you as students take to help solve the problem?
4. Brainstorm ways that you can incorporate visual effects into your presentation, including sound effects, movement, sets and background visuals (e.g. slides, video).
5. Develop a plan for your presentation. You may choose to create a video rather than present “live”, for example.
6. Assign tasks to each group member. You may choose to have everyone involved in reading or presenting, or you may have some responsible for technical support.
7. Practice your presentation.
8. Decide how to get feedback from your audience. Will you invite comments or lead a short discussion? What reaction or ACTION do you want to elicit from your audience?
Your multimedia presentation will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Activity: Role Play
Role-playing can be an effective way to explore the thoughts, feelings and motivations of other people, and to explore different ways of solving a problem. In this role play, you will be taking on the persona of one of the following stakeholders in the issue of maquilas:
- Factory Owner
- Government Inspector
- Maquila Worker
- Union Representative
- Canadian Ambassador
- Independent Monitoring Agency
- Human Rights Worker
- Apparel Company Executive
- United Nations Investigator
Setting the scene:
A United Nations Human Rights investigator has come to Guatemala to conduct an investigation of alleged human rights abuses in the maquila sector. As part of the investigation, he organizes a hearing with all the major “stakeholders” in the maquilas in order to find out the truth and come up with a solution to the problem.
Developing your persona
The key to effective role-playing is preparing your character. Because you will be working without “a script” you need to know the character well enough to react to new situations as they arise.
In order to prepare your “character”, review all available materials—your teacher can provide you with print resources from the Common Threads Teacher Resource. You may wish to review the Common Threads video or the script. It would help to do some further research on the internet.
Try completing these sentences in the role of your character:
For me, a maquila is … ____________________________________________________________
The most important thing to me in life is … ___________________________________________
I am want to resolve this problem because … _________________________________________
For me, the workers in the maquilas are … __________________________________________
The thing that frustrates me most about the situation is … ____________________________
My solution to the problem would be to … __________________________________________
You will also have to figure out how your person will sound and act—What kind of tone and expression will they use? What kind of body language? How will they react physically to the other characters?
Playing the scene
Once the role-play has started, your main challenge is staying in role and reacting to the situation and other characters in a believable way.
You will also need to figure out how to bring the role play to a close. You may choose to set a time limit, or make one character responsible for providing an ending.
Your role-play will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Activity: Writing a Research Report
Purpose:
In this activity you are to conduct further research into the issue of maquilas in Guatemala, and produce a written report summarizing the results of your research. Your report should highlight the problems in the maquilas in the context of Guatemalan history. Your report should also evaluate possible solutions and provide suggestions for further action.
Criteria:
Use the following checklist to help plan and conduct your research. Assess your work in progress using the following scale:
0 = not at all; 1 = limited; 2 = some; 3 = fully; 4 = thoroughly and insightfully
Have a trusted peer assess your work using the final column.
| Criteria | Knowledge/Understanding: | Self-Assessment | Peer Assessment |
|----------|-------------------------|-----------------|----------------|
| | I made detailed, accurate records of key information | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| | I showed understanding of information gathered by synthesizing, paraphrasing, organizing logically | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| | I documented sources accurately and completely | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| Thinking/Inquiry: | |
|-------------------|-----------------|
| | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| Communication: | |
|-------------------|-----------------|
| | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
| Application: | |
|-------------------|-----------------|
| | 0 1 2 3 4 | 0 1 2 3 4 |
Your research report will be evaluated using the Assessment Rubric provided by your teacher.
Activity: Creating a Timeline
Use this sheet and information from the article “Guatemala: A brief history” to create a timeline highlighting some important events in Guatemala’s history.
| Event | Year |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| Guatemala is invaded by Spanish conquistadors, who have a devastating effect on the indigenous Mayan society | |
| Within a century after the first arrival of the Europeans | |
| Guatemalan society enjoyed what is now referred to as the "Ten Years of Spring" with two popularly elected and reformist Presidents who permitted free expression, legalized unions and diverse political parties, and initiated basic socio-economic reforms. | |
| By the late 1970's | |
| A small group of Mayan leaders peacefully occupy the Spanish Embassy. They and the entire Embassy staff (except for the Spanish ambassador) are killed when it is burned to the ground my the authorities. | |
| Throughout the 1980s | |
| 1996 | |
Assessment Rubrics
## Rubric: Mapping Activity
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| **Completeness of information on map** | **Map is incomplete: few required items have been labeled** | **Map is somewhat complete: some required items have been clearly labeled** | **Map is generally complete: almost all required items have been clearly labeled** | **Map is complete: all required items have been clearly labeled** |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | **Accuracy in the placement of map items** | **Map demonstrates limited accuracy; few items have been accurately labeled** | **Map demonstrates some accuracy; some items have been accurately labeled** | **Map demonstrates considerable accuracy; most items have been accurately labeled** | **Map demonstrates exceptional accuracy; all items have been accurately labeled** |
| **Communication** | **Use of colour to help distinguish countries and geographic features** | **Colour is used with limited effectiveness or is not used to distinguish between countries and geographic features** | **Colour is used with some effectiveness to distinguish between countries and geographic features** | **Colour is used with considerable effectiveness to distinguish between countries and geographic features** | **Colour is used with a high degree of effectiveness to distinguish between countries and geographic features** |
| **Application** | **Map conventions and neatness** | **Applies map labeling conventions with limited effectiveness; maps have been labeled with limited care** | **Applies map labeling conventions with some effectiveness; maps have been labeled with some care** | **Applies map labeling conventions with considerable effectiveness; maps have been labeled with considerable care** | **Applies map labeling conventions with a high degree of effectiveness; maps have been labeled with great care** |
## Rubric: Discussion
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| | | | |
| • Information, ideas | □ Contributes a limited amount of accurate and relevant information | □ Contributes some accurate and relevant information and ideas | □ Contributes considerable accurate and relevant information and ideas | □ Contributes extensive, precise and relevant information and ideas |
| | □ Shows limited insight into issues and ideas | □ Shows some insight into issues and ideas | □ Shows considerable insight into issues and ideas | □ Shows a high degree of insight into issues and ideas |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | | | | |
| • Use of evidence | □ Provides limited relevant evidence to support ideas and arguments | □ Provides some well-chosen evidence to support ideas and arguments | □ Provides considerable well-chosen evidence to support ideas and arguments | □ Provides highly effective, well-chosen evidence to support ideas and arguments |
| • Critical listening | □ Shows limited openness to changing and adding to the ideas and opinions of others | □ Shows some openness to changing and adding to the ideas and opinions of others | □ Shows considerable openness to changing and adding to the ideas and opinions of others | □ Shows a high degree of openness to changing and adding to the ideas and opinions of others |
| **Communication** | | | | |
| • Rules for classroom discourse | □ Follows rules of courteous classroom discourse in few instances | □ Follows rules of courteous classroom discourse some instances | □ Follows rules of courteous classroom discourse in most instances | □ Follows rules of courteous classroom discourse in all or almost all instances |
| **Application** | | | | |
| • Speech | □ Speaks limited clarity and effectiveness | □ Speaks some clarity and effectiveness | □ Speaks with considerable clarity and effectiveness | □ Speaks with a high degree of clarity and effectiveness |
## Rubric: Presentation
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| | | | |
| • Information, ideas, concepts | □ Shows limited understanding of the topic | □ Shows some understanding of the topic | □ Shows considerable understanding of the topic | □ Shows thorough understanding of the topic |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | | | | |
| • Analysis | □ Uses limited logical analysis and explanation | □ Uses some logical analysis and explanation | □ Uses considerable logical analysis and explanation | □ Uses highly effective logical analysis and explanation |
| **Communication** | | | | |
| • Sense of audience and purpose | □ Choice of material shows limited understanding of audience and purpose | □ Choice of material shows some understanding of audience and purpose | □ Choice of material shows considerable understanding of audience and purpose | □ Choice of material shows thorough understanding of audience and purpose |
| • Rhetorical devices | □ Shows limited effective use of rhetorical devices | □ Shows some effective use of rhetorical devices | □ Shows considerable effective use of rhetorical devices | □ Shows highly effective and creative use of rhetorical devices |
| • Organization | □ Structure shows limited organization | □ Structure is somewhat organized | □ Structure shows considerable organization | □ Structure is highly organized |
| **Application** | | | | |
| • Voice | □ Voice has limited clarity | □ Voice has some clarity | □ Voice has considerable clarity | □ Voice has a high degree of effectiveness |
| • Visual aids | □ Limited use of visual aids and technology | □ Use of visual aids and technology is somewhat effective | □ Use of visual aids and technology is effective | □ Use of visual aids and technology is effective and creative |
| • Language conventions | □ Uses grammar and sentence structure with limited accuracy and effectiveness | □ Uses grammar and sentence structure with some accuracy and effectiveness | □ Uses grammar and sentence structure with considerable accuracy and effectiveness | □ Uses grammar and sentence structure with a high degree of accuracy and effectiveness |
## Rubric: Role Play
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Knowledge/Understanding | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Points of view and attitudes expressed have limited believability | Points of view expressed are somewhat believable | Points of view expressed are believable | Points of view expressed are believable and show insight and understanding |
| | Actions and reactions show limited understanding of the relationships among stakeholders | Actions and reactions show some understanding of the relationships among stakeholders | Actions and reactions show considerable understanding of the relationships among stakeholders | Actions and reactions show thorough and insightful understanding of the relationships among stakeholders |
| Thinking/Inquiry | Role shows limited creativity | Role shows some creativity | Role shows considerable creativity | Role shows a high degree of creativity |
|-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Solves problems to a extent; may not be believable | Solves problems to some extent | Solves problems in a believable way | Solves problems in a believable and engaging way |
| Communication | Interacts with others to focus on a problem or issue with limited clarity | Interacts with others to focus on a problem or issue with some clarity | Interacts with others to focus on a problem or issue with considerable clarity | Interacts with others to focus on a problem or issue with a high degree of clarity |
|-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Creates a beginning, middle and end with limited coherence and logic | Creates a somewhat effective and logical beginning, middle and end | Creates a considerably effective and logical beginning, middle and end | Creates a highly effective and logical beginning, middle and end |
| Application | Voice and body language make a limited contribution to characterization | Voice and body language make some contribution to characterization | Voice and body language make a considerable contribution to characterization | Voice and body language make a highly effective contribution to characterization |
|-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
---
AR-5 Common Threads Assessment Rubrics
## Rubric: Debate
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| | | | |
| • Information, ideas | Provides limited relevant and accurate information | Provides some relevant and accurate information | Provides considerable relevant and accurate information | Provides thorough, relevant and accurate information |
| (quality of research) | | | | |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | | | | |
| • Interpretation of | Provides limited interpretation of the resolution/question | Provides some sound and reasonable definitions and interpretation of | Provides sound and reasonable definitions and interpretation of the | Provides highly effective definitions and interpretation of the |
| resolution | Substantiates arguments with limited reasoning and evidence | of the resolution/question | of the resolution/question | resolution/question |
| • Use of evidence | In rebuttal, summarizes and refutes opponent’s contentions with limited confidence and clarity | In rebuttal, summarizes and refutes opponent’s contentions with some confidence and clarity | In rebuttal, summarizes and refutes opponent’s contentions with | In rebuttal, summarizes and refutes opponent’s contentions, attacking any faulty logic effectively, with confidence and clarity |
| • Rebuttal | | | considerable confidence and effectiveness | |
| • Responding to Questions | When questioned, defends key arguments with limited confidence and effectiveness | When questioned, defends key arguments with some confidence and effectiveness | When questioned, defends key arguments with considerable confidence and effectiveness | When questioned, defends key arguments confidently and effectively |
| **Communication** | | | | |
| • Rhetorical devices | Uses rhetorical devices limited with effectiveness | Uses rhetorical devices with some effectiveness | Uses rhetorical devices with considerable effectiveness | Uses rhetorical devices with confidence and impact |
| **Application** | | | | |
| • Organization | Organizes ideas and supporting material with limited logic | Organizes ideas and supporting material with some logic; shows some | Organizes ideas and supporting material with considerable logic; | Organizes ideas and supporting material effectively, showing a strong sense of team membership |
| | | sense of team membership | shows a sense of team membership | |
## Rubric: Letter to a Company Executive
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Knowledge/Understanding | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|-------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| • Information | | | | |
| | □ Provides limited accurate information about the issue | □ Provides some specific and accurate information about the issue | □ Provides considerable specific and accurate information about the issue | □ Provides thorough, specific and accurate information about the issue |
| Thinking/Inquiry | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| • Development of argument | | | | |
| | □ Develops arguments with limited logic and coherence | □ Develops arguments with some degree of logic and coherence | □ Develops arguments with a high degree of logic, coherence and creativity | □ Develops arguments with a high degree of logic, coherence and creativity |
| • Use of evidence | □ Incorporates limited relevant evidence | □ Incorporates some well-chosen and relevant evidence | □ Incorporates highly effective, well-chosen and relevant evidence | □ Incorporates highly effective, well-chosen and relevant evidence |
| Communication | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| • Command of letter form | | | | |
| | □ Shows limited command of the letter form including limited appeal, limited clarity of position, limited unity and focus | □ Shows some command of the letter form including some clarity of position, some unity and focus | □ Shows considerable command of the letter form including clarity of position, unity and focus | □ Shows strong command of the letter form including confident position, strong unity and focus |
| • Tone | □ Employs tone with limited appropriateness for context and audience | □ Employs a somewhat appropriate tone for context and audience | □ Employs an appropriate tone for context and audience | □ Employs an effective tone for context and audience |
| Application | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|------------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| • Language conventions | | | | |
| | □ Applies grammar usage, spelling and punctuation with a limited degree of accuracy and effectiveness | □ Applies grammar usage, spelling and punctuation with some degree of accuracy and effectiveness | □ Applies grammar usage, spelling and punctuation with a considerable degree of accuracy and effectiveness | □ Applies grammar usage, spelling and punctuation with a high degree of accuracy and effectiveness |
## Rubric: Flyer or Brochure
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| **Information, ideas** | **Presents limited information and ideas** | **Presents some appropriate and relevant information and ideas** | **Presents considerable appropriate and relevant information and ideas**|
| | | | | **Presents well-thought-out and insightful information and ideas** |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | **Creative thinking/risk-taking** | **Takes limited risks to include unexpected or unconventional features**| **Takes some risks to include unexpected or unconventional features** | **Takes considerable risks to include unexpected or unconventional features**|
| | **Critical thinking/audience analysis** | **Incorporates images that have limited appeal for the intended audience**| **Incorporates images that have some appeal for the intended audience**| **Incorporates images that have considerable appeal for the intended audience**|
| | | | | **Incorporates images that have strong appeal for the intended audience**|
| **Communication** | **Focus and purpose** | **Has limited clarity of focus and purpose** | **Has some clarity of focus and purpose** | **Has a clear and unified focus and purpose** |
| | **Visual elements** | **Choice and arrangement of images and text show limited command of visual elements**| **Choice and arrangement of images and text show some command of visual elements**| **Choice and arrangement of images and text show considerable command of visual elements**|
| | | | | **Choice and arrangement of images and text show extensive command of visual elements**|
| **Application** | **presentation** | **Uses materials and techniques with limited skill and consistency** | **Uses materials and techniques with some skill and consistency** | **Uses materials and techniques with considerable skill and consistency**|
| | | | | **Uses materials and techniques with a high degree of skill and consistency**|
## Rubric: Research Report
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| | | | |
| • Researched information | □ Few accurate and relevant facts, statistics and authorities | □ Many well-chosen, accurate and relevant facts, statistics and authorities | □ Considerable accurate and relevant facts, statistics and authorities | □ Many well-chosen, accurate and relevant facts, statistics and authorities |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | | | | |
| • Central question | □ Report shows limited focus around a central question | □ Report is somewhat focused around a well-defined central question | □ Report is focused around a central question | □ Report is effectively focused around a well-defined central question |
| • Synthesis, analysis and explanation | □ Offers limited synthesis, analysis and explanation | □ Offers some synthesis, analysis and explanation | □ Offers considerable synthesis, analysis and explanation | □ Offers thorough and insightful synthesis, analysis and explanation |
| • Sources | □ Sources are limited; few are carefully documented | □ Some sources are appropriate and well documented | □ Most sources are appropriate and well documented | □ All or almost all sources are appropriate and well documented |
| • Conclusions | □ Conclusions show limited logic and insight | □ Conclusions show some logic and insight | □ Conclusions show considerable logic and insight | □ Conclusions show a high degree of insight |
| **Communication** | | | | |
| • Organization | □ Organization is limited in clarity and effectiveness | □ Organization is somewhat clear and effective | □ Organization is clear and effective | □ Organization is clear and highly effective |
| • Specialized language | □ Uses little relevant, specialized language | □ Uses a some relevant, specialized language | □ Uses considerable relevant, specialized language | □ Uses a high degree of relevant, specialized language |
| • Use of visuals | □ Uses few visuals effectively | □ Uses some visuals effectively | □ Uses many visuals effectively | □ Uses all or most visuals effectively |
| **Application** | | | | |
| • Language conventions | □ Usage, word choice and sentence structure show limited accuracy and effectiveness | □ Usage, word choice and sentence structure show some accuracy and effectiveness | □ Usage, word choice and sentence structure show considerable accuracy and effectiveness | □ Usage, word choice and sentence structure show a high degree of accuracy and effectiveness |
AR-9 Common Threads Assessment Rubrics
## Rubric: Multimedia Presentation
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| **Information, ideas** | **Presents limited relevant information and ideas** | **Presents some relevant information and ideas** | **Presents considerable relevant information and ideas** |
| | | | | **Presents through and insightful information and ideas** |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | **Creative thinking/risk taking** | **Takes few risks to incorporate unusual or unexpected features** | **Takes some risks to incorporate unusual or unexpected features** | **Shows considerable risk taking to incorporate unusual or unexpected features** |
| | **Sensory appeal** | **Shows limited skill in appealing to several senses** | **Shows some skill in appealing to several senses** | **Shows considerable skill in appealing to several senses** |
| | | | | **Shows a high degree of skill in appealing to several senses** |
| **Communication** | **Focus and unity** | **Has a limited focus** | **Has some focus and unity** | **Has considerable focus and unity** |
| | **Sense of audience and purpose** | **Choice of material and media show a limited sense of audience and purpose** | **Choice of material and media show some sense of audience and purpose** | **Choice of material and media shows a considerable sense of audience and purpose** |
| | **Interplay of media** | **Interplay of media has limited effectiveness** | **Interplay of media is somewhat effective** | **Interplay of media is effective** |
| | | | | **Interplay of media is highly effective** |
| **Application** | **Use of media and technology** | **Shows limited command of the media and technology used** | **Shows a some command of the media and technology used** | **Shows a considerable command of the media and technology used** |
| | **Presentation** | **Few parts of the presentation is smooth and fluent** | **Some parts of the presentation is smooth and fluent** | **Most of the presentation is smooth and fluent** |
| | | | | **All or almost all of the presentation is smooth and fluent** |
## Rubric: Fashion Show
**Assessor:** □ Self □ Peer □ Teacher
| Category | Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 |
|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Knowledge/Understanding**| **Information about apparel companies and brands** | **Presents little factual information about the companies and their brands** | **Presents some factual information about the companies and their brands** | **Presents considerable factual information about the companies and their brands** | **Presents thorough, insightful and critical information about the companies and their brands** |
| **Thinking/Inquiry** | **Production design** | **Production shows little creativity or effort** | **Production shows some creativity and effort** | **Production considerable creativity and effort** | **Production shows a high degree of creativity or effort** |
| | **Creative thinking/risk taking** | **Takes few risks to incorporate unusual or unexpected features or provoke thought** | **Takes some risks to incorporate unusual or unexpected features and to provoke thought** | **Takes considerable risks to incorporate unusual or unexpected features and to provoke thought** | **Shows a high degree of risk-taking to incorporate unusual or unexpected features to provoke thought** |
| **Communication** | **Sense of audience and purpose** | **Script has limited focus and clarity** | **Script has some focus and clarity** | **Script has considerable focus and clarity** | **Script has limited focus and clarity** |
| | **Choice of music and media** | **Choice and interplay of music and other media has limited effectiveness** | **Choice and interplay of music and other media has some effectiveness** | **Choice and interplay of music and other media has considerable effectiveness** | **Choice and interplay of music and other media has limited effectiveness** |
| | **Announcers** | **Announcers lack clarity of expression** | **Announcers lack some clarity of expression** | **Announcers are clear** | **Announcers are clear and engaging and add interest and insight to the presentation** |
| **Application** | **Use of media and technology** | **Shows limited command of the media and technology used** | **Shows some command of the media and technology used** | **Shows considerable command of the media and technology used** | **Shows strong command of the media and technology used** |
| | **Presentation** | **Few parts of the fashion show are smooth and rehearsed** | **Some parts of the fashion show are smooth and rehearsed** | **Most parts of the fashion show are smooth and rehearsed** | **All or almost all parts of the fashion show are smooth and well-rehearsed** | | e60ef182-8167-43d9-b8f5-ce62484291c6 | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | http://www.osstf.on.ca/-/media/Provincial/Documents/Resource-Centre/Curriculum-Materials-and-Classroom-Supports/Common-Threads/Globalization--Sweatshops--and-the-Clothes-We-Wear/classroom-resource.ashx?sc_lang=en-CA | 2020-06-07T09:55:09+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590348526471.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200607075929-20200607105929-00561.warc.gz | 189,419,381 | 55,318 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.934183 | eng_Latn | 0.997836 | [
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English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-II
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. It _____ at present.
(A) rains (B) rained (C) is raining (D) has rained
2. He _____ English now.
(A) speak (B) speaks (C) will speak (D) spoke
3. The fire _____ at last night.
(A) burn (B) burnt (C) will burn (D) burns
4. The girl _____ since morning.
(A) sleep (B) slept (C) has been sleeping (D) will sleep
5. I _____ this motor bike a month ago.
(A) buy (B) have bought (C) bought (D) buys
(B) Choose the correct alphabet to complete the given word and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Conf__dence:
(A) i (B) e (C) u (D) o
7. Super__ority:
(A) e (B) o (C) i (D) u
8. Bri__ery:
(A) c (B) t (C) b (D) m
9. __espite:
(A) r (B) m (C) d (D) s
10. Huma__ity
(A) n (B) b (C) l (D) r
(C) Choose the correct sentence and fill up the respective bubble:
11. (A) He saw his reflection.
(B) He reflection saw his.
(C) He his reflection saw.
(D) He saw reflection his.
12. (A) It rains in Murree heavily.
(B) It rains heavily in Murree.
(C) Rains heavily it in Murree.
(D) It heavily rains in Murree.
13. (A) Nadir the book had read.
(B) Nadir had read the book.
(C) Nadir had the book read.
(D) Nadir read had the book.
14. (A) Honesty is the best policy.
(B) Best policy is the honesty.
(C) Honesty best policy is the.
(D) Best honesty is the policy.
15. (A) He ran for his life.
(B) He ran life for his.
(C) He ran his life for.
(D) He for his life ran.
(D) Choose the true option and fill up the respective bubble:
16. (A) On the eve of great dinner Chinese forget elders.
(B) On the eve of great dinner Chinese forget past.
(C) On the eve of great dinner Chinese forget quarrels.
(D) On the eve of great dinner Chinese forget joy.
17. (A) Abu woke one night from a dream..
(B) Abu woke one night from sound sleep.
(C) Abu woke one night from deep dream.
(D) Abu woke one night from deep dream of peace.
(E) Choose the false option and fill up the respective bubble:
18. (A) They believe that red colour is for youth.
(B) They believe that red colour is for valour.
(C) They believe that red colour is for strength.
(D) They believe that red colour is not for life.
19. (A) Bees fly from flower to flower to collect nectar.
(B) Bees collect nectar from flowers.
(C) Nectar is collected from flowers.
(D) Bees are not capable to collect nectar.
2. Write down short answers of any five of the following questions.
i. What was the condition of women before the advent of Islam?
ii. Who is a reformer?
iii. Why should we be kind to animals and birds?
iv. Why should women work?
v. Why and where the king sent his son?
vi. What is the name of park?
vii. Why should we not eat uncovered things?
viii. How does water pollution take place?
3. Translate the following paragraph into Urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
The rural woman has always worked with her male member in the fields. She shares the work of man on an equal level. She works from dawn to dusk at home and in the fields. For the development of our country, women have to be encouraged to participate and work more for the progress and prosperity of the nation.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Daffodils" by William Wordsworth. OR Paraphrase the following stanza into simple English.
The day is past, the sun is set,
And the white stars are in the sky,
While the long grass with dew is wet,
And through the air the bats now fly.
5. Use any five of the following words / idioms in your own sentences.
(i) belong to (ii) urban (iii) wonderful (iv) urge
(v) reduce (vi) convey (vii) facilitate (viii) stretch
6. Write a letter to your brother about the importance of science subjects.
OR
Write down the story: "Union is strength"
OR
Write a dialogue between two students regarding prayer.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
Once a stag was drinking water at a stream. He happened to see his reflection in the water. He was too pleased to see his beautiful horns but when he saw his thin legs, he felt sad as he thought they were ugly. Suddenly he saw a pack of hounds at a distance. He ran as fast as his legs could help him. Soon he left the hounds far behind. He had to pass through a thick forest of bushes. His horns got caught in a bush. He tried hard to pull his horns out of it but all in vain. By now the hounds had come up. They fell upon him and tore him to pieces.
Questions:
(i) What was the stag doing? (ii) What did he see in the water? (iii) Why was he pleased?
(iv) What made him sad? (v) Why did he run?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) وہ میرے گھر سے دورست ہے۔ (ii) یہ شہر چھوٹا ہے۔ (iii) پہلے دنیا کی نئی (iv) نئی سیر کے پاس پیالہ ہے۔
(v) گریلی دود دیتا ہے۔ (vi) یہ چھوٹے ہے۔ (vii) تم چھوٹے ہے۔ (viii) یہ سردار کو کوئی نہیں ہے۔
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "A Meena Bazaar".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) We shall have killed the snake. (ii) Why were they beating the boy?
(iii) We did not hear a sound. (iv) An essay was written by him.
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-I
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. They ______ hard all day.
(A) worked (B) working (C) work (D) are working
2. They have______in this house.
(A) lived (B) living (C) are living (D) were living
3. They______to school when the storm broke.
(A) are going (B) went (C) gone (D) were going
4. They______for London tomorrow.
(A) will leave (B) leaving (C) left (D) have left
5. The match started after I______the play ground.
(A) has left (B) have left (C) left (D) had left
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) Divine (B) Devine (C) Devene (D) Divne
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) Superme (B) Supirme (C) Supreme (D) Superime
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) Beleif (B) Belief (C) Bilefe (D) Beleef
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) Ensight (B) Ensite (C) Incite (D) Insight
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. The word devotion means:
(A) glamorous (B) easy to know (C) loyalty (D) difficult to know
11. Abu Jehl began knocking at the door violently.
(A) politely (B) slowly (C) forcefully (D) easily
12. The word numerous means:
(A) many (B) few (C) zero (D) less
13. The floors are covered with carpets.
(A) exposed (B) decorated (C) light (D) closed
14. I feel immense pleasure to see others happy.
(A) a bit (B) little (C) less (D) huge
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. The Police dispersed the crowd. The underlined word is a/an:
(A) countable noun (B) material noun (C) collective noun (D) uncountable noun
16. We are studying______English.
(A) a (B) an (C) the (D) none of these
17. I was upset. The underlined word is a/an:
(A) personal pronoun (B) distributive pronoun (C) indefinite pronoun (D) interrogative pronoun
18. He is fond of cooking. The underlined word is a/an:
(A) past participle (B) present participle (C) infinitive (D) gerund
19. The boy laughs loudly. The underlined word is a/an:
(A) adjective (B) pronoun (C) regular verb (D) subject
i. What type of land Arabia is?
ii. Why has Helen Keller no time to waste in longings?
iii. What is the highest military award of Pakistan?
iv. Why was Abu Jehl furious?
v. How does media provide entertainment?
vi. Why Sultan Ahmad Mosque is also known as Blue Mosque?
vii. What are the causes of drug addiction?
viii. What do you understand by the term "counselling"?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into Urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. Patriotism gives people the strength and courage to safeguard the interests of the country and nation. For a patriot, the sovereignty, integrity and honour of the country are supreme values on which no compromise can be made. Patriots render sacrifice for the preservation and protection of these values.
b. Hazrat Asma (R.A) will always be remembered for her courage, generosity and wisdom. She had resolute faith in Allah Almighty. Her life would always be a beacon of light for all of us.
c. Another source of noise pollution in urban areas is the work on construction sites. Construction work in urban areas is usually slow and time-consuming. The transport and equipment used at the construction sites, its grilling and piercing sound is a big source of noise pollution. It not only disturbs the general public but also affects construction workers by causing mental fatigue.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost.
OR
Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
For oft, when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude.
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) impressive (ii) prosperity (iii) information (iv) fit of fury
(v) determination (vi) bore fruit (vii) curative (viii) man in the street
6. Write a letter to your sister congratulating her on her success in the exams.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "All that glitters is not gold".
OR
Write a dialogue between a teacher and a student on coming late.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
There was once a man whose doctor gave him medicine which was quite black. His servant who was illiterate made a mistake and poured out a dose of ink in place of the drug. He gave it to his master who drank it. After the patient had taken the dose of ink, the servant somehow realized his mistake. He ran back to his master and said, "Sir, I have given you a dose of ink instead of the medicine as both were equally black". "What should be done now?" The master replied softly, "Now give me a piece of blotting paper to swallow".
Questions:
(i) What was the colour of the medicine? (ii) What did the servant give to his master?
(iii) What did the servant do? (iv) What did the master say to his servant?
(v) When did the servant come to know of his mistake?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) نے سیکھی جب باتی ہے۔ (ii) تماشا کا موت کر دیا ہے۔ (iii) کیا پچھرہا ہے؟ (iv) کتنی کون سارا ہے؟
(v) سوئن کش فوب پچا ہے۔ (vi) میری سے دوائی نہیں پلی ہے۔ (vii) چوہا کی پتھر سے رود ہے۔
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "Fashion".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) The mother loves the children. (ii) She has not beaten the dog. (iii) I was given five films by her.
(iv) The boy is climbing the wall. (v) Why is he mending the chair?
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-II
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. You ______ since morning.
(A) have been resting (B) rest (C) rested (D) resting
2. Quaid-e-Azam______ very hard.
(A) work (B) working (C) worked (D) will work
3. The sun _____ in the east.
(A) rise (B) rises (C) rose (D) is rising
4. Are they_____ idle?
(A) sit (B) sits (C) sitting (D) sat
5. She has______ him back.
(A) send (B) is sending (C) sent (D) will send
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) Hestory (B) Historey (C) Hestorey (D) History
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) Pateint (B) Patient (C) Petient (D) Pitiant
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) Aloquent (B) Eloquent (C) Eloquant (D) Elaquent
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) Traverse (B) Travarise (C) Traverce (D) Travers
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. Several questions popping in my mind.
(A) popular (B) chirping (C) drinking (D) appearing
11. Rehabilitation centres are the best places.
(A) shopping (B) medical (C) recovery (D) smoking
12. The word dunes means:
(A) Forests (B) sandy hills (C) stadiums (D) countries
13. During the perilous journey.
(A) Easy (B) Comfortable (C) Dangerous (D) Silent
14. The beauty of woods bewitches minds.
(A) forest (B) hill (C) desert (D) sea
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. Valour is a/an:
(A) material noun (B) countable noun (C) abstract noun (D) uncountable noun
16. Quaid-e-Azam was a man of strong faith. The sentence is in______.
(A) present tense (B) past tense (C) future tense (D) past perfect tense
17. 'Wisdom' is a/an:
(A) adjective of number (B) adjective of quality (C) adjective of quantity (D) none of these
18. Who offers sacrifices for the country? The underlined word is a:
(A) relative pronoun (B) reflexive pronoun (C) possessive pronoun (D) indefinite pronoun
19. The Arabs possessed a remarkable memory. The underlined word is a/an:
(A) indefinite article (B) pronoun (C) definite article (D) object
i. What are the qualities of a patriot?
ii. What is an ICU in a hospital?
iii. What was Quaid-i-Azam's concept of our nation?
iv. Who constructed Mosque Sophia?
v. How will you define patriotism?
vi. What are the effects of drug addiction?
vii. What type of information does media provide?
viii. Where is Makkah situated?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into Urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. The flow of the Divine message which continued for the next twenty-three years had begun, and the Holy Prophet (PBUH) had arisen to proclaim Oneness of God and the unity of mankind. His mission was to destroy the nexus of superstition, ignorance and disbelief, set up a noble conception of life and lead mankind to the height of faith and divine bliss.
b. Blue Mosque reflects the architectural style of both Ottoman Mosque and Byzantine Church. Hagia Sophia, a mosque, one of the wonders of Muslim architecture, was also kept in view as a model. Blue Mosque even today is considered unmatched in splendour, majesty and size.
c. Noise pollution causes not only environmental damage but it also has a negative impact on human health. It can cause aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, hearing loss, restlessness, depression and insomnia. Insomnia can further lead to anxiety, bad temper and emotional stress. In addition, noise pollution can seriously affect learners. This gives them unnecessary mental and physical tension.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Daffodils" by William Wordsworth. OR Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
My little horse must think it queer
To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) determination (ii) geared-up (iii) furiously (iv) gave away
(v) hoard (vi) bits and pieces (vii) aptitude (viii) miserable
6. Write a letter to your mother about the test you have just taken.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "Once a liar always a liar".
OR
Write a dialogue between a tailor and a customer.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
A tailor ran a shop in a bazaar. An elephant used to go to the river through that bazaar. The tailor gave him a bun every day. One day the tailor pricked a needle into the trunk of the elephant. The elephant became angry but went away. On return he filled his trunk with muddy water. On reaching the shop of the tailor, he put his trunk into it and squirted the dirty water into the shop of the tailor. All the fine and new dresses of his customers were spoiled. He was very sorry for annoying the elephant but it was no use crying over the spilt milk.
Questions:
(i) Where did the elephant go every day? (ii) What did the tailor give him?
(iii) What mistake did the tailor make one day? (iv) What did the elephant do after drinking water?
(v) How did the elephant punish the tailor for his mistake?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) اولہ جوہانی از سے پہلے جاری ہے ہیں (ii) کی پاسی کے پاس پڑھا رہے (iii) کسان جنگل میں ہیں
(iv) ایک پریس کے ساتھ خرچ ہیں (v) ایمریکی کے ساتھ کرکے (vi) کی بارش پوری ہوئی (vii) تھی کہل روزہ ہوئی
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "Girl Guides".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) She likes apples. (ii) We did not hear a sound. (iii) Why were they beating the boy?
(iv) They caught the thief. (v) Nothing had been gained by them.
English Compulsory (Objective type)
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. After you had left, I______to sleep.
- (A) goes
- (B) went
- (C) go
- (D) have gone
2. I______him next Monday.
- (A) see
- (B) saw
- (C) shall see
- (D) had seen
3. It______at present.
- (A) rained
- (B) rain
- (C) is raining
- (D) has rained
4. He______in the sun for an hour.
- (A) stand
- (B) was standing
- (C) will stand
- (D) has been standing
5. He______twenty minutes ago.
- (A) left
- (B) leaves
- (C) will be leaving
- (D) leave
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
- (A) interoir
- (B) interior
- (C) intiorior
- (D) enterior
7. Correct spelling is:
- (A) cheef
- (B) cheif
- (C) chief
- (D) chuf
8. Correct spelling is:
- (A) volume
- (B) valume
- (C) volime
- (D) volumi
9. Correct spelling is:
- (A) musium
- (B) museam
- (C) museum
- (D) musiam
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. "Pivot" means:
- (A) prestige
- (B) powerless
- (C) central point
- (D) wise step
11. Move gradually towards climax:
- (A) slowly
- (B) quickly
- (C) promptly
- (D) seriously
12. It was so delicate situation.
- (A) difficult
- (B) easy
- (C) sensitive
- (D) dangerous
13. Media has deep impact on society.
- (A) result
- (B) powerful effect
- (C) output
- (D) change
14. The word "Glee" means:
- (A) grief
- (B) nervousness
- (C) dejection
- (D) joy
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. "Always do what you commit". The underlined word is a/an:
- (A) adjective
- (B) adverb
- (C) conjunction
- (D) noun
16. My mother will be watching my ways. This sentence is of:
- (A) future continuous
- (B) present continuous
- (C) past continuous
- (D) future indefinite
17. Work brings prosperity. The underlined word is:
- (A) preposition
- (B) verb
- (C) conjunction
- (D) noun
18. "Hurrah! I always show excellent results" This sentence is a/an:
- (A) exclamatory sentence
- (B) imperative sentence
- (C) optative sentence
- (D) simple sentence
19. Time itself is a great healer. The underlined word is:
- (A) relative pronoun
- (B) reflexive pronoun
- (C) possessive pronoun
- (D) subjective pronoun
i. What happens when media is allowed to play its role unchecked?
ii. Why was Abu Jehl furious?
iii. Why did the nurse ask Hira's sister to come and talk to her?
iv. What are the effects of drug addiction?
v. What message do you get from the life of Hazrat Asma (R.A)?
vi. Who started the construction of Blue Mosque?
vii. How are co-curricular activities helpful in learning life skills?
viii. How is transport a source of noise pollution?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) and His close Companion, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) migrated from Makkah to Madina in the year 622 A.D. When the chiefs of various tribes of Makkah came to know about the emigration of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and His close Companion, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A), they got furious and determined more than ever to find them.
b. Time has come that we should look back to rectify our mistakes and look forward and work with unshakeable determination for a bright future. Let us think whether we are performing in our daily routine matters according to the wishes and dreams of the Father of the Nation.
c. Drugs are considered severely harmful for human health. Countless people die every year because of drug abuse. Drug abuse refers to the use, misuse or over use of drugs for effects that are not curative or medical in nature.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Daffodils" by William Wordsworth. OR Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake
The only other sound's the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) mad with anger (ii) alleviate (iii) herald (iv) raise awareness
(v) man in the street (vi) peace (vii) flamboyant (viii) spacious
6. Write a letter to your mother about the test you have just taken.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "Once a liar, always a liar"
OR
Write a dialogue between two students regarding prayers.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
One day a girl found a coin. It rolled away before her broom when she was sweeping the yard, and fell with a little clatter against the wall. She ran and picked it up. Some one had dropped it while crossing the yard and perhaps had not even troubled to look for it. It was worth little. But it seemed a whole fortune to her, who never had anything of her own before. She rubbed it clean on the sleeve of her blue cotton jacket and put it into her pocket.
Questions:
(i) What did the girl find? (ii) When did she find it? (iii) What was the worth of the coin?
(iv) How did she clean it? (v) What did she do after cleaning it?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) دو پاکستانی دورنگر کرتے ہیں (ii) کسان کے پاس وہیل ہے (iii) میرا آرام کیا ہوا (iv) وہ نئی کپڑی کھیلے ہیں
(v) وہ آپ بھی ہیں (vi) اسٹاد کھیلے ہیں (vii) پاکستان ترقی کر رہا ہے (viii) وہ نئی دورنگر کھیلے ہیں
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences on "Fashions".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) Forget your bitter days. (ii) The mother loves the children. (iii) Why did she write such a letter?
(iv) We shall have killed a snake. (v) She was teaching the students.
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-II
Time: 20 Minutes Marks: 19
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A, B, C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A, B, C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. They ______ their own work.
(A) do not did (B) do not do (C) do not done (D) do not does
2. Is your watch______ five minutes daily?
(A) losing (B) lost (C) lose (D) being lost
3. Where have they been ______ wood since noon?
(A) saw (B) sawed (C) sawing (D) sew
4. Our team_______ the match.
(A) win (B) did won (C) has win (D) won
5. No tree was ______.
(A) cut (B) cuts (C) cuted (D) not cut
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) pursu (B) pursue (C) persue (D) persui
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) intertain (B) entertane (C) entertain (D) entartane
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) adorned (B) adarned (C) adornad (D) adornade
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) dependance (B) dipendence (C) dapendance (D) dependence
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. She always remained unswerving.
(A) patient (B) firm and resolute (C) ready to face (D) prepared for the worst
11. Situated in Istanbul, the largest city in Turkey.
(A) smallest (B) greatest (C) populated (D) crowded
12. The upper level of the interior is adorned with blue paint.
(A) lower (B) outer (C) higher (D) middle
13. The word custom means:
(A) belief (B) nice (C) tradition (D) revenge
14. Inspired means:
(A) motivated (B) boring (C) encouraged (D) unexciting
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. "Patience" is a/an:
(A) material noun (B) collective noun (C) uncountable noun (D) abstract noun
16. Swimming is a good exercise. The underlined word is:
(A) progressive form of verb (B) present participle
(C) gerund (D) infinitive
17. The correct pronunciation of explain is:
(A) explan (B) explein (C) asklain (D) ik'splein
18. Walking is good for all. The underlined word is:
(A) infinite (B) gerund (C) present participle (D) past participle
19. Lahore is a big city. The underlined word is:
(A) common noun (B) proper noun (C) collective noun (D) abstract noun
i. Why was Hazrat Abu Qahafa worried?
ii. When do people exchange gifts?
iii. How are co-curricular activities helpful in learning life skills?
iv. What are the effects of drug addiction?
v. What do you understand by the term counselling?
vi. Who was Helen Keller?
vii. Why did Quaid want the oneness of the whole nation?
viii. What are two major means of communication?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. Hazrat Asma (R.A) was generous to such an extent that when she inherited a garden after the death of her sister Hazrat Ayesha (R.A) she sold it and gave all the money among the poor and the needy and felt more pleasure than those who received the gifts. Nobody ever returned empty-handed from her doorstep.
b. Drug addiction is a common problem all over the world today. The disturbing part is the tendency among the youth to use various forms of drugs. Though the victims are aware of the mental and physical anguish caused by drugs, their absolute dependence on it makes the reversal difficult and in some cases impossible.
c. Nouroz is the festival which has been recognised in 2010 by the UN General Assembly. It described Nouroz as a spring festival of Persian origin which has been celebrated for over 3000 years and calling on world to draw on the holiday's rich history to promote peace and goodwill.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Stopping by woods on a snowy evening" by Robert Frost. OR Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
I wandered lonely as a cloud;
That floats on high o'er vales and hills;
When all at once I saw a crowd;
A host, of golden daffodils;
Besides the lake, beneath the trees,
Flattering and dancing in the breeze.
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) impressive (ii) impact (iii) audience (iv) orator
(v) companion (vi) refuge (vii) strong (viii) according to
6. Write a letter to your father asking him about the health of your mother. OR Write a story with the moral, "Haste Makes Waste". OR Write a dialogue between a brother and a sister concerning time.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
King Robert Bruce ruled over Scotland. He had been defeated many times by the English. He ran for his life and hid himself in a cave. He had lost all hopes to win. As he lay there, thinking if he should give up his struggle or not, he saw a spider trying to reach its cobweb in the ceiling of the cave. It fell down again and again but did not give up its efforts. At last, the little insect reached its home in its ninth attempt. This gave courage to King Bruce. He made up his mind to fight and this time he won the battle.
Questions:
(i) By whom had Robert Bruce been defeated many times?
(ii) Where did he hide himself?
(iii) What did he see in the cave?
(iv) What lesson did King Bruce learn from the spider?
(v) After how many attempts did the spider succeed?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) كل کوہ پر ایک چاہتا ہے۔
(ii) نے پہلے جاتا ہوئے۔
(iii) یا پہلے گھر چلے گی۔
(iv) یہ بڑے سے بڑے کا طالب ہے۔
(v) نے سے باشی ہوری ہے۔
(vi) آج آنے میں آگی گی۔
(vii) میرے لگے نے پہلے میں اپنا کول جا کیا گی۔
(viii) ایکہ بہت آنے آئی ہو۔
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences on "A Dream".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) He will write a letter.
(ii) She likes apples.
(iii) They are buying this office.
(iv) Who is asking questions?
(v) Shut the door.
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-I
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. She ______ her work, before the guests arrive.
(A) finish (B) finished (C) will have finished (D) has finished
2. The match ______ after I had left the play ground.
(A) starts (B) starting (C) started (D) had started
3. They ______ hard all day.
(A) works (B) working (C) has work (D) work
4. He ______ English now.
(A) is speaking (B) spoke (C) speak (D) is speak
5. They ______ for London tomorrow.
(A) left (B) leaved (C) leaves (D) will leave
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) sobcontinent (B) subcontinent (C) subkontinant (D) subcontinant
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) embuead (B) imboud (C) imbued (D) imbued
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) genrasty (B) genrosty (C) genrosity (D) generosity
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) awareness (B) awreness (C) awaraness (D) aworness
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. It was constructed between 1609 and 1616.
(A) built (B) borrowed (C) purchased (D) lent
11. An inner voice somewhere within me spoke.
(A) deep sound (B) silence (C) loud voice (D) personal thought
12. She would quietly venture towards the rugged mountains.
(A) silently (B) quickly (C) slowly (D) happily
13. They flash upon that inward eye.
(A) feel (B) fall (C) appear with sudden bright (D) sit
14. You are made of sterling material.
(A) soft (B) rusty (C) strong (D) costly
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. "Team" is a/an.
(A) collective noun (B) material noun (C) proper noun (D) verbal noun
16. The correct pronunciation of "essay" is.
(A) asey (B) esai (C) easy (D) esei
17. Did you call him? This is a/an:
(A) interrogative sentence (B) negative sentence
(C) imperative sentence (D) assertive sentence
18. She gave me false information. The underlined word is a/an.
(A) noun (B) adjective (C) adverb (D) pronoun
19. Sweeping should be upto the mark. The underlined word is a/an.
(A) gerund (B) verb (C) noun (D) adverb
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-II
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. They always __________ back home late.
(A) comes (B) came (C) come (D) coming
2. They ________ tea every morning.
(A) drink (B) drinks (C) drinking (D) drunk
3. She ________ since morning.
(A) is sleeping (B) sleeps (C) slept (D) has been sleeping
4. It ________ to rain an hour ago.
(A) begin (B) began (C) begins (D) has begun
5. I __________ the house before it started raining.
(A) leave (B) leaves (C) had left (D) has left
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) Recruit (B) Recroot (C) Recrute (D) Recruet
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) Eloquance (B) Eloquence (C) Eloquince (D) Eloquence
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) Soletude (B) Soletued (C) Solitude (D) Soletuid
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) Sacrifice (B) Sacrifice (C) Sacrifise (D) Secrifice
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. This has given rise to immense noise pollution.
(A) a little (B) Small (C) Heavy (D) Huge
11. The little birds are piping yet.
(A) Twittering (B) Crying (C) Weeping (D) yelling
12. Which of the following means the same as 'gradually'.
(A) Quickly (B) Speedily (C) Steadily (D) Hurriedly
13. We should face it bravely to save the honour of Pakistan and Islam.
(A) Repair (B) Cope with (C) Correct (D) Rectify
14. Astonish means.
(A) Make (B) Mix (C) Separate (D) surprise
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. This is my book. The underlined word is a/an______:
(A) possessive pronoun (B) personal pronoun (C) reflexive pronoun (D) indefinite pronoun
16. Valour is a/an______:
(A) Material noun (B) Countable noun (C) Abstract noun (D) uncountable noun
17. Painting is good fun. The underlined word is a/an:
(A) Infinitive (B) present participle (C) Past participle (D) Gerund
18. They can stay where they are. The underlined clause is an adverb clause of_________.
(A) Condition (B) Place (C) Time (D) Reason
19. Teach him to learn. The sentence ia a/an_______.
(A) Imperative sentence (B) Assertive sentence
(C) Negative sentence (D) Interrogative sentence
i. What are the two major means of communication?
ii. How did Hazrat Asma (R.A) console her grandfather?
iii. What was the mission of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W)?
iv. Who were emigrants and where did they migrate to?
v. What can be the possible solution to our present problems?
vi. What treatment is available at rehabilitation centres for drug victims?
vii. What was the condition of mankind before the Holy Prophet (S.A.W)?
viii. Which incident in the story tells about the generosity of Hazrat Asma (R.A)?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraphs into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. In the fifth and sixth centuries, mankind stood on the verge of chaos. It seemed that the civilization which had taken four thousand years to grow had started crumbling.
b. Patriotism gives people the strength and courage to safeguard the interest of the country and nation. For a patriot the sovereignty, integrity and honour of the country are supreme values on which no compromise can be made.
c. The preparation for this journey was made at the house of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (R.A). Hazrat Asma (R.A) rendered useful services in this regard. She prepared food for this journey.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Rober Frost.
OR
Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils:
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) Sacrifice (ii) Prosperity (iii) Invasion (iv) Motherland
(v) Embellish (vi) Splendor (vii) Majesty (viii) Illuminate
6. Write a letter to your friend congratulating him/her on his/her success.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "Look before you leap".
OR
Write a dialogue between two friends concerning time.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
Early rising is a good habit as it gives us early start of our day's work. We gain time while the late risers are asleep. The early risers have another advantage also and that is that they enjoy good and sound health. Those who are out of bed early have plenty of time to do their work carefully, steadily and completely. They do not have to put off any thing to the next day. The early riser is always happy, fresh and smart. He enjoys his work while those who get up late, find their duty dull and dry and do it unwillingly. Early rising is therefore a key to success in life.
Questions:
(i) What kind of habit early rising is? (ii) Why does an early riser enjoy good health?
(iii) Why does the late riser find his work dull and dry? (iv) What is key to success in life?
(v) Why can an early riser do more work than the late riser?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) پاکستان میں اردو کے دو دنہیں پڑھتے ہیں۔ (ii) چھاپ کرتے ہیں۔ (iii) مرشی دوران سے دو دنہیں پڑھتے ہیں۔
(iv) پاکستان کے احوال کیسے ہیں؟ (v) وہروان کے دو دنہیں پڑھتے ہیں۔ (vi) مرشی دوران سے دو دنہیں پڑھتے ہیں۔
(vii) کیا تھاہرے جمال کے دو دنہیں پڑھتے ہیں؟ (viii) دورح کے دو دنہیں پڑھتے ہیں۔
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "My House".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) They caught the thief. (ii) They have bought a horse. (iii) The mother loves the children.
(iv) He will write a letter. (v) The Board has given me a gold medal.
English Compulsory (Objective type)
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. They ________ for London tomorrow.
(A) leave (B) will leave (C) shall leave (D) left
2. The Quaid-e-Azam________ very hard.
(A) work (B) worked (C) working (D) shall work
3. The sun_______in the east.
(A) rise (B) rises (C) rising (D) risen
4. She_________the piano since 2 O’ clock.
(A) play (B) playing (C) have been playing (D) has been playing
5. She __________a song when I entered the room.
(A) sings (B) is singing (C) singing (D) was singing
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) exumple (B) examples (C) exemples (D) eximples
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) accident (B) accendant (C) accident (D) acident
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) fundamentals (B) fandamentals (C) fundamintals (D) fundamentels
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) corrupteion (B) corraption (C) correption (D) corruption
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. "Inspired" means:
(A) unexcited (B) edcouraged (C) boring (D) motivated
11. Infuriated' means:
(A) pleased (B) helped (C) extremely angry (D) annoyingly
12. Abu Jehl began knocking at the door violently.
(A) politely (B) slowly (C) forcefully (D) angrily
13. "Filter" means:
(A) separate (B) join (C) make (D) mix
14. Time has come that we should look back to rectify our mistakes.
(A) repair (B) streamline (C) correct (D) none of these
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. He is the tallest in the class. The underlined word is_______ degree of adjective.
(A) superlative (B) comparative (C) positive (D) none of these
16. Alizay is the most intelligent girl in the class. The underlined word is __________ noun.
(A) common (B) proper (C) collective (D) abstract
17. He spoke very loud. The underlined word is an adverb of:
(A) manner (B) frequency (C) degree (D) time
18. He came after night had fallen. The underlined clause is an adverb clause of____________.
(A) condition (B) place (C) time (D) reason
19. People do not spend Nauroz holidays. It is a/an ________scentence.
(A) interrogative (B) assertive (C) negative (D) imperative
i. How did Hazrat Asma (RA) console her grandfather?
ii. How does media provide entertainment?
iii. What harmful effects noise pollution is causing on human health?
iv. How do you define noise pollution?
v. Why did the nurse disagree with the doctor's point of view?
vi. How can we become a strong nation?
vii. In whose reign the construction of Blue Mosque was completed?
viii. Why is the arising of the sun so special for the author of the lesson "Three Days to See"?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraphs into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. From an early age I have always had a strong inclination towards computers. This started with my very first Amiga computer to the small network of home personal computers (PCs) I now own and manage. Initially I was most interested in designing web pages and graphics.
b. There are many festivals around the world which are celebrated with a lot of enthusiasm and fervour. Nauroz is one such festival, celebrated on the 21st March and observed by Iranians and the related cultural continents such as parts of Central Asia, South Asia, North Western China, the Crimea, Caucasus and some groups in the Balkans.
c. During the early and difficult months of Pakistan's emergence, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, undertook a country-wide tour aimed at building confidence and raising people's spirit.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost.
OR
Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
"For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood.
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude,"
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) Empty (ii) patience (iii) vigour (iv) integrate
(v) impressive (vi) surprise (vii) pass through (viii) personal
6. Write a letter to your brother about the importance of science subjects.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "All that glitters is not gold"
OR
Write a dialogue between a brother and a sister concerning time.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
King Robert Bruce ruled over Scotland. He had been defeated many times by the English. He ran for his life and hid himself in a cave. He had lost all hope to win. As he lay there, thinking if he should give up his struggle or not, he saw a spider trying to reach its cobweb in the ceiling of the cave. It fell again and again but did not give up its efforts. At last, the little insect reached its home in the ninth attempt. This gave courage to King Bruce. He made up his mind to fight and this time he won the battle.
Questions:
(i) What lesson did King Bruce learn from the spider?
(ii) Where did he hide himself?
(iii) After how many attempts did the spider succeed?
(iv) What did he see in the cave?
(v) By whom had Robert Bruce been defeated many times?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(1) تماشاکان کیسے نگرہ پڑھے؟
(2) دوہریت کی انتیکری کیا ہے؟
(3) کچھ مبارکب کا کام شروع کریا ہے۔
(4) تم پریشان ہوئے ہیں۔
(5) دو کیلی پیلہ ہل کر چڑھے ہیں۔
(6) اس مختصر کا کافی مدت تلاش کیا ہے۔
(7) چھ چھتری باریت کے پہلوں کا ہوا ہے۔
(8) تکل دورون سے چاروں طرف اجاہم ہے۔
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences on "Pakistani women".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) We shall have killed the snake.
(ii) We use milk for making cheese.
(iii) Why is he mending the chair?
(iv) They caught the thief.
(v) The doctor asked her to stay in bed.
English Compulsory (Objective type)
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. They already_______ their home task.
(A) do (B) does (C) did (D) have done
2. I_________ the house before it started raining.
(A) leave (B) leaving (C) left (D) had left
3. I_________ him next Monday.
(A) shall see (B) saw (C) have seen (D) had seen
4. Are they __________ idle?
(A) sit (B) sat (C) sitting (D) will sit
5. She_________ her cat very much.
(A) love (B) loves (C) loving (D) was loved
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) recently (B) recantly (C) resently (D) resantly
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) observe (B) obsarve (C) absarve (D) observe
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) reflection (B) reflection (C) reflaction (D) riflaction
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) initialy (B) initially (C) initily (D) initilly
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. She always remained unswerving.
(A) ready (B) laughing (C) calm (D) firm
11. Versatile means:
(A) narrow (B) wide (C) limited (D) all-round
12. Inspired means:
(A) boring (B) motivated (C) encouraging (D) unexciting
13. The students are all geared up.
(A) silent (B) polite (C) ready (D) walking
14. People begin with cleaning their houses as a general custom of Nauroz.
(A) belief (B) principle (C) idea (D) tradition
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. Swimming is a good exercise. The underlined word is:
(A) adverb (B) adjective (C) gerund (D) infinitive
16. The police dispersed the crowd. The underlined word is:
(A) abstract noun (B) material noun (C) collective noun (D) proper noun
17. He spoke very loud. The underlined word is:
(A) adverb of manner (B) adverb of place (C) adverb of degree (D) adverb of frequency
18. The boy laughs loudly. The underlined word is:
(A) helping verb (B) linking verb (C) transitive verb (D) intransitive verb
19. Please open the door. This sentence is:
(A) assertive sentence (B) interrogative sentence
(C) imperative sentence (D) optative sentence
i. How did Hazrat Asma (R.A) console her grandfather?
ii. What does "Royal Kiosk" mean?
iii. What are the two major means of communication?
iv. What was the ideology of Quaid-e-Azam based on?
v. What is an ICU in a hospital?
vi. What are the effects of drug addiction?
vii. What was the author's inspiration for his painting?
viii. Who was Helen Keller?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraphs into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. Throughout my stay both at school and college, I have been involved in a number of school activities, and have also made an effort to maintain a good balance between co-curricular activities and my academic work. Being involved in such activities and having the ability to give something back to my school has always been important to me.
b. It was the beginning of my profession as a nurse. I worked in the intensive care unit (ICU) of neurology ward. As a young professional, I wished to save the world. I was excited to see patients making quick recoveries from devastating accidents, yet I was pained to nurse those who were struck with acute neurological disorder.
c. In stories, the doomed hero is usually saved at the last minute by some stroke of fortune, but almost always his sense of values is changed. He becomes more appreciative of the meaning of life and its permanent spiritual values. It has often been noted that those live, or have lived, in the shadow of death bring a mellow sweetness to everything they do.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost. OR Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd;
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
5. Use any five of the following words / Phrases/idioms in your own sentences.
(i) century (ii) influential (iii) urge (iv) man in the street
(v) fall in prey (vi) surprise (vii) need (viii) state
6. Write a letter to your mother about the test you have just taken. OR Write a story with the moral, "Once a liar always liar". OR Write a dialogue between two students regarding prayer.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
Once a stag was drinking water at a stream. He happened to see his reflection in the water. He was pleased to see his beautiful horns but when he saw his thin legs he felt sad as he thought they were ugly. Suddenly, he saw a pack of hounds at a distance. He ran as fast as his legs could help him. Soon he left the hounds far behind. He had to pass through a thick forest of bushes. His horns got caught in a bush. He tried hard to pull his horns out of it but all in vain. By now the hounds had come up. They fell upon him and tore him to pieces.
Questions:
(i) What was the stag doing? (ii) Why was he pleased? (iii) What did he see at a distance?
(iv) What made him sad? (v) Why did he run?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) وقت پر کمال آئے ہیں (ii) کیا چھوڑ سکتا ہے؟ (iii) چول نے محسول کمال بچایا (iv) اور چھوڑ کر گھومنے آ رہے ہیں (v) جل سطح کی کمی کیا ہے؟ (vi) ہم نے اپنے انتخاب کیا ہے؟ (vii) کہاران کو کچھ دار (viii) نظر و نظر سے پہلے نہیں رکھا ہیں
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences on "Your school".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) We did not hear a sound. (ii) They have bought a horse. (iii) Why is he mending the chair?
(iv) We use milk for making cheese. (v) Amjad has won the prize.
Note: Use this paper to write the objective questions.
No mark will be awarded for cutting, over-writing or using a pencil.
This paper must be tagged with the answer-book.
1. (a) Write three forms of the following verbs:
| | 1st | 2nd | 3rd |
|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| agree | | | |
| freeze| | | |
| die | | | |
| allow | | | |
| go | | | |
| wish | | | |
| take | | | |
(b) Change the gender of the following:
| Masculine | Feminine |
|-----------|----------|
| hen | |
| husband | |
| son | |
| horse | |
| prince | |
| poet | |
(c) Write the meanings of the following words:
| Words | Meanings |
|---------|----------|
| popular | |
| mosque | |
| founder | |
| large | |
| world | |
| impressive | |
2. Translate the following paragraph into Urdu:
Perhaps I can best illustrate by imagining, what I should most like to see if I was given the use of my eyes. I should want to see the people whose kindness, gentleness and companionship have made my life worth living.
3. Write a letter of thanks to your uncle for present.
OR
Write an application for urgent piece of work.
4. Change the following any five sentences into negative form.
(i) They are playing.
(ii) He is taking rice.
(iii) I am running.
(iv) He is living in Lahore.
(v) You are taking bath.
(vi) Boy is fighting
(vii) She is dancing.
(viii) The beggar is begging.
5. Answer the questions any five of the following:
(i) What are the causes of drug addiction?
(ii) Why is noise hazardous for human health?
(iii) How did Hazrat Asma (R.A) console her grandfather?
(iv) How do you define noise pollution?
(v) Who started the construction of the Blue Mosque?
(vi) Who was Helen Keller?
(vii) Describe some qualities of the personality of the nurse in the story.
(viii) Why was Hazrat Abu Quhafaa worried?
6. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) وہ میرا ایک بھی ہے۔
(ii) اشکاب سے
(iii) دو چھراؤٹیں ہیں۔
(iv) شیئ جا عاتم کے ساتھ ہول۔
(v) آج بہت گرمی ہے۔
(vi) وہ نہیں آؤٹی ہے۔
(vii) میرا ساہیوں کا کسی نے۔
(viii) چھوٹے چھوٹے پاندھی ہیں۔
7. Read the following passage and answer the questions given at the end:
Hazrat Asma (R.A) was amongst the early few who accepted Islam. She was the daughter of Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddique (R.A), step sister of Hazrat Ayesha Siddiqua (R.A), wife of Hazrat Zubair bin Al-Awwam and mother of Hazrat Abdullah bin Zubair (R.A). She died at the age of about a hundred years.
Questions:
(i) Who was amongst the early few to accept Islam?
(ii) Whose daughter she was?
(iii) Who was Hazrat Asma's husband?
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-I
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
(A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. The teacher ______ since 8 O'clock.
(A) is teaching (B) was teaching (C) will be teaching (D) has been teaching
2. Karim _____ his teeth.
(A) clean (B) cleaning (C) cleans (D) are cleaning
3. Amjad______ the prize.
(A) winning (B) has won (C) have won (D) was won
4. She did not _____ a lie.
(A) tell (B) tells (C) telling (D) told
5. He _____ pay the fine.
(A) was (B) shall (C) is (D) shall be
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) relopse (B) ralapse (C) relupes (D) relapse
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) choas (B) chaos (C) chaus (D) chous
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) rufuge (B) refuge (C) rafuse (D) rofuge
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) pansive (B) pensive (C) pansave (D) penseve
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. He wanted to protect the values.
(A) defend (B) ruin (C) devastate (D) develop
11. She remained steadfast and did not reveal the secret.
(A) firm and resolute (B) patient (C) ready to face (D) prepared for the worst
12. Keep up your morale.
(A) wealth (B) self esteem (C) voice (D) cowardice
13. Istanbul is the largest city in Turkey.
(A) smallest (B) populated (C) greatest (D) busiest
14. This response shows the wisdom.
(A) inquiry (B) question (C) sentence (D) answer
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. He came after night had fallen. The underlined clause is a / an adverb clause of _____________
(A) condition (B) place (C) time (D) reason
16. Saqib is leaving_____Friday at noon.
(A) on (B) at (C) by (D) from
17. The boy laughs loudly. The underlined word is a / an:
(A) intransitive verb (B) transitive verb (C) irregular verb (D) auxiliary verb
18. We watched him go. The underlined word is a / an:
(A) past participle (B) gerund (C) present participle (D) infinitive
19. The shoe is pressing on my toe. The underlined phrase is a / an:____phrase.
(A) prepositional (B) noun (C) adjective (D) adverb
i. What is the highest military award of Pakistan?
ii. What type of land Arabia is?
iii. How can we become a strong nation?
iv. Why was Hazrat Abu Qahafa (رضي الله عنه) worried?
v. What is an ICU in a hospital?
vi. Who was appointed as the architect of masjid? (Sultan Ahmad Masjid)
vii. What are the causes of drug addiction?
viii. How do you define noise pollution?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. Yes, well said. It would not be wrong to say that media is the most vigilant institution that keeps an eye on every segment of the society. Through debates, reports and talk shows, it makes everyone answerable and accountable. That is why media has become an integral part of our lives.
b. The Blue Mosque has six minarets. Four minarets stand one each at the four corners of the Mosque. Each of these pencil shaped minarets has three balconies, while the two others at the end of the forecourt have only two balconies.
c. Drug addiction is a common problem all over the world today. There are many forms of drug addiction, but the most dangerous of all is the absolute dependence on it. Long-term use of drugs causes permanent mental and physical sickness.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost.
OR
Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils;
5. Use any five of the following words / phrase / idioms in your own sentences.
(i) sacrifice (ii) gave away (iii) refuge (iv) man in the street
(v) pass through (vi) fall a prey (vii) spacious (viii) impression
6. Write a letter to your mother who is worried about your health.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "Haste makes waste".
OR
Write a dialogue between two students regarding time.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
There was once a man whose doctor gave him medicine which was quite black. His servant, who was illiterate, made a mistake and poured out a dose of ink in place of the drug. He gave it to his master who drank it. After the patient had taken the dose of ink, the servant somehow realized his mistake. He ran back to his master and said, "Sir, I have given you a dose of ink instead of the medicine as both were equally black. What should be done now?" The master replied softly, "Now give me a piece of blotting paper to swallow".
Questions:
(i) What was the colour of the medicine? (ii) What did servant give to his master? (iii) What did the servant do?
(iv) When did the servant come to know of his mistake? (v) What did the master say to his servant?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) کلی سرکار پاکستان نے (ii) دو جہز کو کچھ سامان (iii) میں تیرا جاتا ہوں (iv) وہری ہیں (v) آمدوری کے لئے کچھ نہیں (vi) مریض کو مفت سے چھڑ رکھے (vii) آس پاس بہادری کا اعلان کیا (viii) کیا آپ ہر دوست کو چھان لیا ہو؟
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "A Meena Bazar".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) He took away my books. (ii) They are buying this house. (iii) Nothing had been gained by them.
(iv) The doctor asked her to stay in the bed. (v) Why did she write such a letter?
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-II
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A, B, C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A, B, C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. I already _____ the letter.
(A) post (B) posts (C) posted (D) have posted
2. It ______ to rain an hour ago.
(A) begin (B) begins (C) began (D) begun
3. I ______ him next Monday.
(A) meet (B) meets (C) met (D) shall meet
4. They always_____ back home late.
(A) come (B) comes (C) came (D) coming
5. She ______ French at present.
(A) learn (B) learns (C) learnt (D) is learning
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) twinkal (B) twinkle (C) twinkel (D) twenkle
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) spacious (B) spacius (C) specious (D) specius
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) enfluance (B) influance (C) enfluence (D) influence
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) eredicate (B) eridicate (C) eradicate (D) eridecate
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. We should face it bravely to save Pakistan.
(A) repair (B) cope with (C) correct (D) ignore
11. ‘adorned’ means:
(A) closed (B) opened (C) decorated (D) washed
12. The entire journey of the great leader’s struggle was for Muslims of sub-continent.
(A) short (B) long (C) pleasing (D) complete
13. She remained steadfast and did not reveal the secret.
(A) patient (B) firm and resolute (C) ready to face (D) afraid
14. The little birds are piping yet.
(A) twittering (B) crying (C) weeping (D) yelling
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. I like to see a smiling face. The underlined word is:
(A) noun (B) pronoun (C) adjective (D) adverb
16. Ali ran at great speed. The underlined phrase is a/an _____ phrase:
(A) noun (B) verb (C) adverb (D) adjective
17. The police dispersed the crowd. The underlined word is:
(A) proper noun (B) common noun (C) abstract noun (D) collective noun
18. She was singing at a concert last Sunday. The underlined word is:
(A) adverb of manner (B) adverb of place (C) adverb of time (D) adverb of frequency
19. Painting is a good fun. The underlined word is:
(A) gerund (B) collective noun (C) adjective (D) adverb
English Compulsory (Essay Type)
Time: 2:10 Hours
2. Answer any five of the following questions.
i. What harmful effects noise pollution is causing on human health?
ii. Why was Hazrat Abu Qahafa (رضي الله عنه) worried?
iii. How much confidence did Quaid-e-Azam have in his nation?
iv. Why has Helen Keller no time to waste?
v. Who was appointed as the architect of the Masjid?
vi. How will you define patriotism?
vii. What are the two major means of communication?
viii. Why was the Holy Qur'an sent in Arabic?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. Media helps people to share knowledge of the world. Their feelings and opinions are expressed through it. Media attracts the attention of a very large audience. Have you noticed that the first thing we do soon after entering the house is to switch on the television?
b. The ideology of Pakistan was based on the fundamental principle that the Muslims are an independent nation. Any attempt to get them merge their national and political identity will be strongly resisted.
c. The most important measure to be taken in this regard is the rehabilitation and recovery of a drug addict. In many countries including Pakistan, addicts, their families and friends consider it a taboo to share their problem with others.
4. Write down the summary of the poem "Daffodils" by William Wordsworth OR Explain the following stanza with reference to the context.
The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
5. Use any five of the following idioms / phrases / words in your own sentences.
(i) meditation (ii) prosperity (iii) pageant (iv) to keep an eye
(v) detect (vi) vindictive (vii) adorned (viii) popping in
6. Write a letter to your friend condoling the death of his mother.
OR
Write a story with the moral, "Once a liar, always a liar".
OR
Write a dialogue between two friends regarding prayers.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
One day a girl found a coin. It rolled away before her broom when she was sweeping the yard, and fell with a little clatter against the wall. She ran and picked it up. Someone had dropped it while crossing the yard and perhaps had not even troubled to look for it. It was worth little, but it seemed a whole fortune to her, who never had anything of her before. She rubbed it clean on the sleeve of her blue cotton jacket and put it into her pocket.
Questions:
(i) What did the girl find? (ii) When did she find it? (iii) How had the coin been dropped there?
(iv) Why was it a whole fortune for her? (v) What did she do after cleaning it?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) ایک پاسے پریاں باریک ہے (ii) لاپتہ مال کا لگنے کا سبب ہے (iii) وہ نہیں کرے کیسے ہوئے ہے؟
(iv) چھوٹے کرے کیسے ہوئے ہے؟ (v) ان کی بندش دی جانے کے لئے (vi) کوئی نے اس تاثر کے خلاف اظہار کیا (vii) میں دو پہلے سے بھی ایک اور بھی ہوئے ہوئے ہے؟
(viii) کیا ہو رہا ہے؟
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "Fashions".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) Why did she write such a letter? (ii) They are buying this house. (iii) We shall have killed the snake.
(iv) The students were being taught by her. (v) He will give you a box of chocolates.
1. (a) Write down second and third forms of the following verbs:
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd |
|-----|-----|-----|
| Allow | | |
| Beat | | |
| Begin | | |
| Burst | | |
| Come | | |
| Eat | | |
| Enjoy | | |
| Weep | | |
| Wish | | |
| Fall | | |
(b) Change the gender of the following:
| Masculine | Feminine |
|-----------|----------|
| Father | |
| He | |
| Nephew | |
| Uncle | |
| Actor | |
(c) Write the meanings of the following words:
| Words | Meanings |
|-------|----------|
| Mosque | |
| Profession | |
| Noise | |
| Animal | |
English Compulsory (For all sessions)
Paper -I (Subjective type)
Time: 2:10 Hours
Total Marks: 56
Note: All questions are to be attempted on the answer book.
2. Translate the following paragraph into Urdu:
The Holy Prophet (ﷺ) and His close companion, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (رضي الله عنه) migrated from Makkah to Madinah in the year 622 A.D. When the chiefs of various tribes of Makkah came to know about migration of the Holy Prophet (ﷺ) and His close companion, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (رضي الله عنه), they got furious. The chiefs were determined more than ever to find them out.
3. Answer any FIVE of the following questions:
(i) What happened when Abu Jehl asked about Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique?
(ii) In whose reign, the construction of the mosque was completed?
(iii) What are the causes of drug addiction?
(iv) How is transport a source of noise pollution?
(v) How is use of technology causing noise pollution?
(vi) When was Helen Keller born?
(vii) Who was Abdullah bin Zubair?
(viii) What is the role of counselling in preventing drug addiction?
4. Write a letter of thanks to your uncle for present.
OR
Write an application to the Headmaster for an urgent piece of work.
5. Change any FIVE of the following sentences into interrogative.
(i) He is talking.
(ii) She is dancing.
(iii) Boy is fighting.
(iv) I am running.
(v) Ali is going out.
(vi) We are buying the toys.
(vii) They are playing cricket.
(viii) You are taking a bath.
6. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) پاکستان میرا وطن ہے۔
(ii) کتاب میری پڑھنے ہے۔
(iii) یاکی گھنٹے ہے۔
(iv) پیری چل سے۔
(v) میرا لیکھ طالب علم ہو۔
(vi) چاہے گرم ہے۔
(vii) دوسرے اردوست ہے۔
(viii) میری چھپے ہوں۔
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end:
Construction of the Mosque started in 1609. The royal architect Sedefhar Mehmat Aga was appointed by the Sultan as the in-charge of the project. The opening ceremony was held in 1616.
Questions:
(i) When was the construction of the mosque started?
(ii) What was the name of the royal architect?
(iii) When opening ceremony was held?
English Compulsory (Objective type) Group-I
Time: 20 Minutes Marks: 19
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. He____to school everyday.
(A) go (B) goes (C) went (D) has gone
2. They____in this house for ten years.
(A) have been living (B) lived (C) live (D) living
3. It_____at present.
(A) is raining (B) will raining (C) had been raining (D) was raining
4. I have already_____the letter.
(A) post (B) posting (C) posted (D) was posting
5. They____for London tomorrow:
(A) Leave (B) leaving (C) will leave (D) left
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) Antegral (B) Entegral (C) Antigral (D) Integral
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) Pevot (B) Pivot (C) Pevet (D) Pivot
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) Queer (B) Queir (C) Quaer (D) Quiar
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) Racruit (B) Ricruet (C) Recruit (D) Racruet
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. The little birds are piping yet:
(A) Twittering (B) Crying (C) Weeping (D) Yelling
11. She remained steadfast and did not reveal the secret:
(A) Patiented (B) ready to face (C) prepared for the worst (D) firm and resolute
12. Astonish means:
(A) Make (B) Mix (C) Separate (D) Surprise
13. Gradually means:
(A) Steadily (B) Quickly (C) Hurriedly (D) Speedily
14. Devotion means:
(A) Glamorous (B) Easy to Know (C) Loyalty (D) Difficult to know
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. The shoe is pressing on my toe. The underlined phrase is a/an______:
(A) Gerund phrase (B) Noun phrase (C) Adjective phrase (D) Adverb phrase
16. Wait____I return.
(A) before (B) unless (C) if (D) till
17. My mother becomes______if I get home late:
(A) Anxiety (B) Anxieties (C) Anxious (D) Anxiously
18. Patience is a/an______:
(A) Material noun (B) Abstract noun (C) Countable noun (D) Uncountable noun
19. How cold the night is! This is a/an______sentence.
(A) Assertive (B) Interrogative (C) Imperative (D) Exclamatory
i. What type of land Arabia is?
ii. What is the highest military award of Pakistan?
iii. Why was Hazrat Abu Quhafaa worried?
iv. How can we become a strong nation?
v. *What is an ICU in a hospital? "All is not lost".
vi. What are the causes of drug addiction?
vii. Why was Helen Keller?
viii. Why was a heavy iron chain hung at the entrance of the court?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. The preparation for this journey was made at the house of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (R.A). Hazrat Asma (R.A) rendered useful services in this regard. She prepared food for this journey. She tied the food on the camel back with her own belt as nothing else could be found. For this service she was given the title of Zaat-ul-Nataqain by the Holy Prophet.
b. The upper level of the interior is adorned with blue paint. More than 200 stained glass windows with intricate designs allow natural light to brighten up its interior and the chandeliers further illuminate it with their glow. The decorations include verses from the Holy Quran. The floors are covered with carpets.
c. In stories, the doomed hero is usually saved at the last minute by some stroke of fortune, but almost always his sense of value is changed. He becomes more appreciative of the meaning of life and its permanent spiritual values. It has often been noted that those who live or have lived, in the shadow of death bring a mellow sweetness to everything they do.
4. Write down the summary of the Poem "Daffodils" by William Wordsworth.
OR
Paraphrase the following lines into simple English with reference to the context:
Whose woods are these I think I know,
His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.
5. Use any five of the following words / phrases / idioms in your own sentences.
(i) conquest (ii) Sacrifice (iii) resolute (iv) bits and pieces
(v) cure (vi) drug (vii) man in the street (viii) geared up
6. Write a letter to your friend condoling the death of his/her mother.
OR
Write a story with moral "A friend in need is a friend indeed."
OR
Write a dialogue asking one's way.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
Hazrat Khalid Bin Waleed (R.A) was extremely kind-hearted and just to the people. His army had strict orders not to do any harm to the farmers, aged persons, women, children and other civilians. "They are the real strength of society," he said, "They should always be treated with kindness and respect." This was something new for the conquered people who felt very happy now. The Iranian and Byzantine officers were very hard on them. Hazrat Khalid Bin Waleed's treatment won their hearts so much that they began to hate their cruel old masters.
Questions:
(i) How did Hazrat Khalid Bin Waleed (R.A) treat the people? (ii) What were the orders given to the army?
(iii) What did he say about the farmers and civilians? (iv) How had their former masters treated them?
(v) Why did the people hate their old masters?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) نے پرورش اخلاق کیا تھا؟ (ii) نئی گروہ جانے کیا تھا؟ (iii) کلاس جانے کیا تھا؟ (iv) آج کو چاہیں تھے؟ (v) کیا ہوئی تھی؟ (vi) کیا ہوئی تھی؟ (vii) کیا ہوئی تھی؟ (viii) کیا ہوئی تھی؟
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "A Dream".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) They have bought a house. (ii) We use milk for making cheese (iii) They caught the thief.
(iv) He had told me to do it. (v) They had not done their home work.
English Compulsory (Objectivetype)
Time: 20 Minutes
NOTE: Write answers to the questions on objective answer sheet provided. Four possible answers A,B,C & D to each question are given. Which answer you consider correct, fill the corresponding circle A,B,C or D given in front of each question with Marker or pen ink on the answer sheet provided.
1. (A) Choose the correct form of verb and fill up the respective bubble:
1. I____my meals at night:
(A) did not took (B) do not take (C) takes (D) taking
2. The baby____for milk now:
(A) is crying (B) will cry (C) cried (D) cry
3. She____to school an hour ago:
(A) will go (B) had gone (C) went (D) has gone
4. He____here since 1970:
(A) had been coming (B) coming (C) came (D) comes
5. I____the house before it started raining:
(A) leave (B) was leaving (C) left (D) had left
(B) Choose the word with correct spellings and fill up the respective bubble:
6. Correct spelling is:
(A) Dispensation (B) Despensashn (C) Despinsation (D) Dispanstion
7. Correct spelling is:
(A) Frequantid (B) Frequented (C) Fraquented (D) Friquanted
8. Correct spelling is:
(A) Rilapse (B) Relaips (C) Realapse (D) Relapse
9. Correct spelling is:
(A) Polushn (B) Pollution (C) Polloshan (D) Poulution
(C) Choose the correct meaning of the underlined word and fill up the respective bubble:
10. Their eloquence and memory found expression in their poetry:
(A) weak (B) strong (C) healthy (D) fluency
11. To watch his woods fill up with snow:
(A) Village (B) Forest (C) City (D) Town
12. Recruit means:
(A) Expel (B) discharge (C) employ (D) punish
13. Absolute means:
(A) rough (B) half (C) perfect (D) incomplete
14. Mushrooming:
(A) growing (B) drowning (C) showing (D) moving
(D) Choose the correct option according to grammar and fill up the respective bubble:
15. He wore a turban made of silk. The underlined phrase is____:
(A) Preposition phrase (B) noun phrase (C) adjective phrase (D) adverb phrase
16. The boy laughs loudly. The underlined word is a/an____verb:
(A) Intransitive (B) regular (C) transitive (D) irregular
17. They can stay where they are. The underlined clause is an adverb clause of____:
(A) condition (B) place (C) time (D) reason
18. The police dispersed the crowd. The underlined word is a/an____noun:
(A) countable (B) material (C) collective (D) uncountable
19. Why don't you go along____your brother? Use proper preposition in the blanks.
(A) to (B) with (C) by (D) for
English Compulsory (Essay Type)
Time: 2:10 Hours
Marks: 56
2. Answer any five of the following questions.
i. For which ability were the Arabs famous?
ii. What are the qualities of a Patriot?
iii. How do you define noise pollution?
iv. Why did the Quaid have to take long tours during early days of independence?
v. Who started the construction of Blue Masjid?
vi. What is an ICU in a hospital?
vii. What is the role of counselling in Preventing drug addiction?
viii. How do you get an impression that Helen Keller was a great admirer of Nature?
3. Translate any two of the following paragraph into urdu. OR Rewrite into simple English.
a. Yes, well said. It would not be wrong to say that media is the most vigilant institution that keeps an eye on every segment of the society. Through debates, reports and talk shows it makes everyone answerable and accountable. That is why media has become an integral part of our lives.
b. In the evening, a large number of tourists and Turks gather in the park facing the mosque to hear the call to the evening prayers. The mosque is flooded with lights and so are the hearts of the believers with divine love.
c. She walked on crutches, which she would leave in a few months. I was so glad that I had done those exercises on her to keep her limbs in motion. I was glad that my efforts bore fruit. But most of all, I was happy that Allah Almighty had helped me win a lost battle.
4. Write down the summary of the Poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost.
OR
Paraphrase the following lines into simple English with reference to the context:
For oft, when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude,
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
5. Use any five of the following words / phrases / idioms in your own sentences.
(i) conquest (ii) prosperity (iii) quietly (iv) refuge
(v) migration (vi) mad with anger (vii) Pass through (viii) dexterously
6. Write a letter to your sister congratulating her on her success in the examination.
OR
Write the story on the given topic along with its moral. "A Foolish Stag".
OR
Write a dialogue between two students regarding Prayers.
7. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given at the end.
Early rising is a good habit as it gives us early start of our day's work. We gain time while the late risers are asleep. The early risers have another advantage also and that is why they enjoy good and sound health. Those who are out of bed early have plenty of time to do their work carefully, steadily and completely. They do not have to put off anything to the next day. The early riser is always happy, fresh and smart. He enjoys his work while those who get up late, find their duty dull and dry and do it unwillingly. Early rising is therefore, a key to success in life.
Questions:
(i) What kind of habit early rising is?
(ii) Why can an early riser do more work than the late riser?
(iii) Why does an early riser enjoy good health?
(iv) Why does a late riser find his work dull and dry?
(v) What is the key to success in life?
8. Translate any five of the following sentences into English.
(i) افطار کے پاس پیاہی سے
(ii) ایک پارسی کی پڑھائی کے لئے
(iii) جنت کے پاس پڑھائی کے لئے
(iv) میرے پاس پڑھائی کے لئے
(v) میرے پاس پڑھائی کے لئے
(vi) میرے پاس پڑھائی کے لئے
(vii) میرے پاس پڑھائی کے لئے
(viii) میرے پاس پڑھائی کے لئے
Alternate question for candidates whose medium of examination is English/Foreign candidates only.
Write ten sentences about "My School".
9. Change the voice of the following.
(i) She has not beaten the dog.
(ii) She was teaching the students.
(iii) They have bought a house.
(iv) He had told me to do it.
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2023 HAWAI‘I VOLUNTARY LOCAL REVIEW
The Future We Want for HAWAI‘I
# TABLE OF CONTENTS
| Section | Page |
|----------------------------------------------|------|
| YOUTH OPENING STATEMENT | 5 |
| FOREWORD | 7 |
| INTRODUCTION | 9 |
| YOUTH LEADERSHIP | 15 |
| SUSTAINABILITY BUSINESS FORUM | 21 |
| DASHBOARD | 31 |
| CLEAN ENERGY | 34 |
| LOCAL FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION | 46 |
| NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT | 56 |
| SOLID WASTE REDUCTION | 72 |
| SMART SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES | 84 |
| GREEN WORKFORCE AND EDUCATION | 102 |
| COUNTY COMMITMENT | 116 |
| LOCAL-GLOBAL | 143 |
| MAHALO | 151 |
| ADENDUM | 153 |
| REFERENCES | 155 |
Our values, culture, and indigenous knowledge have strengthened Hawai‘i and its people for a thousand years. Our kūpuna sustained our islands by maintaining a balanced system focused on caring for the ‘āina. When we look at the ahupua‘a structures we see thriving ecosystems, a vibrant culture, and reciprocal relationships. A‘ohe hana nui ke alu ‘ia.
Familiarizing the people of the world with this way of thinking is a critical step to creating a brighter tomorrow. The future of Hawai‘i and Island Earth depend on it. This mindset based on ʻike kūpuna, kuleana, mālama, and aloha, paired with today’s modern technology and knowledge, has the potential to create a sustainable future for Island Earth. As Hawaiians, this is our mission and our vision. We believe that if we take care of the Earth, it will take care of us. And if we take care of each other, the world will be a richer and fairer place.
When we think of the Aloha+ Challenge, we think of the world the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) hope to achieve. It paints a picture of what we’ve accomplished and what we must still create. War, hunger, violence, racism, inequality are starting to seep into the minds of everyone, especially the youth. It shouldn’t be normal for a young child to hear about a war and think nothing of it. It shouldn’t be normal for a teenager to watch the news and not be affected by the pain of others.
We want our children to be future servant leaders, educated, compassionate, healthy, and thriving. We want to take them to our favorite beaches without having to dodge plastic on the sand. We see a planet empty of poverty and starvation. We see a world that puts the needs of community over the interests of business. We see equality and equal opportunities as the norm rather than the exception. We visualize a future for Hawai‘i and Island Earth where we aren’t harmed by the effects of climate change because we took steps now.
The future has limitless possibilities, but our current values and lifestyle will not preserve our planet for future generations. We cannot put off changing things any longer. We refuse to stand idle while 2030 looms closer and closer. We, the youth of Hawai‘i, plead with you to act now. Let us look to the past for wisdom and to the future for survival. We only have one Island Earth, let us do our best to take care of it and each other. We are one species, with one planet, one chance. He ali‘i ka ‘āina, he kauwā ke kanaka.
Collaborative Youth Opening Statement developed by Kamehameha Schools Kapālama Middle School students in the Ka‘amauloa educational pathway.
FOREWORD
In 2020, Hawai‘i made history by becoming the first and only U.S. state to report our progress toward achieving the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by submitting a Voluntary Local Review to the United Nations. Since then, our resilience has been tested by the COVID-19 pandemic, supply chain disruption that threatened our clean energy transition, and food security concerns, all against the backdrop of a growing climate risk. As we approach the midpoint to achieve the 2030 Agenda, we reaffirm our commitment to our shared global goals by submitting our second report. This is a crucial time for us to assess challenges, evaluate our current progress, and navigate a clear course forward with unwavering accountability. Our Voluntary Local Reviews serve as critical reflection points that illuminate both our progress and areas in need of further transformation.
As I review our progress, I’m both inspired by successes and bright spots and moved to do better. This review is essential to a holistic stocktaking of how and where we need to accelerate action and partnership moving forward, and I commit my administration to ensuring that we create and steward the Hawai‘i our children want to see. Sustainability is not merely an abstract concept in Hawai‘i; it is woven into the very fabric of our culture and ethos. We embody this care – mālama – for one another, our communities, our oceans, and our land.
Hawai‘i’s leadership in sustainability, in fact, predates the SDGs agreed to by all members of the United Nations. In 2014, Hawai‘i launched the Aloha+ Challenge, which has been embraced by every county and administration since. Anchored in indigenous wisdom, cultural traditions, and best practices, our six goals provide a locally grounded framework to realize the global goals – and provide us a road map to securing a vibrant future for generations to come.
While our local government, civil society and businesses play a critical role in meeting the 2030 goals, it is our children – our keiki – who lead us with inspiration and urgency. Through their determination to shape the Future We Want for Hawai‘i and Island Earth, they tap into the wisdom of our ancestors and bountiful natural environments, combining innovation with time-honored solutions. In submitting this report, the first formal report to be submitted to the United Nations in ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i, our native language, we honor the legacy of our ancestors – our kūpuna – and embrace the promise of our shared future.
Mālama Pono,
Josh Green, M.D.
Governor of the State of Hawai‘i
INTRODUCTION
In 2014, Hawai‘i launched the Aloha+ Challenge: He Nohana ‘Ae‘oia, A culture of Sustainability. It identifies six priority areas and related targets to be achieved by 2030. The Aloha+ Challenge ensures these targets are achieved in a culturally and locally appropriate manner, aligning with Hawai‘i’s needs and values. Through progress towards these goals, Hawai‘i contributes to the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, a comprehensive framework of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 related targets. These goals address poverty, protect the planet, and foster prosperity for all.
As the halfway point to 2030 approaches, this second Voluntary Local Review (VLR) shares Hawai‘i’s current status and challenges. Each goal has specific indicators and targets that serve as milestones for measuring progress and highlights the actions and initiatives by state and county governments, contributions by civil society, the private sector, and community stakeholders.
Our VLR underscores the significance of local-level action. It showcases how our communities play an integral role in driving sustainable development. Their commitment and innovative solutions achieve notable advancements, demonstrating impactful transformation at the grassroots level.
VLRs serve as a knowledge exchange platform to share best practices and lessons learned among different regions and communities. We hope our VLR encourages similar journeys towards sustainable development, leveraging the experiences and successes of Hawai‘i.
A comprehensive and inclusive approach that encompasses all levels of governance is needed to achieve the SDGs. Assessing progress at the local level reveals valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities communities face, enabling tailored solutions that are rooted in local context and priorities.
Other VLRs submitted in the United States include City of Los Angeles, City of Orlando, City of Pittsburgh, and City of New York.
Globally, more than 365 VNRs were submitted to the United Nations since 2016.
This report was prepared with consideration of the Handbook for the Preparation of Voluntary National Reviews (VNR)s 2021 Edition and the guiding questions outlined in the Repository of Good Practices in VNR Reporting.
HGG UN Local2030 Hub is well-positioned to coordinate and facilitate the second VLR due to the methodology and processes established in 2011. The approach involves continuously measuring and analyzing benchmark data on the Aloha+ Challenge Dashboard, an open-data platform that monitors progress on the six sustainability goals. Dashboard’s cross-sector working groups convene quarterly to identify key priorities and coordinate policies and actions.
This report pulls from Dashboard data, including 37 targets and more than 280 indicators, informed by the priorities of Hawai‘i’s communities. Led by the HGG Network, the Dashboard’s metrics were identified through a four-year stakeholder engagement process, which brought together technical experts and partners from various sectors including government, business, academia, philanthropy, civil society, and communities from all four counties.
HGG UN Local2030 Hub regularly and routinely engages stakeholders through quarterly working group engagements. These groups focus on key areas such as data, policy and legislation, next-generation leadership, local place-based natural capital solutions, and a CEO-led Sustainability Business Forum. The ongoing engagements serve as platforms for collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and decision-making. In addition, an annual partnership meeting is conducted which informs the working group agendas and priority setting for the next two years.
The VLR compiles insights, feedback, and contributions from these engagements and incorporates the latest data, leading to the creation of new metrics and prioritizes action.
Hawai‘i’s local framework and engagement process align with the United Nations Integrated Geospatial Information Framework (IGIF), which primarily focuses on executing the SDGs at the national level. Hawai‘i customized the framework to encourage engagement at the subnational level, fostering a participatory approach where communities, organizations, and businesses contribute to sustainable development strategies. By aligning with the IGIF, Hawai‘i leverages a globally recognized framework while tailoring it to our local context.
| YEAR | EVENT |
|------|-------|
| 2011 | HGG launches at the US-hosted Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meeting in Honolulu focused on a green and equitable recovery from the 2008 financial crisis, building on the earlier movement of Mālama Hawai‘i shaped by Pinky Thompson and State Senator Kenneth Brown. |
| 2014 | State legislature unanimously endorses Aloha+ Challenge Resolution (SCR69); Aloha+ Challenge Declaration signed by the governor, mayors, and Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA), with the private sector and civil society partners launching Hawai‘i’s statewide sustainability framework; development of Aloha+ Challenge dashboard with localized targets and indicators begins. |
| 2015 | UN adopts the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda; 193 countries adopted Paris Agreement at COP21. |
| 2018 | HGG accepts the invitation from the UN to become a Local2030 Hub at its annual partnership event. |
| 2020 | Hawai‘i’s first Voluntary Local Review covers six years of data on the Aloha+ Challenge. |
| 2021 | Hawai‘i State Office of Planning publishes Hawai‘i 2050 Sustainability Plan Charting a Course for the Decade of Action, which reviews existing statewide efforts related to the UN SDGs and outline a commitment to guide the coordination and implementation of the state’s sustainability and climate adaptation goals, principles and policies. |
| 2023 | Hawai‘i launches the second Voluntary Local Review, marking the 2022-2023 halfway point for the implementation of the 2030 agenda. |
| 2030 | Target date for achieving the Aloha+ Challenge and the SDGs. |
STAKEHOLDER-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL METRICS AND INDICATORS
Short-term consensus for long-term goals connecting governance, technology and community
1. Set shared 2030 goals across sectors
2. Establish political commitment and policy priorities
3. Technical expert consultation and landscape analysis
4. Baseline survey for broad input across partners
5. Convene statewide and county-level sessions
6. Vet feedback with diverse stakeholders
7. Identify joint funding opportunities for Dashboard development
8. Collect data and populate Dashboard
9. Assess data gaps, evaluate standards and pilot innovations
10. Continuous capacity building, communication, and partnership engagement
NETWORK PROCESS
Policy and Legislation Working Group
Measures and Data Working Group
Local Global Next Generation Working Group
Sustainability Business Forum
Ala Wai Watershed Collaboration
Aloha + Dashboard Voluntary Local Review
Annual Network Legislation Report and Job Survey
Student and Community Outreach Program
ESG Metrics and Sustainability Reports
Malama Implementation Tool
Hawaii’s youth play a crucial role in driving the State’s sustainability efforts, inspiring others, and taking responsibility for shaping a sustainable and resilient future for their island home.
Grassroots organizations, school clubs, and community programs provide platforms for Hawaii youth to be environmental stewards and engage in conservation efforts such as beach cleanups, tree planting, and restoring native habitats.
Having witnessed firsthand the impacts of climate change, Hawaii’s youth are advocating for the transition to renewable energy sources. They understand the importance of sustainable food production and are active in revitalizing local food systems through community gardens and farm-to-school programs. By championing these causes, they contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food system that aligns with Hawaii’s rich agricultural history.
Youth understand the significance of their cultural heritage and the need to address social inequalities. They engage in efforts to preserve indigenous knowledge, language, and traditions, ensuring that these aspects of Hawaii’s culture are passed on to future generations. They advocate for social justice, inclusivity, and equality to foster a sense of belonging and unity among diverse communities, strengthening the fabric of Hawaii’s society.
In Hawaii, young people are not waiting for change; they are driving it. Their commitment to the SDGs is reshaping the trajectory of our islands so future generations can thrive in a Hawaii that is environmentally conscious, socially just, and culturally rich.
SDG 18: VIBRANT CULTURE
Building on the process at the 2022 HGG Annual Partnership event, youth representatives outlined an optimistic, yet clear vision for the future they want for Hawai‘i and Island Earth while acknowledging the challenges. The student speakers emphasized the importance of the Waipahu High School Academy of Natural Resources and its mālama ‘āina education, career pathways, and mentorship. Project Kuleana (a project based on music to connect youth with their culture and knowledge) previewed the launch of the Aloha‘ā Youth Advisory Council, informed by the “Mo‘o Method,” inspiring young people to connect to their heritage and empower their leadership. The youth panelists and HGG partners reinforced their commitment to release Hawai‘i’s second VLR led by youth, including the introduction of a new United Nations Goal: SDG 18: Vibrant Culture.
HAWAI‘I STATE STUDENT COUNCIL, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
The Hawai‘i State Student Council (HSSC) is a student-led organization that represents the voice of high school students. Composed of elected representatives from Hawai‘i’s high schools, its primary mission is to empower and engage students in their schools and communities. The HSSC is a platform for students to discuss and advocate for issues important to them, such as education policy, social justice, and environmental sustainability. HSSC provides leadership training and development opportunities including conferences, workshops, and community service projects.
PROJECT KULEANA
Project Kuleana integrates traditional Hawaiian knowledge and values into sustainability initiatives to empower the next generation of Hawai‘i leaders. It uses Hawaiian music to communicate. Students use the Mo‘o Method to connect with their cultural heritage and develop an understanding of their responsibilities towards the land, culture, and community. Project Kuleana nurtures a connection between youth and their cultural roots, fostering a sense of kuleana and inspiring them to contribute to sustainable solutions using a holistic and systems-thinking approach.
17 ROOMS SPRING ACTIVITY DAY, PUNAHOU SCHOOL
At Punahou’s Spring Activity Day, students showcased their leadership and commitment to creating a more sustainable and equitable environment. Building on their experience at the HGG Annual Partnership meeting, students used the 17 Rooms Process to bring together their peers in an interactive setting. The event started with an overview of the SDGs, which provided a framework for understanding global challenges and the collective effort required to address them. Students then discussed Punahou’s sustainability and outreach initiatives. They brainstormed actionable next steps aligned with SDGs 5, 9, 10, 11, and 13, which encompass gender equality, innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities and communities, and climate action. Students shared their ideas with the larger group during a closing report-out session. This event was a testament to the potential and capability of young leaders to drive positive impact.
HAWAI‘I STATE YOUTH COMMISSION
The Hawai‘i State Youth Commission was established in 2016 with the passage of Act 152, which recognized the importance of youth involvement in decision-making and created a platform for youth voices. The youth-led Commission was established to advise policymakers and government officials on matters relating to youth (ages 14-20) and their needs ensuring their perspectives and concerns are considered in areas affecting them, such as education, health, employment, and social services.
KA‘ĀMAULOA PATHWAY KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS
Kamehameha Schools (KS) developed a two-year pathway called “Ka‘āmauloa” to prepare students for leadership. Ka‘āmauloa, the thread that continues forever, connects the three piko (‘i’, ‘o’ and ‘a’) linking our past, present, and future with no break in the line that continues in both directions. When completed sequentially, the two courses in this pathway take haumāna (students) on a journey from the lo‘i kalo to the United Nations, as they follow the story of how Hawai‘i’s culture of sustainability came about, its importance to sustaining life and balance in the islands, and why that culture is as important today for the global community as it was for the ancient Hawaiians.
On this pathway, students rediscover the origins of their culture, learn about the diplomatic skills of their ali‘i Hawai‘i, meet individuals and organizations working to find local solutions to global problems in Hawai‘i, and learn why the indigenous knowledge that sustained life in a canoe is now being embraced by the United Nations as a solution to the climate and sustainability problems faced by Island Earth. Haumāna then formulate their own civic action plan and become part of the solution by implementing their plan.
The Sustainability Business Forum (SBF) is a voluntary CEO-led peer-to-peer initiative that supports candid dialogue and concrete action to achieve Aloha+ Challenge goals and the SDGs. SBF members are committed to aligning their company values with a triple-bottom-line approach to achieve economic prosperity, environmental stewardship, and community resilience. Through quarterly convenings, the SBF prioritized action on energy efficiency, local food, Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) reporting and implementation, and sustainable and regenerative tourism. This collective initiative by the private sector impacts the environment and communities by increasing and aligning their sustainability commitments.
In 2020, the SBF partnered with BlackRock, the world’s largest institutional investor with more than $10 trillion in assets managed to launch the Sustainable Investing Summit. In 2022, the SBF expanded the localized ESG Dashboard to further track business commitments and action on the SDGs and convened a Sustainable Investing Roundtable with BlackRock and other local and global leaders on sustainable investing.
Aligning the private sector with a climate-resilient and net-zero pathway is a key priority in achieving the Aloha+ Challenge and SDGs. In 2021, the SBF partnered with the City and County of Honolulu (C&C) on the Better Building Benchmarking Program. The bill, signed into law in 2022, establishes a benchmarking program for energy and water usage. With the first reporting deadline in the summer of 2023, the SBF is partnering with the C&C to support implementation, including publishing benchmarking data on the public Dashboard to increase transparency.
The SBF also works closely with UN agencies, the International Chamber of Commerce, and other national and global partners. A member of the UN Global Compact since 2019, the SBF is committed to the 10 principles of the Compact in the areas of human rights, labor, the environment, and anti-corruption.
Inspired by dialogues at the 2016 IUCN World Conservation Congress, SBF members focused on accelerating nature-based solutions (NBS) and market-based mechanisms including PES and carbon offsets. In partnership with The Nature Conservancy, the SBF established a valid market-based mechanism through the Kona Hema Carbon Offset Pilot Project. The lessons learned from the Kona Hema Carbon Offset Pilot are shaping future initiatives, and the SBF is developing other opportunities in carbon offset.
2023 priorities include increasing renewable energy and strengthening markets for local food production. The SBF launched two working groups or communities of practice to develop concrete action for the private sector and will continue to strengthen ESG reporting and localized metrics.
Building on the successful SBF model, members in the tourism industry are launching the Sustainable Tourism Forum (STF). The STF functions similarly to the SBF but will include broader membership similar to the UNGC model. All tourism operators in Hawai‘i are invited to join. After a kickoff meeting in 2022, the STF prioritized visitor education, developing ESG metrics to account for the impact of the tourism sector, energy efficiency, and reducing plastic use. The STF is producing visitor education material on how to interact with the land, people, and culture and will launch other priorities in 2023.
HEI CONSOLIDATED ESG REPORT
In 2023, Hawaiian Electric Industries (HEI) published its fourth annual Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Report: *Laulima*. The report references the Native Hawaiian practice of laulima, or many hands working together, to highlight the core principles of sustainability ingrained in society and business practices in Hawai‘i. The consolidated report also features American Savings Bank’s inaugural ESG report, an update on subsidiary Pacific Current, and Hawaiian Electric’s 12th annual sustainability report. The utility has set goals for significant carbon reduction by 2030 and net zero by 2045. Action on these ambitious time-bound goals is informed by a comprehensive, economy-wide decarbonization report completed in 2022. Key findings of the report emphasize electrification as necessary but not sufficient to meet Hawai‘i’s sustainability goals. A holistic, island-wide perspective requires aggressive energy efficiency standards and conservation to reduce the amount of renewable electricity and fuels needed to power our economy.
In an island context, the significance of tradeoffs between energy, food production, housing, and our other sustainability goals is acute. Alternative fuels, carbon sequestration, and policy are also vital components of decarbonization strategies. Initiatives consider how to use limited natural resources. Hawaiian Electric is taking action guided by the decarbonization strategy and Climate Change Action Plan. Developing clean and reliable renewable energy and generation is a priority since retiring the last coal-powered energy plant in the state.
ULUPONO INITIATIVE
A mission-driven venture of The Omidyar Group, Ulupono Initiative was founded in 2009 to improve the quality of life by working toward sustainable solutions that support and promote locally produced food, renewable energy, clean transportation choices, and better management of freshwater resources.
The intersectionality of renewable energy and local food production is increasingly apparent. Hawai‘i’s statewide decarbonization efforts rely heavily on electrification of the transportation sector, including finding sustainable solutions for large-scale shipping and imports. Ulupono has prioritized clean transportation to achieve intersectional 2030 goals through studies on the viability of rail transit in Hawai‘i, supporting community initiatives to increase multimodal transportation choices, and assisting in the development of a successful bike-share model in Honolulu. Ulupono’s transportation initiative includes reducing Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT), which encourages people-centered solutions, resulting in building and creating sustainable communities. For more information, visit ulupono.com
OUTRIGGER RESORT & HOTELS
The tourism industry touches all areas of the economy and community in Hawai‘i. As part of its overarching ESG initiatives, OUTRIGGER Resort & Hotels is working to strengthen its positive impact through the OUTRIGGER Zone, its global conservation initiative for guests, hosts, and local communities to help ensure that our natural environment can be appreciated for generations. Supporting coral reef restoration and propagation, OUTRIGGER has preserved, protected, and planted more than 100 football fields of coral and emphasizes guest education, beach cleanups, as well as other activities to help share indigenous knowledge.
ALASKA AIRLINES
Alaska Airlines, a leader in aviation and tourism, was the first U.S. airline to remove plastic cups on board, eliminating more than 55 million plastic cups annually in support of corporate commitments to reduce climate impact. The airline is choosing environmentally conscious alternatives such as paper cups and encouraging passengers to use their own reusable drink vessels and #FillBeforeYouFly. The initiative will eliminate the use of 2.2M pounds of plastic, equivalent to 24 Boeing 737s.
HAWAIIAN AIRLINES
Hawaiian Airlines has committed to supporting local food production and food security. The Hawaiian Airlines Foundation awarded a $100,000 grant to Kākoʻo ʻŌiwi to advance Native Hawaiians cultural and spiritual practices that support local food production. The funding will support a wash-and-pack facility to process locally grown crops including kalo (taro), ʻulu (breadfruit), ʻuala (sweet potato), and hōʻoʻo (warabi). The effort reflects the priority to support and empower small farmers and supports the airline’s commitment to source 40% locally made food and beverages for Hawaiʻi-based catering by 2045. The airline also committed to replacing 10% of conventional jet fuel with Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) by 2030 and launched a partnership with Par Hawaiʻi, the state’s largest provider of energy products. The partnership will study the viability of SAF production in Hawaiʻi with locally grown oil-yielding crops.
KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS
Kamehameha Schools (KS) is educating the next generation green workforce by providing hands-on learning and internships at high school, undergraduate, and graduate levels. Aligned with the Aloha + Challenge 2030 goals, professional development pathways are available for students specifically interested in renewable energy. With an educational mission for Native Hawaiians, KS also emphasizes ʻāina-based (place-based) learning and partners with the Council for Native Hawaiian Advancement to support emerging ʻīwi leaders through the E Olal learner outcomes. KS continues to develop the next generation of leaders and is a founding member of Kanaeokana, a network of more than 50 Hawaiian language, culture, and ʻāina-based schools and organizations.
The Aloha+ Dashboard (www.alohachallenge.hawaii.gov) measures progress on the six priority areas identified through the Aloha+ Challenge and tracks Hawai‘i’s contribution towards all 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals for 2030. The open-data platform supports accountability and transparency with community-driven metrics to inform statewide and county-level decision making. The VLR is part of the ongoing Aloha+ Challenge stakeholder engagement process through partner-driven working groups, forums, and other convened processes to update the data, identify new metrics, and set priorities for action.
The Aloha+ Challenge identifies six priority goals and local metrics that are delivering against the global United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
**CLEAN ENERGY TRANSFORMATION**
- **1. No Poverty**
- **7. Affordable and Clean Energy**
- **9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure**
- **10. Reduced Inequalities**
- **11. Sustainable Cities and Communities**
- **13. Climate Action**
- **17. Partnerships for the Goals**
**LOCAL FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION**
- **1. No Poverty**
- **2. Zero Hunger**
- **3. Good Health and Well-being**
- **10. Reduced Inequalities**
- **12. Responsible Consumption and Production**
- **13. Climate Action**
- **17. Partnerships for the Goals**
**NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT**
- **1. No Poverty**
- **6. Clean Water and Sanitation**
- **12. Responsible Consumption and Production**
- **13. Climate Action**
- **14. Life Below Water**
- **15. Life on Land**
- **17. Partnerships for the Goals**
**SOLID WASTE REDUCTION**
- **1. No Poverty**
- **12. Responsible Consumption and Production**
- **13. Climate Action**
- **17. Partnerships for the Goals**
**SMART SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES**
- **1. No Poverty**
- **3. Good Health and Well-being**
- **9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure**
- **10. Reduced Inequalities**
- **11. Sustainable Cities and Communities**
- **13. Climate Action**
- **16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions**
- **17. Partnerships for the Goals**
**GREEN WORKFORCE AND EDUCATION**
- **1. No Poverty**
- **4. Quality Education**
- **5. Gender Equality**
- **8. Decent Work and Economic Growth**
- **10. Reduced Inequalities**
- **13. Climate Action**
- **17. Partnerships for the Goals**
CLEAN ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Achieve 70% renewable energy for the electricity sector by 2030, with 40% from renewables and 30% from efficiency, with a goal of 100% by 2045.
| Category | Value | Status |
|---------------------------------|----------------|--------------|
| Electricity Renewable/Efficiency | 39.97% | On Track |
| Average Fuel Use | 3,371.18 | On Track |
| Statewide Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions | 13.77 | On Track |
| Total Energy Use | 33,806 | On Track |
| Transportation | 472 M | Needs Improvement |
| Business Sector Energy Efficiency | 6.7% | Measuring |
The Clean Energy Transformation goal is one of the most ambitious in the 2030 agenda, building on the 70% renewable energy target set by the Hawai‘i Clean Energy Initiative in 2008. Hawai‘i increased its ambition in 2015 by making the commitment to 100% renewable electricity by 2045 into State law, with the four Counties in 2017 committing to achieve 100% renewable energy in the transportation sector by 2045.
**AT A GLANCE**
**RENEWABLE ENERGY — ON TRACK:**
Hawai‘i’s goal of 70% Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) for the electricity sector by 2030 is on track, with a statewide average of 39.97% RPS in the electricity sector as of 2021.
**ENERGY EFFICIENCY — ON TRACK:**
Hawai‘i’s target to meet the energy Efficiency Standard for 4,300 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity savings by 2030 is on track, with the remaining amount of cumulative savings needed to reach the target at about 1,000 GWh as of 2018. The EEPS target was met through 2018 and the 2030 target is projected to be reached under the achievable potential – BAU scenario.
**CLEAN TRANSPORTATION — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Not currently on track to meet the 2030 clean transportation goal to reduce petroleum usage to 165 million gallons per year, and used approximately 472 million gallons per year as of 2022.
Hawai‘i implemented Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) to monitor and track the percentage of energy sales derived from renewable sources in each county and statewide. As of 2021, Hawai‘i achieved an impressive 39.97% RPS in the electricity sector. Recent data indicates that Hawai‘i is making good progress towards meeting the EEPS target by 2030. Assuming a business-as-usual scenario, cumulative savings of 1,000 GWh are still needed to reach the target.
All four counties have committed to achieving 100% renewable energy in the transportation sector by 2045 including replacing conventional vehicles with EVs and establishing a robust EV infrastructure across the islands. By investing in charging infrastructure and providing incentives for EV adoption, the State is facilitating the use of EVs.
While progress has been made, it is important to acknowledge that Hawai‘i is challenged in meeting the 2030 clean transportation goal of reducing petroleum usage to 165 million gallons per year. As of 2022, the State still relies on approximately 472 million gallons of petroleum annually.
As part of Hawai‘i’s clean energy transformation, the State aims to reduce total annual fossil fuel use to below the 2008 level by 2030. One indicator used to track progress is the expenditure per person on petroleum, which reflects the State’s heavy reliance on imported crude oil and petroleum products.
However, it is important to note that the proportion of per capita expenditures for imported petroleum used to power electricity has been declining since 2015, remaining below the 2008 level. This indicates that less money is being spent on petroleum for electricity generation per person. A significant drop can be observed between 2014-2020, with per capita expenditures decreasing from $938 to $412 during that period. Hawai‘i’s continued investment in clean energy is expected to drive this trend further.
Hawai‘i’s goal is to reduce statewide greenhouse gas emissions to below 1990 levels by 2030. The “Hawai‘i Greenhouse Gas Emission Report for 2017,” prepared by ICF and the University of Hawai‘i Economic Research Organization (UHERO), projects a baseline scenario of 8.88 million metric tons of CO2 Net GHG emissions (including sinks, excluding aviation) for 2030, a reduction from 13.77 in 2017. The Hawai‘i Climate Commission developed strategies and recommendations for climate change mitigation and adaptation with a State target of reducing emissions to net zero by 2045.
In 2020, all State agencies were required to implement Hawai‘i Climate Commission’s strategies and recommendations into their plans and decisions to achieve climate targets. The Commission provides specific programmatic recommendations that prioritize the mitigation of greenhouse gasses through the elimination and reduction of emissions, the preservation of cultural, biological, and public resources through adaptation, the accelerated sequestration of carbon, the production of local foods, protection of public health and ecosystems, and the adoption of nature-based solutions and building resilience to climate change.
CLEAN ENERGY WAYFINDERS PROGRAM, HAWAI‘I STATE ENERGY OFFICE
The Clean Energy Wayfinders program, operated by the Hawai‘i State Energy Office, is a community engagement initiative focused on promoting clean energy and sustainability. It offers educational resources, outreach events, and workshops to increase awareness and understanding of clean energy technologies and practices. The program covers a range of topics, including energy efficiency, renewable energy, electric transportation, and sustainable building practices. The program includes diverse voices and perspectives, and its ultimate goal is to support Hawai‘i’s commitment to a clean, sustainable, and resilient energy future.
ENERGY EQUITY HUI
The Energy Equity Hui is a collaborative effort addressing energy inequities. The Hui brings together community members, organizations, and policymakers to identify and work toward solutions that ensure equitable access to clean and affordable energy for all residents. The Hui recognizes that energy equity is crucial in building a sustainable and just energy system. It seeks to address the disproportionate impact of high energy costs on low-income communities and marginalized populations. Through research, advocacy, and community engagement, the Energy Equity Hui promotes policies and initiatives that increase energy affordability, improve energy efficiency, and expand access to renewable energy resources. By fostering collaboration and amplifying the voices of those affected, the Hui drives change to create a more equitable and sustainable energy future.
SUSTAINABILITY DASHBOARDS, BISHOP MUSEUM
In February 2022, Bishop Museum launched its public-facing sustainability dashboards that monitor resource usage and the effects of sustainability initiatives and operational changes. Bishop Museum is committed to reducing the energy used on its campus and to producing renewable energy. Bishop Museum has 720 solar panels installed and implemented energy efficiency measures across operations. Aligning their data with the Aloha+ Challenge and the UN Sustainable Development Goals allows Bishop Museum to show guests that their effort is just one part of a much larger system of monitoring and improvement.
CHARGE UP HAWAI'I, HAWAIIAN ELECTRIC
Charge Up Hawai‘i is Hawaiian Electric’s initiative focused on EV charging solutions to support Hawai‘i’s shift to clean energy and electrified transportation. Hawaiian Electric highlights the benefits of electric transportation for businesses such as reduced operating costs, environmental sustainability, and supporting the State’s clean energy goals. Charge Up Hawai‘i offers information on the different types of EV charging stations available and associated costs and incentives, as well as guidance on the installation process, utility requirements, and support available from Hawaiian Electric. Charge Up Hawai‘i assists businesses in understanding and implementing EV charging infrastructure to meet the growing demand. The utility is conducting a survey to inform decision-making and ensure that the development of EV infrastructure and programs aligns with the needs and interests of the people of Hawai‘i.
ILLUMINATION HAWAI‘I
Illumination Hawai‘i brings the conversation of climate mitigation and decarbonization in an island context to the forefront as the global community works to achieve 2030 sustainability goals. In Hawai‘i, sustainability is ingrained in culture and rooted in indigenous knowledge and values of stewardship and aloha ‘āina. Although these values persist in Hawai‘i today, islanders are often at the forefront of global climate change and are faced with finding universal solutions. Illumination Hawai‘i prompts us to take action with data-driven decision making as we look to indigenous knowledge to navigate solutions for Hawai‘i and Island Earth.
LOCAL FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
At least double local food production with a goal of 20-30% of food consumed is grown locally.
| Category | Data |
|---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Local Foods Production | 104,635,130 Pounds of Food Locally Produced in 2018 |
| Labor and Land Resources | 1,100,000 Acres of Farmland in Use in 2021 |
| Processing | 10 Number of Commercial Kitchens in 2018 |
| Distribution | 90 Number of Farmers Markets in 2018 |
| Consumption | 578,595,000 Agricultural Products Sold in USD in 2016 |
- Needs Improvement
- Measuring
This Aloha+ Challenge goal builds upon the Sustainable Hawai‘i Initiative and the Hawai‘i 2050 Sustainability Plan developed in 2008, which first launched the goal of doubling local food production by 2030.
**AT A GLANCE**
- **LOCAL FOOD PRODUCTION — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Production of most crops has not increased at a pace that will double local food production by 2030. Food production, import, and export data have not been available since 2009, and investment is needed to reestablish the State’s agricultural statisticians to monitor progress.
- **FARMS AND PRODUCERS — UPWARD TREND:**
There was a 4% increase in the number of farms and producers from 2012 to 2017. As of 2021, there were more than 7,000 farms on 1.14 million acres.
- **HEALTH, NUTRITION, AND ACCESS — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, Hawai‘i’s food insecurity increased from 11.2% to 16.8% between 2018 and 2020, according to a 2021 research study from the College of Social Sciences, UH Mānoa and First Insurance Company of Hawai‘i.
ANALYSIS—MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION—CHALLENGES
In 2018, the data showed that approximately 104.6 million pounds of food were produced. It is important to note that this is a rough estimate and relies on voluntary reporting, making the data incomplete and subject to variations.
Unfortunately, data on food production, import, and export have not been available since 2009, highlighting the need for investment in reestablishing the state’s Agricultural Statistics Service. Having reliable and up-to-date data is crucial for monitoring progress and making informed decisions regarding local food production efforts.
One strategy for reaching increased production goals is increasing access to land that supports the production, processing, distribution, and consumption of local food. In 2021, Hawai‘i had 1.1 million acres of farmland in use statewide, a general downward trend with a decrease of 22% of land in farms since 2000. The number of farms in Hawai‘i is based on its farm definition of $1,000 or more of agricultural sales. That data suggest that while less land is being farmed, the total number of farms is growing, indicating an increase in small farms.
A skilled labor force of farmers and ranchers is integral for building on Hawai‘i’s history of agricultural abundance and developing a healthy, viable local food system. However, the next generation of farmers, ranchers, and agricultural entrepreneurs are facing similar challenges as those in other regions, including economic viability and the difficulty of acquiring a living wage.
Land and water access pose significant challenges. Current land lease arrangements often hinder farmers’ ability to plan and make long-term investments in cultivation. Water rates also vary significantly, creating financial barriers for farmers and impacting their profitability. Some areas face water access challenges due to aging irrigation infrastructure, further exacerbating the difficulties faced by farmers.
To address these barriers and create opportunities for more farms, it is essential to invest in agricultural parks located in areas with the potential for long-term land leases and reliable, affordable water supply. It is also crucial to consider the provision of affordable housing for farmers within or near these agricultural parks. Access to affordable housing could alleviate financial burdens and enable farmers to focus on their agricultural activities without the added burden of housing expenses.
Community participation in food production, education, and farming training programs could play a prominent role in shifting the social paradigm of local agriculture. While the goal of doubling local food is focused on food such as fruits, vegetables, dairy, and proteins, value-added products made in commercial kitchens can provide much-needed additional income for food entrepreneurs. More data and informational resources are needed to connect small businesses and farmers to commercial kitchens.
Apart from commercial kitchens, processing facilities encompass a range of establishments including dairies, packaging, and agriculture-related facilities such as vacuum cooling plants, slaughterhouses, experimental stations, and marshaling yards. Processing facilities are paramount for local agricultural production, specifically for beef and milk production.
The State’s farm-to-school program, established in 2015, supports school gardens, nutrition education, and the procurement of locally grown food for schools. This program promotes healthy eating habits among students and provides a market for local farmers.
Wholesale distribution to grocery stores and institutions makes local food accessible on a broader scale. By establishing efficient supply chains and distribution networks, Hawai‘i can ensure that locally grown produce reaches grocery store shelves and institutional cafeterias.
Consumption of locally grown food is also critical. Several barriers currently hinder the widespread consumption of food, most significantly the consistent availability of local food in desired quantities. Ensuring a steady and reliable supply of locally grown produce and products is necessary to meet consumer demand. This requires effective coordination and communication among farmers, distributors, and retailers to ensure a consistent flow of local food throughout the year.
Reliable data tracking of imported and local food is required for understanding the State’s food sourcing and self-sufficiency. While data from 2010 indicated that 11.6% of the food available was locally produced, with 88.4% sourced from imports, having updated and comprehensive metrics on an annual basis would provide a more accurate picture.
The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the importance of food security. While Hawai‘i experienced relatively low COVID-19 infections and deaths, food insecurity increased, rising from 11.2% to 16.8% between 2018 and 2020. This builds off of broader equity issues such as poverty rate and minimum wage to living wage ratios.
TRANSFORMING HAWAI‘I’S FOOD SYSTEMS TOGETHER
Transforming Hawai‘i’s Food Systems Together (THFST) is a collaborative, multi-stakeholder endeavor to create a sustainable and resilient food system. Bringing together academics, farmers, policymakers, educators, state agencies, and community organizations, THFST addresses the challenges and opportunities within the food system. The project emphasizes the importance of supporting local agriculture, promoting sustainable farming practices, improving access to nutritious food, and fostering community engagement. By facilitating collaboration, knowledge sharing, and innovative solutions, THFST can transform Hawai‘i’s food system to be more equitable, environmentally sustainable, and economically viable.
MAUI FOOD INNOVATION CENTER,
UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I MAUI COLLEGE
The Maui Food Innovation Center (MFIC) is Hawai‘i’s first in-state business incubator fostering and accelerating the growth and education of agribusinesses and food entrepreneurs. A part of the University of Hawai‘i Maui College, MFIC provides technological expertise, innovative training, industry connections, a commercial manufacturing facility, and a resource hub for new and established food entrepreneurs endeavoring to bring their products to market locally, regionally, and nationally.
ALOHA HARVEST
Aloha Harvest prevents food waste by diverting quality excess food from landfills and ensuring it reaches those in need. The largest food rescue and redistribution organization in Hawai‘i, the organization works with food donors, such as wholesale distributors, grocery stores, restaurants, and hotels to collect surplus food at no cost. This rescued food is redistributed to recipient agencies dedicated to feeding the hungry who prepare and distribute the food to individuals and communities in need, ensuring that it is used efficiently and effectively. In 2022, Aloha Harvest partnered with 414 food donors and 148 recipient agencies, successfully redistributing over 3 million pounds of good food that would have otherwise gone to waste.
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Reverse the trend of natural resource loss (mauka to makai) by increasing freshwater security, watershed protection, community-based marine management, invasive species control, and restoration of native species.
| Metric | Value | Status |
|---------------------------------------------|----------------|-------------------------|
| Increase Fresh Water Capacity | 12 | Needs Improvement |
| Watershed Forest Area | 173,000 | Needs Improvement |
| Marine Managed Areas | 6.17% | Needs Improvement |
| Invasive Species Control | 68% | Near Target |
| Native Species Managed | 5.5% | Measuring |
Million Gallons per Day of Water Recharge, Conservation and Reuse in 2022
Acres Protected Watershed as of 2022
Nearshore Waters Designed as Marine Managed areas in 2022
Action Items in Implementation as of January 2023
Native Species Managed Listed as Threatened or Endangered as of 2016
This goal was informed by existing conservation commitments such as the State’s target to protect 30% of priority watershed forests by 2030. Key conservation targets include the Hawai‘i Fresh Water Initiative freshwater security recommendations and the Hawai‘i Interagency Biosecurity Plan for invasive species. The Sustainable Hawai‘i Initiative added a goal to effectively manage 30% of Hawai‘i’s nearshore waters by 2030.
**AT A GLANCE**
- **FRESH WATER SECURITY — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Hawai‘i made slight progress towards the freshwater target with an increase of approximately 12 million gallons per day (mgd) in 2022 of freshwater capacity relative to a baseline of 0 mgd and a goal to reach 100mgd by 2030.
- **WATERSHED PROTECTION — UPWARD TREND:**
Hawai‘i is at 20.5% (or 173,000 acres) of the 30% target to protect watershed forests under high-level protection.
- **MARINE MANAGEMENT — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
6.1% of Hawai‘i’s near-shore waters are established as marine management areas against a target of 30%.
- **INVASIVE SPECIES CONTROL — ON TRACK:**
68% of the Hawai‘i Interagency Biosecurity Plan’s 147 recommended actions have been initiated, are ongoing, or are completed.
- **NATIVE SPECIES — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
5.5% of Hawai‘i’s native plants are listed as threatened or endangered, but make up nearly half (45%) of all the threatened or endangered plants in the United States.
ANALYSIS—MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION—CHALLENGES
Conservation is prioritized as the most efficient and cost-effective approach to managing water demand. Enhancing water efficiency in agriculture is particularly important, targeting a 10 mgd increase in water security through improved irrigation practices.
The built environment significantly impacts the natural water recharge process, with a 7.5% increase in development and paved areas statewide from 2005-2011. Changes in upland forests, such as the introduction of invasive species, also reduce on-district water recharge. To mitigate these effects, protection of upland forests is increasing, as well as the development of green infrastructure to enhance water recharge. To enhance sustainable stormwater management, stormwater utilities are now authorized and expected to contribute to increased freshwater capacity.
Water reuse is a means to achieve water security and reduce wastewater discharge into the ocean. The goal is to increase the current reuse capacity from approximately 16% to 50 mgd by 2030, matching water with proper and safe end use and eliminating barriers to recapture and reuse. This will require overcoming the barriers to residential, industrial, and agricultural applications and changing the paradigm surrounding recycled water. Decentralizing water infrastructure and encouraging residential, industrial, and agricultural applications of recycled water can significantly contribute to water conservation efforts.
Hawai‘i increased its water security by 12 mgd: 3 mgd from water conservation through a water security pilot program, water audits, and water utility conservation programs; one mgd is from water reuse; and notably, eight mgd from water recharge through funding made available in 2021 for doubling watershed protection through the Hawai‘i’s Fresh Water Blueprint.
To protect watershed forests, which are important in maintaining the quality and quantity of freshwater resources, the State implemented strategies such as controlling invasive species, promoting reforestation, supporting land conservation, enhancing forest management practices, and engaging local communities.
Priority watersheds, which constitute approximately 20% of the land area in the Hawaiian Islands (843,000 acres), receive special attention and protection. In 2022 around 21% (173,000 acres) of these priority watersheds were under a high level of protection.
Native forests support freshwater supply by acting as natural sponges, absorbing rainfall and cloud moisture, and capturing water. Invasive species pose a substantial threat to this process. For example, invasive strawberry guava demands 27% - 63% times more water than native forests. Invasive plants in East Hawai‘i alone cause an estimated reduction of 85 million gallons of groundwater recharge per day, equivalent to filling 130 Olympic-sized swimming pools with fresh water daily.
Effective management of the Marine Managed Areas (MMAs) includes a suite of adaptive approaches balancing sustainable use, restoration, and conservation measures. 6.04% of Hawai‘i’s nearshore waters are designated as MMAs, providing effective management to reduce overfishing, pollution from land-based sources, climate change, and invasive species. A range of policies combat these challenges such as community-based management, time and area closures for fisheries replenishment, reasonable laws to encourage sustainable fishing practices, and effective enforcement combined with systematized monitoring to assess effectiveness.
2020 data show Hawai‘i’s ocean economy provides 15% of Hawai‘i’s jobs and 7.8% of the total economy annually in revenue. Habitat conservation, sustainable fishing practices, collaborative partnerships, investing in technologies that support sustainable ocean practices, and education on ocean literacy safeguard the marine ecosystem, support local communities, and ensure the long-term sustainability of ocean-related industries.
The 2017-2027 Interagency Biosecurity Plan to mitigate the risk of invasive species consists of 147 action items to reach a 10-year vision of a sustainable, biosecure Hawai‘i. 68% of the 147 action items are completed or ongoing.
Invasive species cause billions in economic loss each year and threaten native plants, decrease the reliability of freshwater resources, and put agricultural productivity, cultural resources, and human health at risk. The most cost-effective strategy for managing the threat is border biosecurity to enhance the detection and control of pests and diseases at ports of entry, and post-border biosecurity protects the spread of invasive species.
Hawai‘i has a rich diversity of approximately 8,000 native species, varying in status from common to extremely rare. Among these, 7% are federally listed as threatened and endangered (T&E) species, and efforts are underway to manage 53% of them. This means that 5.5% of all of the native total native species in Hawai‘i are under-managed. Some native species populations, including common ones like ‘ōhi‘a and koa trees, are declining as a result of insufficient management and funding. Hawai‘i has more than 18 times the national average of threatened and endangered plants, many of which are unique to Hawai‘i and at high risk of extinction.
GENKI ALA WAI PROJECT
The Genki Ala Wai Project is an innovative approach using Effective Microorganisms® to address a serious pollution problem in the Ala Wai Canal, an urban waterway. The canal was built in the 1920s to drain the traditional taro wetland agriculture and extensive coastal wetlands and fishponds of the ahupua‘a for development of hotels and the tourism industry. The Canal became the last stop for the Makiki, Mānoa, and Palolo Valley rivers before draining into Waikīkī beach, and in present day carries significant flood risk and pollution for nearby marine habitats. The Genki Ala Wai Project uses beneficial microorganisms, or “Genki Balls,” to digest and oxygenate toxic sludge in the canal, providing a real-time bioremediation solution to a challenging water quality and urban pollution problem. Since the start of the project in 2019, monitoring shows noticeable improvements in water quality parameters supported by recent sightings of the endangered monk seal and other reef fishes swimming in the canal.
NATURAL RESOURCES SECTOR PARTNERSHIP, KUPU
Kupu convenes the Natural Resources Sector Partnership (NRSP), which brings together educators and industry to prepare and inspire Hawai‘i’s students for natural resource professions. The NRSP’s working groups focus on building career awareness, connecting students to the community and the environment, and investing in college and career preparation. Kupu also runs the Hawai‘i Youth Sustainability Challenge (HYSC), which empowers high school students to create environmental solutions in their schools and communities. This year, 17 teams at 14 schools are tackling projects on renewable energy, waste reduction, food security, native forest conservation, and more. HYSC provides funding, mentorship, and training.
O‘AHU INVASIVE SPECIES COMMITTEE (OISC)
OISC works to eradicate the most detrimental and incipient invasive species and invasive species that have not yet become widely established. Most of the target species are designated as the world’s worst according to the Global Invasive Species Database. OISC crews. In addition to early detection and rapid response at ports of entry, outreach programs educate the public about invasive pests and provide a means to report them. OISC presents to classrooms and student groups about watershed health and the implications of invasive species and gives them avenues to help. Teachers are given a Little Fire Ant (LFA)-based curriculum to K-12 students so that students can test for LFA at home and around their school campus and send them to OISC for species identification. Several detections of LFA on O‘ahu have come from student-submitted samples.
FOLLOW THE DROP APP, 3R WATER
3Rwater is a climate technology company with a mission to build water security and resiliency. 3R develops technology tools that address some of the most pressing issues in water management today. Follow the Drop is a mobile application and data platform designed to support municipal green infrastructure initiatives. Through an easy-to-use tool, 3R is engaging communities to address stormwater runoff and build resiliency. In addition, 3Rwater co-developed a school curriculum with Kupu that empowers and engages youth by providing them with the tools and knowledge to actively contribute to the development of climate resilience measures.
KAIMUKI RAIN GARDEN, TREES FOR KAIMUKI
This community-based initiative was a partnership involving EnVision Kaimuki, the City and County of Honolulu’s Urban Forestry Division, Smart Trees Pacific, the National Park Service, The Outdoor Circle, and Trees for Honolulu’s Future. The community came together to plan, plant, and care for a new rain garden with native trees and plants on 11th and Harding Avenues in Kaimuki. The rain garden will provide shade and habitat, recharge groundwater, and reduce flood risk. The group hopes this can be a model for other communities.
SOLID WASTE REDUCTION
Reduce the solid waste stream prior to disposal by 70% through source reduction, recycling, bioconversion, and landfill diversion methods.
| Total Solid Waste Diversion | Total Solid Waste Generation | Recycling |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------|-----------|
| 27% | 2,570,478 | 695,931 |
- Solid Waste Diverted from Landfills in 2021: Needs Improvement
- Tons of Solid Waste Generated in 2021: Needs Improvement
- Tons of Recycling and Composted Materials in 2021: Needs Improvement
Source Reduction: Coming Soon
Reuse: Coming Soon
Measuring
Measuring
This goal recommits to a law that mandated solid waste stream reduction by 50% by January 1, 2000. This was increased in 2020 to 70% waste reduction by 2030.
**AT A GLANCE**
- **WASTE DIVERSION — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
- 27.1% of solid waste was diverted from landfills, not including waste-to-energy a decrease from 43% in 2015 against a target of 70% diversion by 2030.
- **SOLID WASTE GENERATION — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
- Solid waste generation rate was ~2.5 tons in 2021 compared to ~1.6 tons in 2010.
- **RECYCLING — UPWARD TREND:**
- 695,931 tons of recycled and composted material as of 2021.
ANALYSIS—MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION—CHALLENGES
One primary obstacle to reducing waste is the limited infrastructure for waste diversion. Hawai‘i lacks sufficient facilities for recycling, composting, and waste-to-energy conversion. Due to its remote location, recycling tends to be more expensive compared to landfill disposal, hampering the viability of waste reduction programs.
To address these challenges, the Office of Solid Waste Management (OSWM), operating under the Department of Health, oversees the Deposit Beverage Container (DBC) Program, Electronic Waste, and Television Recycling and Recovery Program, and Glass Advance Disposal Fee (ADF) Program. These programs, as well as increased investment, public education, and policy can help Hawai‘i achieve its waste diversion goals.
While incineration is not calculated into the solid waste diversion rate, in 2022 54.3% of waste was redirected from waste disposal facilities, combining both diversion and incineration tonnage. H-POWER, located on Oahu, produces approximately 10% of the island’s electricity by incinerating waste. This process reduces the volume of waste going to the landfill by 90%, with only 10% (ash) sent to the landfill which has helped to conserve landfill space and extend its life.
Recycling rates have fluctuated in recent years and are currently up to 695.9 thousand tons as of 2021, an increase from 485.2 thousand tons in 2019. Composting and bioconversion are integral to solid waste reduction goals, and they provide a myriad of benefits such as producing biofuels, compost for food production, reducing use of pesticides and fertilizers, and creating green jobs.
Hawai‘i defines source reduction as 1) minimizing the quantity or toxicity, or both, of the waste produced and (2) reducing the creation of waste either by redesigning products or by otherwise changing societal patterns of consumption, use, or waste generation.
Quantifying source reduction is challenging, and in most cases, it is only possible to estimate the amount. Source reduction involves practices such as using less material to accomplish a task, reusing products in their original form, or using repairable, refillable, and durable products that have a longer useful life. By implementing source reduction practices, less waste is generated, and the overall environmental impact of waste management is lessened.
In 2019, the State established a plastic source reduction working group consisting of public sector stakeholders, business and industry representatives, and grassroots organizations. The group develops recommendations for reducing single-use plastics, as well as ways to reuse, recycle and recover plastic. Counties have taken significant steps to curtail single-use plastic proliferation. As the counties prepare their new Integrated Solid Waste Management Plans, which will be shaped by the added challenges of landfill capacity and the slower global market for recyclables, ongoing community participation in source reduction efforts will be critical to ensure sustainable operations.
Solid Waste Incineration From H-POWER Statewide
Solid Waste Diversion by County and State
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Solid Waste Diversion Rate (%) by County and State
Fiscal Year
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Hawai‘i
Honolulu
Kaua‘i
Maui
State
IN-VESSEL COMPOSTING SYSTEM, SUSTAINABLE COASTLINES HAWAI'I
The Sustain Events Program by Sustainable Coastlines Hawai‘i provides a waste diversion service for events. Waste diversion staff and educators manage the event’s waste while providing inspiration for guests who want to learn more. Compostable materials and food waste are taken to produce nutrient-dense compost. Sustainable Coastlines and partners recently collaborated to purchase a Green Mountain Technologies Earth Flow In-Vessel composting system, which is operational at Full Circle Farm in Waimānalo. The system can process up to 1,000 pounds of food scraps and green waste per day. The system also provides opportunities for community education and service learning around food waste, diversion, and composting as a solution. This project is an innovative solution for the diversion of food waste from landfill or incineration and introduces an opportunity for implementation at scale.
WINDWARD ZERO WASTE SCHOOL HUI
The Windward Zero Waste School Hui reduces waste in schools and promotes sustainable practices. The organization, founded by parents, teachers, and community members, develops waste reduction plans and implements sustainable practices such as composting, recycling, and reducing single-use plastics at schools, and provides educational resources and workshops.
ZERO WASTE O'AHU, KAUA'I, MAUI, HAWAI'I
Collaborative Zero waste groups across the four counties are part of the larger zero waste movement. Zero Waste Kaua'i educates, inspires, advocates, and assists the government, businesses, residents, and visitors in transitioning to a zero-waste society. Zero Waste Maui provides resources to learn about zero waste principles and living waste-free and offers opportunities to clean beaches, advocate for local policy, and develop creative solutions. Zero Waste O'ahu provides education and outreach, designs and pilots zero waste projects that can be scaled, conducts waste audits to inform targeted waste reduction methods for businesses and office spaces, and creates and supports dynamic policy at the state and county level. Zero Waste Hawai'i, an initiative led by the County of Hawai'i Department of Environmental Management Solid Waste Division & Recycling Section, promotes sustainable practices and provides recommendations for activities residents can engage in to reach community zero waste goals and carry out the Zero Waste Implementation Plan.
RE-USE HAWAI'I
Re-use Hawai'i is a nonprofit established in 2006 in response to O'ahu's solid waste problem. It is committed to strengthening the community through waste reduction, the availability of affordable resources, creation of green jobs, and (re)cultivation of a circular economy.
Over a third of O'ahu's waste stream is debris from demolition. Re-use Hawai'i provides deconstruction services as a sustainable alternative to demolition. Deconstruction is the disassembly of structures by hand to recover materials for reuse. These building materials, plus salvaged furniture, appliances, and more are available as an affordable resource for the community at the Redistribution Centers in Honolulu and Kailua-Kona. In FY22, Re-use Hawai'i diverted 442 tons of material from the landfill, providing affordable resources for 20,726 residents.
In addition to the Deconstruction and Redistribution programs, the organization developed a Workforce Development Program (WFD), where job training is provided to individuals facing barriers to employment. In fiscal year 2022 (FY22), WFD provided 25 individuals with job training.
SMART SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES
Increase livability and resilience in the built environment through planning and implementation at the state and county levels.
| Category | Metric | Value | Status |
|---------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------|--------------|
| Mobility and Accessibility | Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled per Vehicle in 2021 | 9,017 | Needs Improvement |
| Affordable Housing | Housing Affordability Index as of 2021 Q4 | 82.2 | Needs Improvement |
| Economic Prosperity | Households Below the Self-Sufficiency Standard (SSS) | 34.7% | Needs Improvement |
| Resilience and Disaster Management | Hawaii Overall Social Vulnerability Index Rating as of 2020 | 0.4 | Needs Improvement |
| Land Use Impacts | Number of People per Acre of urban Land in 2021 | 7.183 | Measuring |
| Open, Public and Green Spaces | Sq. Feet of State Parks per Capita in 2020 | 1,019.2 | Measuring |
| Connection to Place | Ahupua’a Managed with Community Based Plans in 2018 | 15% | Measuring |
| Greenhouse Gas Mitigation | Percent Reduction of CO2 Emissions Since 2016 | 19.13 | Measuring |
The smart sustainable communities goal was informed by public, private, and community stakeholder recommendations and reflects data on targets from affordable housing to health to disaster resilience.
**AT A GLANCE**
- **AFFORDABLE HOUSING — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Residents throughout Hawai‘i spend an average of 49-55% on housing and transportation costs combined. The housing affordability index shows a downward trend, fluctuating from a rating of 98.5 in Q1 of 2015 to 82.2 in Q4 of 2021.
- **ECONOMIC PROSPERITY — UPWARD TREND:**
The number of households classified below the Self-Sufficiency Standard (SSS) income level improved slightly from 45.5% in 2014 to 34.7% in 2020. However, in 2020 9% of people were below the federal poverty line and 33% were ALICE (Asset Limited, Income Constrained, Employed) households.
- **DISASTER MANAGEMENT & RESILIENCE — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Hawaii’s vulnerability increased from 0.468 in 2018 to 0.400 in 2020 on a scale of 0-1 ranging from the least to the most vulnerable on the Social Vulnerability Index. The index denotes vulnerabilities based on U.S. census variables and social factors. More comprehensive data are needed to assess resilience, and a local index is being developed expanding on the CDC/ATSDR SVI methodology by adding an additional “exposure to hazards” theme.
- **MOBILITY — UPWARD TREND:**
Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled per Vehicle decreased slightly from an average of 9,465 in 2015 to an average of 9,017 in 2021. Data show that 67.2% of commuters drive alone to work, 13.5% carpool, with only 4.9% taking public transportation.
ANALYSIS—MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION—CHALLENGES
The goal of Aloha+ Challenge goal for Mobility and Accessibility is to provide safe, affordable, and diverse transportation options including promoting alternatives such as walking, biking, carpooling, and public transit. According to the data, Hawai‘i’s share for active transportation (walking and biking) is relatively low, at around 5.2%. Nevertheless, the State made progress in recent years, with an increase from 4.7% in 2009 to 5.2% in 2021.
The State has an increase in EV registrations, with more than 12,000 EVs in 2020, and the development of several public transportation projects. Challenges remain in reducing the number of single-occupancy vehicles with 67% of residents commuting alone to work in 2021, a major contributor to traffic congestion and greenhouse gas emissions.
To address these challenges, the State implemented a Complete Streets policy across all counties prioritizing the safety and convenience of all road users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, and public transit riders. To meet this goal, investment in public transportation infrastructure and alternative transportation options will be needed, as well as addressing the underlying issues of housing affordability and urban sprawl.
Housing affordability is a pressing issue, with many families cost-burdened, spending more than 30% of their income on housing. Housing and transportation are significant expenses - residents allocate an average of 49-55% on housing and transportation costs combined.
The housing affordability index assesses whether a typical family earns enough to qualify for a mortgage loan on a typical home based on the most recent price and income data. A value of 100 indicates that a typical family has exactly enough income to qualify for a mortgage loan.
To increase affordability, it is critical to maximize the use of urban areas and construct and maintain multi-unit affordable housing that remains at or below 30% of income. The State implemented various policies and programs to increase affordable housing including incentives and financial mechanisms such as federal tax credits, low-interest loans, and negotiated land costs to make projects viable. Hawai‘i Housing Finance and Development Corporation facilitated the development of 12,209 affordable housing units since its inception in 2006 and remains committed to increasing housing affordability.
Hawai‘i’s largest industry is tourism, which provides employment for many residents. Economic vulnerability is exacerbated by Hawai‘i’s heavy reliance on the tourism and food services industries, which account for around 70% of jobs. Fluctuations in the visitor industry, influenced by factors like natural disasters, climate change impact, political events, and epidemics or pandemics pose significant risks to the economy.
In addition to the high cost of living and limited economic diversity, other factors impact mobility and accessibility. High poverty rates, limited vehicle access, and crowded housing conditions make evacuations more challenging during emergencies and can impede a community’s ability to prevent loss of life and financial damages during various disasters.
Developing an effective risk management strategy necessitates fostering community resilience, enhancing public awareness of the impacts of acute shocks and stresses, and providing information about shock prediction. Opportunities to achieve this include implementing integrated and cross-sector statewide community resilience plans, with a particular focus on public education. By strengthening community resilience and enhancing public understanding, the State can better prepare for and respond to the challenges posed by climate-related hazards and fluctuations in the tourism industry.
Tracking urban density is a crucial tool for understanding regional land use patterns and evaluating progress. By measuring the proportion of people per acre of urban land, it becomes possible to monitor changes in population distribution and assess the effectiveness of efforts to promote more efficient use of existing urban areas.
Addressing water quality and preserving healthy streamflow and baseflow conditions are essential for maintaining a thriving ecosystem and ensuring quality of life. By prioritizing responsible land use, Hawai‘i can create more resilient and livable communities while safeguarding its natural resources.
As urban density increases, the State is working towards equitable access and distribution of Hawai‘i’s public, open, and green spaces, and cultural sites by tracking and evaluating the provision of parks. The focus extends to beach, city, dog, and recreation-specific parks, as well as hiking trails, camping areas, community facilities, and cultural sites.
The Aloha+ Challenge also outlines a sense of belonging and responsibility by enhancing appreciation of ‘Āina (people + place) and connection to neighbors and community. The progress towards this goal is being tracked through various measures, including increasing the percentage of ahupua‘a managed with community-based plans through 2030. The concept of ahupua‘a is a traditional land division in Hawai‘i that extends from mauka (mountain) to makai (ocean) and serves as a holistic system for resource management and governance to ensure the land supports and sustains the community.
In 2010, OHA developed a methodology grounded in the Native Hawaiian perspective of resource management to determine the percentage of land in Hawai‘i that was managed sustainably based on the economic, environmental, cultural, and historical resources. OHA data shows that 15% of ahupua‘a landowners have a community-based resource management plan, which is an increase from 12% in 2011.
Hawaiian language revitalization is central to preserving cultural practices and fostering identity. The revival and use of the Hawaiian language serve as a cornerstone for cultural expression, connecting native peoples with their heritage and creating a deeper understanding of their roots.
State Parks And Historic Sites
Source: Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism (DBEDT) Databook
Source: Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism (DBEDT) Databook
HAWAI‘I’S GENUINE PROGRESS INDICATOR
Hawai‘i’s Genuine Progress Indicator is a measure of well-being and sustainability beyond traditional economic indicators. It takes into account social, economic, and environmental perspectives including factors such as income distribution, education, health, crime rates, pollution, natural resource depletion, and volunteer work. It is intended to capture the overall quality of life and the sustainable development of communities. The GPI encourages policies that promote the equitable distribution of resources, protect natural resources, and improve overall societal well-being. From 2000 to 2021, Hawai‘i progressed on average of 2.1% each year.
SEA LEVEL RISE VIEWER
The Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System (PacIOOS) Shoreline Change Hawai‘i is an online tool that provides information on sea level rise (SLR) and shoreline change. The tool was developed by the University of Hawai‘i and assists planners, policymakers, and other stakeholders in making informed decisions related to coastal management and climate adaptation. The tool features a range of data and information, including interactive maps, visualizations, and graphs that illustrate historical trends and projected future impacts. It also includes other factors that can influence shoreline change, such as coastal erosion, storms, and tidal fluctuations. The tool also raises awareness of the potential impacts of SLR on Hawai‘i’s coastal communities and ecosystems and promotes proactive measures to reduce the risks and vulnerabilities.
PACIFIC DISASTER CENTER
The University of Hawai‘i’s Pacific Disaster Center (PDC) has had significant accomplishments in Disaster Risk Reduction. In 2022, PDC was named laureate of the United Nations Sasakawa Award for Disaster Risk Reduction, which is awarded every three years to organizations that have made a substantive impact in reducing disaster risk. PDC addressed the complex challenges of disaster management and promoting resilience with advanced modeling and analytical tools that enhanced early warning systems and decision making, enabling governments, communities, and organizations to better understand and mitigate risks of natural hazards. PDC promotes knowledge sharing, partnerships, and empowers communities.
MERRIMAN’S WAIMEA
In 2022, Chef-Owner Peter Merriman and Sustainability Director Jessie Merriman led the initiative to make Merriman’s Waimea the first carbon-neutral restaurant in Hawai‘i. In addition to offsetting more than 500 metric tons of annual carbon emissions, Merriman’s Waimea partnered with local scientists at Blue Ocean Barns and farmers at Hawai‘i Island Goat Dairy to create the world’s first low-emission goat cheese. By feeding dairy goats a seaweed supplement consisting of limu kohu, the animals’ methane output is reduced by roughly 85 percent. Merriman’s Waimea is reducing its dependence on natural gas by installing electric induction equipment and is working with the wine and spirit industry to design a climate-friendly alternative to glass bottles.
To engage the community and encourage a climate-friendly dining experience, Merriman’s Waimea identified and labeled the most sustainable dishes on their menus and continues to prioritize sourcing local ingredients, practices farm-to-table principles, promotes sustainable seafood choices, and raises awareness about sustainability. Their commitment to environmental stewardship and responsible business practices sets an exemplary standard in the industry, reducing carbon footprint, supporting local farmers and fishermen, protecting marine ecosystems, and contributing to the preservation of natural resources. These processes will inform their other restaurant locations in Hawai‘i.
HAWAI‘I CLIMATE DATA PORTAL
The Hawai‘i Climate Data Portal (HCDP) is an online resource that provides access to climate data including historical climate trends, projections of climate conditions, and climate-related impacts such as sea level rise and ocean acidification. The project, developed by the University of Hawai‘i’s Pacific Islands Climate Science Center in collaboration with various government agencies, nonprofits, and academic institutions, includes information from the Hawai‘i Mesonet, a network of weather stations that collect real-time weather data. There are currently 25 Mesonet stations in operation across Hawai‘i, 24 of which are already integrated into the HCDP. The data is presented in a user-friendly format that is accessible to a broad range of stakeholders and easily visualized in the Aloha + Challenge Dashboard.
VIBRANT HAWAI'I
Vibrant Hawai‘i is a collaborative effort focusing on promoting innovation, entrepreneurship, and sustainable economic growth. Vibrant Hawai‘i offers a range of resources and tools including access to capital, business support services, and community development programs. The initiative promotes key industries such as tourism, agriculture, and renewable energy and seeks to leverage the unique strengths and assets of each island to drive economic growth.
COMMUNITY INVESTMENT VEHICLE (CIVIC), ALA WAI WATERSHED COLLABORATION
The Ala Wai Watershed Collaboration established a watershed management district for the Ala Wai Watershed, the Community Investment Vehicle (CIVic). The CIVic enables shared decision-making that engages government, businesses, landowners, community stakeholders, and cultural practitioners at all stages of watershed project planning, including design, implementation, and long-term maintenance. The CIVic incorporates and activates the Mālama Implementation Tool into its project assessment and management processes.
‘ĀINA ALOHA ECONOMIC FUTURES
‘Āina Aloha Economic Futures (AAEF) is a group of Native Hawaiian leaders who identified the need for Native Hawaiian voices, values, and experiences to influence the post-COVID economic recovery. The group developed the Hūliau Action Agenda and the AAEF Declaration guided by four guiding principles: ‘Āina Aloha, ‘Ōpu‘Alī, ‘Imi ‘Oi Kelakela and Ho‘okipa. The AAEF tool measures, benchmarks, and advances the values in AAEF’s Declaration to move Hawai‘i closer to a future guided by Native Hawaiian culture, perspectives, and values.
GREEN WORKFORCE AND EDUCATION
Increase local green jobs and education to implement the Aloha+ Challenge sustainability goals
GREEN WORKFORCE and EDUCATION
| Category | Indicator | Value | Notes |
|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| ‘Āina-Based Education and Community Engagement| School Community Sites in 2017 | 20 | |
| | Measuring | | |
| Transformational Learning and Education Attainment | Hawai‘i Students Graduated High School on Time in 2021 | 85.9% | |
| | Measuring | | |
| Equitable Access to Education | Youth (ages 16-24) Not Attending School and Not Working in 2021 | 13.4% | |
| | Measuring | | |
| Workforce and Professional Development | Workforce Unemployment February 2023 | 3.2% | Needs Improvement |
| | Measuring | | |
| Innovation and Entrepreneurship | Survival Rate of Start-Up Business After 5 Years in 2023 | 47.6% | Measuring |
| Sustainable Tourism | Number of Certified Ecotourism Businesses in 2021 | 46 | Needs Improvement |
| Economic Diversity | Growth of Hawai‘i’s Strong Traded Economic Clusters in 2016 | -1% | Measuring |
This goal identifies the importance of education, jobs, innovation, and an integrated green economy in achieving Hawai‘i’s sustainability goals.
**AT A GLANCE**
- **WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
Hawai‘i experienced a significant increase in unemployment due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the unemployment rate jumping from a low of 2.4% in March 2020 to a peak of 23.4% in May 2020, and it continues to fluctuate. As of February 2023, the unemployment rate decreased to 3.2%.
- **EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT — UPWARD TREND:**
85.9% of students graduated high school on time as of 2021. Of residents 25 and older, 92.3% have at least a high school diploma, and 32.9% have at least a bachelor’s degree as of 2018.
- **EQUITABLE ACCESS — UPWARD TREND:**
In 2021, 86.6% of youth (16-24 years old) were attending school or employed, slightly up from 85% in 2010.
- **SUSTAINABLE TOURISM — NEEDS IMPROVEMENT:**
46 businesses were certified as sustainable eco-tourism businesses as of January 2020, but better metrics and more data are needed to measure sustainability in the tourism industry.
Hawai‘i’s commitment to ‘āina-based education and stewardship is centered around community engagement and empowerment, cultural heritage preservation, and environmental conservation. An example is the Nā Hopena A‘o Program, or HA, a framework that focuses on developing competencies that strengthen a sense of belonging, responsibility, excellence, aloha, and total well-being. School Community Councils (SCC) provide a way for families and the community to participate in decision-making.
Hawai‘i is committed to providing equal access to quality education and learning opportunities for all residents, ensuring they acquire the knowledge and skills needed to thrive and build a sustainable future. The State faces persistent disparities in education outcomes, particularly for Native Hawaiian students and those from low-income backgrounds. The high cost of living in Hawai‘i exacerbates these challenges, making it difficult for families to support their children’s education effectively. The COVID-19 pandemic added immense challenges due to remote learning and the need for support services.
To tackle these issues the Hawai‘i Department of Education implemented various initiatives and programs, such as the Strive HI Performance System, which offers schools support and resources to improve student outcomes.
The University of Hawai‘i’s Hawai‘i Graduation Initiative increases educational capital by addressing the participation and graduation of students, particularly Native Hawaiians, low-income students, and those from underserved regions. According to the most recent data available, 43 percent of working-age adults hold a postsecondary degree.
Although progress has been made, the percentage of students that graduate high school on time has increased only slightly from 83.1% in 2015 to 85.9% in 2021. The percentage of children enrolled in nursery school or preschool fell from 24,800 in 2019 to 17,100 in 2021.
Hawai‘i recognizes the importance of equitable access to education and is committed to ensuring that all students have the resources and opportunities they need to succeed. The State identified several key areas for improvement including early childhood education, support for at-risk students, and access to post-secondary education and training.
One notable program is the expansion of dual credit programs, allowing high school students to earn college credits providing a head start on their higher education journey and preparing them for future success.
Another focus is on targeted support for at-risk students, including those experiencing homelessness and from low-income households. To increase access to post-secondary education and training, the State has partnerships with community colleges and vocational schools and supports initiatives such as the Hawai‘i Promise Program that provides free tuition for qualified University of Hawai‘i Community College students with financial needs.
The term “green jobs” encompasses a wide range of work that contributes to Hawai‘i’s economy, communities, and sustainability goals, including professional work, entrepreneurship, non-traditional work, subsistence-based livelihoods, cultural practices, and volunteerism. By creating pathways to nurture and support green jobs, Hawai‘i can foster economic growth while advancing the sustainability agenda.
Recognizing that innovation and entrepreneurship are critical components of sustainable economic growth and job creation, programs and initiatives to encourage and support entrepreneurship including access to funding and capital, creating supportive business ecosystems, and investing in research and development. Hawai‘i has innovation hubs and programs to support the growth of emerging industries such as clean energy, aerospace, and life sciences. Additionally, Hawai‘i’s focus on indigenous knowledge and traditional practices led to programs that support indigenous entrepreneurship and culturally rooted innovation.
The backdrop of COVID-19 made evident the increasing need to transform Hawai‘i’s tourism industry into a more environmentally and socially sustainable sector. The industry needs to reduce its carbon footprint, protect natural resources, and support local businesses and culture. The State implemented several initiatives to address the challenge such as the Green Business Program, which recognizes businesses committed to sustainability, and the Sustainable Tourism Certification Program, which certifies hotels and other accommodations that meet specific sustainability criteria. As visitor arrivals return to pre-pandemic levels, it is crucial for the tourism industry to prioritize sustainability in order to support Hawai‘i’s green recovery, enhance the quality of life for local communities, and preserve island culture and heritage.
PLEDGE TO OUR KEIKI, KANU HAWAI'I
The Pledge to our Keiki, modeled after the innovative and internationally recognized Palau Pledge, will support the Department of Education and the nearly 170,000 students in environmental sustainability and service learning. Launched by the Republic of Palau, the Palau Pledge is a written agreement all visitors to Palau must sign before entering the country that promotes responsible, sustainable tourism with a focus on protecting the country's environment and culture.
The Pledge to Our Keiki is a promise for sustainable tourism. It raises awareness about environmental issues, promotes responsible behavior among tourists, and encourages local communities to take ownership of their natural resources. People, governments, and businesses can sign the online "Pledge to Our Keiki" as their first act of service and a commitment to leaving Hawai'i better than they found it.
GLOBAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, PACIFIC AND ASIAN AFFAIRS COUNCIL
The Global Education Program (GEP), an initiative of the Pacific and Asian Affairs Council (PAAC), provides resources to teachers and students in Hawai'i and the Pacific region to promote global awareness, understanding, and engagement. It offers professional development workshops, cultural exchanges, and classroom resources designed to help teachers incorporate global perspectives into their curriculum and help students develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to thrive in an increasingly interconnected world.
KAUNALEWA
Kaunalewa is a non-profit organization that empowers Native Hawaiian communities through education, training, and resources to address social, economic, and environmental issues. It supports the development of culturally responsive educational programs that are grounded in traditional Hawaiian values and traditions. Kaunalewa is committed to protecting and preserving the natural environment and promotes sustainable practices that protect the islands’ unique ecosystems and natural resources.
SUSTAINABILITY AT UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I
The University of Hawai‘i integrates sustainability across operations, education, research, and community engagement. It offers three sustainability-focused degrees: Bachelor of Arts in Sustainability Studies, Bachelor of Applied Science in Sustainability Science Management, and Bachelor of Applied Science in Sustainable Community Food Systems. The University also offers world-class programs offering BA, MA, and doctoral degrees which integrate sustainability topics across multiple colleges.
At the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, the Institute for Sustainability and Resilience provides campus-wide leadership and coordination for interdisciplinary education, research, and outreach related to climate change, environmental sustainability, and community resilience in Hawai‘i and abroad. The goal is to equip students to meet critical environmental challenges, with a focus on the climate crisis.
The University of Hawai‘i Office of Sustainability helped complete the inaugural AASHE STARS reports for five of the 10 UH campuses. STARS is a transparent, self-reporting framework for colleges and universities to measure their sustainability performance. The metrics used in STARS help inform campus leadership on how UH is progressing on UH Sustainability Policy EP 4.202 and RP 4.208. All five campuses scored bronze in STARS.
GOOD JOBS HAWAI'I
The University of Hawai‘i’s Good Jobs Hawai‘i strengthens the economy by promoting quality job opportunities and workforce development. A statewide collaboration, Good Jobs Hawai‘i serves as a bridge between job seekers and employers, enhancing job quality, increasing workforce skills, and fostering economic prosperity. It offers free skills training in high-demand sectors such as healthcare, technology, clean energy/skilled trades, and creative industries that can lead to better-paying jobs.
COUNTY COMMITMENT
City and County of Honolulu
Hawai‘i County
Maui County
Kaua‘i County
“I am thrilled to shine a spotlight on the bright spots within the City and County of Honolulu through the Voluntary Local Review. This comprehensive assessment highlights the exceptional achievements and innovative initiatives that showcase our commitment to the Aloha+ Challenge. From renewable energy advancements to community-driven projects, Honolulu is a beacon of sustainability and resilience. Let us celebrate these accomplishments and continue to foster a vibrant and thriving Honolulu that sets an example for other communities around the world.”
—Hon. Rick Blangiardi,
Mayor
City & County of Honolulu
The City and County of Honolulu (C&C) is committed to ambitious climate, sustainability, and resilience goals and is recognized nationally and internationally for its progress. C&C has seen progress towards removing carbon emissions in the electricity sector, attributed in part to the closing of the island’s last coal-fired power plant in 2022. Grid-scale solar projects, rooftop solar, and battery infrastructure are integral in the transition to renewable energy sources.
C&C passed an ordinance in 2022 for a “Better Buildings Benchmarking Program” that requires owners of buildings larger than 25,000 square feet to report their energy and water usage. Comprehensive transportation planning strategies prioritize safe, clean, affordable, and accessible transportation systems. As an example, O’ahu is transitioning its City fleet to more sustainable options, notably, the addition of 17 electric buses and the installation of chargers to support the electric fleet.
This transition to a greener transportation alternative will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. In 2021, C&C took a significant step in addressing climate change and reducing fossil fuel emissions by releasing its first-ever Climate Action Plan (CAP). Developed through a comprehensive engagement process involving community members, stakeholders, and various departments, the CAP outlines nine strategies and 47 actions. The goal is to reduce emissions by 45% by 2025 and to reach carbon neutrality by 2045.
- Recognizing the importance of diversification and market opportunities, C&C established a $3 million grant program to provide funds to more than 60 local farmers on O’ahu.
- Waste reduction is another key focus for the C&C. To tackle the issue of single-use plastics, an ordinance passed in 2019 banning polystyrene foam and disposable plastic food ware. C&C is also engaged in a collaborative pilot program with community organizations to reduce food waste through food recovery, redistribution, and composting.
- Integrating sustainable and environmental values into C&C plans, policies, and programs is a priority for O’ahu. C&C made significant water and energy efficiency upgrades to its facilities through a City-wide Energy Savings Performance Contract initiated in 2020. This contract delivers substantial energy, water, and cost savings and improves the overall performance of City buildings and operations. The Department of Parks and Recreation launched its Energy Savings Performance Contract in 2022 to enhance the park experience and the environment while saving a projected $97 million over the next 20 years.
- The Honolulu Climate Change Commission updated its Sea Level Rise Guidance report, which informs C&C plans, policies, and programs with the most recent scientific data.
O‘AHU COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
Public, private, and civil society partners developed the 2022 C&C of Honolulu Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy 2022 (O‘ahu CEDS), a “sail plan” designed to steer economic development, recovery, and long-term resilience. The plan serves as a guiding framework for federal, state, and county-level funding, policy, and economic development initiatives over the next five years as part of a broader effort across Hawai‘i with the Economic Development Alliance of Hawai‘i.
Informed by collective expertise, the plan prioritizes eight economic clusters including green industries such as local agriculture, renewable energy, and regenerative tourism. The focus aims to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, protect island ecosystems, and create quality jobs that bolster the economy while supporting environmental and community health. Integral to economic considerations, the CEDS centers on social equity strategies to increase community resilience in the face of future shocks and stressors. The O‘ahu CEDS reflects a commitment to building an inclusive, regenerative island economy that prioritizes the needs of all residents.
HAWAI‘I COUNTY
“I am thrilled to emphasize the significance of the Voluntary Local Review and showcase the remarkable achievements of Hawai‘i Island. Our collective efforts have brought forth a multitude of bright spots that illuminate our commitment to sustainability and resilience. From renewable energy initiatives to community-driven projects, the County of Hawai‘i Island is blazing a trail toward a prosperous and vibrant future. Let us continue to harness this momentum, working together towards a resilient and equitable Hawai‘i Island that thrives economically, socially, and environmentally.”
—Hon. Mitch Roth,
Mayor,
Hawai‘i County
The County of Hawai‘i is committed to forging a sustainable island where its residents can thrive for generations to come. Its efforts to date have been driven by a focus on economic development and infrastructure investment that reflects community values and respects the Island’s rich culture, history, and environment.
This approach emphasizes the balance between natural, cultural, and economic capital. Initiatives that align with historic and natural resources and are not intrusive to Island communities are encouraged. The Tourism Strategic Plan and the Destination Management Action Plan emphasize responsible tourism, effective communication with visitors based on the concept of pono, place-based education for residents, and sustainable infrastructure with a focus on preserving the health of natural resources and the well-being of its people.
One of the County’s key objectives is to ensure a resilient and renewable energy system while reducing costs for its residents. Approximately 60% of the island’s energy is generated from renewable sources. Managed by the Department of Research and Development, the energy program focuses on regulatory and legislative initiatives, renewable energy programs, economic development endeavors, and energy emergency preparedness.
- In 2022, the County dedicated federal funds to make public transportation more accessible by providing free bus services through Hele-On. Additionally, the County’s Multi-Modal Transportation Master Plan establishes new fixed bus routes, vanpool services, and bike-share programs to promote sustainable transportation options.
- Hawai‘i Island received a Department of Energy grant to work in a mentor-mentee program with sister cities Nannie, Japan, and Lancaster, California, putting Hawai‘i Island in the running for a Hydrogen Hub grant that could bring a prospective $1 billion in funding for clean energy.
- The Research and Development Department’s Climate Change Program supports initiatives that safeguard the natural and cultural assets of Hawai‘i Island, while focusing on mitigation and adaptation to climate change. The County is currently completing its Integrated Climate Action Plan, which is an inter-departmental effort to analyze actions the County can take to address and combat climate change.
- Hawai‘i Island monitors greenhouse gas emissions across the island, with a particular focus on the transportation, agriculture, and solid waste sectors identified as areas in need of improvement.
- To promote a diversified and sustainable food sector, the County’s Food Systems Program supports agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, and related natural resource development. The program provides financial assistance, research coordination, data for decision-makers, and advocacy of local farmers. During the Covid-19 pandemic, the Department of Research and Development connected local producers with federal funding opportunities. In partnership with Hawai‘i Farm Bureau, the County developed the Hawai‘i Island Farm Product Purchase Program to procure food from local producers and distribute it to food-insecure households.
- Affordable housing is a top priority and the county has plans to initiate the construction of eight new affordable housing projects by the end of 2023, providing an additional 778 units for residents.
- In 2021, the Department of Research and Development, Community First, and the University of Hawai‘i Hilo partnered to develop Kuleana Health, a two-year program focusing on community health literacy and reducing health disparities among minority and vulnerable communities.
- The County’s Workforce Development Board promotes a healthy workforce by coordinating with educational institutions, economic development organizations, businesses, and government agencies and facilitating the Hawai‘i County Workforce Development Board and the Local Area Plan (2020-2024).
HELE-ON BUS
Since June 2022, the Hele-On bus service has operated free of charge for all passengers, enhancing accessibility and promoting public transportation. Operated by the County of Hawai‘i Mass Transit, the service covers various routes across the island, including Hilo, Kona, Puna, and other areas.
The bus service reduces traffic congestion, provides transportation options for those without private vehicles, lowers transportation costs for individuals and families, and contributes to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation system. The funding for the free service is made possible through federal funds from the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Appropriations Act and the American Rescue Plan Act.
HAWAI‘I COUNTY SUSTAINABILITY SUMMIT
In December 2022, the Hawai‘i Sustainability Summit brought together businesses, nonprofits, community, and government leaders from across the state. Building upon the progress made during the inaugural Sustainability Summit in 2021, this event had a clear objective: “Building Partnerships for Policy.” Hosted by the County of Hawai‘i and HGG, the summit sought to foster collaboration and cooperation among participants, transcending organizational boundaries, and paving the way for collective action and transformative policy changes that benefit all the islands.
By bringing together stakeholders from various sectors, the summit sought to break down silos and develop shared priorities including identifying gaps and opportunities and catalyzing comprehensive policy shifts that address pressing challenges to achieve resilience for the islands. The Hawai‘i Island Sustainability Summit represented a crucial milestone in advancing sustainability and creating a prosperous future for Hawai‘i by setting an agenda on how to move forward. One direct outcome of this was a proposed bill that would create a new cabinet-level Office of Sustainability, Climate, Equity and Resilience.
“I recognize the profound significance of the Voluntary Local Review, which underscores our island’s unwavering commitment to the Aloha+ Challenge. It serves as a powerful testament to our collective dedication in safeguarding our environment, strengthening our communities, and preserving our unique cultural heritage. Let us reaffirm our commitment to this transformative journey, working hand in hand to build a resilient and sustainable Maui that future generations can proudly call home.”
—Hon. Richard Bissen,
Mayor,
Maui County
Maui County demonstrates a strong commitment to sustainable development by building resiliency within its communities.
- In 2021, the County passed an Ordinance adding “Mitigate Climate Change and Work Toward Resilience” as a goal of the Countywide Policy Plan. This reflects the County’s dedication to reducing carbon emissions, addressing the impact of sea-level rise, and promoting the usage of renewable and green technologies.
- To improve operations efficiency and reduce water and energy usage the County implemented Energy Savings Performance contracting, with a 20-year contract launched in 2022, projecting to create over 40 jobs in engineering, project management, and maintenance support. Phase 1 of the project includes an estimated reduction of more than 2,000 tons of greenhouse gas emissions annually and a 33% reduction of potable water consumption.
- Maui is transitioning all public and private ground transportation to 100% clean transportation by 2045. By 2035, the County aims to transition its fleet vehicles to 100% clean transportation. In line with these goals, it is deploying a public electric vehicle (EV) charging network. The first phase includes installing 14 new Level 2 EV charging stations for public use on Maui and Molokai.
- In 2022, the office released the County’s first climate action and resiliency plan, including strategies for reducing emissions while building local resilience against climate change impacts. The report is available in English and in ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i, demonstrating the County’s commitment to preserving Hawaiian values, culture, and language.
- Countywide Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment will integrate existing departmental vulnerability assessments, the County’s multi-hazard mitigation plan, and ongoing community vulnerability assessments. This planning will provide an integrated, high-level climate change vulnerability study that can guide County policies, projects, and budget priorities.
- The Maui County Sea Level Rise Proclamation, in recognition of already occurring impacts of climate change including sea-level rise, directs planning and all County departments to consider sea-level rise in their programs and planning regulations.
- The Office of Innovation and Sustainability was formed in 2023 as a cross-functional internal working group to focus on key actions and initiatives to support the environmental, social, and economic well-being of Maui and its residents. Priorities include affordable housing, water, infrastructure, economic development, and environmental protection.
- In 2023 Maui announced a commitment to manage and mitigate 100,000 axis deer, which are detrimental to the natural environment and native species.
ACTION SPOTLIGHTS
HAWAI‘I ENERGY CONFERENCE
The annual Hawai‘i Energy Conference brings together experts in the energy field to share knowledge and experiences. A major theme is the role of renewable energy in Hawai‘i’s future, and attendees explored how to reach 100% renewable energy by 2045. Topics such as energy storage, grid modernization, and community-based renewable energy projects were discussed with energy industry leaders, policymakers, researchers, and entrepreneurs.
MAUI SUSTAINABILITY MAP
In 2021, Maui Sustainability Initiative partnered with HCG and the County to develop a community resource to raise awareness of and increase collaboration among sustainability organizations by documenting and mapping the sustainability organizations within the County. The map is available on the Aloha+ Dashboard and includes organizations working on one or more of the Aloha+ Challenge sustainability goals. Organizations can be searched by organization type(s), geography, or Aloha+ Challenge goal. Organizations, projects, programs, and businesses are based on their alignment with Aloha+ Challenge priorities and their specific indicators.
KAUA'I COUNTY
“As Mayor of Kaua‘i, I am immensely proud of our island’s commitment to the Aloha+ Challenge. The release of our Voluntary Local Review signifies the strides we’ve made in protecting Kaua‘i’s beauty and resilience. Let us continue to collaborate and innovate, ensuring a sustainable future that honors our past and nurtures our communities with the spirit of aloha.”
—Hon. Derek Kawakami
Mayor,
Kaua‘i County
The County of Kaua‘i is firmly committed to sustainability and has achieved significant milestones in renewable energy generation. In 2021, Kaua‘i Island Utility Company successfully achieved 70% renewable generation, making it the first county in the State to meet the 70% renewable energy goal set for 2030. This accomplishment led to KIUC being honored as the Electric Cooperative of the Year by the Smart Electric Power Alliance.
- The County is dedicated to transitioning its bus and vehicle fleet to 100% electric by 2035 and expanding the island’s public EV charger network.
- Kaua‘i uses energy management information systems across its operations to reduce energy consumption and improve overall energy efficiency.
- The Resiliency Team led by the Planning Department is developing the Kaua‘i Climate Adaptation and Action Plan (CAAP). The plan will integrate community and scientific knowledge to provide a comprehensive framework for adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change on people, places, and natural built systems.
- The County is progressing on multi-modal transportation transformation, such as the Planning Department’s Lihu‘e Civic Center Mobility Hub Plan, the Office of Economic Development’s Energy Transitions Initiative Partnership Project, the launching of the GetAroundKauai website to highlight alternative transportation modes and routes, and the Coconut Marketplace Mobility Hub Plan.
- Kaua‘i is committed to preserving the Hawaiian culture and natural resources and balancing the demands of tourism. The County is addressing actions identified in the Hawai‘i Tourism Authority Destination Management Action Plan by adding more County park ranger positions, continuing to shut down illegal transient vacation rentals, and developing stewardship agreements at five different sites.
- To further alleviate the pressures of tourism on local communities, the County is piloting a paid visitor parking system for Po‘ipū, Lydgate, and Black Pot beach parks. The intent is to manage visitor impact and ensure a more sustainable tourism experience for both visitors and residents.
- The County is identifying infrastructure needs, upgrading aging infrastructure, and implementing regulations for new construction to enhance resilience. In 2022, the County was awarded $24.8 million through the Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability & Equity, or RAISE, grant program to improve approximately 3.3 miles of Po‘ipū Road, from Kōloa Town to the Po‘ipū resort district of Kaua‘i. The project includes roundabouts, bicycle lanes, sidewalks, pedestrian crossings, bus stops, landscaped medians, resurfaced roadways, and drainage improvements. The project will commence in the coming months and will improve safety for school children and commuters by making roadways improvements and adding pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure. The County plans to create “a shared use path” from Wainiha to Kekaha to connect the Island’s leeward communities and promote alternative transportation options.
- The County’s Housing Agency, in collaboration with private developers, is constructing 400 new affordable housing units in the Pua Loke site in ‘Ele‘ele marking a record for Kaua‘i and addressing the need for housing and affordable options.
Hawai‘i Green Growth Meeting in Kaua‘i and Mālama Hulē‘ia
In May 2023, for the first time since COVID, more than 50 HGG Network members convened on Kaua‘i Island to review the Aloha+ Challenge and VLR components. Co-sponsored by Kaua‘i and the Hawai‘i State Energy Office, the event included HGG members and community organizations showcasing their sustainability and green workforce efforts and discussing opportunities.
A site visit with Mālama Hulē‘ia at Alakoko fishpond grounded participants in ‘āina-based practices such as removing invasive red mangroves and guinea grass, to restore a free-flowing, healthy, and productive Hulē‘ia ecosystem. A talk story session helped participants learn about Mālama Hulē‘ia’s efforts to reestablish wildlife habitats, traditional forms of productivity, and ultimately revitalize the history and culture of the Hulē‘ia.
Inspired by the United Nations (UN) World Café method and the Local 2030 Islands Network Island Café at the 2023 Communities of Practice Meetings in Honolulu, participants engaged in small group discussions with a focus on data and what to include in Hawai‘i’s second VLR. Groups explored the use of data in decision-making among their respective organizations and communities and how to better promote the VLR report being published to the United Nations at the High-Level Political Forum in July 2023.
KAUA‘I ISLAND UTILITY COOPERATIVE (KIUC)
KIUC is a not-for-profit member-owned electric cooperative serving 35,000 customers on Kaua‘i with the cleanest, most reliable, and most affordable electricity in Hawai‘i. Over the past 10 years, KIUC has shown that utilities can aggressively transition from fossil-fuel generation to renewables without compromising reliability and still provide affordable electricity. KIUC reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by nearly 60% and is working to reach 100% renewable generation by 2033. In 2021, nine years shy of the 2030 deadline, KIUC reached a 70% renewable energy portfolio and often generates 100% renewable energy on sunny days. KIUC offers programs to reduce member energy use, encourage greater adoption of EVs, and through its renewable projects is supporting the expansion of agriculture on Kaua‘i.
LOCAL-GLOBAL
“In the UN call for a Decade of Action - local action will be key for the world to deliver the SDGs by 2030. The Local2030 Islands Network is answering the call to provide leadership, practical solutions and a strong voice for ambition toward locally-driven sustainable development for implementation of the Samoa Pathway.”
—H.E. Amina J. Mohammed,
Deputy Secretary-General,
United Nations
HAWAI‘I GREEN GROWTH AS A UN LOCAL2030 HUB
In recognition of Hawai‘i’s sustainability leadership and history of systems thinking, in 2018 the United Nations invited Hawai‘i Green Growth to become one of the world’s first UN Local2030 Hubs, a distinction granted by the joint UNDP-UN Habitat led Local2030 Coalition based in Bilbao, Spain. This designation was based on Hawai‘i Green Growth’s track record as a public-private partnership through the Aloha+ Challenge, a local framework to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Later, Hawai‘i Green Growth was appointed as a Global Climatic Hub for islands, tasked with developing best practices and raising awareness about how they are key to the local implementation of the SDGs. The hubs are designed as partnerships between thematic experts, local actors, and UN agencies, and showcase best practices that can be replicated globally.
Hawai‘i’s sustainability model is being recognized and scaled globally, from the United Nations to Tasmania and Pacific islands, including through a MOU with the East-West Center, the Global Island Partnership, and the Polynesian Voyaging Society. Through the HGG Local2030 hub, Hawai‘i shares scalable models with other islands, U.S. cities and states, the Asia-Pacific, and sub-national regions of major economies to advance local SDG action.
“Hawai‘i’s Aloha+ Challenge is an island-led solution that offers integrated, locally and culturally appropriate models to implement the UN sustainable development goals.”
—Tommy Remengesau Jr.,
President of Palau
(2001–2009)
SCALING HAWAI'I'S MODEL GLOBALLY:
THE LOCAL2030 ISLANDS NETWORK
Following the designation of Hawai‘i Green Growth as the Local2030 Global Thematic Hub for Islands, Hawai‘i Green Growth, in partnership with the Global Island Partnership (GLISPA), formed the Local2030 Islands Network, the world’s first global, island-led network to advance the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through locally driven solutions. Launched during the 74th U.N. General Assembly, the Local2030 Islands Network provides a peer-to-peer forum for engagement among and between national and subnational island economies to share experiences, spread knowledge, raise ambition, promote solidarity, and identify and implement best practices for localization of the SDGs.
The Local2030 Islands Network supports its global island members in achieving the following four core principles, inspired by Hawai‘i Green Growth’s Public-Private Partnership model:
1. **Local Goals:** Identifying local goals to advance the SDGs and strengthen long-term political leadership on climate resilience and net-zero emissions pathways.
2. **Public-Private Partnerships:** Strengthening public-private partnerships that support diverse stakeholders in integrating sustainability priorities into policy and planning.
3. **Measurement:** Measuring SDG progress through tracking and reporting on locally and culturally informed indicators.
4. **Concrete Action:** Implementing concrete initiatives that build island resilience and a circular economy through locally appropriate solutions, particularly at the water-energy-food nexus
Hawai‘i Green Growth’s Aloha+ Dashboard and Working Group model inspired the Network’s offerings to its global members. Through a partnership with Esri, the Network supports its member islands in creating their own SDG Dashboards, similar to that of the Aloha+ Dashboard, which supports national VNR and localized VLR processes. In addition to Network members, through an MOU with UNESCAP, the Local2030 Islands Network pledged its support in sharing this model and Dashboard software with Small Island States in Asia and the Pacific.
The Network draws from Hawai‘i Green Growth’s Working Group model for the creation of its Communities of Practice. In April 2023, the Network brought nearly 40 islands to Honolulu for the inaugural gathering of two of its Communities of Practice (CoP) on Sustainable Tourism, Regenerative Tourism and Data for Climate Resilience. All of the Network’s CoPs champion island-led, culturally sensitive, and localized solutions for advancing the SDGs.
The Network supports the inception of public-private partnerships and supports the creation of other Green Growth initiatives in its member islands. The model was successfully replicated with the launch of Guam Green Growth and the G3 Dashboard in 2019, with efforts currently underway in Palau, Grenada, and others, speaking to the scalability, replicability, and sustainability of Hawai‘i Green Growth and the Aloha+ Dashboard.
BUILDING GLOBAL LEADERS
During the second phase of the Ka’āmauloa II: Global Perspectives and ʻŌiwi Leadership course, students use the indigenous wisdom of the past to protect the future. Using the Hawaiian worldview as a springboard, students are empowered by the diplomatic prowess and leadership of the aliʻi Hawaiʻi, coupled with international civics, to become advocates and the next generation of leaders, able to generate local solutions to global problems.
SCALING IMPACT THROUGH THE DASHBOARD
The Aloha+ Challenge and Dashboard positioned Hawaiʻi as a global leader on the SDGs and led to the recognition of Hawaiʻi Green Growth as one of the world’s first United Nations Local2030 Hubs – the only in North America, first in the Pacific, and first island Hub – as a center of excellence that can scale best practices for the SDGs to support action across the US, as well as regionally and globally.
The Aloha+ Dashboard is an unprecedented platform to track Hawaiʻi’s statewide progress towards the SDGs and has received significant international attention as a model for local SDG measurement with an increasing demand to replicate the stakeholder process and platform.
Working alongside HGG partners, Guam Green Growth developed their G3 Dashboard, modeled after the Aloha+ Challenge Dashboard. As Hawaiʻi works with other island economies through the Local2030 Islands Network, members identified the need for data that is useful, reliable, accessible, and prioritized for their individual needs. Furthermore, members noted that a dashboard mechanism for tracking progress can be key to promoting transparency and accountability on sustainability goals.
HGG partnered with Esri and the SDG Data Alliance to implement a new centralized Data Hub. This Hub will provide assistance with licensing, geospatial frameworks, and data collection for members, including supporting the creation of data dashboards to track SDG progress, local priorities similar to the Aloha+ Dashboard, and to inform Voluntary Local Reviews as well as Voluntary National Reviews.
Hawai‘i Green Growth United Nations Local2030 Hub would like to acknowledge the many organizations and individuals that contributed to this report. Mahalo to the community for participation in driving and assessing progress on the Aloha+ Challenge and the SDGs.
The Hawai‘i Voluntary Local Review was developed by the Hawai‘i Green Growth Local2030 Hub in consultation with a statewide network of partners from across sectors with the support of national and international collaborators. We express our sincere gratitude to the many individuals who gave their time and expertise for this report.
**Lead Author**
Kaimana Walsh
**Staff Contributors**
Valerie LaFarney, Samantha Happ, Patrick Branco, Kihei Seto, Jasmine Evans, Jillian Cristobal, Michael Omohundro, Laura Kam, Erin Azuma, Dylan Senkiw, Russ Masuda, Shelley Gustafson
**Strategic and Editorial Advisors**
Dr. Regina Ostergaard-Klem, Hawai‘i Pacific University
and Piia Aarma, Pineapple Tweed
**HGG Local2030 Hub Principal Advisor**
Celeste Connors
**Graphic Design**
Ruth Moen, Dog & Pony Show
ADDENDUM
HAWAI'I GREEN GROWTH
ANNUAL PARTNERSHIP MEETING IN HONOLULU
In October 2022, HGG UN Local2030 Hub hosted the 11th annual partnership meeting in Honolulu, convened in collaboration with the Global Island Partnership (GLISPA), Local2030 Islands Network, East-West Center, Kamehameha Schools, The Brookings Institution, The Rockefeller Foundation, the Hawai'i Tourism Authority (HTA), and SDSN.
The meeting was an officially recognized UN-Habitat Urban October event and coincided with the 10-year anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), a landmark event that produced The Future We Want Outcome Document and laid the groundwork for the 17 SDGs.
Nearly 150 students from Kamehameha Schools Kapalama Middle School Ka'āmaloa Pathway participated in the event and led the network in the opening protocol. More than 175 partners across government, business, and civil society, all committed to accelerating and scaling solutions to achieve the Aloha+ Challenge and the SDGs, attended.
At the gathering, Hawai'i's elected leaders, partners, and youth representatives reaffirmed their dedication to the shared vision of the Future We Want for Hawai'i and Island Earth. They collectively outlined a vision for a sustainable and prosperous future, emphasizing the importance of aligning efforts with the principles and targets set forth in the Aloha+ Challenge and the SDGs.
One notable initiative during the meeting was the "17 Rooms" session. A Brookings Institution, HGG, and the Rockefeller Foundation collaboration, the session involved breaking into 17 rooms or working groups, each focused on a specific SDG. The purpose was to identify existing SDG-related activities, share best initiatives, and establish new partnerships to expedite action. This exercise informed the HGG Network working group agendas and priority setting for the next two years.
Two high-level panel discussions and a closing plenary panel involved decision-makers, youth, and global leaders sharing knowledge on how local leadership can achieve the global goals.
REFERENCES
**Introduction**
1. Hawai‘i Economic & Community Navigator, Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, [https://invest.hawaii.gov/announcing-the-launch-of-the-hawai‘i-economic-community-navigator](https://invest.hawaii.gov/announcing-the-launch-of-the-hawai‘i-economic-community-navigator)
2. Hawai‘i Economic Recovery & Resilience Project, Office of Planning for Sustainable Development, [https://www.heri.onlin/](https://www.heri.onlin/)
**County Leadership**
*City and County of Honolulu*
3. City and County of Honolulu Annual Sustainability Report, [https://www.resilientohau.org/sustainability-report](https://www.resilientohau.org/sustainability-report)
*County of Hawai‘i*
4. Dashboard, CET01, County of Hawai‘i RPS, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/strategies/hub.arcgis.com/pages/cet-01-electricity](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/strategies/hub.arcgis.com/pages/cet-01-electricity)
5. Hele-On Bus, Big Island Video News, [https://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2022/06/03/hawai‘i/CA%BBIs-islands-hele-on-bus-now-free-to-ride/](https://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2022/06/03/hawai‘i/CA%BBIs-islands-hele-on-bus-now-free-to-ride/)
6. Department of Research and Development, Energy Program [https://rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-energy](https://rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-energy)
7. Department of Research and Development, Climate Change Action [https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-climate-change-action](https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-climate-change-action)
8. Hawai‘i Island Sustainability Dashboard [https://gis.hawaiicounty.gov/arcgisportal/apps/experiencebuilder/experience/?draft=true&id=644d95e6ed604e5992f93c8550b483&page=page_41&view=view](https://gis.hawaiicounty.gov/arcgisportal/apps/experiencebuilder/experience/?draft=true&id=644d95e6ed604e5992f93c8550b483&page=page_41&view=view)
9. Department of Research and Development, Agriculture and Food Systems, [https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-agriculture-food-systems](https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-agriculture-food-systems)
*State of the County Address, Big Island Now*, [https://bigislandnow.com/2023/03/14/mitch-roth-emphasizes-sustainability-in-his-state-of-hawai‘i/CA%BBState-county-address/](https://bigislandnow.com/2023/03/14/mitch-roth-emphasizes-sustainability-in-his-state-of-hawai‘i/CA%BBState-county-address/)
11. Kuleana Health, [https://www.kuleanalealth.org/Economic-Development/](https://www.kuleanalealth.org/Economic-Development/)
13. Tourism, [https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development/tourism](https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development/tourism)
14. Workforce Development Board, [https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-industry-development/workforce-development](https://www.rd.hawaiicounty.gov/economic-development-industry-development/workforce-development)
**Maui**
15. Countywide Policy Plan, Maui [https://www.mauicounty.gov/420/Countywide-Policy-Plan](https://www.mauicounty.gov/420/Countywide-Policy-Plan)
16. Energy Savings Performance Contract, 2022, Maui, [https://spectruminancialnews.com/hi/hawaii/news/2022/10/16/mayor-victorino-says-maui-tax-payers-will-benefit-with-new-contractor](https://spectruminancialnews.com/hi/hawaii/news/2022/10/16/mayor-victorino-says-maui-tax-payers-will-benefit-with-new-contractor)
17. County of Maui EV Charging Initiative, [https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/ev-initiative](https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/ev-initiative)
18. The Office of Climate Change, Resiliency, and Sustainability, [https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/meet-the-team](https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/meet-the-team)
19. CLIMATE ACTION AND RESILIENCY PLAN (CARP), [https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/climate-action-research-plan](https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/climate-action-research-plan)
20. Resilient Hub Network, [https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/resilient-hub-network](https://www.resilientmauini.org/pages/resilient-hub-network)
21. Countywide Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment, [https://www.resilientmauini.org/](https://www.resilientmauini.org/)
22. State of the County Address, Maui Now, [https://mauinow.com/2023/03/22/mayor-richard-besanj-identifies-promises-in-his-first-state-of-the-county-address/](https://mauinow.com/2023/03/22/mayor-richard-besanj-identifies-promises-in-his-first-state-of-the-county-address/)
**Kaua‘i**
3. Dashboard, CET01, KIUC RPS, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/strategies/hub.arcgis.com/pages/cet-01-electricity](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/strategies/hub.arcgis.com/pages/cet-01-electricity)
4. KIUC Electric Cooperative of the Year, [https://kiuc.coop/kiuc-recognized-electric-cooperative-year](https://kiuc.coop/kiuc-recognized-electric-cooperative-year)
5. Energy Program, County of Kaua‘i, [https://www.kauai.gov/government/Departments-Agencies/Economic-Development/Program-Areas/Energy-Programs](https://www.kauai.gov/government/Departments-Agencies/Economic-Development/Program-Areas/Energy-Programs)
6. Sustainability Program, County of Kaua‘i, [https://www.kauai.gov/government/Departments-Agencies/Economic-Development/Program-Areas/Sustainability-Program](https://www.kauai.gov/government/Departments-Agencies/Economic-Development/Program-Areas/Sustainability-Program)
7. State of the County Address, Hawaii News Now [https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2023/03/14/kauai-county-mayor-derek-kawakami-deliver-state-county-address/](https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2023/03/14/kauai-county-mayor-derek-kawakami-deliver-state-county-address/)
**Clean Energy**
Aloha+ Dashboard, CET01, Renewable Energy Generated by County with Statewide Comparison, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/strategies/hub.arcgis.com/pages/cet-01-electricity](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/strategies/hub.arcgis.com/pages/cet-01-electricity)
State of Hawaii Market Potential Study, Applied Energy Group, 2020, pg 46 [https://pubs.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Hawaii-2020-Market-Potential-Study-Final-Report.pdf](https://pubs.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Hawaii-2020-Market-Potential-Study-Final-Report.pdf)
Aloha+ Dashboard, CET05, Petroleum Used for Ground Transportation - Statewide, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/cet-05-transportation](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/cet-05-transportation)
Aloha+ Dashboard, CET02, Expenditure Per Person on Total Electricity and Electricity Spending, 2020, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/cet-02-fuel-use](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/cet-02-fuel-use)
Aloha+ Dashboard, CET05, Projected Hawai‘i GHG Net Emissions under each Scenario (Including Sinks, Excluding Aviation), 2030 [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/cet-03-ghg-emissions](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/cet-03-ghg-emissions)
**Local Food**
3. Aloha+ Dashboard, LFCP01, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/lfp-01-production](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/lfp-01-production)
**Sustainable Communities**
51. Center for Neighborhood Technology, Housing and Transportation Index, [https://tandextindex.org/map/](https://tandextindex.org/map/)
52. Aloha+ Dashboard, SSC02, Affordable Housing, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-02-affordable-housing](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-02-affordable-housing)
53. Aloha+ Dashboard, SSC03, Economic Prosperity, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-03-economic-prosperity](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-03-economic-prosperity)
54. CDC/ATSDR Social Vulnerability Index 2020, [https://www.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/sw/i/interactive_map.html](https://www.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/sw/i/interactive_map.html)
55. Aloha+ Dashboard, SSC01, Mobility, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-01-mobility-areas](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-01-mobility-areas)
56. Hawai‘i Housing Finance and Development Corporation 2021 Annual Report, [https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/reportuploads/HHFDCAnnualReport_2021_01_14_2022.pdf](https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/reportuploads/HHFDCAnnualReport_2021_01_14_2022.pdf)
57. BEED, Targeted Emerging Industries and Emerging Industries, [https://files.hawaii.gov/beed/economic/data_reports/emerging_industries-Hawaii_Targeted_Emerging_Industries_2022_Update_Report.pdf](https://files.hawaii.gov/beed/economic/data_reports/emerging_industries-Hawaii_Targeted_Emerging_Industries_2022_Update_Report.pdf)
58. Aloha+ Dashboard, SSC02, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-02-affordable-housing](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-02-affordable-housing)
59. Aloha+ Dashboard, SSC06, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-06-open-public-green-spaces](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-06-open-public-green-spaces)
60. Trust for Public Land, ParkScore, [https://www.tpl.org/city/hilo-hawaii](https://www.tpl.org/city/hilo-hawaii)
61. City of Hilo, [https://www.tpl.org/city/iluhe-hawaii](https://www.tpl.org/city/iluhe-hawaii)
62. Aloha+ Dashboard, SSC07, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-07-connection-to-place](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/ssc-07-connection-to-place)
**Green Workforce**
63. Aloha+ Dashboard, GW04, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-04-workforce-professional-development](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-04-workforce-professional-development)
64. Aloha+ Dashboard, GW02, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-02-transformational-learning-education-attainment](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-02-transformational-learning-education-attainment)
65. DBEDT, State of Hawai‘i Data Book, 2021, [https://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/economic/datobook/2021-initial/03/03(0321).pdf](https://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/economic/datobook/2021-initial/03/03(0321).pdf)
66. Aloha+ Dashboard, GW03, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-03-equitable-access-to-education](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-03-equitable-access-to-education)
67. Aloha+ Dashboard, GW06, [https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-06-sustainable-tourism](https://alohachallenge.hawaii.gov/pages/gw-06-sustainable-tourism)
68. University of Hawai‘i, Viewpoint Graduation Initiative, [https://www.hawaii.edu/office/vp-academic-strategy/university-of-hawaii/scb/bbb-strategic-directions-2015-2021/1hgi](https://www.hawaii.edu/office/vp-academic-strategy/university-of-hawaii/scb/bbb-strategic-directions-2015-2021/1hgi)
69. University of Hawai‘i Community Colleges, Hawai‘i Promise Program, [https://vcc.hawaii.edu/opvpc/removing-cost/promise](https://vcc.hawaii.edu/opvpc/removing-cost/promise)
70. Hawai‘i Green Business Program, [https://greenbusiness.hawaii.gov/](https://greenbusiness.hawaii.gov/)
HE NOHONA ‘AE’OIA
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Stars Over Surrey
Astronomy & Spaceflight News
28th February 2020
Heather Couper RIP
- Heather passed away 19th Feb aged 70
- She was one of the most prolific astronomy presenters and writers, and the 1st female one
- She presented Channel 4's *The Planets* (1985) and *The Stars* (1988)
- On Radio she co-led *Seeing Stars* on BBC World Service with Nigel Henbest
- 1st female president of BAA & SPA
- 1st female Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College
- She inspired many people to develop an interest in astronomy
Solar Orbiter launched!
- Solar Orbiter was launched by an Atlas V on 20th Feb from Cape Canaveral
- It will complement the work done by NASA's Parker Solar Probe
- It will use a complicated series of planetary fly-bys for gravity-assist changes to its trajectory, first being Venus in Dec this year
- Highly elliptical orbit, 0.28 AU to 0.91 AU but will be able to see "down" onto the polar regions of the Sun
- Orbit brings it to the Sun every 6 months on a 7 year mission – will have to withstand 500°
First images from new Solar telescope
- The Daniel K. Inouye 4 metre solar telescope sits on Mt. Haleakala in Hawaii
- It uses 7 miles of piping and uses a swimming pool of ice per day to keep cool
- Its first-light images show the most stunning detail
- plasma cells as big as France
- details as small as 18 miles across
- Between the cells bright areas can be seen caused by magnetic storms
- possibly channeling heat up to the Corona?
Video at https://astronomynow.com/2020/01/29/daniel-k-inouye-solar-telescope-dazzles-with-first-light-images/
Betelgeuse begins to brighten again
- Betelgeuse has just started to brighten again, according to Villanova University, using their own photometric data & that from the American Association of Variable Star Observers.
- This was actually predicted, on the basis that this “fainting” was merely a particularly deep instance of its 430 day periodicity (one of three periods the star has) – so we can call-off the Supernova watchers!
Betelgeuse begins to brighten again
However ESO's VLT telescope in Chile has imaged the star and shows the dimming is uneven, just on one hemisphere – no-one knows why!
There also seems to be a mysterious lop-sidedness to the expected spherical image.
Orion - Protostars Studied
• Two large radio telescopes have teamed up to study 300 protostars being formed in the Orion Molecular Cloud.
• VLA (Very Large Array) & ALMA (Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array) can pierce the huge clouds of dust and gas within the gas cloud, working in different frequencies, to see what visual telescopes cannot.
• ALMA shows the outer protoplanetary disc structure (blue).
• VLA shows the inner disc and infant stars.
• Already learning about mass of young protostellar systems.
NASA's Christina Koch back on Earth
• Arrived back from ISS after record breaking trip
– Her mission lasted 328 days, the longest by a female
– 6 space walks, including 1st all-female one
– 5248 orbits & 139 million miles
NASA's Christina Koch back on Earth
1st entirely British component on ISS
• A Cygnus resupply vessel docked recently at the ISS
• On board was an ESA funded antenna to be mounted during an spacewalk on the outside of the Columbus module to provide fast uplink/downlink data transfers between ISS and Earth
• This was built by MDA Space and Robotics Ltd, Harwell and is the very first completely British component on the ISS.
Virgin Galactic to sell more tickets
- VSS Unity and White Knight Two have relocated from Mojave to Spaceport America in New Mexico
- Two more of the sub-orbital spaceships are under construction
- Spaceport America can house 5x spaceships and 2x carriers
- The company has announced a new qualification scheme for people to register for tickets, a second tranche will be announced shortly.
- The qualification scheme is called “One Small step” and the actual registration procedure is “One Giant Leap”
- It's understood that the first commercial sub-orbital flights will begin later this year.
Space X announce Crew Dragon tourism
- Space X has come to an arrangement with Space Adventures to fly private citizens on commercial orbital flights on Crew Dragon.
- Space Adventures was the company that arranged the private flights to the ISS between 2001 and 2009, using Soyuz.
- The Crew Dragon will not visit the ISS but will enter a higher Earth orbit, with the trip probably lasting 4 or 5 days.
- Likely cost is thought to be about $50 M.
- There would be four passengers and no professional Space X or NASA astronauts on board.
- The Crew Dragon can fly completely autonomously.
- Training would only be a couple of months.
- The earliest such flight could be Q4 2021.
Starlink Joined by OneWeb
• There have been two more launches by SpaceX, each of 60 more Starlink broadband satellites
– 29th January and 17th February
– 1st stage landed OK on drone ship for one, missed the other
• OneWeb’s first multiple launch occurred on 7th Feb with a Soyuz launched 34 satellites from Kazakhstan
– 10 more launches this year, from Kazakhstan, Russia and French Guiana
• OneWeb need fewer satellites than SpaceX
– Starlink orbit at 550 kilometres, OneWeb at 1,200 k
– OneWeb “see” over the horizon and have direct links
• Jeff Bezos is also planning to enter the market!
Two possible fixes for InSight's Probe
- A year after it first failed, there are two current plans to get the probe working again on Mars.
- The main one is to use lander’s robotic arm to press down on the probe’s top cap and shove it through the harder than expected regolith.
- The big risk is this could cause damage to the electric control cable that trails behind the probe, so there will be several dummy runs in March to test out procedures.
- The other plan is to pile up lots of soil around the probe using the scoop.
Breaking News:
InSight’s seismometer has detected 450 marsquakes since landing!
Analysis of New Horizon's data confirms gentle collision theory
- New Horizons flew past Arrakoth on 1st Jan 2019
- Images showed two separate flat lobes joined by a neck
- No apparent fractures indicated there hadn't been a violent collision
- Accretion via gentle collision suggested
- Downloaded data from New Horizons confirms this theory
- Causes rethink of likely models of early Solar System proto-planetary formation.
Voyager 1's "Pale Blue Dot" image re-processed for 30th anniversary
Carl Sagan
“Look again at that dot. That’s here. That’s home. That’s us. On it everyone you love, everyone you know, everyone you ever heard of, every human being who ever was, lived out their lives. The aggregate of our joy and suffering, thousands of confident religions, ideologies, and economic doctrines, every hunter and forager, every hero and coward, every creator and destroyer of civilisation, every king and peasant, every young couple in love, every mother and father, hopeful child, inventor and explorer, every teacher of morals, every corrupt politician, every ‘superstar,’ every ‘supreme leader,’ every saint and sinner in the history of our species lived there – on a mote of dust suspended in a sunbeam.”
What's Up!
For March 2020
Woking Area U3A
Astronomy Group
Exhibitions at National Maritime Museum, Greenwich
• Astronomy Photographer of The Year
– until 26th April 2020
– £9.00
The March Night Sky
As at 10 p.m. mid-month
Sun & Moon in March
- First Quarter: 2nd
- Full Moon: 9th
- Last Quarter: 16th
- New Moon: 24th
| Date | Sun Rise | Sun Set | Moon Rise | Moon Set |
|--------|----------|---------|-----------|----------|
| 1st | 06.56 | 17.43 | 10.20 | 02.37 |
| 15th | 06.15 | 18.07 | 03.20 | 11.04 |
| 31st | 06.39 | 17.34 | 10.53 | 04.46 |
What’s Up - Planets
• **Mercury**
– A morning object, best seen mid-month very low in the East South East, about 30 mins before sunrise.
• **Venus**
– A brilliant evening object shining at mag -4.3 in the West. Visible for most of the evening, it shows a ‘half-Moon’ phase through a small telescope.
• **Mars**
– A morning object in the South East, the planet slowly improves as the month draws on, brightening slightly.
What’s Up - Planets
• **Jupiter**
– Visible as a low morning object in the South East predawn skies, brightening to mag -2.0 by month end.
• **Saturn**
– A low morning object low in the South East, near Mars & Jupiter.
• **Uranus**
– Best seen early evening 22° high in the West through binoculars or telescope
• **Neptune**
– Not visible this month
Phenomena in March
- **2nd** 1st quarter Moon close to Hyades cluster in Taurus
- **6th** Gibbous Moon sits across top of M44 Beehive cluster
- **8th** Uranus lies approx 2° below and to left of Venus
- **19th** Saturn lies 4° NW of waning crescent Moon
- **26th** Saturn, Mars & Jupiter form a triangle low in SE before dawn
- **28th** Thin crescent Moon, Venus and M45 Pleiades close together in Western evening sky.
- **29th** Start of British Summer Time, clocks go forward
Planetary Line Up 26/3/20
Using Stellarium
Moon, Venus & Pleiades 28/3/20
Using Stellarium
Woking Planetarium - What's On
Destination Mars
The *Starlight Odyssey* sessions
A 2-hour cosmic extravaganza, setting out all the latest news and developments in astronomy and space science in a fascinating way that anyone can understand.
- Topical presentation
- Planetarium session
- Questions and discussion welcome
13 Mar
7-9pm
£8
Stellar Safari
A new family-friendly live show to get you looking up. Perfect for stargazers of any age, this is an easy-to-follow introduction to the universe we live in.
- Live show
- Introductory level
- Family-friendly
21st FEB SOLD OUT
1 hour
21 Feb &
27 Mar
7-8pm
£5
https://www.wcsc.org.uk/planetarium/
Meetings at Local Societies
• Guildford AS Lecture Theatre L, Uni of Surrey
– Thursday 5th March, 19.30 hrs
• Surrey Satellite Technology
– Dr. Spyridon Grammenos
» SSTL
Meetings at Local Societies
- Farnham AS Aldershot Cricket Club
- Tuesday 10th March, 19.45 hrs
- Astronomy Using Tablet and Smartphones
- Dr. Lilian Hobbs
Meetings at Local Societies
- **Croydon AS**
*Royal Russell School, Coombe Lane, Croydon*
- Friday 6th March, 19.45 hrs
- Spectroscopic Binaries
- Konrad Mallin-Smith
- Fridays 20th March, 19.45 hrs
- A Window Through The Universe
- Peter Bull
Meetings at Local Societies
- Ewell AS Nonsuch High School for Girls, Cheam
- Friday 13th March, 19.45 hrs
- Mercury's Long Afternoon
- David Fishwick
» Ewell AS
Meetings at Local Societies
• Walton Astronomy Group
– Friday 13th or Saturday 14th March, 8pm till late
• Dark Sky Trip (Stargazing session)
– Venue & night to be decided nearer to date
» check website for details
http://www.waltonastrogroup.co.uk
Department of Physics
- Wednesday 18th March
- 19.00 hrs
- Lecture Theatre E
- Talk
- title & speaker tbc
- followed by Stargazing (if clear)
- or
- Night Sky Talk
Astronomy Evening
Free event, but booking required, via web site
- https://www.surrey.ac.uk/department-physics/outreach/astronomy-evenings
Astronomy on TV
The Sky at Night
No programme this month, back in April
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History of the Chieftain
By: Emma Dowd
Conard High School chose its mascot, the Chieftain, in 1957 when the school first opened. The mascot has remained the same ever since. But this year, something has changed. As fall sports came to a close, many athletes who received certificates for their sport noticed that something was missing: the image of the Chieftain head on the sports certificate. Last year each certificate featured a Chieftain head on the sports certificate and this year, the Chieftain head has been replaced by a large red “C”.
The word “chieftain” means the leader of the people, or a powerful member of an organization. The use of Native American figures or names as mascots for schools is very common. In Connecticut, there are 26 high schools with Native American mascots, including the Hall Warriors, the Glastonbury Tomahawks, the Newington Indians, and the Killingly High School “Redmen”. Also, a recent search on a website called “Mascot DB” revealed that 128 high schools around the country have the mascot of “Chief” or “Chieftain” and 828 high schools have the mascot “Warrior”.
Many colleges and professional sports teams have mascots that refer to Native Americans, most notably the NFL’s Washington Redskins. This mascot alone has been the source of significant controversy in Washington, DC and around the country. In recent years, many colleges have dropped their Indian-related mascot and switched to another mascot. For example, Dartmouth switched from the “Indians” to “Big Green” in 1974, Quinnipiac University switched its mascot from the “Braves” to the “Bobcats” in 2002, and Stanford switched from “Indians” to “Cardinals” in 1972.
Even though many colleges have changed their mascots, there are still a large number of high schools and professional sports teams that have mascots related to Native Americans. So why does this mascot appeal to Americans so much? Many high schools might have wanted to pay tribute to the qualities of Native Americans related to being fearless, fierce, and resilient. These are qualities that athletes, fans, and coaches all admire.
Changing a high school mascot is not easy. One reason is the cost. To change the Chieftain mascot, Conard would have to change all the signs and pictures around the school. The school district would also have to buy new uniforms for the sports teams whose uniforms have the Chieftain name or the Chieftain head. In addition, there would have to be a process to select a new name. Some public high schools have surveyed the students, alumni, and parents, about alternate names to the Indian mascot theme. This process can sometimes be controversial with people having strong opinions on both sides. Finally, since so many fans, athletes, parents, and alumni already refer to Conard as the Chieftains, change could take a long time to implement.
Editor’s Note
Editors-In-Chief, Molly Bugos & Emma Kutscher
This issue of the PowWow is taking on a topic that has been discussed even more than the current MIA status of Homecoming—the Chieftain. In fact, the topic of our mascot is so important to the Conard community that we’ve devoted an entire edition of the Powwow to it.
This debate came to light in recent history at Hall High School, and spread across town to Conard, drawing into question the use of the “Chieftain” and “Warrior” as school mascots, and if the use of Native American imagery in association with the names is respectful. Instead of taking ownership of this controversy, the Board of Ed left it to the schools to initiate discussion.
The Board’s “hands off” approach has turned this topic of discussion into an ugly debate at Conard, as there has been no formal stance taken by the “powers above us.” However, in February, the Board will finally be making a decision regarding the mascots—and on February 12th they will be holding a public forum for discussion.
The purpose of this issue of the PowWow is for people to develop their own opinions beyond the influence of strong-willed friends, or influential teachers. We encourage everyone to read the variety of viewpoints provided in this edition, and to form their own opinions based on what they alone believe is right. We have done our very best to provide an equally balanced amount of editorials in favor of keeping the Chieftain, in favor of changing the Chieftain, and the many opinions that aren’t as easily categorized.
The PowWow as a publication is not taking a formal stance on this debate, and all editorials printed are reflections of the author’s opinions, not our own.
We hope that this issue is eye opening, and makes our readers consider a side of the debate they may not be as familiar with. We always encourage feedback from our readers, so if you feel strongly about anything printed, please send us a Letter to the Editor.
Happy reading, we hope to see you at the Board of Education’s public forum in February!
The Board of Education Will Be Holding a Forum For Public Discussion About our Mascot on February 12th, 2015 In The Town Hall Auditorium
Days ‘Till
Groundhog Day.................................6
Mr. Conard........................................7
Board of Ed Hearing ..........................16
Valentine’s Day.................................18
Winter Semi-Formal...........................25
“Promposal” Season..........................???
Freshmen Graduate.......................998,586,714
Recently, I had the fortune of interviewing Quyen Truong, Review and Evaluation Coordinator with the North Central Regional Mental Health Board, part-time artist, and a class of 2001 Conard graduate. She received a BA in visual arts from Brown University.
During her years at Conard, Truong was recognized by her peers and teachers as a talented artist. Her artwork was so widely appreciated that the school administration requested that she design several of the Chieftain logos that remain at Conard today. “I took pride in being asked to depict the Chieftain,” says Truong. “I was asked to create original Chieftain artwork for the yearly agendas. I created Chieftain logos for track and cross country shirts. In addition, I was commissioned by the head football coach to create a clay Chieftain head that I believe still sits in the trophy case at Conard.”
Truong admits that at the time she knew very little about the potential controversy that the mascot inflicted. “In high school, I felt that the Chieftain was a figure of pride. I felt that we were honoring Indians. I knew very little about Native Americans and had no reason to challenge the mascot.”
Over time, however, Truong’s opinion of the Chieftain changed dramatically. “When I went away to college, I started meeting Native Americans,” she recalls. “I started to question the premise of ‘honoring’ people that I didn’t actually know. I started to feel uncomfortable about the use of Chieftains as the Conard mascot. I realized that putting people on a pedestal as a mascot dehumanizes them. Far from honoring Native Americans, using Chieftains as mascots objectifies people and perpetuates myths and ignorance about indigenous culture.”
She remembers that growing up as an Asian-American in West Hartford was difficult. In this way she believes she is better able to relate to the Native American community. “In high school, I felt unable to articulate my frustrations with growing up in a mostly Caucasian community when Asian stereotypes were imposed on me. Now, I realize that there were no Native American voices to speak up against the Chieftain mascot. In the same way that I found Asian stereotypes offensive, I now find Native stereotypes damaging.”
Truong isn’t finished here. She has a lot to say about her past and present beliefs, as well as what she would do if she were a Conard student today. “I want to talk about privilege and race a little bit. I think there is a connection here with what’s happening in Ferguson. I think rifts in understanding and compassion start with microaggressions. Using the Chieftain mascot without consulting Native Americans and then saying that we are honoring them is at best willful ignorance.”
Truong has had years of experience to consider the problematic circumstances surrounding Native American mascots and how they reflect our beliefs as human beings. Long after creating the Chieftain logos and receiving much recognition and praise, she feels regret over her past naïveté. Although she still has plenty of Conard pride, she no longer believes that an Indian head logo should be the center of that pride. In the end, she has come to one conclusion:
“To honor someone is to give them equal rights, equal access, and equal voice. We fail to honor Native Americans when we perpetuate racial stereotypes. As a high school, Conard should uphold educational principles, not ignorance. To do so, Conard must recognize the problematic basis on which our mascot was established and honor Native Americans by abolishing the Chieftain as a mascot.”
Throughout most of my high school career, I have been somewhat neutral on the issue presented by the Conard Chieftain. I never thought of the Chieftain as something derogatory or racist, but never tuned out those who thought that it was. Instead, I turned out those who made the case that Conard should keep the Conard Chieftain because of pride, tradition, honor and so on, because I did not see it as a very convincing argument. After searching the web left and right for answers to this dilemma, I have come to the realization that many of the opposition’s concerns are misguided and the Conard Chieftain is a symbol of pride and can serve as a way to honor Native Americans.
According to a school-wide survey, most students at Conard would agree with me that the Chieftain is not derogatory. This fact was revealed even in light of the recent increase in attempts by many teachers and some students to distance themselves from the Chieftain.
The major concerns expressed by those who oppose the Chieftain are that representing Native Americans in any way as a school’s mascot promotes a stereotype or a false idea about Native Americans. Additionally, some people contend that individuals who defend the Chieftain for the sake of it’s pride and honor are justifying qualities that don’t pertain to solely to Native Americans.
If your issue with the Chieftain is that it promotes a false stereotype about Native Americans, or generates any type of false notion, then I would love to hear your rationale, if you have any, as to how removing the Chieftain would change either. It seems to me that the issue with the mistreatment of Native Americans in contemporary society and the problems they face today is a societal issue, and not one that can be effectively dealt with by altering or removing Conard’s mascot.
One thing is certain: opinions differ among Native Americans. For example, on one side of the debate over Florida State University’s use of the Seminole mascot, you have James Billie, the chairman of the Florida Seminole Tribe, who endorses the school’s use of the Seminole. Meanwhile, many in the Oklahoma Seminole Tribe have spoken out against Florida State’s use of the mascot. Minding these discrepancies in opinion, it is important that we all weigh the viewpoints of Native Americans on their merits to make sense of the issue. There is no silver bullet, meaning no one Native American or group of Native Americans can provide us with a correct answer on this issue.
There is also evidence to suggest that Native Americans view imagery and logos representing them as means of honoring them. Due to lobbying from Native American groups, the NCAA deemed University of North Dakota’s Fighting Sioux and 18 other mascots as hostile and abusive towards Native Americans. Members of the Spirit Lake Tribe, one of the two Sioux tribes in North Dakota, sued the NCAA in 2009 to keep University of North Dakota as the Fighting Sioux. Clearly, there are some Native Americans who oppose it, others who appreciate it and some who are indifferent.
For many in the Conard community, athletes in particular, the Chieftain provides a unifying identity for students and faculty in the past, present and future. As Jake Reynolds (‘15) says, “I will continue to be a Chieftain in my years after Conard. I do not believe that the future leaders that will go to our great school should be deprived of that title.” Our school takes pride in the Chieftain. We don’t attempt to model native traditions that we aren’t familiar with or qualified to take part in. We respect Native Americans and their heritage.
I think it’s important that we don’t allow the Redskins debate to cloud our vision on this divisive issue. For obvious reasons, the Washington Redskins name is miles apart from the Conard Chieftain. Simply put, a Chieftain is the leader of a group or Tribe. It doesn’t have to be turned into anything more complicated than it is just for the sake of opposing something. For or against the removal of the Chieftain, I believe that seeking out local Native Americans for guidance on this issue is beneficial for both sides. We need to engage in this debate with the very people who are represented by our school’s mascot, and more importantly, take their views into consideration.
This year’s Human Rights Day at Conard High School had a tremendous turnout for the presentations held each period, but one presentation in particular stood out in terms of attendance. Nearly 250 students attended the discussion about changing the Chieftain mascot. Before the presentation began, Mr. Duarte addressed the crowd, urging respectful dialogue saying, “At the end of the day, we’re one family.” As the crowd quieted, Tahreem Ali, Rachel Yousman, Jacob Judd, Joe Duva and Leandro Pegeas introduced themselves and started their slideshow.
After sharing background information about Conard’s use of the Chieftain, the group began reasoning against the mascot- first saying that since its creation in 1957, more than 2000 schools nationwide have gotten rid of their Native American mascots. Joe labeled the use of the Chieftain name and imagery as cultural appropriation, which is, “taking good things from cultures and making them our own without asking or knowing these things true meanings.” He compared the use of the deeply spiritual Native American headdress on the Chieftain face and the feathered Conard “C” to walking around school wearing a yarmulke even though he isn’t Jewish. Tahreem argued that even wearing moccasins is a negative form of cultural appropriation.
Joe also shared that Natives who wear headdresses, as depicted in one of Conard Athletics’ most commonly used images, would not be found in Connecticut, as headdress-wearing Natives are in fact Plains Indians, found in the Midwest of the United States. Rachel said that Native Americans across America are an oppressed group, and putting them on the same level as animal mascots silences their struggle. She added that Conard’s use of this name creates a generalization of all Native People nationally, and trivializes the honor of the title, saying, “No one at Conard has earned the title of a Tribal Chieftain.”
In the discussion part of the presentation, students in the crowd offered questions and personal testimonials. Students Katie Berry (‘15) and John Cannon (‘14) raised their hands to share their personal ties with the Chieftain name, and that they feel they honor it and use the name proudly. When asked if they feel that the same debate applies to the Native American tribal street names and King Philip Middle School, the group’s response was that naming streets and institutions is respectful, but using it as a mascot is more of a festivity, making it’s use offensive. Tribe leader Brendan Dakin (‘15) raised his hand and challenged the group’s statistics on Native people being opposed to the use of Native imagery as mascots- citing polls from Sports Illustrated and Annenberg that claimed over 80% of self-identified Native Americans that have no problem with the imagery.
This discussion showed progress for the students of the Chieftain mascot debate, and offered the chance for different opinions to be heard within a mediated discussion. Human Rights Day was an opportunity for students to witness a public forum on a passionate topic, and it hopefully inspired more students to voice their own opinions at the Board of Education’s upcoming public forum in February.
Dear Board Members,
With the growing controversy regarding the use of the Chieftain/Warrior names and respective logos, I wanted to share my perspective on the issue. I have lived in West Hartford for over 50 years, graduating from Conard High School in 1977. I have had the privilege of coaching and teaching at Conard for 27 and 21 years respectively. Additionally, our two children also graduated from Conard. As you can see, my entire life has been intertwined with Conard High School. These cumulative experiences certainly provide me with a unique perspective on the issue at hand.
Throughout my entire association with Conard, the use of the Chieftain name and logo has been one of pride and reverence. One of the things that makes Conard special is the tradition that the school embodies. It is not a coincidence that so many of Conard’s staff are either alumni or have their own children that attend Conard, or as in my case, both. People choose to return to West Hartford just to have their children share in the traditions and excellence that make Conard such a special school.
Conard High School’s reputation is synonymous with the Chieftains. As the varsity lacrosse coach, this tradition takes on even greater significance. Lacrosse is the true “American game”. Long before James Naismith invented basketball and Abner Doubleday supposedly invented baseball, the Native Americans played lacrosse.
For Native Americans, lacrosse is integral part of their culture. At Conard, we make sure that our lacrosse athletes are well aware of the Native American heritage and spiritual significance lacrosse played in their lives. This makes us very sensitive to how we represent our sport and the culture it has evolved from.
In our town and region we are surrounded by Native American references; streets, schools, golf courses, all bear the names of specific individuals, groups, or objects associated with Native American history. The mere existence of these names shows the significance and importance that our predecessors in West Hartford held for the Native Americans. You don’t name a school for someone out of disrespect. What more tangible evidence of our respect for the past could possibly exist?
In my opinion the real question is not whether or not we should keep the name/logo, but rather, what is the most appropriate way to reflect the esteem we should have for this part of American history. West Hartford prides itself on our town’s diversity, it makes us who we are. We are an educated, diverse, sensitive and caring community. We have a history of facing our issues head on, not simply taking the path of least resistance.
Ultimately, this issue comes down to how we best balance a town’s tradition and history in the most respectful and appropriate manner possible. As educators, what a wonderful opportunity to involve our students and community in the process. This should not be one sides versus another but a collective decision for everyone involved. Who knows better than us who we are and how we want to be represented? I have confidence that as schools and as a community we will arrive at the best decision for West Hartford.
Respectfully,
Bill Condon
Chemistry Teacher/Varsity Lacrosse Coach, Conard High School.
“The Use of the Chieftain Name and Logo Has Been One of Pride and Reverence”
On October 8th, 2014, the Conard and Hall communities received an email from the school principals regarding incidents that occurred at the school’s rival soccer game. After excising the highly scrutinized events at the game, the note made it clear that, “hate and discrimination have no place in Conard and Hall high schools, and will not be tolerated.”
This seemingly isolated incident had a snowball effect, as it called into question issues of race and religion in West Hartford’s high schools. Brought to light at Conard was the topic of whether or not the Native American imagery on The Tribe’s rally-ing t-shirts was appropriate, and broadened to a town wide discussion of our public high school’s logo and mascot, the Chieftain.
At the beginning of the year, Mr. Tim Decker, The Tribe’s faculty advisor, placed an order for nearly 50 Tribe shirts on behalf of Conard teachers, in order to unite faculty and students. Mr. Decker then received complaints from other staff members that the Native American imagery on the shirts was inappropriate. In response, he took the time to learn more about the issue and reached out to local Native American, Andrew Lee, a vice president at Aetna and an individual who is closely involved with Native and tribal affairs on a national level.
Mr. Decker then discussed with his classes what he had learned from Mr. Lee regarding a “spectrum of imagery”, and how there is a line drawn between what is respectful and what is not. On one side of the spectrum lies the terms “colonials” or “patriots” and on the other side lies derogatory terms such as “redskins.” The line, as Mr. Lee sees it, is drawn at the term “Indian” because it represents a race of people. Presently at Conard, the name Chieftain is benign because it is an idea or philosophy, but because the Chieftain is associated with the face of a Native, the school is balanced on the fine line of becoming a “generalization and a stereotype.”
Mr. Decker sees the Chieftain debate as an issue without a Yes/No solution, but rather being resolved with a compromise. His ideal scenario is for the Conard community to take a non-shaming approach at resolution, and compromising by using just the name “Chieftains,” and “keep Native imagery and attire out of it” because the human imagery paired with the name can lead to harmful or offensive stereotypes. He also thinks that “we need education in this school for our students on why we are the Chieftains and how that name [alone] represents honor, leadership and strength.”
Dr. Tracey Wilson, a history and human rights teacher at Conard, has taken an active role along with other Conard history teachers, Mr. Chris Islab and Mr. Sean O’Connor, in educating students and faculty about the Chieftain mascot.
Since she began her career at Conard in 1979 as teacher and girls soccer coach, Dr. Wilson has felt uncomfortable with our mascot. Her main goal is to get rid of the mascot and the Chieftain name, and would rather see an animal represent our school. Dr. Wilson says, “A mascot can really unify. I know some people think we can get rid of the Indian and keep the name Chieftain, but halfway just won’t work. [This problem] won’t go away.”
In the last five years, this year has seen the most movement made in regards to the mascot controversy. Though she has written a letter to the CIAC about barring teams with Native American mascots from interscholastic athletic competition, and making a unified ruling so individual school districts do not have to decide for themselves, no actions were taken in response.
Many Conard athletes feel that they honor the Chieftain name and image, but Dr. Wilson believes that one can say they are honoring, but if American Indians don’t feel honored, they aren’t doing so. “As a history teacher, I see [facilitating this debate] as one of my roles. People are looking for an authentic voice of a native person… but I am a human being who cares about human rights… this is what historians do. I can empathize.”
In talking about the mascot debate, Mr. Duarte emphasizes that part of Conard’s mission statement is that students are “active learners and productive citizens.” Debates like this allow students “to work towards being leaders and global citizens.”
The ultimate supporter of the Chieftain is Coach Rob Cersosimo, known by many as “Coach C.” As a former physical education teacher and varsity football coach at Conard, Coach C.’s opinion is that being a Chieftain teaches students how to be leaders and role models with characteristics ranging from caring to discipline - qualities that he believes keep young people safe. “For us to change the mascot would be leading us away from what we have established as the history and tradition of our school.”
He would like to see a course at Conard centered around the history and tradition of the Connecticut Native Americans our school mascot inherently honors, Coach C. acknowledges his personal attachment to the Chieftain, but would “never try to influence anyone in their thought process or put anyone down” for their beliefs. He has no problem with varying viewpoints, as it’s a sign of the democratic process.
The opportunity for Conard to participate in this democratic discussion is unique because of it’s rarity. The chance to truly change our school’s history does not present itself to every class that passes through Conard. The best way for students to take advantage of this circumstance is to advocate for their beliefs by acting on them. The most ideal decision the Board of Education could make is one based upon the voices of the students and be manifested in compromise.
As one of the Co-Presidents of Student Council this year I have been dealing with the mascot debate. I have attended many meetings, talked with many people on the topic, and the Student Council surveyed the school to gather information from both staff and students. I think it’s important for the student body to hear what has been going on.
The mascot topic, as I quickly learned, is extremely controversial and a lot larger than just Conard High School. Many West Hartford residents feel very passionate about this issue as well. It first came to my attention at the beginning of the school year when Tribe shirts were being distributed and there were some people who found the logo to be offensive. I began researching this topic and the controversy of the Washington Redskins and agree this name and some other Native American names and mascots are offensive. However, does this mean that ALL Native American references are offensive? Is the Chieftain name offensive, is our mascot image offensive? And who is offended? Is it possible to use the Native American name in an honorable way? These are just some of the questions we all began asking ourselves.
As a Student Council, we decided to ask the school what their opinion was through a survey to get a general feeling as to what the student body thought. The survey was administered in history classes. We asked teachers to refrain from discussion with students so it would be done completely through the student’s true points of view. An example of the survey can be found on Page 8.
As a result of the survey, we found that the overwhelming majority of students (80%) support the use of the Chieftain as do most of the teachers (60%). However, it is apparent that an educational program is needed for students, teachers, administrators, alumni and the community before we can make an informed decision about this. There are 40% of the student body that do not even know what the current logo image is. Even though none of us intend to offend Native Americans, we do have a responsibility to make sure that the words and the images that we originally chose back in 1957 do not inadvertently offend today. We can never know how it felt or feels to be in the Native American’s “shoes” until we hear from their perspective. This education and dialogue is an opportunity for all of us to grow in compassion and understanding, and to truly embrace the unique diversity our school is so proud of. Honoring Native Americans is all we want to do; and we need an unbiased education from the voice that matters the most, the Native Americans.
Recently, I had the privilege to talk to two Native Americans from the Mohegan Tribe. Chairmen Kevin “Red Eagle” Brown, and Chief Lynn Malerba, first female Chief in the tribe’s modern history: both are very powerful in their Tribe and throughout Connecticut. In early November, I informed them about the debate going on in West Hartford regarding this sensitive topic and they contacted me about a month later after careful deliberation among their Mohegan Tribal Council. They contacted me and I invited Mr. Duarte to join me in a conference call to hear the final opinion. Their response was both interesting and educational.
We learned that Kevin Brown is in fact a part of a committee to change the name of the Washington Redskins, due to its obvious offensive nature. However, to summarize our long talk, they believed the Chieftain and the Warrior names are respectful and honorable to the Native American culture, as long as those using them do so respectfully. They want to be known as a “present culture” and not a thing of the past. These names, when used appropriately, keep their culture present and positive in our schools, unlike names such as the Redskins or Redmen. To embrace the appropriate use of the names and allowing students to learn a little more about the Native Americans in Connecticut, they offered to send their cultural department up to Conard for some educational workshops. Not only did they offer that but they invited the Conard Lacrosse team along with myself to watch the Inaugural New England Black Wolves lacrosse game at the Mohegan Sun Arena on January 2nd. Before the game there was a tribute to Native American’s history in the sport of lacrosse. I feel the conversation with them was very promising on the future of the Conard Chieftains. They believe there is an image of a Chieftain that is respectful and has offered to help us in creating a logo that would be appropriate.
Whatever happens throughout the upcoming months, it will be the Board of Education that will have the final say. If you have not heard there are groups on Facebook you may join to voice your opinions, “Change the Chieftain” and “Keep the Chieftain.” If you do not have a Facebook you may write an email to the Board of Education or attend a meeting (they occur every 2 weeks) and read a prepared statement. I urge everyone to do a little research for themselves and make an informed decision on your own. The student’s voice is extremely important on this topic and we should be heard, no matter which side you stand for on the debate.
I want everyone to make sure they are respectful and polite to the people on the other side of the issue they may stand on. Throughout this process, I have been called racist and culturally insensitive on this topic. In my decision to support keeping the Chieftain name I am simply standing up for something I believe in, which is what the other side is doing too. I respect everyone who stands up for what they believe in but no one has the right to accuse someone of being racist or uneducated just because they might disagree with one side. I have done my research, reached out to Native Americans, and heard both sides of the debate. All in all, everyone wants what is best for our school and our community. Ironically, both groups are doing their best to try to honor the Native Americans, we just have different views on the topic.
“Diversity is our Strength” is Conard’s motto and I want Conard to be the most respectful place it can be. I think it is a great way to both honor the Native culture and to maintain the tradition of the name that has grown to associate with strength, leadership and courage. I feel that in using the name Chieftain in an intentionally respectful and conscious way, Conard pays respect to the Native American.
According to the United States Census of 2013, by race, the highest national poverty rates were for the Native Americans. 27% of their population is impoverished, a statistic higher than any other race in America. If our school wants to try to help them, we should start fundraising and giving back to those who once inhabited our land since we owe them so much. Changing the name will certainly not help their level of poverty. I hope our school/community can instill some form of tribute at Conard by immersing the students in the Native culture and, as a result, continue to be a place of welcome for people of all races.
My views do not necessarily reflect the views of the Student Council. However, it is my job to represent the majority of the student body. This does not mean I block out the views of the minority. There will be upcoming events at our school where both sides may present their sides and everyone’s voice will be heard. Also I encourage anyone who wants to share their view to come to a community forum about this topic, February 12th from 7-9 pm in the Town Hall Auditorium. Soon after this forum is when the decision will be made. I look forward to our student body learning from Native American people about the Chieftain and hopefully observing how a democratic debate is resolved.
These names, when used appropriately, keep their culture present & positive in our schools.
The respectability of using Native American names and images in sports has been controversial in the United States for more than fifty years. Some people believe that using the Native American names and images should be allowed as a team’s name or mascot, because it is a way of honoring them, keeping them un-forgotten, and dedicating respect to them.
Until recently, the Conard High School mascot was an irrelevant topic of discussion, but recently a student from Hall High School wrote an essay about how Conard should not use a Native American as a mascot. The student described it in a way that seemed racist and dishonorable to Natives. Now, this once tiny problem has advanced into a big issue about school mascots.
The solution to this complication is elementary. Maya Angelou once said, “If you don’t like something, change it. If you can’t change it, change your attitude”. What this means in terms of the mascot is that if there are people who feel offended by it, then the school should think about changing it to something more appropriate or proper. But if nothing changes about the mascot, then it is up to these people to get used to it. The thing is, it is harder for someone to grow tolerant of something offensive than it is to file a complaint or seek change. In the end, everyone has different views. For instance, what might be seen as honoring and respecting for some schools might be seen as a disgrace for others. These schools should change their mascots, because it is better when everyone can agree on one mascot, rather than living in dispute.
“If You Don’t Like Something, Change It. If You Can’t Change It, Change Your Attitude”
-Maya Angelou
In my dealings with the mascot debate, I was interested to hear the opinions of different people in the Conard community. I decided to interview a couple of students and a teacher to find out their stances on the issue and allow them to share their views with the school. Here is a compilation of their individual responses, featuring two Conard seniors, Rachel Yousman and Tahreem Ali, and Ms. Connery, one of Conard’s physics teachers.
What is your opinion of the Chieftain mascot?
Rachel: It is a caricature, featuring exaggerated and stereotypical facial features such as prominent, sharp bone structure, a large nose, and weathered skin.
Tahreem: We are taking cultural expressions or artifacts from someone else’s culture without permission. Having our school mascot be the Chieftain is dehumanizing and degrading.
Ms. Connery: The Chieftain image on our shirts - with his big nose, weathered skin, and headdress- is stereotypical and as such, offensive and inappropriate.
Say something about the ongoing debate over the mascot change.
Rachel: It is such a heated debate because people are proud of the school and don’t want to change an aspect of something they are proud of. I think [the mascot] divides us against one another. If we had a mascot that we could all rally behind, that would bring us together as a community. But seeing as it is offensive to some, it definitely has a dividing effect.
Tahreem: [This issue] has turned into a debate because the students at Conard do not wear the symbol to be racist, they wear it to be proud and to represent our school. They have school spirit and they do not want to change that.
Ms. Connery: I think debate is good and, IF we thoughtfully engage with an open mind, we will all be stronger because of it.
How do you feel about the Tribe?
Rachel: I love the idea of a group of students that regularly go to games to support their peers, but I think the name of the Tribe should be changed.
Ms. Connery: Although I do not believe it was/is anybody’s intent to be culturally insensitive and I am not certain if it is “dangerous,” I think members of the Tribe need to educate themselves and thoughtfully consider both sides of the issue.
Now that there’s discussion about keeping or changing the chieftain mascot at Conard, there’s a question to be answered. What kind of mascot would represent Conard if the Chieftain were to be removed? Some of Conard’s teachers and coaches weighed in on the matter.
Steve Bassi, Coach of Junior Varsity boys’ soccer, said that he’d like to see a logo similar to one from the boys’ soccer jersey, a red “C” without any chieftain feathers, although he’d support whatever mascot the student body chose.
Dr. Tracey Wilson, history teacher at Conard, said “I think a mascot is something that students should be able to rally around without any sort of negative feelings.” She would like to see a contest to determine the next mascot, and said she’d support any mascot that students want to see. She did, however, say that she’d prefer it to be an object that students can dress up as, like an animal.
Others brought up the idea of an animal mascot, too. After discussion with her students, Holly Coleman, coach of freshmen girls’ field hockey, said she’d like to see a cardinal as the next Conard mascot to keep the red theme and have an alteration. Some are still hesitant to see a new mascot. Coach Joshua Greenberg said he didn’t know what else he’d want to see other than the Chieftain, he’d rather the mascot stay the same.
The changing of the Conard mascot depends on how West Hartford’s Board of Education votes in February. Perhaps they’ll take into consideration these opinions and most importantly, the student body’s opinions.
Conard’s School Store apparel does not feature any clothing with the Chieftain image; Photo: WHPS
Though I am not a Native myself, I will use my voice to advocate and be an ally to Natives who need my help in order to project their voice.
Many claim the use of the Chieftain and the headdress is a way of honoring Natives and that it respects their culture. How can we honor a culture that has said over and over that they don’t want to be honored that way? The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) is the largest and oldest national organization consisting of all 565 tribes in the country. The NCAI, founded in 1944, took a stance on changing Native mascots in the early 1970s. They said, “Specifically, rather than honoring Native peoples, these caricatures and stereotypes are harmful, perpetuate negative stereotypes of America’s first peoples, and contribute to a disregard for the personhood of Native peoples”. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) established an extensive policy to remove Native mascots in 2005. That same year, the American Psychiatric Association called for the “immediate retirement” of all American Indian mascots, symbols, images and personalities. The use of Native imagery is used with little consent from indigenous people. This leads to an unwelcome learning environment for Native students in schools with mascots that affirms negative images and stereotypes.
The CDC recorded the number of suicides of each race and the statistics showed that the suicide rate of Natives was the highest in the country with 27.61 suicides per 100,000 males and 7.87 per 100,000 females.
For those who believe we are honoring them, ask yourself how and why are we honoring Natives? Natives can honor their own culture and do not need others doing it for them. The Chieftain and the headdress further disrespect Natives as they have no relation to Northeast Indians. They’re indigenous to Plains Natives, which reiterates our misunderstanding and morphing of Native American culture.
Using a Chieftain or any other Native American related mascot in America is the same as a German sports team using a Rabbi as a mascot, because in case you didn’t know, America is the home of countless genocides of American Indians. According to Ward Churchill, a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado, the reduction of the North American Indian population from an estimated 12 million in 1500 to barely 237,000 in 1900 represents a “vast genocide . . . , the most sustained on record.” David E. Stannard, a historian at the University of Hawaii states Native Americans have undergone the “worst human holocaust the world has ever witnessed.” These wounds from genocide are still healing and historical grief is prevalent within the Native American community. When we characterize Natives as Mascots we’re reopening the wounds of the dehumanization and caricatures of Native people that were inflicted upon them for hundreds of years.
By: Jeff Remy, David Bekele, Molly Bugos
Bridget, Grade 11: “I think it’s unnecessary to change the mascot because [nobody] had a problem with it until it was brought up by teachers… Almost everyone at this school is honored to be a Chieftain and we would never speak of it in a derogatory way, so I think it should stay.”
Xavier, Grade 10 “I don’t feel the Chieftain logo is racist. Just because it’s stylised in a certain way doesn’t necessarily mean that it’s racist. Because they have done tons of stuff like that like with Irish teams… Stereotyping isn’t racist, its more of a way to identify. It’s only racist when you’re making fun of it in a harmful way or pointing it out as a flaw.”
Bella, Grade 12: “In my opinion, the Chieftain mascot and logo are a huge part of Conard and school spirit. For athletes, it’s important to have a meaningful and unique mascot to represent in competition. As a student body, we should act in a way that respects and upholds the spirit of the Chieftain.”
Andrew, Grade 12: “We should still keep the logo, there are other things like the Fighting Irish, or the Vikings, that are [seen as] racist… but go unchecked”
Brandon, Grade 10: “It is an homage to the strength and pride of Native Americans. Conard sports teams refer to themselves as Chieftains as an analogy, comparing their strength and perseverance to that of the Native Americans.”
Hanna, Grade 10: “We should change the Chieftain logo, but not the name. The Indian headdress with red seems very offensive to me, and I feel like it should change but still keep the name Chieftain name.”
Eilish, Grade 12: “I want to keep [the mascot and logo] because it properly reflects the image of our school. In both academics and extracurriculars we display perseverance, determination, and even bravery which allows us to try new things. That’s how the Chieftain represents Conard students, and how the Conard students respect the Chieftain.”
Julia, Grade 12: “I think we should keep the Chieftain because the students view it as a symbol of power, and leadership that influences the manner in which we live our lives here. It is viewed as a symbol of respect and an idol to the entire student body.”
Chloe, Grade 9: “I like the Chieftain name but it is my opinion that it can be somewhat offensive. A good compromise would be the big C with the feathers.”
John, Grade 12: “A Chieftain is a leader, someone who sets an example for which others can follow. Having the Chieftain as our mascot is symbolic of who we are and what we stand for at Conard–being active learners and productive citizens.”
CHIEFTAIN FEATURES
CONARD HIGH SCHOOL
Student Council inspire | Create | Lead
1. Circle your grade: 9 10 11 12
2. Circle the image that is Conard’s official logo.
3. From your perspective, does the Chieftain head logo honor Native People?
Honors Does not Honor I Don’t Know
4. Put yourself in the perspective of a Native Person. From this perspective, does the Chieftain head logo honor Native People?
Honors Does not honor I Don’t Know
5. Do you support using the Chieftain as Conard’s mascot?
Yes No
CHIEFTAIN MASCOT SURVEY RESULTS
Results: Brian Wilson
Editor’s Note: This survey was not distributed to every student. About 900 students took this poll through their history class. As Brian Wilson states in his editorial, teachers were asked not to discuss the survey or the topic beforehand, to ensure that the survey results would accurately represent student opinions. This survey is not intended to represent the opinion of the entire student body, or to take the place of a formal vote.
60% of the participants know that Conard’s official logo is currently the “C without feathers”
56.87% feel the logo honors the Chieftain;
19% feel it does not;
24.13% did not know how they feel about it.
80% want to keep the Chieftain mascot;
20% do not
Teachers were polled with the following question:
Do you support keeping the Conard Chieftain as the School Mascot?
42% want the mascot to stay the same;
32% want the mascot to change;
18% said they support the Chieftain name but not the Native American head logo;
8% are undecided.
CONARD STUDENTS SPEAK
Continued from pg. 7
Emma, Grade 11: “I think that the Chieftain logo is an essential part of the identity of the Conard student body, it’s a symbol we rally around and associate with the family-like atmosphere of Conard. However, unless we can get a Native American tribe to endorse it, we should find a different way to represent our school.”
Emma, Grade 10: “The Chieftain mascot should not be changed because our school is not using the mascot in an offensive or derogatory manner… the Chieftain mascot represents leadership and strength, two traits that exemplify Conard in a positive way.”
Annie, Grade 9: “I would love to be able to keep both the mascot and the name, but I do understand why it is a problem. I definitely want to keep the name even if we can’t keep the mascot because it is a huge part of Conard’s identity.”
Joe, Grade 11: “Would you feel comfortable being dropped in the middle of a reservation in South Dakota wearing a shirt with the Conard Chieftain head on it? It’s disrespectful, and it should be changed.”
Kyle, Grade 12: “I believe we should keep the Chieftain. It gives our students something to stand behind. My parents and all of their siblings went to this school, and the Chieftain has been here for a long time. It means something to people, it’s more than just a mascot… it shows where they came from.”
THANK YOU!
We’d like to extend a special thank you to everyone who contributed articles, pictures, time and resources to this edition of the paper.
For this issue specifically, thank you to the faculty members for making time to sit down with us for interviews.
We look forward to working with you again on upcoming issues, and we welcome anyone who would like to get involved with The Powwow!
POWWOW TOTEM
Editors-in-Chief: Molly Bugos, Emma Kutscher
Public Opinion Correspondents: Jeff Remy, David Bekele
The goal of this Newspaper is to keep the students of Conard High School informed and provide a forum for their opinions and interests. This organization welcomes any student who shares the PowWow’s dedication to promoting the flow of information and knowledge. We do not print anonymous and unsigned editorials; each author’s opinion is their own. We do not print information given by anonymous sources. All sources must be identified. If any of the articles offend you, it was not our intention to do so. Contact the Editors-in-Chief: Molly Bugos or Emma Kutscher if you have an issue with anything printed, or wish to join the Powwow Staff. | <urn:uuid:c584a614-762a-4712-8722-0101d3a8cf90> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | http://bugbee.whps.org/uploaded/Schools/High_Schools/Conard_High_School/PowWow_Special_Edition_FINAL_3_Jan_2015.pdf | 2019-04-23T18:31:08Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578610036.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20190423174820-20190423200820-00426.warc.gz | 27,736,266 | 10,293 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998081 | eng_Latn | 0.998441 | [
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V. English Language Arts, Grade 6
Grade 6 English Language Arts Test
The spring 2019 grade 6 English Language Arts test was a next-generation assessment that was administered in two primary formats: a computer-based version and a paper-based version. The vast majority of students took the computer-based test. The paper-based test was offered as an accommodation for students with disabilities who are unable to use a computer, as well as for English learners who are new to the country and are unfamiliar with technology.
Most of the operational items on the grade 6 ELA test were the same, regardless of whether a student took the computer-based version or the paper-based version. In places where a technology-enhanced item was used on the computer-based test, an adapted version of the item was created for use on the paper test. These adapted paper items were multiple-choice or multiple-select items that tested the same ELA content and assessed the same standard as the technology-enhanced item.
This document displays released items from the paper-based test. Released items from the computer-based test are available on the RICAS Resource Center website at ricas.pearsonsupport.com/released-items.
The Scoring Guides can be found at www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/student/. They provide the released constructed-response questions, a unique scoring guide for each question, and samples of student work at each score point.
Test Sessions and Content Overview
The grade 6 ELA test was made up of two separate test sessions. Each session included reading passages, followed by selected-response questions and essay questions. On the paper-based test, the selected-response questions were multiple-choice items and multiple-select items, in which students select the correct answer(s) from among several answer options.
Standards and Reporting Categories
The grade 6 ELA test was based on 6–12 learning standards in three content strands of the Massachusetts Curriculum Framework for English Language Arts and Literacy (2017), listed below.
- Reading
- Writing
- Language
The Massachusetts Curriculum Framework is strongly aligned with Rhode Island’s English Language Arts/literacy standards: the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). The RICAS ELA assessment tables articulate this alignment and are available on the RIDE website at www.ride.ri.gov/ricas. The Massachusetts Curriculum Framework for English Language Arts and Literacy is available on the Department website at www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/current.html.
ELA test results are reported under three RICAS reporting categories, which are identical to the three framework content strands listed above.
The tables at the conclusion of this chapter provide the following information about each released and unreleased operational item: reporting category, standard(s) covered, item type, and item description. The correct answers for released selected-response questions are also displayed in the released item table.
Reference Materials
During both ELA test sessions, the use of bilingual word-to-word dictionaries was allowed for current and former English learner students only. No other reference materials were allowed during any ELA test session.
Grade 6 English Language Arts
This session contains 8 questions.
Directions
Read each passage and question carefully. Then answer each question as well as you can. You must record all answers in this Test & Answer Booklet.
For most questions, you will mark your answers by filling in the circles in your Test & Answer Booklet. Make sure you darken the circles completely. Do not make any marks outside of the circles. If you need to change an answer, be sure to erase your first answer completely.
Some questions will ask you to write a response. Write your response in the space provided. Only responses written within the provided space will be scored.
Read the article and the memoir about an Antarctic expedition. Then answer the questions that follow.
This article describes how Ernest Shackleton’s second attempt to explore the Antarctic ended in near disaster.
1 When Ernest Shackleton packed for his trip to Antarctica in July 1914, he seemed ready for anything. Among the items he and his crew stowed in his ship were cans of meat, a miniature pool table, a banjo, lanterns, a bicycle, and soccer balls. Shackleton hoped to become the first person to travel across the frozen continent at the bottom of the world.
2 But nothing could have prepared Shackleton or his crew for what did happen. Instead of crossing Antarctica, they made history in one of the most incredible survival stories ever.
Stuck in Miles of Ice
3 Shackleton was already famous when he prepared for the 1914 trip. In 1908 he had come within 100 miles of the South Pole but had turned back because of bad weather.
4 By 1914, he was eager for another adventure. Nearly 5,000 people volunteered to go with him. Shackleton chose a crew of 26 sailors and scientists, plus a photographer, Frank Hurley. On the way to Antarctica, Shackleton picked up at least 69 sled dogs to pull the explorers on the long trek across land.
5 Shackleton’s last stop before heading for Antarctica was a whaling station on South Georgia Island. Norwegian whalers told the crew that it was “a bad year for ice.”
6 They were right. Upon entering the Weddell Sea, Shackleton was forced to zigzag through dangerous ice sheets, sometimes passing more than 400 icebergs a day. On January 18, 1915, the ice closed around the ship. It was stuck, as one sailor put it, “like an almond in the middle of a chocolate bar.”
7 Although he was less than 100 miles from Antarctica, Shackleton soon realized he could not possibly cross the continent that winter. The crew would just have to wait.
Fighting Boredom and Cold
8 As the ship slowly drifted with the ice, the sailors played cards, listened to records, held singing contests, or got silly haircuts. On the snow outside, the men built fancy “dogloos” with porches and domes. Some even slept with the dogs for warmth. Meanwhile Hurley kept busy taking photos. He often braved the cold while others stayed inside.
The ship was locked in ice for 10 months. By October 1915, the ice was crushing its thick wooden walls. “It was a sickening sensation,” Shackleton wrote in his diary. He ordered the crew to leave. They grabbed what they could, including 150 of Hurley’s precious photos.
**A Heroic Rescue**
The sailors struggled to reach land on three lifeboats they dragged across ice and rowed through frigid waters. They shivered in their thin coats, which often froze solid. At times they had to crawl through slush to avoid sinking. While killer whales swam around them, Shackleton and his men ate penguin and burned seal blubber for fuel. . . .
Eventually, the crew landed on Elephant Island. But it was deserted. So Shackleton bravely set out again with five of his strongest men. They sailed and rowed 800 miles in a tiny boat, battling high waves, winds, and severe thirst. Finally they landed at South Georgia Island,
where they almost died climbing jagged peaks for three days before reaching the whaling station. “The thought of those fellows on Elephant Island kept us going,” said Shackleton.
12 Four months after Shackleton sailed away, one of the men on Elephant Island spotted a ship offshore. When it came closer, the crew recognized Shackleton. They began to laugh and hug. They were rescued!
13 To the world’s amazement, all 28 members of the Endurance expedition arrived home safely. How? Many say it is because Shackleton was a true hero. As the explorer said, “If you’re a leader, you’ve got to keep going.”
“Shipwrecked!” by TIME For Kids Staff, from the TIME For Kids Web site (January 6, 2014). Text copyright © 1998 by Time Inc. Photograph 1 copyright © Popperfoto/Getty Images. Photograph 2 copyright © Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge/Getty Images.
In this excerpt from Sir Ernest Shackleton’s memoir, Shackleton is making his fourth attempt to save the remainder of his crew, which is stranded on Elephant Island. Accompanying him are members of his crew, including Captain Frank Worsley, Second Officer Tom Crean, and some Chilean sailors. When they arrive, they are greeted by Frank Wild, second in command, who had remained behind with the rest of the crew.
1 The weather was showing some signs of improvement, and I begged the Chilian\(^1\) Government to let me have the *Yelcho* for a last attempt to reach the island. She was a small steel-built steamer,\(^2\) quite unsuitable for work in the pack,\(^3\) but I promised that I would not touch the ice. The Government was willing to give me another chance, and on August 25 I started south on the fourth attempt at relief.
2 This time Providence\(^4\) favoured us. The little steamer made a quick run down in comparatively fine weather, and I found as we neared Elephant Island that the ice was open. A southerly gale had sent it northward temporarily, and the *Yelcho* had her chance to slip through. We approached the island in a thick fog. I did not dare to wait for this to clear, and at 10 a.m. on August 30 we passed some stranded bergs. Then we saw the sea breaking on a reef, and I knew that we were just outside the island.
3 It was an anxious moment, for we had still to locate the camp and the pack could not be trusted to allow time for a prolonged search in thick weather; but presently the fog lifted and revealed the cliffs and glaciers of Elephant Island. I proceeded to the east, and at 11.40 a.m. Worsley’s keen eyes detected the camp, almost invisible under its covering of snow. The men ashore saw us at the same time, and we saw tiny black figures hurry to the beach and wave signals to us. We were about a mile and a half away from the camp. I turned the *Yelcho* in, and within half an hour reached the beach with Crean and some of the Chilean sailors. I saw a little figure on a surf-beaten rock and recognized Wild.
---
\(^1\)Chilian—an early 20th-century spelling, later revised to today’s “Chilean”
\(^2\)steamer—a ship powered by steam
\(^3\)pack—short for “pack ice,” which refers to many individual pieces of ice floating together almost as one
\(^4\)Providence—a reference to God or other power offering protection
4 As I came nearer I called out, "Are you all well?" and he answered, "We are all well, boss," and then I heard three cheers. . . . Some of the hands were in a rather bad way, but he had held the party together and kept hope alive in their hearts. There was no time to exchange news or congratulations. I did not even go up the beach to see the camp, which Wild assured me had been much improved. A heavy sea was running and a change of wind might bring the ice back at any time. I hurried the party aboard with all possible speed, taking also the records of the Expedition and essential portions of equipment. Everybody was aboard the *Yelcho* within an hour, and we steamed north at the little steamer's best speed.
*South: A Memoir of the Endurance Voyage* by Ernest Shackleton. In the public domain.
Which sentence from “Shipwrecked!” best shows that there was great interest in Shackleton’s voyage to the Antarctic?
A “When Ernest Shackleton packed for his trip to Antarctica in July 1914, he seemed ready for anything.” (paragraph 1)
B “Shackleton was already famous when he prepared for the 1914 trip.” (paragraph 3)
C “In 1908 he had come within 100 miles of the South Pole but had turned back because of bad weather.” (paragraph 3)
D “Nearly 5,000 people volunteered to go with him.” (paragraph 4)
Part A
Which of the following best states a central idea of “Shipwrecked!”?
A Great leaders listen to the advice of others.
B People are at the mercy of the power of nature.
C Taking necessary precautions ensures the safety of an expedition.
D Long journeys require a lot of preparation to make them successful.
Part B
Which evidence from “Shipwrecked!” best supports the answer to Part A?
A “The ship was locked in ice for 10 months. By October 1915, the ice was crushing its thick wooden walls.” (paragraph 9)
B “So Shackleton bravely set out again with five of his strongest men.” (paragraph 11)
C “They sailed and rowed 800 miles in a tiny boat. . . .” (paragraph 11)
D “When it came closer, the crew recognized Shackleton.” (paragraph 12)
3 What is the most likely reason the author included the headings in “Shipwrecked!”?
A to clearly state main ideas
B to focus attention on a forgotten event
C to offer solutions for difficult challenges
D to briefly summarize key information about an individual
4 Reread paragraphs 2 and 3 of *A Memoir of the Endurance Voyage*. The phrase “thick weather” in paragraph 3 mainly suggests that the weather was
A constantly changing.
B powerful and impressive.
C unpleasant and frightening.
D difficult to navigate through.
Which of the following best summarizes *A Memoir of the Endurance Voyage*?
(A) Favorable weather conditions allowed Shackleton to launch a rescue mission to find his crew. The weather on the journey to Elephant Island was mostly clear, but fog near the island made the trip stressful. The crew was detected by Worsley, and the rescue party quickly approached the island to rescue the men there.
(B) Favorable weather conditions allowed Shackleton to launch a rescue mission to find his crew. The crew was detected by Worsley, and the rescue party quickly approached the island to rescue the men there. While rescuing the men, Shackleton gathered some important documents and necessary equipment.
(C) The crew was detected by Worsley, and the rescue party quickly approached the island to rescue the men there. While rescuing the men, Shackleton gathered some important documents and necessary equipment. The weather on the journey to Elephant Island was mostly clear, but fog near the island made the trip stressful.
(D) While rescuing the men, Shackleton gathered some important documents and necessary equipment. The crew was detected by Worsley, and the rescue party quickly approached the island to rescue the men there. The weather on the journey to Elephant Island was mostly clear, but fog near the island made the trip stressful.
(E) The weather on the journey to Elephant Island was mostly clear, but fog near the island made the trip stressful. Favorable weather conditions allowed Shackleton to launch a rescue mission to find his crew. While rescuing the men, Shackleton gathered some important documents and necessary equipment.
6 Which sentence best states a difference between the article and the memoir?
A The article presents only the feelings of the crew members, while the memoir also explains the feelings of Shackleton.
B The article provides a positive interpretation of the expedition, while the memoir provides a more critical interpretation.
C The article presents only a factual account of the expedition, while the memoir also shares a personal account of the rescue.
D The article provides the recollections of the Chilean sailors, while the memoir provides the recollections of the men on the island.
7 How is the information in both the article and the memoir mainly organized?
A in chronological order
B in order of importance
C by comparison and contrast
D through a series of examples
For this question, you will write an essay based on the passage(s). Write your essay in the space provided on the next two pages. Your writing should:
- Present and develop a central idea.
- Provide evidence and/or details from the passage(s).
- Use correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
8 Based on “Shipwrecked!” and *A Memoir of the Endurance Voyage*, write an essay explaining whether Ernest Shackleton was a hero. Be sure to use information from both the article and the memoir to develop your essay.
You have a total of two pages on which to write your response.
English Language Arts
| PBT Item No. | Page No. | Reporting Category | Standard | Item Type* | Item Description | Correct Answer (SR)** |
|-------------|----------|--------------------|----------|------------|------------------|----------------------|
| 1 | 74 | Reading | RI.6.1 | SR | Cite textual evidence to support an inference based on a passage. | D |
| 2 | 75 | Reading | RI.6.2 | SR | Identify a central idea of a passage and choose supporting evidence. | B;A |
| 3 | 76 | Reading | RI.6.5 | SR | Determine the reason for including a text feature in a passage. | A |
| 4 | 76 | Language | L.6.5 | SR | Analyze how figurative language contributes to an understanding of a passage. | D |
| 5 | 77 | Reading | RI.6.2 | SR | Determine the appropriate order of events for a passage summary. | A |
| 6 | 78 | Reading | RI.6.9 | SR | Contrast two authors' presentations of the same event. | C |
| 7 | 78 | Reading | RI.6.5 | SR | Compare the text structures of two passages. | A |
| 8 | 79 | Language, Writing | L.6.1, L.6.2, L.6.3, W.6.2, W.6.4 | ES | Write an essay that explains whether an individual discussed in a pair of passages would be considered heroic; use information from the passages to support the explanation. | |
* ELA item types are: selected-response (SR) and essay (ES).
** Answers are provided here for selected-response items only. Sample responses and scoring guidelines for any essay items will be posted to the Department’s website later this year.
| PBT Item No. | Reporting Category | Standard | Item Type* | Item Description |
|-------------|--------------------|----------------|------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 9 | Reading | RL.6.4 | SR | Determine how the tone of a passage changes based on a portion of the text. |
| 10 | Reading | RL.6.5 | SR | Analyze how a specific section from a passage contributes to the development of |
| | | | | the plot. |
| 11 | Reading | RL.6.2 | SR | Identify a central idea in a passage. |
| 12 | Reading | RL.6.3 | SR | Analyze a passage to determine traits of a character and choose supporting |
| | | | | evidence from the passage. |
| 13 | Reading | RL.6.4 | SR | Analyze the effect of figurative language in a passage. |
| 14 | Reading | RL.6.6 | SR | Explain how the author develops the point of view of a character in a passage. |
| 15 | Reading | RL.6.5 | SR | Identify the events that contribute to the structure of a passage's plot. |
| 16 | Language, Writing | L.6.1, L.6.2, L.6.3, W.6.2, W.6.4 | ES | Write an essay that explains how a particular theme is developed in a passage; use information from the passage to support the explanation. |
| 17 | Reading | RL.6.5 | SR | Analyze how a section of a passage contributes to the development of characterization and plot. |
| 18 | Reading | RL.6.3 | SR | Analyze the feelings of a character and choose supporting evidence from the passage. |
| 19 | Language | L.6.4 | SR | Determine the meaning of a word in context. |
| 20 | Reading | RL.6.2 | SR | Identify how the interactions of characters help to develop a central idea of a |
| | | | | passage; choose supporting evidence from the passage. |
| 21 | Language | L.6.5 | SR | Determine the meaning of figurative language in a passage. |
| 22 | Reading | RL.6.4 | SR | Determine how a phrase reveals aspects of a character in a passage. |
| 23 | Reading | RL.6.3 | SR | Analyze how a character responds to an event in a passage. |
| 24 | Language, Writing | L.6.1, L.6.2, L.6.3, W.6.3, W.6.4 | ES | Based on a passage, write a narrative from a secondary character's point of view, telling what happens next in the story. |
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UNIT 1 WHAT IS LAW AND ITS ROLE IN SOCIETY? HOW IS A COUNTRY’S LEGAL SYSTEM ORGANISED?
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 What is ‘Law’?
1.4 What is the Role of Law in Society?
1.5 How is Law made?
1.6 What are the Sources of Law?
1.7 How do the Legal Systems of South Asia Work?
1.7.1 Bangladesh
1.7.2 Bhutan
1.7.3 India
1.7.4 Maldives
1.7.5 Nepal
1.7.6 Pakistan
1.7.7 Sri Lanka
1.8 Summary
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 Answers and Hints
1.11 Glossary
1.12 References and Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
We come across different types of rules in every day life. Some of them are rules of ‘law’ and some are merely rules for the general guidance of the society strictly not ‘law’. In this Unit, we will know which kind of law is called ‘law proper’. Once we know the meaning of the term ‘law’, then it would be easy to understand the role of law in society. Law regulates marriage, break-up of marriage, custody of children, and maintenance of old parents. Law governs business, environment, and political life of a country. Law ensures peace, good order, and progress in society. In this Unit, we would also try to understand the significance of law for the society.
Making of Law is also one important aspect of the legal system. Who can make law? Whether national legislature and State legislatures only have the power to make law or judges can also make law? Whether people’s practices can also make law? Can District Collector/Magistrate make law? Can a country make law for another country? All these questions could be easily understood if we understand the process of law making.
Sources of law are also very important to be understood. Can Constitution be a source of law? Can laws passed by national and State legislatures be a source of
law? Can the practices of people be a source of law? Can the judgments pronounced by the Supreme and High Courts of a country be the source of law? Can the law passed by one country be a source of law for other country?
This unit further provides understanding of working methods of the legal systems in South Asia also need to be understood. A legal system needs operating machinery to run it. What are the components of this operating machinery? What are the role of judges, lawyers, courts, media, and Non Governmental organizations to run the legal system of a country? In this Unit, we will discuss working of legal systems of South Asia also.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
- identify the rule of law amongst variety of rules around you;
- describe the role of law in the development of society;
- discuss how law is made and what are its sources; and
- know as to how legal systems in South Asia work.
1.3 WHAT IS ‘LAW’?
As discussed in the introductory section, we come across different types of rules in our day to day life. Rules set by our parents in the family, rules of science, rules of a club, rules of an informal game etc. are some of the common examples. Are all these rules of ‘law’? This question can be answered if we know the meaning of the term ‘law’. We should be able to distinguish rules of law from rules which are not law.
First thing to understand in this connection is that rules/law of science are not rules of law, because rules of law are made by human being. Rules of science are not made by human being, they are made by nature. Law means rule made by superior political or judicial authority (comprising human being) having legitimate power to make rule for the guidance of the conduct of other human beings. What is the meaning of superior political or judicial authority? Superior political authority means the appropriately constituted legislature/parliament or executive authorities deriving powers from those superior political authorities. Superior judicial authority means the highest court of the land or other courts deriving power from the law framed either by the Constitution or the superior political authority.
The national parliament, in a centralized political structure, is vested with the powers of making rules which could be considered as law. The legislatures of provinces of a nation also possess the powers of making rules in the nature of law. It depends on the political structure of the country to designate authorities which would be vested with making the rules in the nature of law. If a country is having the federal nature of its political structure, the power to make law would be vested both in national and provincial legislatures. If a country is having unitary or centralized political structure, the power to make rules would be vested in national parliament.
Another characteristic of law is that it tries to establish norms in the society to regulate human behavior. It prescribes what the behavior of the members of the society ought to be and it also forbids what it ought not to be. The norms may be
social, political, economic, or environmental. What would be the nature of the political structure of the country? Norms in political field may be set by law to have a federal or unitary political structure. Similarly, norms can be set by law in the social field to have a socialist or capitalist pattern of society. Likewise, norms can be set up by law in the economic field to regulate the conduct of companies, banks, investors etc. Similarly, norms can be set up by law in the field of environment to regulate the conduct of those industries which pollute the environment or those vehicles which emit harmful gas, etc.
One more general character of law is that the norms established by law are coercive in nature. Coercion means compulsion. Coercion operates according to established norms of law. Law has the backing of authority of the State apparatus. If the norms/rules established by law are not obeyed by those for whom it is made, then the law has inbuilt punishment mechanism. Law itself is not capable to be enforced as such. Law needs to be enforced by the State authorities acting under the powers conferred on them by law. The punishment prescribed by law may be of different forms. It may be execution or hanging to death, imprisonment, payment of fines, or payment of compensation etc. State apparatus entitled to coerce individuals to perform acts according to rules of law may be police, courts, jail authorities, civil administration staff etc.
Sometimes rules of law are also equated with the rules of morality. Parents may set very high rules of morality to be observed by the children. But those rules of morality may not necessarily be those of law. Morality confers greater burden than the benefits. For example, honesty and speaking truth may cost a person much more than what one receives in material terms. Law always tries to balance between the restrictions on the individual and gains to him or to the society. It will not put a greater burden than the resultant benefits. That is why in some countries, suicide or homosexuality or mercy-killing is no longer an offence. Further, an organized and regularized machinery of the State is present to enforce the rules of law, but morals are not supported by such machinery.
Why are the rules of a club or of an informal game not rules of law? Now we can understand that rules of a club are only having the second characteristic of law as discussed above. Those rules are made by the members of the club themselves. The members are not a political authority enjoying the powers to make rules of law. The rules satisfy the second characteristic because the norms made by the club are for the regulation of the behavior of the members of the club. Again the third characteristic of law is absent. There is no coercive order authorized by the State authorities to enforce the rules of club. Similarly, the rules of an informal game satisfy the second characteristic of law. Hence, those rules are not to be called law. However, the rules of a formal game may be part of law because the rules are made by an authority which has derived powers from the appropriate legislative authority. Then it would satisfy all the three characteristic of law.
**Self Assessment Question**
1) What do you mean by the term ‘Law’?
1.4 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF LAW IN SOCIETY?
Law is closely linked with the society. As the society develops, law also develops. Law goes on changing with the changes in society. This is known as dynamics of the society as well as of law. Law is considered as an instrument of social change since it is an effective method of social control. Law has close relationship with sociology, history, politics, economics, psychology, philosophy and so on. If the law is implemented properly in today’s time of democratic law making, law would certainly become an important instrument of social change.
During the colonial rule, the law was little responsive to the needs of South Asian society. In fact with the advent of the British rule, the development of the native law came to a halt. The British rulers were rather interested in the continuation of their rule than in the development of law. Therefore, those laws did not reflect the social needs of the region. After the independence of the nations in this region, fast progress of the society was needed. For that purpose, law, among other tools, was considered to be an important tool to accelerate the pace of the progress of the society.
In today’s time, the different societies of the world are progressing in a fast way. Information Technology revolution, biotechnological successes, faster modes of transport etc. have made the progress and interaction of the society possible. With this progress, regulation of the use and transmission of information, and bio-technology tools becomes important. How can the cyber crimes be controlled? What is the right of the citizen to get information from the Government? How can the misuse of drugs and cosmetics be controlled? Can a person possess any harmful weapon which is dangerous to society? Law is an effective tool to lay down norms in an area and the members of the society are expected to adhere to those norms. It is in the interest of the society to adhere to the norms laid down by law.
Law protects human dignity by granting rights to human beings and imposing corresponding duties on other fellow human beings. The rights granted to human beings by domestic and international law is called ‘human rights’. Some of those human rights are so basic in character and are considered by many legal systems as ‘Fundamental Rights’. Other human rights are called Social, Cultural and Economic Rights. The violation of the fundamental rights is very serious matter and law ensures the protection of those fundamental rights and thus promotes human dignity. Some of the examples of those rights are right to equality, right to liberty, right to freedom, right to practice any religion. Who protects these rights? It is law which protects these rights. Human being is the unit of the society. Once human dignity is ensured in a society, society can prosper and human beings can commit themselves to the well-being of the whole humanity.
South Asian society, at present, seems to be at cross-roads as the countries of the region are confronted with many complex problems such as poverty, unemployment, social and economic backwardness, communalism, corruption, terrorism and so on. Selfish and individualistic approach is penetrating deep in South Asian life. That may shatter the regional character of South Asia. Considered from this angle, the role of law and legislation has become all the more significant to tackle these burning issues in order to maintain social equilibrium by reconciling various conflicting interests of the members of South Asian society.
In the South Asian context, at present there is a wide gap between the poor and the rich, the socially neglected and socially dominating class. This situation makes it
imperative for the State to provide adequate protection to weaker sections of the society, prevent exploitation, corruption and malpractices. The State must ensure equitable distribution of wealth and material resources to subserve the common good. The new challenges before the region because of socio-economic and technological changes can be effectively met either by introducing new laws or amending the existing laws to meet the exigencies of law.
The role of law in a civilized society may either be direct or indirect. To give examples, laws relating to compulsory primary education help indirectly in the progress of the society in the long run while the law relating to prohibition (alcoholic drinks) has a direct impact upon the social life and morality of the people. Likewise, the laws relating to protection of environmental pollution have a direct bearing upon public health. On the other hand, licensing laws indirectly affect the economy of the country.
**Self Assessment Question**
2) What is the role of Law in society?
---
1.5 HOW IS LAW MADE?
The power to make law may be called legislative power. Legislative power is vested primarily in the sovereign authority of a political community. The sovereign authority exercises legislative power through the institution of supreme legislature of a country. It depends upon the political structure of the country to lay down the procedures regarding making of the law. If the political structure is federal one then the law making power is vested in the supreme legislature of the whole country (viz., Parliament) and also in the supreme legislature of the provinces (viz., Legislative Assemblies) forming the federation. If the political structure is unitary one, then the law making power would be vested in the supreme legislature (which is the Parliament) of the country only.
If law is made primarily by the supreme legislature of a country, can it be said that subordinate legislature is also given the power to make laws? The answer is in affirmative. Subordinate legislative power may be vested in local units of self-governance, autonomous bodies, executive bodies, and higher judicial authorities. Why do we call subordinate legislative power? Subordinate legislative power is that legislative power which is enjoyed with the authority of the supreme legislature. If legislative power is exercised without the authority of supreme legislature, it would not be considered as law.
The law made by supreme legislature (whether federal or unitary) is generally named as “Act”, “Code”, and “Statute”. But the process of making law is slow. If in any area, law has to be made, the appropriate legislature introduces the draft of the proposed law which is called “Bill”. If the Bill is passed in the legislature according to the established practice, it becomes law of the land when it receives the assent of the Head of the State. The date of coming into force of the law is generally notified. Unless there is no notification of law, law does not come into force.
The law made by subordinate legislature (whether autonomous or executive or judicial or local) is generally named as “Rule”, “Bye-laws”, “Order”, “Statute”, and “Ordinance” etc. The term “delegated legislation” is used when executive makes law. Law making power is said to be delegated to the executive by the supreme legislature in any given area. Such legislation owes its existence, validity and continuance to the supreme legislature. Supreme legislature controls every aspect of law making by the subordinate legislature. The delegated authority to make law should not be misused by the executive.
The autonomous bodies can also make law to govern itself. For example, University is an autonomous body which has got the powers to make law for itself. The Railway Company is also an autonomous body. Similarly, local bodies are powers to make law concerning their local matters. These are generally called “bye-laws”. Bye-laws made by a local body operate within its respective locality. The examples of local bodies are: Municipal Corporations, Municipal Boards, Panchayats, etc. The higher judicial branch of the State machinery is also given the power to make law. Such powers are given to regulate their own procedure of dispensing justice. Rules as to the composition of the court (viz., single bench, double bench, and full bench) may be framed by the higher judiciary themselves.
Can the supreme legislator make any law as it wishes? Is there any control on the legislative power of the supreme legislature? The answer is in the affirmative. The control on the legislative power of the supreme legislature is exercised by the basic socio-economic philosophy of the nation on which it is standing. This basic socio-economic philosophy is generally documented in every nation and is called “Constitution”. The Constitution is the highest law of the land. It is the Constitution which lays down the extent of the legislative power of the supreme legislature. Thus, the supreme legislature can not make any law as it wishes. It should make only those laws which are according to the provisions of the Constitution and promoting the ideals of the Constitution.
Another interesting question may be whether people of a country can make law by practice? The answer is again positive. But is a very difficult process to prove the practices of people amounting to law in the courtroom. Court may recognize the practices of people as law if it holds that the practice in question is custom. Such recognition by Court depends upon some factors, viz., duration of practice, consistency of practice, generality of practice, reasonableness, adherence to public policy and the existing Statute in the area. Unless a Court does not recognize the practice of people as customary law, such practice would not become law. Many practices of the people enjoying the status of customary law, right of pre-emption and ‘sapta –padi’ (amongst Hindus) in marriage.
Sometimes you may also come to know that Court has made a law. Is it really possible? Can the Court make law? Yes, the Court can make law, but with certain conditions. One, that it is not the prerogative of all courts to make a law. Only higher Courts can, in certain circumstances, make law. Two, the circumstances in which the higher Courts could make law might be: absence of any law passed by the supreme legislature in the field, the meaning of the existing legislation (or words contained in legal provisions) is not clear, there is no commentary available on the point, the interpretation of a Constitutional provision etc. If the higher Courts, in these circumstances deliver a judgment, it is called ‘judicial precedent’ and it is also one way by which law can be made and that would be binding on the people. The
examples of this way of law-making are some of the judgments of Supreme Court, like *Vishakha v. State of Rajasthan* (prevention of sexual harassment at work places), *Keshavanand Bharati v. State of Kerala* (basic structure doctrine in the context of amendment of the Constitution), etc.
### 1.6 WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF LAW?
Why do we need to know the sources of law? We need to know the sources of law because it helps us in identifying the reservoir of law, the location of law, the residence of law. Once we know the source or sources of law, we can use and apply it at our convenience; we can have access to it at any time as we know the residence and location of it.
Although sources of law differ from system to system and society to society, yet seven broad sources of law can be discussed here. Those sources are: Constitution, legislation, judicial precedent, custom, morality, equity, and opinion of jurists. Some of these sources are called ‘authoritative sources’ and some are called ‘non-authoritative sources’. Authoritative sources are: Constitution (in those legal systems in which there is Constitution and which is enjoying the highest reverence), legislation, judicial precedent, and custom. Non-authoritative sources are: morality, equity, and opinion of jurists.
In most of the legal systems, the Constitution is generally regarded as the highest source of law. It is also called the ultimate source of law. All other sources of law are not enjoying the same status as is enjoyed by the Constitution because the Constitution is the fundamental law of the land. The provisions of the Constitution lay down binding rules. Violation of the provisions can be checked and remedied by the Court action. But there are Constitutions like that of China, which simply lay down the rules for the guidance of the governance. Violation of the Chinese Constitutional provisions can be checked only at the political level, not at the level of the Court.
Even though the Constitution of a country enjoys, generally, a very high status, yet, legislation is the most important and biggest source of law today. The term “legislation” means the making or enacting the law. Legislation is that source of law which consists in enactment of legal rules by a competent authority e.g., Parliament or State legislatures. Thus, legislation is long and thoughtful process of legal evolution. It consists in the formulation of norms of human conduct in a given prescribed form through a given prescribed process. Legislation includes Acts, Statutes, Codes, Ordinances, Rules, Regulations, Bye-laws, Orders, Directions, Notifications, etc. All these forms of legislation are the most important sources of law because these are precise and certain. These are easily accessible. The sections, clauses, sub-clauses, paragraphs of legislation are simple to be used.
In Common Law legal system, judicial precedents constitute a very important and authoritative source of law. The term “judicial precedent” refers to a previous decided case of an appellate court (like, High Courts and Supreme Court) which is, or may be, taken as an example or rule for subsequent cases or by which some similar acts or circumstances may be supported or justified. In short, it means the use of past decided cases as guides in the moulding of future decisions. The authority of precedent lies in the power exercised by appellate courts. If the appellate courts are not enjoying authority, then the authority of judicial precedent would be absent. But in Civil Law legal systems (like, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and Latin American
countries), decisions of the highest court does not enjoy the authority. Thus, those judicial decisions are not the source of law.
Custom is the oldest source of law. Before the advent of legislation and precedent, custom was the most important source of law. Even though today the scenario has changed, custom remains to be an important source of law. Custom means uniform practice of the people under like circumstances. Certain practices are accepted by the people as good or beneficial and they go on practicing them which, in course of time, acquire the force of law. It is, however, not any practice that qualifies to become a legal custom, like wearing black clothes at funerals.
To become a source of law, a practice must satisfy five essentials. First that the practice must be of long standing. Single day practice would not make that practice a custom. Second, the practice must be continuous and certain. Continuous practice is an important factor here. Certainty of practice is also important. Practice should not be vague. Third, the practice must be reasonable one, not unreasonable. Reasonableness of a practice is tested according to the time when the practice started, not according to the contemporary time. Fourth, the practice must not be against any legislation or statute. Even if the practice is very old, yet it must not oppose legislation. Fifth, the practice is compulsory for people in a particular given set of circumstances. People are obliged to act according to the expected practice in the given circumstances. If people practice without such feeling of obligation, it would not become custom. For example, the practice of presenting roses to beloved ones on Valentine’s Day can be a custom only if such present is made with the obligatory feeling. If one is necessarily obliged to present roses on that day, then it would be a custom, otherwise not.
Morals are not authoritative sources of law. Those are unauthoritative sources. Courts are not bound by moral norms. However, Courts may be influenced by moral norms or principles. The moral norms are abstract, not precise and concrete. This is the reason why moral norms are not binding. Moral norms lack the backing of the State.
Equity rules are also not binding as authoritative source. ‘Equity’ is a combination of morals and law. Morals have a great influence on equity norms. The main ingredient of equity norms is conscience. You might have heard of some of the famous equity principles, like, ‘he who comes to seek equity must come with clean hands’, and ‘he who seeks equity must do equity’. For example, a party seeking specific performance of an agreement for the transfer of land may be refused that equitable remedy by applying equitable principles as source of law if it is found that he has acted improperly in relation to that agreement (i.e., does not have ‘clean hands’), such as by denying its existence in previous court proceedings.
Sometimes, the opinion of legal experts and eminent text book writers on law work as a source of law. In all the mature legal systems, they influence and mould the law. Although there is no sanction of the State behind them and there is no binding force of this source, this source is consulted by the Courts and is, sometimes, applied by them. For example, Pollock is regarded as an authority in Contract Law. Chalmers is regarded as an authority in Negotiable Instruments law. Oppenheim is regarded as authority in international law. In international law, new situations and problems constantly arise. The jurists express their opinions on such problems and in many cases they are followed by Courts and applied as source of law.
1.7 HOW DO THE LEGAL SYSTEMS OF SOUTH ASIA WORK?
If you start getting an understanding of actual working of South Asian legal systems, you would be appreciating the above discussions in a better way. It must be stated here that the legal systems of South Asia bear a common basis. This basis has different methods of expression. Let us see the some of the legal systems of South Asia.
1.7.1 Bangladesh
In the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, all laws derive their existence from the Constitution of the country. The Constitution is regarded as the solemn expression of the will of the people. The people of Bangladesh adopted, enacted, and gave to themselves their Constitution on 4th November, 1972. This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic. Any other law which is inconsistent with the Constitution shall be declared void.
The Parliament of Bangladesh has a very important role in law making process. The legislative powers of the Republic are vested in the Parliament. Moreover, Parliament can delegate its law making power to any person or authority. Every proposal in Parliament for making law is made in the form of a Bill. When the Bill is passed by Parliament, it is presented to the President for assent. When the President gives his assent, the Bill becomes law and is called an Act of Parliament.
When the Parliament is dissolved or is not in session, the President of Bangladesh possesses the power to issue Ordinance, which is also law for the whole country. Such Ordinance has to be laid before Parliament for its approval. This approval has to be taken at the very first meeting of the Parliament following the promulgation of the Ordinance, unless it is repealed.
The Supreme Court of Bangladesh can also lay down law for the country by its judgments. The Supreme Court has been made a court of Record. It enjoys the power to punish for contempt of Court. The Supreme Court comprises the Appellate Division and the High Court Division. The Chief Justice, and the Judges appointed to the Appellate Division, sits only in that division and the other Judges sit only in the High Court Division. The law declared by the Appellate Division is binding on the High Court Division and the law declared by either division of the Supreme Court is binding on all Courts subordinate to it.
Local governments in every administrative unit of the Republic are also given power to frame rules, and bye laws according to the prescribed directions of the Parliament. The executive authorities can also frame rules, and orders but the power is subject
to overarching control of the Parliament. The people’s custom is also given a prominent place, but it must not also conflict with any express provisions of the Acts of Parliament.
1.7.2 Bhutan
Bhutan is a land-locked country. Its political system has developed from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional and democratic monarchy. In 1999, the fourth king of Bhutan created a body called the Council of Ministers (Lhengye Zhungtshog). The ‘Druk Gyalpo’ (King of Druk Yul) is Head of State. The executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. In 2008, the first general elections took place in Bhutan.
The Constitution of Bhutan was adopted on 18 July 2008. This Constitution is the supreme law of the country. It has thirty five articles and four schedules. The Supreme Court is the guardian of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court was established after the coming into force of the new Constitution. It is the highest court of the land. The next in hierarchy is High Court. The judgments of these Courts enjoy high respect and binding authority. A comprehensive codified law, called the Supreme law (Thrimzhung Chhenmo), covers almost all civil and criminal matters. This is the basis of all the subsequent laws enacted in Bhutan.
The Parliament of Bhutan is vested with legislative powers. It consists of the ‘Druk Gyapo’, the National Council and the National Assembly. A Bill passed by Parliament comes into force upon the assent of the Druk Gyapo. Money Bills and financial Bills originate only in the National Assembly whereas any other legislative Bill may originate in either House. A Bill is passed by a simple majority except in the case of joint sitting.
The King exercises substantial powers and is not answerable to any Court of law. Even the Parliament can not make a law to change the King’s powers except through a National Referendum.
Religious practices have given birth to a number of customary practices. They have been enjoying high status in the legal system also. But they should not come into conflict with any law passed by the legislature.
1.7.3 India
India is a socialist, democratic, and secular republic. In India, the Constitution is regarded as the supreme law. The people of India adopted, enacted and gave to themselves their Constitution on 26th of November 1949. It came into force on 26th January 1950. It is a comprehensive document originally containing 395 Articles. You might be surprised to know that it is the bulkiest Constitution in the whole world. Besides dealing with the structure of Government, it makes detailed provisions for the rights of citizens and for the principles to be followed by the State in the governance of the country.
As India is a federal State, the Parliament as well as State legislatures enjoy the powers to make law in their respective spheres. However, the Union Parliament is more powerful than the State legislatures in making law. The Parliament is composed of the President of India and two Houses, namely Council of States and the House of the People. The proposal to make law is known as Bill. A Bill may originate in either House of Parliament. It has to be passed in both the Houses of the Parliament.
Once it is passed, it becomes an Act of Parliament. Thereafter, the Act has to take the assent of the President to finally become law. This law has to be notified to become operational. The same process is followed at State (provincial) level. There, the Act passed by the State legislature has to take the assent of the Governor of the State.
You must also know that the President of India also enjoys legislative powers when both the Houses of the Parliament are not in session and the circumstances exist for immediate legislative action by the President. Such law is called ‘Ordinance’. It has to take the assent of both the Houses of the Parliament to be alive. If the assent is not granted, it would be a dead law. Similarly, the Governor of a State enjoys similar powers in the State to promulgate Ordinance.
The law declared in the judgments of the Supreme Court is binding on all Courts in India. Twenty one High Courts also enjoy similar powers in their respective territorial jurisdictions. These Courts are Courts of Record. The legal system is dependent upon the proper and efficient delivery of justice by these Courts. The Supreme Court enjoys original, appellate, writ, extraordinary, and advisory jurisdictions. The High Courts enjoy appellate, writ, and extraordinary jurisdictions. Some High Courts, like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata enjoy original jurisdiction too. Original jurisdiction means that jurisdiction in which a matter may go at the first instance in that Court.
The Parliament also delegates its legislative powers in the hands of executive and autonomous bodies. For example, a University may frame rules for its functioning. The administrative authorities may frame rules, orders etc. to supplement the Act passed by the Parliament. The local authorities, like Village Panchayats and Municipal Corporations have been given Constitutional status and are empowered to make rules in their respective areas.
Custom also plays a very important role in India’s legal system. The personal laws of different communities are based on people’s customs. Mercantile customs are also recognized by Courts in India. The customs of tribal communities are also recognized by Courts. However, custom and law passed by appropriate legislature must not come into direct conflict with each other. You should know that in such a case, the law enacted by legislature would prevail.
1.7.4 Maldives
Maldives is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It is the smallest Asian country in terms of both population and area. The Constitution of Maldives was adopted on 7 August 2008. It has 308 Articles and 3 Schedules. The Constitution establishes a Presidential, Democratic, and Islamic Republic in which the President is the Head of the Government. The President is directly elected by the people on the basis of universal and secret ballot. Non-Muslims cannot vote.
All legislative power in the Maldives is vested in the People’s Majlis (Parliament). The Majlis cannot pass any law which contravenes any tenets of Islam. Every Bill passed by the People’s Majlis is presented for assent by the President within 7 days from the date of passing and when President gives assent, it becomes law. Every Bill assented to by the President is published in the Government Gazette on the day of assent.
The judicial power is vested in the Courts. The Supreme Court and the High Court are Courts of record and their judgments are binding on all lower courts. The Supreme Court is the final authority on the interpretation of the Constitution, the law, or any other matter dealt with by a court of law.
1.7.5 Nepal
Nepal is a federal and democratic Republic. The Constitution is the fundamental law of Nepal. Any law inconsistent with it shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void. On January 15, 2007 a 328-member interim Parliament, including 83 Maoist representatives and other party representatives, was constituted. The first sitting of the Parliament unanimously endorsed an interim Constitution, which replaced the Constitution of 1990. This Interim Constitution has to give way to the Final Constitution to be drafted by the Constituent Assembly by the year of 2010.
Nepal held its historic Constituent Assembly (CA) election on 10 April, 2008. Primarily mandated to draft a new Constitution of Nepal, the CA also serves as a Parliament. Before this arrangement, there was bi-cameral legislature, namely, House of Representative (lower house) and National Assembly (upper house). But now Constituent Assembly works as a Parliament. So there is no upper house and lower house at present. Any CA member may introduce a proposal to enact law in the form of a ‘Bill’. But Money Bill and a Bill concerning the Nepal Army, Armed Police Force, Nepal Police as well as security body shall be introduced only as a Government Bill. If the Bill is passed, and it receives the assent of the President, it becomes law.
The Supreme Court of Nepal is the apex court in the judicial hierarchy. All Courts and judicial bodies, other than the Constituent Assembly Court (this court is constituted only to try the election petitions of the elections of CA), are subordinate to Supreme Court. This Court is the final authority to interpret the Constitution and the laws in force.
Nepal has 14 zones. In each zone, there is one Appellate Court. Appellate Court decides the appeals from district Courts and other tribunals. However, the principles of law laid down by these Courts are not binding. Thus, the principles of law affirmed, upheld, overruled by the Supreme Court has binding authority all over Nepal.
Custom has played a vital role in the law making process in Nepal. For example, the Interim Constitution accepts that the cow is the national animal of Nepal and cow and ox killing is the serious crime. Prohibition of cow and ox-slaughter has been a customary practice in Nepal. Similarly, bigamy is prohibited, but polyandry is permitted in some tribal communities, since they practice this system from the very beginning. Incest is a very serious crime for Hindu Brahmins, but it may be permissible in the tribal and Muslim community.
1.7.6 Pakistan
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan recognizes its Constitution as the supreme law of the land. The first Pakistani Constituent Assembly was elected in the year of 1947 and after nine years in 1956, adopted a short-lived Constitution. The present Constitution was enacted and adopted on 12 April 1973 and came into effect on 14 August 1973.
The Constitution provides for Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) consisting of the President and two Houses. The Houses are known respectively as National Assembly and the Senate. The Provinces have their own legislative bodies. The Parliament and the Provincial Legislatures have been designated separate areas on which these bodies can make law. The Parliament can make law with respect to any matter listed in the Federal Legislative List or in the Concurrent Legislative List. The Provincial Legislature can make law in any matter listed in State Legislative List. A Bill has to be, first of all, introduced in the appropriate legislature and when it is passed by the legislature, it has to take the assent of the President to be called as an ‘Act’. An Act of legislature is enforced as law when it is notified.
The President of Pakistan may also make law by promulgating ‘Ordinance’ when the Majlis is not in session. This Ordinance enjoys the same status as an Act passed by the legislature. However, the Ordinance must get the positive support of the Majlis-e-Shoora once it is in session.
The higher judiciary in Pakistan possesses powers to bind the subordinate Courts by its judgments. The Constitution provides that if Supreme Court decides a question of law or the opinion of the Court is based upon a principle of law or explains a principle of law, it is binding on all other courts in Pakistan. Similarly, the judgments of High Courts are binding on all courts subordinate to it. It means precedents of these courts are binding as law.
1.7.7 Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is a democratic and socialist republic. It accords highest place to the Constitution in law making. The Sri Lankan Constitution was adopted on 16 August 1978. The Constitution establishes a unitary model of State in which the Central government is vested with all important powers of law-making. The country is divided into administrative units. After 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution, provincial councils were established in nine provinces. Each of these nine provinces are administered by a directly elected provincial council.
The legislative wing of the State is known as the Parliament. It consists of 225 members elected on the basis of proportional representation by the people. Parliament can make law related to national, provincial and concurrent interests. The legislative proposals have to be made in the form of a ‘Bill’. Ordinary Bills have to be published in the gazette before its introduction in the Parliament. Urgent Bills do not have to follow this procedure. The Bills have to be read at three stages and finally if it is passed, it has to get the President’s assent to be passed as law.
The President of Sri Lanka is very powerful as the country has Presidential system of government. The President is not only the Head of the State, but also the head of the government. He can promulgate Ordinance when the Parliament is not in session. The Ordinance has the virtues of law.
The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka are Courts of Record. They possess the power to punish for its contempt. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior Court of Record. The Court of Appeal exercises appellate jurisdiction for the correction of all errors in fact or in law which are committed by the lower courts. The judgments of Supreme Court and Court of Appeal are binding on subordinate Courts. So, those judgments are very important for you to understand.
In Sri Lanka, customary practices also have great significance. For example, the religious practices of Buddhists are based on customary practices and are recognized by higher courts. It is not the ancient Buddhist texts which are the basis of customary practices, but the local customary rules that the Courts have accepted.
1.8 SUMMARY
- In this Unit, we discussed the meaning of the terms ‘law’, ‘rules of law’, ‘rules in the nature of law’, ‘bye law’, ‘Ordinance’, ‘Act’, ‘Statute’ etc. and how these terms differ in meaning from other rules and nature’s law, moral law etc. We also discussed the role of law in the development of society. We discussed that a haphazard development of society is not preferred; rather a regulated system of society is preferred. Such regulation comes from an organized system of law, and institutions to enforce the law, and personnel who administer law. The problems in the South Asian region can be solved by using law as one of the several means.
- This unit also tried to comprehend the process of law making and its sources. We now know that the law making process is a very systematic process and various people and institutions are involved in them. The role of the Constitution, legislature, and the judiciary is very significant in this regard. We discussed even the power of communities and groups to create customary law if they practice it for considerable time. We got to understand the working of the legal systems of South Asian countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The working of these systems could give us a glimpse of the actual institutions and people, and law which ultimately make up the system of law making and administration of law.
1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1) What do you mean by the term ‘law’? Discuss also the process of making the law.
2) Describe the role of law in the development of society. How South Asian society can grow better with the better use of law?
3) What are the sources of law? Discuss.
1.10 ANSWERS AND HINTS
Self Assessment Questions
1) Refer to Section 1.3
2) Refer to Section 1.4
Terminal Questions
1) Refer to Section 1.3 and 1.5
2) Refer to Section 1.4
3) Refer to Section 1.6
1.11 GLOSSARY
Constitution : The highest law of the land containing values and principles of the socio-economic-legal system.
Act : A piece of law passed by the legislature.
Customary law : It is people’s practices which may mature into custom after a given period, and following a consistent, and uniform practice. It should be not against public policy and statutory law.
Precedent : A judgment containing new legal principle laid down by higher Courts.
1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
1) A bare reading of the Constitution of your country.
2) Any Act passed by your Parliament.
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STORIES OF CHANGE
This project was funded by UK aid from the UK Government
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| Project Introduction | 3 |
| Project aim | 3 |
| Theory of change | 3 |
| Target Beneficiaries | 3 |
| Safe spaces improving teen girls’ knowledge on GBV prevention and SRHR | 4 |
| How Speak Out Project trainings improved Brigitte’s self-confidence and self-esteem | 5 |
| 12-year-old Denise explains benefits of Speak Out Project | 6 |
| Safe spaces improving schoolgirls’ understanding on the girls’ room | 7 |
| How safe spaces are equipping girls with reproductive information | 7 |
| How Speak Out Project is encouraging reporting GBV cases | 9 |
| Speak Out project equips 17 year-old Eric to campaign against violence | 10 |
| Speak Out Project breaking communities’ silence on violence | 11 |
| 14-year-old Esperance on how Speak Out allayed her misconceptions on reproductive health | 12 |
| Safe houses - Key in the fight against GBV | 13 |
| Speak Out project taught me various forms of violence, says 16 year-old Olivier | 14 |
| 11-year-old Pacific commends Speak Out’s lessons on reproductive health | 15 |
| Speak Out mentorship program empowering girls with knowledge on GBV prevention and response | 16 |
| Safe spaces improving teen girls’ knowledge on GBV prevention and SRHR | 17 |
| How Speak Out Project is tackling girls school dropouts | 18 |
| 15-year-old Jeannette on what she benefited from Speak Out Project | 19 |
| 12 year-old Julienne hail Speak Out’s teaching method | 20 |
| Speak Out Project: Counsellor Mukantabana shares tips she uses while helping violence victims | 21 |
**Executive producer:** Speak Out! Project / ActionAid Rwanda
**Managing Editor:** Clarisse KAWERA/ActionAid Rwanda
**Content developer:** Theogene SIBOMANA/Inyarwanda Ltd
**Project Manager:** Robinah NAJJINGO/ActionAid Rwanda
**ActionAid Rwanda**
Tel: +250 280 300 142
Website: rwanda.actionaid.org
Twitter: @actionaidrwanda
Facebook: ActionAid Rwanda
PROJECT INTRODUCTION
Speak Out Project is a four-year project which started in 2018 and is expected to close in 2022. It focuses on Addressing Sexual Reproductive Health Rights and Gender Based Violence in Rwanda.
The project is funded by UK aid Direct through DFID and is implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with Faith Victory Association and Association des Guides du Rwanda. The project is being implemented in four districts in nine sectors including: Karongi (Murundi and Gitesi sectors), Nyanza (Mukingo, Busasamana and Rwabicuma sectors) Gisagara (Muganza, Kibirizi and Gishubi sectors) and Nyaruguru (Ruheru sector).
PROJECT AIM
Speak Out! aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to demand their rights, take control over their bodies, and hold decisionmakers to account using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
TARGET BENEFICIARIES
Direct beneficiaries: 6,560 including 5600 School girls including 4% girls with disabilities between 9-18 years, 480 Survivors of violence, 280 mentors and 200 women from Women Rights Organisations :200
Indirect beneficiaries: 48,600 including 2600 schoolboys between 9-18 years and 46,000 community members.
THEORY OF CHANGE
The project's Theory of Change asserts that VAWG and the acceptability of violence will reduce in the project districts if we provide girls with a voice, choice and control through improved knowledge, skills, confidence and leadership opportunities, and support to mobilize themselves to demand for an environment where they can live free from violence. An enabling environment will be created through challenging boys and men to shift social attitudes and practices alongside influencing duty bearers at all levels to achieve change in policy and practice and provide VAWG prevention and response services. Improved data collection, coordination and training of WROs will advance advocacy, SRHR and VAWG programming throughout Rwanda. This will lead to girls, communities and WROs having increased willingness, confidence and ability to report and respond to cases of violence in in Karongi, Nyanza, Gisagara and Nyaruguru districts in Rwanda.
Speak Out has school based and community engagement activities. Among the school-based activities there are safe spaces where girls meet weekly during weekends and sessions are delivered by mentors. Mentors are young girls between 18-25 years who completed senior six. They were trained on curriculums used in the project and methodologies to use in delivering the sessions. School clubs also meet weekly and sessions are delivered by teachers and are referred to as club facilitators. Community engagement activities include quarterly community awareness raising on GBV and SRHR through parents evening forums and community gatherings and Violence Against Women and Girls quarterly coordination meetings, psychosocial support of teen mothers, linking SGBV survivors with Isange One Stop Centres, police and RIB and trainings of Male Change Agents.
SAFE SPACES IMPROVING TEEN GIRLS’ KNOWLEDGE ON GBV PREVENTION AND SRHR
Angelique is one of the schoolgirls supported through safe spaces. ActionAid through Speak Out Project funded by UKaid is supporting girls in safe spaces and school clubs on different issues like preventing Gender Based Violence and addressing Sexual, Reproductive Health and Rights. A safe space is a secure environment where girls share their issues and get advice from mentors.
Angelique lives in, Nyanza District. She is thirteen years old and she is in primary six. She lives with her mother who is a farmer and her elder sister who is a teen mother. Her dad dissented the home, but he visits them once in a while. Angelique is the second born in her family. Before joining safe spaces of Speak Out Project, Angelique did not know that rape exists. She used to hear people talking about it, but they could not call it rape, instead they used to say that someone was violated.
“In the safe space we call issues their real names. That is when I understood what rape is, through explanations by the mentor.”
Through Speak Out, Angelique learned four forms of Gender Based Violence including economical, sexual, emotional and physical violence. She also learnt about where to report GBV cases. I was taught that even teachers can support in reporting GBV cases. Other reporting channels include the National police, Rwanda Investigation Bureau, mentors, Isange One Stop center, national women council and other local leaders” Angelique added.
Angelique revealed that her school club facilitator is her friend and her role model. She confessed that she tells the club facilitator about her secrets, then the facilitator advises her on different issues. The club facilitator is a teacher who voluntarily delivers sessions on GBV and SRHR in school clubs. School clubs are made of girls and boys. I then realized that changing names of things makes them loose their gravity. The club facilitator also explained to us what we can do when raped. I now understand the referral pathways because of Speak Out Project Training sessions,” Angelique said.
“My mother told me about menstruation periods. She told me that when I see blood from my genital, I would know that those are menstruation periods. She also advised me that when I get menstrual periods at school I should reach out to my teacher for help. However, I have not yet had my menstruation periods, but I am very confident that when I get them, I will not be ashamed of picking sanitary pads from the girls’ room,” Angelique added.
Angelique further said that in the safe spaces, girls share discussions on the signs of menstruation periods which include; stomachache, headache, which makes them be well prepared for it. In the safe space, they get a lot of trainings which are boosting their confidence, and this is going to reduce school dropouts.
“My advice is that there should be capacity building for men and boys on GBV and SRHR since they are largely the perpetrators of GBV. Men and boys should be encouraged to be active actors in GBV prevention and response,” Angelique suggested.
“Awareness raising for parents through trainings and strong punishments for GBV perpetrators can minimize the rate of GBV cases in homes,” Angelique concluded.
Brigitte is student and she is fifteen years old. She lives in Nyanza District with her mother and her niece. Her father divorced her mother when Brigitte was young. She is her father’s fourth born and her mother’s third born. Her mother provides her school materials. When Brigitte is at home, she helps her mother with household chores.
In Brigitte’s community, girls in both school and out of school fear to share discussion regarding menstruation periods although they do have to undergo the experience as a stage in development. It is also considered as a taboo for most parents to hold discussions regarding sexual reproductive health with their children. Even though Brigitte’s mum tried her best to train her on using sanitary pads, she was still too shy to get involved in such discussions with other girls.
“My mother always advised me to keep away from boys when I started menstruating and she told me that when I have sex at this stage, I can easily get pregnant,” Brigitte revealed.
“We learnt different forms of violence which I did not know about before. The way we share discussions in school clubs is quite amazing. We are all given a chance to share our views and speak in our national language,” Brigitte further said. “My mentor advises me a lot and keeps what I share with her as a secret. She is a nice person and helps me a lot. From the sessions on violence, we were taught to say a strong No and report all incidences of violence that may happen to us or to other people. We were taught that even touching on our body parts is violence, so no body just touches me anyhow. I have learnt to avoid situations that can lead me to sexual violence,” Brigitte said.
Brigitte affirms that in the safe space, they were also trained on making friends by making cycles of friendship and now she has got a friend whom she trusts, and her name is Seraphina. Seraphina is Brigitte’s classmate in P6. Through Speak Out Project funded by UK Aid, ActionAid Rwanda established safe spaces where girls meet with peer mentors and share freely their experiences and trainings on violence and building self-confidence. Brigitte is among the girls who are trained in the safe space and discussions shared are so many, but she appreciates improving in self-confidence and self-esteem in sharing her mind in her safe space.
“I feel comfortable telling my mentor or facilitator that I am in menstruation periods. Changing pads has become so easily because I go to the girls’ room and get the sanitary pad to change when I am still at school,” Brigitte added.
ActionAid Rwanda constructed a girls’ room at Brigitte’s school and through Speak Out project, this room was equipped with sanitary pads, soap and water. There is also a bed and when a girl feels pain during menstruation, she goes there to rest. The safe space initiative has a set of life skills on leadership, building confidence and financial literacy and this has brought about lots of transformation of schoolgirls.
Brigitte shared a story about a man who burned his son’s fingers when he had stolen food. People in the household sought help from police and the father was imprisoned although he was released after asking for forgiveness. She therefore requests parents not to give severe punishments when a child has made a mistake or when children are indiscipline.
12-YEAR-OLD DENISE EXPLAINS BENEFITS OF SPEAK OUT PROJECT
DENISE
Denise is a 12-year-old who is a second born of her family. She has three siblings and is a student in primary six and her father is a teacher whereas her mother is a nurse.
Although both Denise’s parents are professional workers, none of them had ever talked to her about reproductive health and menstruation periods.
She said that she learnt about menstruation periods in safe space and school clubs established by Speak Out project in her school. Safe Space is a room where girls aged nine to eighteen meet, talking about their bodily changes and how to conduct themselves in the society and to their parents and about violence.
Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
“School club facilitator trained us the menstruation cycle using beads,” Denise said, adding that:
“Mentors also taught us that menstruation is a normal bodily change that girls should be happy about it but must be very clean.”
From the safe space, students are taught other life skills which include planting a kitchen garden where they grow vegetables to improve nutrition in their families. In addition to growing vegetables, Denise mentioned that they were coached on how to be self-reliant by saving and being able to buy some things for themselves.
From her savings, she is planning to buy rabbits which will not only provide manure to her parents’ plantations but also sell them and get some money. Denise also explained that she was happy to learn about the different forms of violence and the reporting channels.
“I will never keep silent if I see people violating women and girls’ rights,” She said.
Speak Out Project is a four-year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
SAFE SPACES IMPROVING SCHOOLGIRLS’ UNDERSTANDING ON THE GIRLS’ ROOM
Devotha is 17 years old and is studying in senior three. She affirms that although she is in secondary school, she has never heard her mother talking about issues of reproductive health.
According to Devotha, her mother does not even have time for discussions with her children. “The little information I had on sexual reproductive health, I got it from my peers at school. When in our school club we learnt about changes that happen to teenagers during their teenage, I understood them better than what I had learnt from class. The sessions in school clubs are mainly discussions held in Kinyarwanda, so participation is very easy and we understand sessions delivered in school clubs better than in normal classes,” Devotha said.
“I used to feel shy about going to the girls’ room to get a sanitary pad, because I thought that nobody should know that I was having menstruation periods,” she added. I did not know that children can also report GBV cases. I got this knowledge from the school clubs where we learnt about reporting channels and who should report. I learnt that everyone could report GBV cases but with evidence. I learnt that among the GBV reporting channels include Isange One Stop Center, RIB, Rwanda Police and local authorities, but teachers, mentors and parents can support in reporting,” Devotha said.
“Through Safe Spaces, we were taught how girls can start a business by rearing chickens and rabbits. These small livestock can help girls get some money and start saving so that they are not too dependent to other people,” Devotha added.
Devotha, recommends that, there should be campaigns to raise parents’ awareness on violence against women and girls as well as sexual, reproductive health and rights.
HOW SAFE SPACES ARE EQUIPPING GIRLS WITH REPRODUCTIVE INFORMATION
Elizabeth is 15 year-old teenager who is in senior three. She lives with both parents who are farmers and is the second born in her family.
Elizabeth says that girls in primary and secondary schools in rural areas tend to miss classes during their menstruation periods which affect their performances in class due to absenteeism. This, according to her, is because menstruation periods is not a topic that parents in rural areas discuss with their daughters and therefore girls get most of the information from peers at school.
Elizabeth added that peers have lots of myths about menstruation, like the one stating that having sex prevents cramps during ovulation and avoids skin rushes among others. She noted that if I had not been Speak Out Project’s safe spaces, her and many other girls would not have learnt about menstruation periods and right practices to adhere to while in periods.
Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
She said: “In safe spaces established by Speak Out Project, we discuss about menstruation periods and the hygiene associated with this period and how to use sanitary pads.”
Safe Space is a room where girls aged nine to eighteen meet, talking about their bodily changes and how to conduct themselves in the society and to their parents and about violence.
“We also learnt about how childbearing and child upbringing. We learnt that children are very expensive, and we should make plans of having babies when we are grown up and can manage raising them,” she added.
Elizabeth also among others noted that she used to fear reporting GBV (gender-based violence) cases but with the knowledge she gained from both safe spaces and school clubs, she once reported a man who had raped a girl of 11 years to local authorities.
According to her, the man was imprisoned and the girl was taken to hospital, and she is happy that she applied the skills I gained to support others. Under Speak Out Project, students have been empowered with knowledge on GBV and the reporting channels. They were also given booklets with a summary of GBV law and toll-free numbers which are used in reporting GBV cases.
These booklets not only used by children but also parents read them. As a way of guiding students for self-reliance, the Project initiated the students’ group savings. This aims at promoting a culture of saving and also investing in buying domestic animals which they can sell when they need money.
Saving and being able to buy something for themselves prevent girls from being persuaded into premature sexual relations which most girls say it is due to poverty.
Speak Out Project is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitese and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
“We learnt that children are very expensive, and we should make plans of having babies when we are grown up and can manage raising them”
HOW SPEAK OUT PROJECT IS ENCOURAGING REPORTING GBV CASES
Emmanuel Murwanashyaka was born in 1983 and is a Science and Sports teacher. He is also a club facilitator in Speak Out project at Karuganda Primary school.
He said that violence against women and girls existed in the communities but very few perpetrators were punished because they were not reported.
He added that: “Fearing to report GBV (gender-based violence) cases has roots in the cultural norms of not exposing ones’ problems. If a girl was raped, she would not report the perpetrator because of fear of not getting married in future. For the parents, they would keep silent so as to not shame the family.”
Murwanashyaka mentioned that through Speak Out Project, he got a platform through which he teaches girls and boys about violence and where they can report GBV cases. Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Murwanashyaka mentioned that he taught children that they should not only report violence done to them but also speak out on violence done to others such as neighbors.
As a result, he noted that: “Boys nowadays tell me that they learnt that it’s their responsibility to prevent GBV done to girls. They have also made up their minds and never laugh at girls when they stain their uniforms during periods.”
The facilitator also reiterated that they are lucky to have a safe house near their health center because community members who are violated go there and they are referred to relevant authorities for legal and health support.
Speak Out Project is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
SPEAK OUT PROJECT EQUIPS 17 YEAR-OLD ERIC TO CAMPAIGN AGAINST VIOLENCE
Speak out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association. The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Under the project there are also community engagement activities like advocacy and campaigning aiming at addressing existing patriarchal attitudes and behaviors.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AWARENESS
Eric said he had no enough information on violence; its forms, who does it, the victim, and the consequences among others because no one ever talked to him about it.
“I used to ignorantly yell at girls when they could stain their school uniforms during menstruation period,” he said.
However, he reiterated that he is now aware of relevant information on reproductive health, thanks to Speak Out project.
“The project helped me to learn a lot including the bodily changes during adolescence for both girls and boys. I have learnt that menstruation is a normal bodily change and girls have to undergo it and I therefore stopped laughing at them,” he said.
Speak out is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza
that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities. Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
SPEAK OUT PROJECT BREAKING COMMUNITIES’ SILENCE ON VIOLENCE
NZAMUKOSHA ESPERANCE
Esperance added that at school, sessions on violence have been delivered in school clubs and toll-free numbers were given to students to facilitate them in reporting Gender Based Violence (GBV) in their communities and that she hopes that GBV will reduce if people report perpetrators. Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Speak Out Project is a four-year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors). School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
14-YEAR-OLD ESPERANCE ON HOW SPEAK OUT ALLAYED HER MISCONCEPTIONS ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Esperance is a 14-year-old resident of Nyaruguru district, Southern Province and is student in senior one. She lives with both parents. Her father is a public official and her mother is a community health worker. When at home, she feeds her chickens and grows cabbages.
Esperance explained that in her community, parents do not discuss sexual reproductive issues with their children and so children do not have enough information about bodily change during adolescence. She also mentioned that the little information which sometimes is not true children get it from their peers.
“When we were taught about bodily changes during adolescent in the school club initiated by Speak Out Project, I realized that what the information I had was wrong. For example, I was told by my friends that having big bums and preventing rushes in the face is a result of having sex. I later realized that this was far from the truth,” she explained.
Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Esperance noted that at school they have a girls’ room known as safe space which is very well equipped with pads, soap, water, towel and a bed where any girl with pain during menstruation periods can go and rest. However, Esperance mentioned that she feared going there because she did not want anyone to notice she was having menstruation periods.
To her, menstruation was a secret and nobody else had to know. Good enough, she said, during sessions in the safe spaces when we were learning about menstruation, our mentor emphasized that it’s a normal bodily change and girls should not feel shy about it.
“We also learnt how to make homemade sanitary pads which we can use to keep clean during this time of the month,” she added.
Speak Out Project is a four-year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities. The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence.
Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
SAFE HOUSES - KEY IN THE FIGHT AGAINST GBV
NYIRAMBONIMA Marguerite is a counselor at the safe house in Gishubi sector, Gisagara district. A safe house are houses established near health centers or near sector premises where GBV survivors are received, take rest and share their cases with the counsellor who records the violence cases and refer the survivors of violence to relevant authorities for legal aid and health care. Counsellors are females who are either community health workers or National Women Council representatives. They are trained on GBV survivors’ approaches and case management.
Marguerite says that before Speak Out project established safe houses, GBV survivors had nowhere to go for rescue. People reporting physical violence and rape used to report to local authorities but in most cases they were not helped. Some women would separate from their husbands but could come back when nothing was done to resolve their problems.
Through the safe house established by Speak Out Project with funding from the UK Aid, there is a significant improvement on reporting GBV cases. Women come to the safe house to report their violence cases and/or violence committed against their children.
“When a child is raped, parents bring her to the safe house, and I take her to Isange One Stop Center for both health care and legal support. Survivors of violence are supported depending on their cases. Some are referred to local authorities, others we refer them to Isange One Stop center and Rwanda Investigation Bureau,” said Marguerite.
“Apart from providing psychosocial support and referring survivors of violence to relevant service providers, I also provide psychosocial support to teen mothers. I formed self-help groups for the teen mothers where they meet and share their experiences and advise each other. They meet twice a month and save some little money to support themselves. When they meet, I also invite guest speakers to train them on GBV and reporting channels,” Marguerite added.
Most conflicts in families are due to the patriarchal system where a man marries the number of women he wants although the Rwandan family laws recognizes one woman. Women could not report such violence done to them and decided to keep silent. Although there are decentralized structures established by the government to resolve GBV issues, many of them have limited capacity to handle cases of Gender based Violence.
Community health workers usually support in taking survivors to the hospital for treatment and family friends for temporary stay while the case is being handled by relevant institutions, then the National Women Council representatives are in charge of managing the cases and report them to the Rwanda Investigation Bureau who does the investigations on the cases and Isange One Stop Centre for psychosocial support, but these National Women Council representatives do not have enough equipment to support this work.
She further said “I am so happy that I am seeing significant changes in the lives of teen mothers. Before being enrolled in the Speak Out project they were stigmatized and had no one to listen to them, but now they talked to me anytime they encounter a challenge. Their parents mistreat them, but I am advocating for them at the Sector Office to organize a meeting of teen mothers’ parents on parenthood, so that we change their parents’ mindset”.
SPEAK OUT PROJECT TAUGHT ME VARIOUS FORMS OF VIOLENCE, SAYS 16 YEAR-OLD OLIVIER
OLIVIER
Olivier who is 16 years old and studies in senior two in Gisagara district and has four siblings and lives with his mother. His father is currently in prison. Nonetheless, his mother is a farmer and buys scholastic materials for him. Oliver explained that after joining Speak Out project, he became aware of different kinds of violence that he had no clue on before.
He said: “I used to think that parents have the right of beating their children and no one could stop them. But in school clubs of Speak Out project, I learnt that beating is physical violence regardless of who is doing it.”
He added that: “I did not know other forms of violence, but I learnt about them in school club. Among things I learnt include that bullying is a form of violence and I thereafter stopped it.”
Speak out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association. The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Under the project there are also community engagement activities like advocacy and campaigning aiming at addressing existing patriarchal attitudes and behaviors. According to Olivier, Speak Out project also helped him to meet someone else whom he can trust in addition to his mother and share with him life issues.
“The only person I used to trust was my mother but now I have another one who is my club facilitator. He is so good to me and I easily approach him when I have a problem. He teaches me things and I also teach others what I learn from school clubs,” he added.
In bid to address sexual and reproductive health rights (SRHR) and violence against women and girls (VAWG), under the project, in school clubs, boys are mixed with girls to learn sexual reproductive health rights and GBV and sessions are facilitated by their teachers who voluntarily act as club facilitators. Also, boys are mixed with girls to promote gender equality and also to engage them as partners in combating GBV. In this regard, students meet once a week and there are several activities conducted in school clubs that aim at enabling children to understand GBV and SRHR such as debates and sports among others.
Speak out is a four-year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitese and Murundi sectors). School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities. The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
11-YEAR-OLD PACIFIC COMMENDS SPEAK OUT’S LESSONS ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Pacific, 11, applauds Speak Out project for enlightening him about reproductive health information. Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Pacific currently studies in primary five and lives with parents. His father is a teacher. He narrated that he did not know the changes boys undergo during adolescence. However, he later became aware that girls have periods during that stage, thanks to Speak Out project.
He explained that he was too shy to talk about genital parts in the local language Kinyarwanda because it is considered as a taboo to talk about such parts that even parents fear to talk about with their children.
“I was surprised when I heard the facilitator teach us in Kinyarwanda and mentioning the private parts. At first, I thought it was abnormal but later he explained that we have be bold and talk about them because it is our body and we have the right to know these parts,” he said.
He added: “I also did not know when exactly I can impregnate a girl, but I’m grateful to Speak Out’s school clubs because that’s where I later learnt all of that.”
In bid to address sexual and reproductive health rights (SRHR) and violence against women and girls (VAWG), under the project, in school clubs, boys are mixed with girls to learn sexual reproductive health rights and gender-based violence (GBV) and sessions are facilitated by their teachers who voluntarily act as club facilitators.
Also, boys are mixed with girls to promote gender equality and also to engage them as partners in combating GBV. In this regard, students meet once a week and there are several activities conducted in school clubs that aim at enabling children to understand GBV and SRHR such as debates and sports among others. Another thing I learnt in school clubs, Pacific said, is that when a girl is raped, she can be given treatment to prevent her from getting pregnant and contaminating sexually transmitted diseases.
Speak out is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities. The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
SPEAK OUT MENTORSHIP PROGRAM EMPOWERING GIRLS WITH KNOWLEDGE ON GBV PREVENTION AND RESPONSE
UMUGWANEZA RUTH
Umuwaneza Ruth is 22 years old and is still single. She completed secondary school in the combination of Mathematics, Economics and Geography (MEG). She lives in Gishubi Sector, Gisagara District.
She is a mentor who delivers sessions about SRHR, GBV prevention and response, etc in the safe space at Gishubi Secondary School. She also supports girls in her safe space to enhance their talents. She has advanced entrepreneurship skills and she is a retailer of clothes.
Although she is in charge of mentoring girls, Ruth testifies that she has also learnt a lot from Speak Out project and from the girls she takes care of. She explained that when she was recruited as a mentor, she was given trainings on how to deliver sessions in the safe space and how to associate with girls.
Ruth trains girls every Saturday, twice a month. Sessions are conducted in a neat room and secure environment which is referred to as a Safe Space. Girls sit in a cycle and use a tennis ball as a means of sharing views. Using the tennis ball teaches girls how to listen to one person and respecting others’ ideas. If a girl wants to complement, she waits to receive the tennis ball, then get the floor to speak. Through Speak Out Project, girls have been able to access comprehensive sexuality education and the rights associated with sexuality.
Ruth explained that at the beginning, girls were shy to talk about their sexual reproductive health, had no enough information and had a lot of myths around sexuality.
Parents whose girls attend sessions in safe spaces applauds the initiative, because they have seen tremendous positive changes in girls’ behaviors. Girls are bold enough to initiate discussions with their parents and invite their parents to attend sessions planned to bring together parents and children in the safe space. Recently, parents were invited for a session entitled “Raising children is expensive”, to improve parents’ knowledge on preparations required before giving birth to a child, saving for children and better parenthood.
Ruth added that, in the safe space, girls were trained on “EARNING AND SPENDING MONEY” which aims at guiding them for self-reliance through promoting the culture of saving. Girls have created saving groups which support them to practice financial skills like saving and entrepreneurship.
She added that she was trained on Gender Based Violence prevention and response as well as sexual reproductive health and rights. Ruth said that she knew some forms of Gender Based Violence like physical violence and rape but did not know much about emotional violence and economic violence. She testifies that Speak Out project helped her to gain a lot of knowledge, and with the training materials given to her by Rwanda Girl Guides Association implementing the Speak Out Project’s mentorship program, she can deliver sessions very well.
Speak Out project funded by UKAid aims at supporting girls with knowledge and skills to take control over their bodies, make their own
decisions and take leaders to account using youth led approach. Through the project, girls have been trained on different forms of violence and reporting channels. They are encouraged to report GBV cases on time, avoid losing evidences and make sure that GBV survivors get timely treatment. The trainings are boosting their confidence in addressing GBV issues.
The project aims to support girls in realizing their aspirations by fostering an enabling environment by providing responses to social challenges girls face when they are at school and in their communities.
SAFE SPACES IMPROVING TEEN GIRLS’ KNOWLEDGE ON GBV PREVENTION AND SRHR
SUMAYA
Sumaya lives in Nyanza District. She is 14 years old and studies in primary six. She is the first born in her family. She has four siblings and lives with both her parents.
Sumaya’s mother is a subsistence farmer who grows food for home consumption and her father works with trucks owners to load and unload goods.
“I used to think that violence was about beating someone to death and that rape was having forced sexual intercourses with someone. My mother is hot tempered and always slaps us when we do mistakes, but I did not know that it was violence! I was ignorant about the other forms of violence but from school clubs, I learnt the four forms of violence, how they are done and their consequences,” Sumaya said.
“In safe spaces, we learnt techniques of talking to parents especially when showing them their mistakes and make them listen to us. I am practicing this with my hot-tempered mother. About rape, I learnt that the survivor of this form of violence should be rushed to hospital for protection against pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Infections. On this form of violence, we were also taught to keep the evidences by not bathing before going to hospital,” she added.
Sumaya kept on saying that, through safe spaces, she have learnt that self-respect and respecting others is very important in society. She also learnt how to listen to others when they are sharing their views and not stopping someone in the mid of the point.
“My mother is so tough and hot tempered that I was always afraid to ask her anything about reproductive health. She does not have any discussion with me at all. So, I was very happy when I saw my mentor. My mentor is so good, approachable and advises me. She trained me on how to use a sanitary pad and how to maintain hygiene during this period,” Sumaya said.
According to Sumaya, bringing men and women together for a conversation on violence and SRHR would be the best way to prevent GBV.
HOW SPEAK OUT PROJECT IS TACKLING GIRLS SCHOOL DROPOUTS
JEAN DE DIEU
Jean de Dieu, 41, is the school head teacher of Kavumu Catholic Primary school in Busasamana sector and oversees sports in primary schools at the sector level. He lives together with his spouse and their two children in Nyanza district, Southern Province. The primary school he works for has 1,238 students of whom boys are 628 and girls are 610. Of the students tally, 131 girls and 33 boys were enrolled in Speak Out Project.
Jean De Dieu mentioned that in the past five years, the school had a challenge of girls dropping out due to teenage pregnancies. He explained that teen pregnancy was a big challenge not only to the school but to the whole community.
“Teenage pregnancy was a challenge because girls who were violated could not report their cases and even their parents would keep silent. It was always the responsibility of the school to find out what happened to girls when they would not attend school and that’s when we would know they were impregnated,” he mentioned.
However, according to Jean De Dieu, all this became history due to Speak Out Project.
“Speak Out project is a good project through which girls are empowered with skills and knowledge about GBV (gender-based violence) prevention and Sexual reproductive health rights. Jean de Dieu before the project started, girls were dropping out of school due to teen pregnancy but ever since when the Project started, no girl has dropped out of school,” he explained.
Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association. The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Jean De Dieu also went on to say: “We appreciate Action Aid for all their support to Kavumu Catholique School through constructing 6 classrooms and constructing and equipping the girls’ room in 2015. The girls’ room supported the school in reducing the number of absenteeism during menstruation periods.”
The girls’ room is equipped with a bed, water, soap and towel for girls to clean themselves and continue with classes.
“I noticed in the safe spaces sessions are held smoothly with the support of peer mentors. The way they sit is so much engaging and everyone is encouraged active participation. Girls are open to share what they know and are later given the right information. They have learnt their body parts and bodily changes during adolescence. They are not shy when discussing reproductive health and I think this will help them take control over their bodies,” he added.
Under Speak Out Project, students have been empowered with knowledge on GBV and the reporting channels. They were also given booklets with a summary of GBV law and toll-free numbers which are used in reporting GBV cases. These booklets not only used by children but also parents read them.
As a way of guiding students for self-reliance, the Project initiated the students’ group savings. This aims at promoting a culture of saving and also investing in buying domestic animals which they can sell when they need money.
Saving and being able to buy something for themselves prevent girls from being persuaded into premature sexual relations which most girls say it is due to poverty.
Speak Out Project is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools). Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
**15-YEAR-OLD JEANNETTE ON WHAT SHE BENEFITED FROM SPEAK OUT PROJECT**
Jeanette is 15 years old and is a student in senior two. She is the first born in a family and has five siblings and her parents are farmers.
Jeannette’s mother used to tell her about periods, but she could not take much time listening because she has not had her period. Although her mother used to talk about periods, she had never told her about genital parts and sexually transmitted infections.
However, she used to tell her that she should keep away from boys because she can get pregnant but Jeannette could not understand how. Jeannette is grateful to Speak Out Project, because, she said, I learnt about all her reproductive system and in the school club they have learning materials with clear pictures that helped me to understand the subject better.
Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association. The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Jeannette went further to say that before joining the project she had different myths about menstruation periods which she got from peers including the misconception that having sex reduces pain during menstruation periods and skin rushes among others.
“Since not all students in my school are in Speak
Out project, I try my best to share what I learn from safe space and school club with other girls at school and those in my community,” she noted.
Safe Space is a room where girls aged nine to eighteen meet, talking about their bodily changes and how to conduct themselves in the society and to their parents and about violence.
Speak Out Project is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities. The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
12 YEAR-OLD JULIENNE HAIL SPEAK OUT’S TEACHING METHOD
Julienne, 12, is in primary school and lives with her parents who depend on subsistence farming. Julienne explained that her mother was so good to her by advising her to be self-reliant and coached her on rearing rabbits and growing vegetables like cabbages but never taught her anything concerning sexual reproductive health.
She added that she had never studied about bodily changes not even in class and therefore had no information about sexual reproductive health rights (SRHR). Thanks to Speak Out Project whose school clubs later taught Julienne about SRHR, with the help of improved teaching methodology.
“We have learning materials with diagrams illustrating genital parts and the facilitator teaches us in Kinyarwanda and shows us diagrams. The illustrations helped us understand better the genital parts and bodily changes for both girls and boys during adolescence,” she explained.
She added that: “I saw beads used while counting menstruation cycle and hopes to use them when she starts menstruating.”
It would be very good if every girl would be enrolled in Speak Out project because we learn a lot, she recommended. Speak Out Project is a four year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
The UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association aims at empowering girls with
knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools). Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
SPEAK OUT PROJECT: COUNSELLOR MUKANTABANA SHARES TIPS SHE USES WHILE HELPING VIOLENCE VICTIMS
THERESIE MUKANTAGARA
“At the safe house,” she added, “I receive different survivors of violence including women and men who are beaten severely, cases of rape and emotional and psychological violence cases.”
Highlighting on treatment methods she uses, Mukantabana said: “The first thing I do is to listen to the survivor of violence, record her or him in the register and then from our discussions I get to know where the survivor can be referred for legal and medical support if necessary.”
She went on to say that: “At the safe house we have a chair, a bed, water and tissues for the victim to take rest and be able to explain about his/her case. When she is crying so much, I give her time and talk to her later. We also have registers where we record GBV survivors and a referral form we fill and give the survivor a copy to take to the referred service center.”
When the survivor of rape is a young girl, her parents escort her to Isange One Stop Center and Mukantabana give them transport or escort them sometimes.
For mature girls, she only give them transport and they bring back the referral form with the stamp of the service center where they got the service.
When women are beaten, Mukantabana
encourages them to report their husbands to local authorities and when they are fearing to report, she escorts them to local authorities and file the case on their behalf.
“Cases like these are solved during parents evening forums and community gatherings. Women are very happy about the support they get from us. I also conduct home visits to families in conflicts and hold discussions on GBV causes, consequences to parents but also to their children,” she explained.
Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with Faith Victory Association conducts community She argues that one important thing to do is to continue training women and girls on their rights and multiplying saving groups at village, cell and sector level.
I recommend that raising awareness in communities should continue to support women and girls fight for their rights, she reiterated.
MORE ABOUT SPEAK OUT PROJECT
Speak Out is a UK aid Direct project implemented by Action Aid Rwanda in partnership with the Association des Guides du Rwanda and Faith Victory Association.
The Project aims at empowering girls with knowledge, support and the ability to take control over their bodies, and make their own decisions using a holistic, youth-led approach, working at individual and community level.
Speak Out Project is a four-year project implemented in four districts including; Nyanza district (Busasamana, Rwabicuma and Mukingo sectors), Gisagara district (Gishubi, Kibilizi and Muganza sectors), Nyaruguru district (Ruheru sector) and Karongi district (Gitesi and Murundi sectors).
School based activities are implemented in 45 schools in Gisagara district (11 schools), Nyanza district (13 schools), Nyaruguru district (6) and Karongi district (15 schools).
“I conduct home visits to families in conflicts and hold discussions on GBV causes, consequences to parents but also to their children”
Currently, the Project benefits 5,600 school girls aged between 9-18 years old. Of these, 97 girls that are equivalent to 4 percent of the tally are girls living with disabilities.
The four-year Project also targets to help 480 survivors of violence. Additionally, there are 2,600 boys and 46,000 community members who indirectly benefit from the Project.
ACTIONAID RWANDA SAFEGUARDING POLICY FRAMEWORK
We commit to uphold human rights and promote social justice while we safeguard and protect the dignity of ALL by ensuring confidentiality in Response, Prevention, Reporting and Access to adequate support.
Safeguarding Policies, Standards and Guideline Statements.
1. Honor & Respect
We will honor and respect the unique status of children, women, girls & vulnerable adults as valued individuals.
2. Integrity & Transparency
We will uphold integrity in all relationships with children, women, girls and vulnerable adults to ensure that we operate with transparency and avoid any form of exploitation real or perceived.
3. Commitment to highest standards
We commit to apply the highest standards of safeguarding when dealing with children, girls, women and vulnerable adults.
4. Zero Tolerance & Compliance
We will commit to ensure zero tolerance to all forms of sexual, gender and other exploitation and abuse while ensuring compliance to Child protection policy, Anti-Sexual Harassment Policy, Anti-GBV Policy, Whistle Blowing Policy, Health-Safety and Security Policy.
5. Our Approach
We endorse Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA), aware that an unequal balance of power is often the pre-condition from which abuse begins.
6. Collaboration with statutory agencies
We will take any allegation seriously and we will collaborate fully with the statutory and voluntary agencies concerned with abuse of children and the vulnerable.
7. Collaboration & support Communities
We will work in partnership with other agencies, both statutory and voluntary, to avail the best possible support in the community to ensure every child is protected from harm.
8. Awareness Raising
We will train Board, staff, volunteers and partners and ensure awareness to communities and children, in principles of safeguarding and child protection.
9. Linkage
We will appropriately oversee all our work with communities in accordance with assessment of potential risks, ability to interrogate, offering further training and supportive counselling.
10. Referral Assessment
We will assess every referral according to pre-defined risk thresholds.
11. Stringest Recruitment Process
We will recruit safely according to stringent recruitment processes, requiring all Staff categories to provide evidence that their behaviour has never caused harm to anyone.
12. Share information
We will share information with other agencies according to well-established principles and best practice both internal and external.
13. Timely & Effective Reporting
We believe in timely and effective reporting as a prerequisite of efficient safeguarding.
POWER
TO THE PEOPLE
act:onaid
RWANDA
KG 178 St, Remera - Kigali | P. O. Box 3707 Kigali Rwanda | Tel: +250 280 300 142
Email: firstname.lastname@example.org | twitter.com/actionaid | facebook.com/actionaid
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7.4 Present Value of an Annuity
Present Value of an Annuity: The amount of money (principal) that must be invested/borrowed NOW to provide a given series of equal payments at equal intervals of time.
Ex. 1 Next year, Jane is going back to university for a Ph.D. in psychology. She wants to know how much money to deposit now into an account that pays 6%/a, compounded annually, to provide a $5000 payment each year for 4 years, with the first payment due a year from now.
\[
\begin{align*}
5000(1.06)^{-1} & \quad \text{Now} \\
5000(1.06)^{-2} & \quad \text{After 1 year} \\
5000(1.06)^{-3} & \quad \text{After 2 years} \\
5000(1.06)^{-4} & \quad \text{After 3 years} \\
& \quad \text{After 4 years}
\end{align*}
\]
\[
\begin{align*}
4716.98 \\
4449.98 \\
4198.10 \\
3960.47
\end{align*}
\]
Present Value of an Annuity Formula:
\[
PV = R \left[ \frac{1 - (1 + i)^{-n}}{i} \right]
\]
\[
R = \frac{PVi}{\left[ 1 - (1 + i)^{-n} \right]}
\]
- Use this to find the present value.
- Use this to find the regular payment.
where
\( PV = \) Present Value
\( R = \) Regular payment (made at the end of the compounding period)
\( i = \) interest rate per compound pd.
\( n = \) # of compound periods/# of payments (must be equal to use formula)
Don’t worry we are going to give you all these formulas :)
Ex. 1 James wants to invest now so that he will receive $700 every month for 5 years. How much should he invest now at 4.3%/a compounded monthly to achieve this?
By Hand
**Givens**
$R = 700$
$i = \frac{0.043}{12}$
$n = 12 \times 5$
$= 60$
$PV = R \left[ \frac{1 - (1 + i)^{-n}}{i} \right]$
$= 700 \left[ \frac{1 - (1 + 0.043)^{-60}}{0.043/12} \right]$
$= 37731.35$
∴ The present value is
$37731.35
b) How much interest did he earn?
Final amount = $700 \times 60
= 42000
He only paid $37731.35
∴ Interest is $42000 - 37731.35
= 4268.65
Ex. 2 Charlie has won the lottery prize of a lump sum payment of $78,000. He has placed the money into an account at 6.3%/a compounded semi-annually and plans to withdraw an equal payment every 6 months for 10 years. How big will the payment be? ($5315.86)
By Hand
Given
\[ PV = 78000 \]
\[ i = 0.063 \]
\[ n = 2 \times 10 \]
\[ R = \frac{PV \cdot i}{1 - (1 + i)^{-n}} \]
\[ = \frac{78000 \left( \frac{0.063}{2} \right)}{1 - \left(1 + \frac{0.063}{2}\right)^{-20}} \]
\[ = 5315.80 \]
∴ The payment will be $5315.80
b) How much interest has he earned?
Final amount: \( 5315.80 \times 20 \)
\[ = 106316 \]
Only paid $78000
∴ Interest = 106316 - 78000
\[ = 28316 \]
Homework
Pg. 461
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"I Could See Myself as a Scientist": The Potential of Out-of-School Time Programs to Influence Girls' Identities in Science
Kelly Riedinger & Amy Taylor
Measuring and Understanding Authentic Youth Engagement: The Youth-Adult Partnership Rubric
Heng-Chieh Jamie Wu, Mariah Kornbluh, John Weiss, & Lori Roddy
Helping Low-Income Urban Youth Make the Transition to Early Adulthood: A Retrospective Study of the YMCA Youth Institute
Julie O'Donnell & Sandra L. Kirkner
Math Is Like a Scary Movie? Helping Young People Overcome Math Anxiety
Margaret Kulkin
Jumpin' Jaguars: Encouraging Physical Activity After School
Heather E. Erwin, Stephanie A. Rose, Sarah R. Small, & Jay Perman
CORRECTION
In the Fall 2015 issue, the article on afterschool mentoring by McDaniel, Yarbrough, and Besnoy references the Young Women Leaders Program on page 42. The citations and reference for the study of that program are incorrect. The correct source is:
Lee, J. M., German, L. J., Lawrence, E. C., & Marshall, J. H. (2010). “It opened my mind, my eyes. It was good”: Supporting college students’ navigation of difference in a youth mentoring program. *Educational Horizons, 89*, 33–46.
Photo Credits
Photo on page 1 compliments of BOKS (Build Our Kids’ Success). BOKS is a before-school physical activity program with the mission to promote the profound impact of physical activity on a child’s mind, body, and community. BOKS is powered by communities and empowers parents, teachers, schools, and local volunteers to give kids a body and brain boost that will set them up for a day of learning. BOKS launched in October 2009, when founder Kathleen Tullie rallied a small but dedicated group of passionate moms armed with a mission, a simple idea, and whistles. Today BOKS, alongside KeeboK, has grown to more than 1,200 schools and counting in 48 U.S. states and six countries.
Photos on pages 28 and 33 compliments of the ARC summer program of the Ashland Recreation Department in Ashland, MA. During summer 2015, the Ashland Recreation Department offered ARC, a summer program for pre-school through seventh-grade children designed to give all children the ability to participate in a wide variety of activities and events with the opportunity to make new friends. Each day the children had the opportunity to plan their own day, selecting from activities such as letter boxing, edible art, crafts, Legos, sports, swimming, and more. The Ashland Recreation Department offers a wide variety of programs year round for children and adults throughout the community.
*See the inside back cover for the call for papers for future issues of Afterschool Matters.*
Welcome
"I Could See Myself as a Scientist": The Potential of Out-of-School Time Programs to Influence Girls’ Identities in Science
Kelly Riedinger & Amy Taylor
Identity development like that fostered in the Coastal Ecology science camp may be key to encouraging more girls to enter STEM fields.
Math Is Like a Scary Movie? Helping Young People Overcome Math Anxiety
Margaret Kulkin
Shifting the focus from performance to mastery can help students get over their fear of math.
Measuring and Understanding Authentic Youth Engagement: The Youth-Adult Partnership Rubric
Heng-Chieh Jamie Wu, Mariah Kornbluh, John Weiss, & Lori Roddy
A new rubric helps observers assess whether afterschool activities and programs promote authentic youth-adult partnerships.
Jumpin’ Jaguars: Encouraging Physical Activity After School
Heather E. Erwin, Stephanie A. Rose, Sarah R. Small, & Jay Perman
How can OST programs help children get their recommended 60 minutes per day of moderate to vigorous physical activity?
Helping Low-Income Urban Youth Make the Transition to Early Adulthood: A Retrospective Study of the YMCA Youth Institute
Julie O’Donnell & Sandra L. Kirkner
Alumni of a high school OST program describe how program elements helped them transition from school to college or career.
March is Women’s History Month. This recognition traces its origin to the observance of International Women’s Day (March 8)—a day to “celebrate the social, economic, cultural, and political achievement of women.”¹ The National Institute on Out-of-School Time (NIOST) is privileged to make our home at Wellesley College, a premier educational institution that has championed women’s intellectual and social development and autonomy for over 100 years.
Consistent with this focus on gender, NIOST began a project in 2014 to investigate the critical points in the academic and social development of girls that lead to their pursuit of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) in post-secondary education and careers. Our research team interviewed women majoring in STEM fields to document what those students saw as influences on their interest in STEM at home, at school, in the community, and in out-of-school time (OST) programs.
The findings highlighted themes in the girls’ STEM experiences that may help to shape OST program approaches:
- A large proportion (71 percent) of respondents attributed their STEM interest to experiences that encouraged collaboration and hands-on work.
- More than half (54 percent) still held some stereotypes about the kinds of people who do STEM, even though they were themselves pursuing STEM degrees.
- Almost all (96 percent) recalled specific teachers or mentors who sparked their interest in STEM, made learning fun, voiced confidence in their abilities in STEM, or encouraged them to pursue STEM fields.
Growing a strong and talented STEM workforce requires increasing the participation of girls and women in the STEM pipeline. Women hold less than a quarter of STEM jobs, even though they occupy almost half of all jobs in the U.S. economy. This underrepresentation has persisted over the past decade, even as women’s share of the college-educated workforce has increased.²
Since this spring issue of *Afterschool Matters* is being published during Women’s History Month, we are pleased that the opening article calls attention to the ways OST programs can positively affect girls’ views of themselves in science.
The researchers, engineers, chemists, and astrophysicists of the future are showing up in OST programs every day. As a field, we may need to do things differently to help girls develop STEM identities and to inspire them not only toward STEM pathways, but toward STEM leadership. As Wellesley’s values statement says, “There is a growing recognition that women’s empowerment and leadership are crucial to their own advancement and to worldwide societal change.”³
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1. [http://www.internationalwomensday.com](http://www.internationalwomensday.com)
2. Berdie, D., Julian, T., Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Khan, B., & Doms, M. (2011). *Women in STEM: A gender gap to innovation*. ESA 04-11. Washington, DC: Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.
3. [http://www.wellesley.edu/about/missionandvalues](http://www.wellesley.edu/about/missionandvalues)
“The activity where we collected organisms was a good influence ‘cause I could see myself as a scientist. I got to do the actual thing.” These words from Celeste, a girl who participated in the Coastal Ecology program at the Chincoteague Bay Field Station on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, are not unique. Other girls who participated in the program offered similar input, suggesting that engaging in science in this out-of-school time (OST) setting enhanced their identity and sense of self as learners of science.
OST programs like the Coastal Ecology science camp can positively influence science identities, particularly for youth from groups historically underserved and underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). OST STEM programming gives youth opportunities to learn science outside the formal classroom in such settings as afterschool programs, science camps, outreach programs, internships, and scouting. OST science programs often do not formally assess participants or assign grades. They provide opportunities for authentic, meaningful learning that may be more comfortable for some youth than school curricula (National Research Council, 2009; Rennie, 2007, 2014). Further, OST programs may give youth access to resources and to scientific practices and tools not typically available in classrooms (Luehmann, 2009). This access may be especially important for youth from underresourced schools.
Many programs allow youth to explore science in ways that support their identities. Our study explored how the Coastal Ecology science camp helped participants, specifically girls, develop science identities. We
KELLY RIEDINGER, PhD, is the director of research and evaluation for David Hell & Associates. She formerly was an assistant professor in the Watson College of Education at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. She received her doctorate in curriculum and instruction with a focus on science education from the University of Maryland, College Park.
AMY TAYLOR, PhD, is an associate professor in the department of early childhood, elementary, middle, literacy, and special education in the Watson College of Education at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. She received her doctorate in science education from North Carolina State University and was recently awarded the Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching.
also studied how the girls’ social interactions supported their identities as learners of science.
**Underrepresentation in STEM**
The historical underrepresentation of women, people of color, and persons with disabilities in STEM has not abated. A recent report published by the National Science Foundation (2013) suggested that, although more girls and people of color are taking science courses and pursuing degrees and careers in areas such as life sciences, notable discrepancies persist, particularly in physics, chemistry, and engineering. White males still dominate the science and engineering workforce; women of color constitute only about one in ten employed scientists and engineers (National Science Foundation, 2013). The statistics are similarly problematic for persons with disabilities; individuals whose disability occurred between birth and 29 years of age comprise only about 10 percent of scientists and engineers.
Although policies have been put in place to address these gaps, they have had minimal effect on the participation of girls and women, particularly those from nondominant backgrounds. This continuing gap has been attributed to many factors: girls’ perception that science is masculine, science instruction that does not align with girls’ interests, the persistence of historical stereotypes of who can do science, girls’ lack of access to support in science, and a lack of role models and mentors (Archer et al., 2012; McCreedy & Dierking, 2013).
The inequalities in STEM fields may contribute to girls’ perceptions of who does science and to their own views of themselves as science insiders or outsiders. In order to participate in science, a girl has to see herself as the type of person who knows about, uses, and sometimes contributes to science. Archer and colleagues (2012) contend that “the development and cultivation of science aspirations requires girls to engage in considerable identity work” (p. 982).
OST programs that seek to provide motivating and memorable experiences in science may be one way to address the underrepresentation of women, people of color, and people with disabilities in science. Tan, Barton, Kang, and O’Neill (2013) argue that “while decades have been spent addressing the academic achievement gap between girls and boys, very little time has been spent addressing the ‘science identity gap’” (p. 1144). Building strong identities in science among girls may influence their interest in and motivation to pursue science, their self-efficacy and confidence in science, and their ability to persist when presented with challenges. OST programs that develop positive identities may be particularly relevant during adolescence, a significant period of identity formation (Osborne & Dillon, 2008) during which youth make critical course choices that affect their later careers (Adams, Gupta, & Cotumaccio, 2014; Barton, Birmingham, Sato, Tan, & Barton, 2013).
**Identity Development and OST Science Learning**
Identity is a reflexive process; it is both how individuals view themselves—their sense of self—and how they are perceived by others. Identity development is an ongoing process that is influenced by experiences across settings as well as by everyday moments (Bricker & Bell, 2014).
Earlier studies have suggested that participation in OST science learning results in a number of identity-related outcomes, such as broadening youths’ views of science and what counts as science (Gonsalves, Rahm, & Carvalho, 2013; Wheaton & Ash, 2008). After participating in OST science programs, youth demonstrated more positive attitudes toward and interest in science (Bhattacharyya, Mead, & Nathaniel, 2011; Farland-Smith, 2010; Riedinger, 2011, 2015) and exhibited greater confidence in their science skills (Bhattacharyya et al., 2011; Riedinger, 2011, 2015; Tan et al., 2013). OST science programs have also been demonstrated to influence youths’ career choices (Bhattacharyya et al., 2011; Farland-Smith, 2012). An OST science camp program for African-American high school students in Louisiana was shown to positively influence participants’ attitudes toward science careers (Bhattacharyya et al., 2011).
**Coastal Ecology Science Camp**
Coastal Ecology is an OST science camp offered at the Chincoteague Bay Field Station. The field station is also a marine science learning center that provides multidisOur exploration of girls’ participation in the Coastal Ecology science camp provided evidence that an OST program can offer positive experiences that help girls to see themselves in science. The themes that emerged from our study reveal characteristics of the Coastal Ecology program that positively influenced girls’ science identities:
- Authentic opportunities for active learning
- Novel learning experiences in the outdoors
- A comfortable and personally meaningful setting
- Use of multiple types of language
- Opportunities for social interaction
These characteristics both support and extend findings from earlier studies. The social interactions in which girls engaged at the OST science camp enabled the girls not only to develop a shared understanding of the science content but also to negotiate aspects of their identities, author new identities, and have others recognize these identities.
**Authentic Opportunities for Active Learning**
Celeste, whom we quoted at the beginning of this article, developed her identity in science through active engagement in learning that mirrored the practices of scientists. Celeste was a student at a rural public school in the mid-Atlantic. Before she came to the science camp, Celeste’s identity as a learner of science was largely framed by the rules and norms of school science. During the pre-camp focus group, she said that her teachers and peers saw her as “a good worker in science.” She explained that she was good in science because she “took a lot of notes,” but she also noted that some topics in science made her “sorta lose my interest.”
The OST science camp gave Celeste opportunities to engage actively in organism collection, which she believed was the work of scientists. Her participation in these authentic activities enabled Celeste to “see myself as a scientist.” Her case illustrates how participating in authentic science activities can prompt youth to re-envision themselves in science, thereby positively influencing their identities.
**Novel Learning Experiences in the Outdoors**
Another theme that emerged in our data was that learning in new ways and in a novel setting, the outdoors, influenced the girls’ identities. Hannah particularly noted this aspect of the science camp program. She felt that the science camp helped her to be more assertive and “take risks.” She explained:
It’s just so much fun being away from school and somewhere new, not having everybody in the classroom around you in the outdoors…. It’s just amazing to learn the things you never would have before, about the ocean, the tides, and plankton.
The science camp introduced Hannah to novel topics that she had not yet learned in school.
The novelty of the setting also influenced Hannah’s views of science. One of the program’s field experiences was a trip to an undisturbed dune ecosystem located on a military base to which the general public does not have access. The fact that the girls got to visit a place that they could not otherwise have experienced was exciting to Hannah.
… my favorite part was going on the private beach and collecting the shells. We combed the part of the beach. But that was one of my most favorite parts ‘cause it was basically untouched, and we’ll never get to go back there again. And that was just so amazing.
These novel experiences helped Hannah to view science as “fun”: “I didn’t even realize I was learning.” She said, “This experience really changed my perspective of the science field.”
**Comfortable and Personally Meaningful Setting**
Another theme that emerged from our data was that the opportunity to learn science in a comfortable and personally meaningful way positively influenced the girls’ identities. Gretchen, who identified as being on the autism spectrum, particularly benefited from this aspect of the program. In school, Gretchen explained, her teachers would see her as “intentionive” because she did not look at them during instruction. She commented, “I don’t necessarily need to look at them to know, to learn stuff.” Her mother, who attended the OST science camp as a chaperone, added that Gretchen often struggled with interactions in the classroom. Though she had an inclination toward science coupled with a strong interest in animals, Gretchen feared that her teachers and peers would judge her.
After the Coastal Ecology program, both Gretchen and her mother noted that Gretchen felt “safer” at the OST science camp. Her mother commented, “This is nice here, because I don’t think she fears that anybody is going to be like, ‘No, Gretchen, that’s stupid.’ … I don’t think she was as intimidated as she sometimes is with kids in a classroom situation.”
The OST science camp program also gave Gretchen many opportunities to work with animals in ways that were personally meaningful to her and that aligned with her interests. Gretchen explained that she enjoyed collecting and learning about organisms: “I liked doing the stuff out in the field better than just sitting in a boring old classroom all day, just sitting and writing.” According to Gretchen’s mother, the science camp was “more her thing”; Gretchen enjoyed interacting with animals because “the animals aren’t going to criticize her, so she’s more receptive to them, and she doesn’t fear them at all…. She relates to animals better than she does people.” For Gretchen, the OST science camp offered a space for learning science where she felt comfortable. The program also aligned with her interests, specifically her love of animals. Through this experience, she came to see herself as a capable science learner, in contrast to her experiences at school.
**Use of Multiple Types of Language**
The fact that use of multiple types of language was encouraged at the OST science camp appeared to influence aspects of the girls’ identities. The types of language we observed included the academic language common in the classroom, the scientific discourse that is the norm in scientific fields, and the everyday language of the youth. Participants in the science camp were encouraged to use everyday language to make sense of scientific terminology. In turn, their growing ability to understand scientific terminology and use it appropriately encouraged the girls to see themselves as capable science learners. Further, in appropriating scientific discourse, they began to align their talk with that of scientists—another important component of their identities in science.
Brynn was described by her classroom teacher during the pre-camp interview as “goofy.” The teacher said that Brynn sometimes engaged in science, but only if nothing
more exciting caught her attention. When Brynn thought a science task was too challenging, she disengaged and relied on her peers to complete the task. Brynn echoed these characterizations of her identity before the program, saying, “Science is not my overall strength.”
During the science camp, we saw Brynn using everyday language to make sense of scientific concepts. After observing a plankton under a microscope, Brynn described her observation: “I saw the thing on the sides hang out to the sides.” She accompanied her words with hand motions demonstrating how “the thing[s] on the sides” waved back and forth. Jocelyn, the field station instructor, recognized and encouraged Brynn’s use of gestures and everyday language. Copying Brynn’s gesture, she explained that the things Brynn observed in the microscope are called “cilia.” Using this new knowledge, Brynn correctly—and excitedly—identified the plankton as “an Atlantic crab!” She then described her observation using the correct scientific terms, “plankton” and “cilia.” Jocelyn’s support for Brynn’s use of everyday language and gestures helped Brynn understand and appropriately use scientific terminology. Brynn’s excitement at identifying the plankton illustrates how experiences of success can influence girls’ science identities—in contrast with Brynn’s pre-camp comment that science was not her “overall strength.”
**Opportunities for Social Interaction**
A second aim of our study was to understand how social interactions during the OST science camp offered a space for the girls to engage in identity work. Verbal and nonverbal communication in OST settings can help youth to develop a shared understanding of science content while also learning about the members of their group. As identity development is a reflexive process, we were interested in how social interactions enabled the girls to negotiate their identities, author new identities (that is, see themselves in new ways), and have these identities recognized and accepted by other youth in their social group. Our iterative analysis of social interactions in the science camp showed that the girls used social interactions both to position themselves relative to others in their social group and to align their behavior with scientific practices and discourse.
*Positioning* refers to the ways that youth present themselves as science insiders and how they view themselves in relation to other group members. For instance, Brynn positioned herself as a scientist during one of the organism identification tasks. Offered the opportunity to hold a hermit crab, the other girls refused, indicating that they were scared of the crab or found it “gross.” Brynn, in contrast, indicated through her social interactions that she is the type of person who is not afraid of organisms and is willing to touch a hermit crab.
**Paula:** Look at it, look at it. Oh my god. [Raises her hands and turns away.] That is the grossest thing I have ever witnessed. [Brynn pulls out the hermit crab. Paula flips her hair over her face and covers her eyes with her hands.] *Oh no! No!*
**Brynn:** It’s just a hermit crab! It’s not going to eat you. [She holds up the crab for others to see.]
**Paula:** Oh my god. [Gets up and stands away from the crab.]
Brynn used both verbal and nonverbal interactions to position herself as the type of person who is interested in organisms and willing to interact with them as a scientist might. In contrast to other youth in her social group, Brynn made what appears to be a strategic decision to hold the crab that others found “gross.” This identity move was recognized by her classroom teacher as well as the other members of her group. The teacher commented, “Brynn used to be afraid of this, and now she’s comfortable.” Similarly, the other girls asked Brynn to hold the crab for them to see, thereby recognizing her positioning of herself as someone who acts like a scientist. These exchanges were important in Brynn’s development of her identity as a science learner.
Girls at the science camp also used social interactions to enact identities as science learners by aligning their behaviors with scientific practice and discourse. For example, during the field trip to the intertidal ecosystem, the youth collected and analyzed data such as pH and temperature. Across the groups we observed, youth used scientific discourse; for example, they would say that they had to “complete three trials” in testing the water samples. During the research cruise, when the group was measuring water quality data, Addison and Gabriella used such scientific terminology as “Celsius,” “creosol read,” “refractometer,” “dissolved
oxygen,” and “density.” They were using social interactions to convey their identity as science insiders.
**Encouraging Girls in Science Through a Focus on Identity**
Our exploration of girls in the Coastal Ecology program provided evidence that OST programs can offer positive experiences to help girls see themselves in science. Throughout the science camp, the girls were working in the field as scientists, engaging in authentic science practices and using the actual tools of scientists. These opportunities helped the girls to see themselves as scientists and fostered positive science identities.
These positive experiences address the factors identified in the research as limiting girls’ identification with science. For instance, our findings provided evidence that such experiences as field trips and organism collection aligned with girls’ interests. Moreover, being able to learn science by collecting and maintaining organisms may have challenged the girls’ perception that science is a masculine pursuit. The science camp also offered female science educators from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds as role models and mentors. Further, the Chincoteague Bay Field Station is an active science research lab; the girls could see and interact with practicing scientists, including many female scientists. These experiences helped to challenge stereotypes of who does science.
Because identity work is an ongoing process that develops over time and across contexts, OST programs have the potential to positively affect girls’ views of themselves in science. As McCreedy and Dierking (2013) note:
[I]learning is the process and product of a series of cascading influences. Ideally, informal STEM learning experiences for girls, along with experiences they have at home, school, university, and the work place, build upon one another, as well as connect to and reinforce the countless other experiences in a woman’s lifetime. (p. 3)
They go on to claim that, “informal STEM programs can give rise to memorable experiences that cascade over time” and that affect women in many ways (p. 3).
Based on our findings, we advocate for strategically designing OST science learning programs to nurture girls’ science identities, connecting to and building on other life experiences. Specifically, OST science programs should be designed to:
1. Solicit girls’ input in designing curricula and activities to ensure that they are personally meaningful, relevant, and aligned with girls’ interests.
2. Provide a comfortable and safe learning environment where girls can try new things, consider themselves in new ways, and build confidence in themselves as capable science learners.
3. Offer opportunities for girls to share their expertise and to have ownership of their learning tasks. Such opportunities will help girls visualize themselves as people who have something to share with others and point out that all participants are valued for the knowledge they bring to the group.
4. Encourage and support girls’ use of multiple types of language, including the everyday language and dialects with which they are familiar.
5. Include opportunities for active learning and authentic tasks that mirror the activities of scientists.
6. Foster social interactions in which girls can engage with others. Our study suggests that, through these social interactions, the girls were able to negotiate and author new identities and to have those identities recognized by others.
Following these data-driven design principles can enable OST programs to give girls ongoing opportunities to engage in science identity work. The Coastal Ecology program is aligned with many of these ideas; it provided the girls in our study, some of whom came from nondominant backgrounds, with positive identity-building experiences. Building on these principles, OST programs can continue to provide memorable science learning experiences for girls.
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Commonly described as youth-led or youth-driven, the youth-adult partnership (Y-AP) model has gained increasing popularity in out-of-school time (OST) programs in the past two decades (Larson, Walker, & Pearce, 2005; Zeldin, Christens, & Powers, 2013). The Y-AP model is defined as “the practice of (a) multiple youth and multiple adults deliberating and acting together (b) in a collective (democratic) fashion (c) over a sustained period of time (d) through shared work (e) intended to promote social justice, strengthen an organization and/or affirmatively address a community issue” (Zeldin et al., 2013, p. 388). Unlike traditional OST programs, in which youth are viewed as service recipients, the Y-AP model emphasizes that youth serve in meaningful leadership roles in the organization or program. Studies show that programs using a Y-AP model have offered youth such diverse and meaningful roles as being youth council members, activity leaders, or program representatives in community events (Zeldin, Camino, & Mook, 2005). Research has also found that these experiences facilitate the development of youth autonomy (Akuva, Cortina, & Smith, 2014), which is a critical developmental need for adolescence. These leadership roles also contribute to youths’ empowerment and civic engagement, develop social-emotional skills,
HENG-CHIEH JAMIE WU, PhD, is a research associate at University Outreach and Engagement, Michigan State University, with more than 10 years of experience in youth program evaluation. She currently serves as co-principal investigator for the statewide evaluation of Michigan 21st Century Community Learning Centers.
MARIAH KORNBLUH, PhD, is a postdoctoral scholar at the School of Human Ecology in the department of civil society and community research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her doctorate in ecological-community psychology from Michigan State University.
JOHN WEISS, MPP, MUP, became director of strategic initiatives at the Neutral Zone, Ann Arbor’s teen center, after serving for 10 years as its executive director. The Neutral Zone has provided training and coaching to more than 50 afterschool and school-based programs to support adoption of its “youth-driven spaces” approach.
LORI RODDY, MSW, is executive director of the Neutral Zone, where she has worked over the past 12 years to integrate youth-driven arts and leadership opportunities. She has also supported training and coaching on the Neutral Zone’s approach to youth-driven spaces.
and bring about positive changes in communities (Akiva et al., 2014; Ferguson, Kim, & McCoy, 2011; Larson & Angus, 2011; Wong, Zimmerman, & Parker, 2010; Youniss & Levine, 2009).
Although the concept of Y-AP has been well received, implementing it without clear guidelines can be challenging. Zeldin and colleagues (2013) reviewed Y-AP practices in community settings (Camino, 2005; Larson & Angus, 2011; Van Egeren, Wu, & Kornbluh, 2012) and connected its roots to developmental theories such as Dewey’s (1938) experiential learning, Erikson’s (1968) identity development in adolescence, Bronfenbrenner’s (1995) ecological human development, and Li and Julian’s (2012) work in developmental relationships. They then put forth a theoretical framework to define and operationalize Y-AP. In their definition, the Y-AP model consists of four critical elements: (a) authentic decision making, (b) natural mentors, (c) reciprocal activity, and (d) community connectedness (Zeldin et al., 2013). This theoretical framework provides an invaluable starting point for elaborating and concretizing the concept of Y-AP and highlighting essential guidelines.
Program quality and fidelity in implementation ensure that youth receive the intended benefits of program participation. To achieve quality and fidelity, various organizations have developed youth program quality assessments; see Yohalem, Wilson-Ahlstrom, Fischer, and Shinn (2009) for a summary of the available tools. These measures tap some aspects of Y-AP such as youth leadership, relationships, staffing, and community linkages; however, no single tool, until now, captured the full complement of Y-AP core elements. Furthermore, most current assessments of Y-AP underlying constructs rely on self-reports from staff or youth surveys (Jones & Perkins, 2005; Zeldin, Krauss, Collura, Lucchesi, & Sulaiman, 2014). The lack of a Y-AP assessment tool hinders quality assurance, professional development, and documentation of empirical evidence on Y-AP impacts (Zeldin et al., 2013). We therefore developed a rubric for observing and assessing Y-AP quality using the theoretical framework of Zeldin and colleagues (2013). We hope that this rubric will help promote Y-AP standards, program fidelity and assessment, and professional development of youth workers.
**Development of the Y-AP Rubric**
With support from an Edmund A. Stanley, Jr., research grant from the Robert Bowne Foundation, in spring 2014, this article’s authors—researchers from Michigan State University’s (MSU) Office of University Outreach and Engagement and directors from the Neutral Zone, a community-based center—formed a project team to co-develop the rubric. The Neutral Zone is a nonprofit organization serving teens in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Established in 1998, it is known for its youth-driven model: Youth take leadership roles in all levels of the organization. The center also disseminates youth-driven practice by training and coaching staff from other organizations.
To develop the Y-AP rubric, we built on a sustained researcher-practitioner partnership established in a previous project on disseminating youth-driven practices (Van Egeren, Wu, Rana et al., 2012). We developed an initial observation rubric based on the Y-AP literature and our years of experience. Building on the theoretical framework of Zeldin and colleagues (2013), we divided the rubric into four categories of Y-AP work:
1. Authentic decision making
2. Natural mentors
3. Reciprocity
4. Community connectedness
The rubric divides program content into two categories: meetings and activities. Each has distinguishable behavioral markers.
Following standard principles for developing measurement tools in general (Kline, 2005; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991) and observation rubrics in particular (Newell, Dahm, & Newell, 2002), we established rating scales from 1 (low) to 5 (high), with specific descriptions for scores 1, 3, and 5 and additional scores of 2 or 4 when observed criteria fell between the described scores. We also provided an option of “N/A” for items that are not applicable in a given program.
After developing an initial draft, the two researchers from MSU conducted two pilot observations at Neutral Zone programs, in which we achieved satisfying consensus on initial revisions. To test the applicability of the rubric in diverse contexts, the same researchers then observed 10 Neutral Zone programs, which varied in youth demographics, program activities, and focus, in March–April 2014. As shown in Table 1, the programs varied
Table 1. Observation Sample
| Type | Program Theme | Adult: Youth Ratio |
|---------------|--------------------------------------|--------------------|
| Activity | Hip-hop writing, recording, and rhymes | 2:7 |
| Meeting | Teen advisory council | 2:12 |
| Activity | Music event planning | 1:3 |
| Activity | Music recording studio | 1:2 |
| Meeting | Community event planning | 3:10 |
| Meeting | Leadership | 1:6 |
| Activity | Art production | 1:10 |
| Meeting | Diversity training | 1:4 |
| Meeting | Girls’ empowerment group | 1:4 |
| Meeting | Organization board meeting | 15:4 |
Because the goal of the project was to establish a meaningful rubric that captures the concepts and practices of Y-AP, the whole project team then held a focus group with seven Neutral Zone staff and two youth to ensure the content validity of the rubric. These participants, who had extensive experience with the Y-AP approach, provided feedback on the wording, examples, and concepts of the rubric items. After incorporating this feedback, we finalized the rubric.
As the rubric was intended to be a suitable tool for peer or self-assessment and data collection by youth workers, administrators, and evaluators, its format went through a series of technical modifications and passed the user-friendly and accessibility tests required by MSU policy. The interactive form of the rubric allows easy data entry and automatic calculation of dimension scores. Users can also save and erase entries with easy-to-use buttons. The rubric was officially launched in November 2014 as a freely available resource at http://cerc.msu.edu/yaprubric. We have since used the rubric in several staff development workshops and disseminated it through professional networks such as the Michigan After-School Partnership newsletter, the Michigan Afterschool Collaborative Conference, and Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.
Based on extensive field notes and actual implementation of the rubric, we set the following appropriate context for the use of rubric: “Any settings that involve multiple youth and adult(s) working together with extensive dialogue for a common goal” (Wu, Weiss, Kornbluh, & Roddy, 2014). These settings could be school programs, afterschool programs, camps, or other programs in which youth and adults interact.
Elements of the Y-AP Rubric
Each of the four dimensions of the Y-AP rubric has a number of specific items for observers to rate, as shown on the next page and described on the following pages. The observation rubric provides details of behaviors that embody each rating and gives examples.
Dimension 1: Authentic Decision Making
Definition: Youth are involved in meaningful decision making.
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1 Average Cohen’s kappa was .84 for authentic decision making (five items), .88 for natural mentors (eight items), .80 for reciprocity (four items), and .86 for community connectedness (three items).
## Youth-Adult Partnership Rubric
| Dimension 1: Authentic Decision Making—Youth are involved in meaningful decision making | AVERAGE |
|---|---|
| 1.1 Youths’ voices are shared and valued. | |
| 1.2 Youth participate in authentic decision making. | |
| 1.3 Youth have key leadership roles or responsibilities. | |
| 1.4 All youth fully participate in the conversation. | |
| 1.5 The organization’s culture or by-laws supports youth governance. | |
| Dimension 2: Natural Mentors—Adults intentionally support relationships with youth to help them develop | AVERAGE |
|---|---|
| 2.1 Adults support youth with appropriate boundaries. | |
| 2.2 Adults are intentional in utilizing tasks to enhance youths’ experiences and skills. | |
| 2.3 Adults are able to work with youth to maintain an organized, inclusive, and collaborative environment for all. | |
| 2.4 Adults are resourceful and intentional in enhancing youths’ social capital. | |
| 2.5 Adults are active listeners; youth reflect and develop own ideas. | |
| 2.6 Adults help youth think through the complexity of issues and respect whatever conclusions they reach. | |
| 2.7 Adults help youth think about goals and possibilities for the future and identify steps to achieve them. | |
| 2.8 Adults celebrate youths’ progress, strengths, and successes. | |
| Dimension 3: Reciprocity—Youth and adults work together as partners | AVERAGE |
|---|---|
| 3.1 Youth and adults create a mutual agenda. | |
| 3.2 Youth and adults exchange ideas as supportive peers. | |
| 3.3 Youth and adults work collaboratively as supportive peers. | |
| 3.4 Youth and adults are co-learning partners. | |
| Dimension 4: Community Connectedness—Youth are engaged in communities | AVERAGE |
|---|---|
| 4.1 Youth develop a sense of community through program involvement. | |
| 4.2 Youth are active contributors to the community. | |
| 4.3 Youth gain essential social capital through program involvement. | |
**Total:** The average of four dimension scores %
Zeldin and colleagues (2013) note that youth voice is not simply about young people expressing themselves or sharing their views. Rather, in Y-AP settings, adults recognize young people as valuable producers of knowledge, and youth are actively involved in decisions that affect their lives. This dimension’s five items assess the extent to which youth participants are involved in high-stakes decisions in their program or organization.
1.1 Youths’ voices are shared and valued. For this item, the highest level (5) means that youth bring in new perspectives and their inputs are valued. The lowest level (1) refers to scenarios in which adults largely lead conversations, assign tasks to youth, tell youth what to do, or heavily rely on what has been done in the past without encouraging youth to bring in new perspectives (Lenzi et al., 2014). In practice, we have found that techniques such as imposing “NATT” (“no adult talk time”) for parts of a meeting are helpful in encouraging youth voice.
1.2 Youth participate in authentic decision making. One effective way to examine the level of youth involvement in decision making is to look at how decisions actually are made. In most programs, decisions have already been made for youth (level 1), or youth are allowed to make decisions on low-stake items such as the food they want to order (level 3). Having youth participate in decisions in high-stake areas by, for example, serving on a hiring committee or developing strategic plans for the organization in partnership with adults (level 5) requires adults’ intentional support and youths’ willingness.
1.3 Youth have key leadership roles or responsibilities. At level 1 on this item, youth have no specific roles other than being participants. At level 3, they may take on low-stake leadership roles such as leading icebreakers or taking meeting notes. At level 5, youth serve as meeting facilitators. In activities, they may lead conversations, give demonstrations, or co-teach with adults. They are also given higher-stake tasks like meeting with community partners to set up events. Giving youth key leadership roles often requires pre-meetings between the youth leaders and adult advisors in order to properly prepare youth for their responsibilities.
1.4 All youth participate fully in the conversation. Youth vary in the degree to which they are vocal; some want to dominate the conversation, while others tend to be more quiet and reflective. Sometimes adults are not aware of such inequalities or don’t take action to balance them out (level 1); at other times, they try to balance contributions but cannot (level 3). To encourage full participation from all youth, adult staff ought to be intentional and strategic in ensuring that everyone can participate (level 5).
1.5 The organization’s culture or bylaws support youth governance. In traditional settings, youth often have no explicit role beyond being participants (level 1), or they may lead specific activities though nothing is written or formalized (level 3). Our experience and the research (Van Egeren, Wu, & Kornbluh, 2012; Zeldin et al., 2005) both indicate that sustaining high-stake youth voice depends on whether youth governance is supported by the organization’s bylaws and culture (level 5).
**Dimension 2: Natural Mentors**
**Definition:** Adults intentionally support relationships with youth to help them develop as leaders.
Y-AP requires high-quality adult mentorships, in which adults intentionally and strategically develop strong, supportive relationships with youth and purposefully scaffold youths’ development as leaders (Zeldin et al., 2013). The rubric highlights eight aspects of adults’ roles as natural mentors to youth.
2.1 Adults support youth with appropriate boundaries. Most adult staff have a genuine desire to help youth, but supporting them with appropriate boundaries can be difficult (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Facing youths’ diverse needs, adults are sometimes too overwhelmed to provide sufficient support (level 1), or they may overreact or over-reach themselves to solve problems instead of supporting youth from behind (level 3). Supporting youth with appropriate boundaries means that youth feel heard, are able to make and act on their own decisions, and know where to find resources to further support their goals (level 5).
2.2 Adults are intentional in utilizing tasks to enhance youths’ experiences and skills. Youth need hands-on experiences in order to grow. At level 1 on
this item, adults do not intentionally encourage youth to take on challenging tasks that enable them to build new skills or networks. At level 3, adults are intentional in this area but fail to provide enough support to enhance youths’ experiences and skills. An example of the highest level of using tasks to enhance youths’ growth would be encouraging youth to facilitate a focus group instead of just recruiting participants. The adults would need to help youth practice their facilitation skills, identify focus group questions, and decide on strategies for navigating potential pitfalls.
2.3 Adults are able to work with youth to maintain an organized, inclusive, and collaborative environment for all. This rubric item examines the quality of the meeting or activity context. When the context is constantly chaotic, disorganized, or dysfunctional (level 1), or when things go off track periodically (level 3), youth face challenges in learning and collaborating. Adults and youth need to work together to ensure an organized, inclusive, and collaborative environment for all (level 5) so they can focus on reaching their goals (Zeldin et al., 2005).
2.4 Adults are resourceful and intentional in enhancing youths’ social capital. Successful mentors bring in resources to benefit youth. Some adults do not think about how their resources can benefit youth (level 1); others may be aware but not take action (level 3). Mentors at level 5 take intentional steps to help youth extend their networks, such as inviting community leaders to program events (Larson & Angus, 2011).
2.5 Adults are active listeners; youth reflect and develop own ideas. Because adults are used to leading groups, they often do most of the talking (level 1) or ask youth to talk but eventually take over the discussion (level 3). At level 5 for this item, adults intentionally step back, encouraging youth to reflect on issues and develop their own ideas (Larson et al., 2005).
2.6 Adults help youth think through the complexity of issues and respect whatever conclusions they reach. The issues youth face today can be complex and multifaceted. In strong Y-AP settings (level 5), adults guide youth to navigate the complexities without making decisions for them. Adults instill confidence in youth and support the conclusions they reach. If youth fail, adults will be there to help them reflect on and grow from the experience (Larson & Hansen, 2005). Some adults find this role difficult to uphold, so they bounce between letting go and inserting their opinions (level 3); others may analyze everything and ask youth to follow their advice (level 1). Even with good intentions, adults at these lower levels can hinder opportunities for youth to learn how to make and be responsible for their own decisions.
2.7 Adults help youth think about goals and possibilities for the future and identify steps to achieve them. Another aspect of quality mentorship is helping youth envision their future and take steps to achieve their goals (level 5). This support is especially important to enable vulnerable youth to develop life skills and resilience (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). At level 1, adults dismiss opportunities for youth to envision their goals; at level 3, adults don’t help youth identify steps to achieve their goals.
2.8 Adults celebrate youths’ progress, strengths, and successes. Although reflecting on mistakes can help youth improve, adults often forget to recognize the strengths youth have developed (level 1) or fail to structure time for youth to reflect on their progress (level 3). Giving youth the opportunity to reflect on and celebrate their own successes (level 5) can promote intrinsic feelings of accomplishment, increase self-confidence, and help develop the “grit” that sustains perseverance and passion for long-term goals (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007; Jennings, Parra-Medina, Messias, McLoughlin, & Williams, 2006).
**Dimension 3: Reciprocity**
**Definition:** Youth and adults work together as partners.
Reciprocity is a critical aspect of partnerships. In the Y-AP model, learning is not unidirectional. Youth do learn from adults, but adults also learn from youth. The differences in perspectives and experiences between youth and adults can contribute to a richly collaborative
environment. The rubric highlights four aspects of reciprocity in a Y-AP setting.
3.1 **Youth and adults create a mutual agenda.** One simple way to look at reciprocity between youth and adults is to identify who creates the agenda. If meeting or activity agendas are largely created by adults (level 1) or involve minimal youth input (level 3), youth have little opportunity to develop leadership skills or partner with adults to design their own programs. By contrast, when youth share in setting the agenda or activity content (level 5), their partnership with adults is strengthened, and they are more prepared to facilitate meetings or lead authentically (Mitra, Serriere, & Kirshner, 2013).
3.2 **Youth and adults exchange ideas as supportive peers.** Another way to examine reciprocity is to observe how ideas are exchanged. If youth and adults rarely draw on one another’s ideas (level 1), or if they don’t really integrate their ideas together (level 3), their partnership remains underdeveloped. When youth and adults can seek one another’s opinion comfortably and then build on these ideas (level 5), the whole program benefits from the different strengths each generation brings (Akiva et al., 2014).
3.3 **Youth and adults work collaboratively as supportive peers.** Observing how youth and adults work is another way to identify reciprocal relationships. If youth and adults tend to work separately (level 1), or if they work collaboratively only on occasion (level 3), then their partnership is still developing. High-quality Y-AP settings make no clear division between adult tasks and youth tasks; rather, youth and adults work collaboratively to achieve common goals (level 5).
3.4 **Youth and adults are co-learning partners.** At level 1 on this item, adults are like teachers or authoritarians; they are presumed to be more knowledgeable than youth and therefore responsible for answering questions. At level 3, youth may be encouraged to share some ideas or make specific contributions, yet social norms often dictate that adults know better and therefore are responsible for teaching youth. At level 5, everyone, including youth, can contribute to the knowledge base. Adults are not presumed to be more knowledgeable and are not responsible for answering questions. Youth and adults recognize their capacity to teach and learn from one another; they gain new perspectives and skills through their collaboration (Jennings et al., 2006; Wong et al., 2010).
**Dimension 4: Community Connectedness**
**Definition:** Youth are engaged in communities.
The last dimension of Y-AP encompasses community connectedness. Research stresses the importance of Y-AP working toward a larger collective goal (Checkoway & Richards-Schuster, 2006). Challenges that adults struggle to tackle often can more effectively be addressed when youth bring their perspectives (Zimmerman, Stewart, Morrel-Samuels, Franzen, & Reischl, 2011). The rubric captures three aspects of how program participation can increase young peoples connection to the larger community.
4.1 **Youth develop a sense of community through program involvement.** Youth, especially those from disenfranchised, at-risk neighborhoods, often feel disconnected from their communities or local institutions. When adults intentionally help youth expand their networks and build connections within the program (level 5), youth can develop a sense of belonging and deepen their engagement in their program and in the larger community (Conner & Strobel, 2007). Programs at level 1 do not provide youth with the opportunities to build ongoing relationships; those at level 3 offer such opportunities, but not to the extent that will enable youth to build a strong sense of group membership.
4.2 **Youth are active contributors to the community.** Most program activities are designed to benefit participating youth only (level 1); some may have an effect on the program or organization as a whole (level 3). At the highest Y-AP level, activities position youth as contributors to the wider community. Partnerships with adults and activities that enable youth to navigate real-world issues give youth opportunities to think through the critical challenges facing their community and help lead efforts to promote social change (Reischl et al., 2011).
4.3 **Youth gain essential social capital through program involvement.** In many programs, activities proprovide no (level 1) or minimal (level 3) opportunities for youth to engage with communities outside of the organization. When program activities connect youth to the broader community through meaningful collaborations, such as working with business owners or leaders from other organizations to plan a community event (level 5), youth can gain essential social capital that not only enhances their sense of belonging to the community but also supports their future career or educational goals (Jennings et al., 2006).
**Considering the Dimensions**
The dimension of our Y-AP rubric that has the most items is natural mentors, with eight items. This finding is consistent with prior research highlighting the complexity of the critical roles adult support plays in the development of Y-AP (Zeldin et al., 2014). During the development process, we found that the dimension of natural mentors is highly correlated to the dimension of reciprocity. Ideally, these are two distinguishable concepts; more empirical data is needed to further examine the relationship.
The most difficult dimension to achieve may be involving youth in authentic decision making. It requires intentionally bringing in youth voice, examining the quality of decision-making experiences, and reviewing the organization’s structure. Our own experience and prior research (Camino, 2005; Van Egeren, Wu, & Kornbluh, 2012) suggest that gaining administrator buy-in and embedding youth decision making in the organization’s mission might be the most effective ways to promote sustained and high-level youth governance.
The fourth dimension, community connectedness, manifests the ultimate goal of Y-AP: cultivating youths’ civic engagement and giving them opportunities to become engaged leaders. This dimension’s three rubric items capture ways that programs can promote youths’ community connectedness. However, these efforts might not be fully visible during specific observation times. To get a more holistic picture, observers may need to ask youth or adults additional questions about community engagement opportunities.
**Implications for Research and Practice**
The primary limitations of the rubric in its current form are that its psychometric properties have not been statistically validated and that all the observed programs, even though they varied in Y-AP levels, were from the same organization. During development and testing of the rubric in 10 observations, we undertook a series of revisions that expanded the rubric’s applicability in various program contexts. However, the small number of observations from one source, along with the subsequent revision of the items, limited the possibility for psychometric testing. Our future research agenda includes collecting quantitative data across different youth organizations or programs to validate the psychometric properties of the rubric. We then hope to establish norms and Y-AP models that would enable different types of youth-serving organizations to consider their own potential. We also plan to revisit the Y-AP theory behind the rubric and re-examine the rubric elements based on the statistical results. Doing so will give the field a fully validated concept and measure of Y-AP practices.
Bearing in mind the lack of validation, the Y-AP rubric can nevertheless be useful in both research and practice. Researchers can use the rubric for internal and external assessments of Y-AP practices. The rubric can facilitate either cross-sectional comparisons on the impacts of Y-AP practices across programs and socio-demographic contexts or longitudinal studies on how Y-AP practices evolve over time within the same context. The rubric’s detailed instructions and the interactive form are designed to ease the process of data collection.
Afterschool practitioners can use the rubric as a manual and a self-assessment tool to support implementation of high-quality Y-AP practices. Even programs that are not ready to adapt the full Y-AP model can use the rubric to strengthen specific dimensions of Y-AP, such as adult mentorship or youth leadership in decision making. The descriptions and examples for each rubric item can help practitioners comprehend the levels of implementation and then reflect on their own and their colleagues’ behaviors. The average scores, automatically calculated by the interactive form, quantify the presence of Y-AP dimensions and allow easy comparisons across sites or observations. The four Y-AP dimensions have been identified as critical factors contributing to desirable youth outcomes and program engagement (Akiva et al., 2014; Mitra et al., 2013; Wilson-Ahlstrom, Yoahalem, DuBois, Ji, & Hillaker, 2014). Afterschool programs can strengthen their youth development practices by using the rubric for program evaluation and improvement and for professional development.
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Young adulthood, typically defined as between the ages of 18 and 25, is a critical period of growth during which young people acquire the education and training that serve as the basis for their later occupations and income (Arnett, 2000). The successful transition from adolescence to early adulthood requires youth to have the skills and resources to graduate high school and then go to college or enter the workforce (Fuligni & Hardway, 2004; Lippman, Atienza, Rivers, & Keith, 2008). To accomplish these tasks in advanced urban societies, young adults need a wide range of social, cognitive, psychological, and technological skills and supports: academic and critical thinking skills, a sense of purpose or a vision or plan for the future, social and interpersonal competence, knowledge of how to access college and financial resources, social support and capital including mentors who emphasize the need for college and workforce skills, civic engagement, and workforce and technology skills (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2009; Lippman et al., 2008; Warschauer & Matuchniak, 2010).
Low-income urban youth of color often face challenges in their transition to early adulthood. High school out-of-school time (OST) programs that promote positive youth development may help youth to better negotiate this period (Fuligni & Hardway, 2004). However, little research exists on the long-term impact of such programs on young adults. We conducted a pilot qualitative study to explore the perspectives of young adults on the effect of their participation in the YMCA of Greater Long Beach Youth Institute. Respondents indicated that the program positively influenced their life choices and their ability to pursue higher education and enter the workforce. Our findings suggest implications for other high school OST programs.
JULIE O’DONNELL, PhD, is a professor in the School of Social Work at California State University, Long Beach
SANDRA L. KIRKNER is a research associate in the School of Social Work at California State University, Long Beach.
Vulnerable Youth and the Transition to Adulthood
Both directly and indirectly, poverty can make the transition from adolescence to early adulthood difficult (Berzin, De Marco, Shaw, Unick, & Hogan, 2006). Low-income youth are at risk for low academic achievement and school dropout, often because of family, school, and community challenges associated with poverty (Lacour & Tissington, 2011; Reardon, 2011). Students from high-income families are five to seven times more likely to graduate from high school than those from low-income families (Chapman, Laird, Iffil, & KewalRamani, 2011; Snyder & Dillow, 2010). Low-income youth are also less likely to have college readiness knowledge and skills (Hooker & Brand, 2010; Roderick, Nagaoaka, & Coca, 2009) and are much less likely to attend college (Kim & Nunez, 2013). Once low-income youth enter an institution of higher education, they are less likely to graduate (Elliott, 2013; Muraskin, Lee, Wilner, & Swall, 2004). In 2009, 8 percent of youth from families in the lowest income quartile had graduated from college by the age of 24, compared to 82 percent of those in the highest quartile (Postsecondary Education Opportunity, 2010).
This continuing disparity between low-income and higher-income youth is problematic because, in the near future, about two-thirds of all U.S. jobs—including almost all jobs in the fastest-growing, highest-wage areas—will require some postsecondary education (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010). Strong technology skills are also highly valued in the workforce; unfortunately, low-income youth have lower levels of technology access and skill, both of which are critical for productive adult employment (London, Pastor, Servon, Rosner, & Wallace, 2010; Warschauer & Matuchniak, 2010). Although high school work opportunities may reduce dropout rates and smooth the transition into the adult workforce, low-income teens have fewer employment opportunities than their higher-income counterparts (Sum, Gillis, & Palma, 2012).
High School OST Programs
Participation in high-quality OST programs may increase the likelihood of a successful transition to adulthood for low-income youth (Gardner, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 2008). Such programs positively influence the healthy development of low-income youth by helping them to develop diverse skills and support networks (Barr, Birmingham, Formal, Klein, & Piha, 2006). OST programs that promote education and instill a sense of belonging and competence may develop characteristics that help youth make the transition to young adulthood (Daud & Carruthers, 2008). Strong mentoring connections to positive adults can also contribute to positive outcomes for vulnerable youth (Hines, Merdlinger, & Wyatt, 2005). OST programs that promote positive youth development may be especially beneficial, since many aspects of positive youth development overlap with college and workforce readiness (Lippman et al., 2008). However, research on the long-term impact of positive youth development programs, particularly with adolescents transitioning to adulthood, is very limited (Barcelona & Quinn, 2011).
Effective high school OST programs are comprehensive, offer diverse program components, allow flexibility in how youth choose to be involved (American Youth Policy Forum, 2006) and integrate positive youth development principles (McKay, 2011). Components of effective OST programs include academic support and engagement in learning (Barr et al., 2006; Pittman, Irby, Yohalem, & Wilson-Ahlstrom, 2004), technology integration and project-based learning (Donner & Wang, 2013), workforce skill development or paid internships (Halpern, 2006), service learning (Schneider-Munoz & Politz, 2007), and diverse, relevant learning opportunities (Barr et al., 2006). Research also stresses the importance of hiring committed, accessible staff who are capable of forming strong relationships with teens and using these bonds to encourage youth to develop competencies (Jones & Deutsch, 2011; The After-School Corporation, 2007).
The YMCA Youth Institute
The YMCA of Greater Long Beach Youth Institute is a year-round OST program that uses technology to promote positive youth development and enhance the academic success and career readiness of low-income high school students of color. The goals of the Youth Institute (YI) are to:
• Improve the technology, career, leadership, and decision-making skills of youth to promote readiness for higher education or career entry after graduation
• Improve academic achievement and stimulate interest in higher education
• Promote bonding to pro-social adults and community attachment among low-income urban high school youth
The YI recruits youth by partnering with area schools and community organizations to distribute program information. Many youth learn about the program from YI alumni. Youth must submit an application to join the program. The selection process is structured so each cohort is diverse in gender and ethnicity. To ensure that vulnerable youth are served, selection is based in part on responses to an application question about adversity the applicant has faced. Almost all participating youth come from poverty. New cohorts begin each summer (Coe-Regan & O’Donnell, 2006). The number of entering youth varies by year, depending on funding, but typically is between 35 and 40 youth.
The program has two components: an intensive summer technology program and a year-round academic support program. On program entry, youth participate in an eight-week summer program, 35 hours per week. The first week is spent at a wilderness retreat. Participants are assigned to project teams, mixed by gender and ethnicity. Initiativite games and a low-ropes course promote group cohesion and leadership skills such as problem solving and communication. Cultural awareness and tolerance activities are integrated throughout the week (O’Donnell & Coe-Regan, 2006).
During the rest of the summer, youth engage in projects to learn technology skills. The technology content is constantly evolving to include the latest software for animation, graphic design, web design, video editing, and music creation. All technology classes have a curriculum covering the pedagogical approach and the skill sets to be learned. Projects, which are completed in teams, include animated logos, movies, and a teen magazine. All projects are linked to school content standards and are designed to promote literacy, math, and higher-level thinking skills. Youth are paid a stipend for the summer program, which culminates in a film festival for family and community members (Coe-Regan & O’Donnell, 2006).
Upon graduation from the summer program, youth become YI alumni and can voluntarily participate in year-round activities during high school and college. Involvement opportunities vary, but they typically include daily digital art labs and homework assistance, academic and personal advising, community service, equipment check-out, field trips, weekend leisure activities, community leadership positions, and social work support (Coe-Regan & O’Donnell, 2006). Staff members assist youth with high school course selection, take them on college field trips, and help them with college and financial aid forms. Alumni can also apply to receive stipends to be mentors for new YI cohorts or work as paid interns with Change Agent Productions, a multimedia social enterprise associated with the program (O’Donnell, Tan, & Kirkner, 2012). Opportunities after high school graduation include young adult retreats, holiday events, paid staff positions, or volunteer activities with the YI or the YMCA. All YI staff have extensive training and past experience with positive youth development practices; most have digital media or technology degrees. The program designers believe that the youth development skills are most important, because specialized technology skills are easier to teach.
In past evaluations, YI participation has been linked to improvements in leadership and technology skills (O’Donnell & Coe-Regan, 2006) and to significantly higher high school standardized test scores and grades, as well as somewhat fewer absences than matched comparison youth (O’Donnell & Kirkner, 2014).
**Methods**
Due to the exploratory nature of the study, we used focus groups to gain insight into participants’ experiences with the program and their perceived long-term outcomes.
**Data Collection and Sample**
YI staff gave us contact information for alumni who were over the age of 18 and no longer in high school. Invitations to participate in focus groups were extended by telephone, e-mail, and Facebook. Of the 102 alumni for whom contact information was provided, 34 participated in one of seven focus groups. Thus, this analysis is based on a small convenience sample.
Participants signed consent forms, and the study was approved by our institutional review board. Because
we have long evaluated the program and have personal relationships with the program developer, we hired two outside master’s level professionals to facilitate the focus groups. These researchers used a structured interview guide. All sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim, with identification numbers substituted for participants’ names so that we could not know their identities. Participants were given food and a $10 gas card to thank them for their time.
Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with an average age of 22. Twenty-four (71 percent) were male. Latinos (56 percent) were the largest ethnic group, followed by Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders (29 percent), Whites (12 percent), and African Americans (3 percent). Compared to the whole group of YI alumni, this sample had a higher proportion of males, Latinos, and Asian-American/Pacific Islanders, so the findings might be more representative of these groups than of YI alumni as a whole.
**Data Analysis**
We analyzed the data inductively using a modified grounded theory approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). First, we reviewed the data to identify preliminary categories and themes. Next, we separately coded each response line by line. We then met to resolve any coding differences and add new categories as needed to accurately represent the data.
**Focus Group Responses**
Following prompts from the structured interview guide, focus group respondents offered insights on their continued YI involvement as young adults, the benefits of YI involvement, the skills and lessons they learned, and the ways in which the YI prepared them for higher education or the workforce. They also offered suggestions for improvement.
**Continued Program Involvement as Young Adults**
Almost all participants (92 percent) were still involved with the YI; most noted multiple ways of staying involved. Working and volunteering for the YMCA were the most frequent types of involvement. Many participants said they felt a sense of responsibility to remain involved. One said, “A lot of us took the quote, ‘Much has been given to us and much is expected,’ to heart. That’s why we’re still here giving back to the community and youth.” Almost three-quarters of respondents had kept in contact with YI peers and staff or participated in the young adult program. One said:
If I am having troubles in my life and need someone to talk to, I can go to any of the staff. I mostly come to see old faces and catch up, but I’ve done multiple retreats and volunteer activities. You always stay connected and are pulled back.
A couple of the young adults still used YI technology resources, including computers and cameras, because access to these things is expensive.
**Benefits of YI Participation**
Many participants had difficulty answering the question about the benefits they had gained from the YI because they saw their lives and themselves as being completely different because of their involvement.
They gave me a job, a future, and hope. This program taught me how to be, psychologically and socially as a person. It helped me in my career and in the decision to go to college. If I wasn’t here, I’d be pregnant or already have a kid. It totally changed my life.
Participants said that the most meaningful benefits of the YI were the community service and travel opportunities, which allowed them to see beyond their neighborhoods and to believe that they could make a difference.
I probably would not be involved with the community if I did not join this program. We had to volunteer for projects at a school. It shaped what I wanted to do for my career, how I wanted to help people. It definitely changed my view on how much I can shape the place and people where I live.
Participants also reported that the relationships they had established with peers and staff had positively influenced their lives. These relationships appeared to be critical, as many had not previously had strong, positive supports.
The biggest benefits are the people you meet. After ten years, I still come back because I enjoy and love
the people here. It’s like a family. The support system is a fundamental part of my life. That support helps me move forward and be motivated about my goals.
**Skills and Lessons Learned**
When asked to identify the most important skills and lessons they had learned in the YI, participants frequently mentioned interpersonal and communication skills such as teamwork, public speaking, leadership, and comfort with diversity. They saw these skills as contributing to their later academic and workforce success.
One of the biggest skills was learning to work with different people; how to be confrontational in a healthy way, especially with difficult people; and how to communicate to find a consensus or to meet a goal. I definitely learned how to be in a leadership position or in any position working with people.
Participants also frequently indicated that technology access and the skills they gained from the program were valuable. Many, as youth—and some even now—could access technology only at the YI. For some, technology skills helped them perform better on high school or college assignments. For others, working with technology gave them skills and a passion for their future careers.
I took my YI background in animation software and creating models into an engineering class. I got a perfect score. The software was the same as I had been working with since I was 14. That made it easy.
Some participants said that the YI had helped them to tap their own creativity or to think in different ways. They often mentioned that the program’s project-based learning was quite different from the way they typically learned in school.
In contrast to school, where you get lectured and turn in homework, [YI staff] give you one lecture, and then you get a project and learn by creating a product. There is a lot of room for creativity. That had a huge impact because I learned how to think when I was younger.
Some participants indicated that they had become more resilient and better able to adapt and persevere. One said, “We learned to adapt and overcome. We were thrown into situations outside our comfort zones. That’s an important skill in school and life.” Another made a similar point: “I’m not afraid to try different things and to make mistakes. The program taught me to not give up and do what I can to the best of my abilities.”
**Preparation for College and Work**
Participants who had attended or were attending a college or technical school appreciated the tangible help the YI provided with college applications, financial aid forms, and recommendations, as well as high school assistance such as tutoring and guidance on class selection. First-generation college students, who often described themselves as “lost” in the college process, particularly valued this help.
It was because of the YI that I even went to school. They helped me with everything. They brought in people from the university and wrote letters of recommendation for my bachelor’s and master’s programs. They were instrumental to me going to college.
The day I got accepted into college, I called the people who were super-important to me. The YI staff and peers were more excited than my parents. I got more college support from the YI than from my family, who did not know about college.
Another contribution respondents frequently mentioned was that the program had encouraged them to consider higher education.
This program put me in college. The people I was close to didn’t like doing homework, didn’t like teachers, and got into trouble. But, in this program, there were a bunch of kids determined to win a scholarship and search for the college that was right for them. All the staff tells kids, “You should go to college because it gives you more opportunities in life.” Having the staff check my grades in high school helped me know they had my back. I felt I had to represent them. These connections pushed me into going to college, something I am grateful for.
YI participation also helped some to decide on their career choices or college majors.
They changed what I wanted to do in my career. When I first came, I wanted to do something like construction. As soon as I touched a computer, I was in love with it: the problem solving, fixing, building, and anything that has to do with technology. When I entered college, I knew what classes I needed to take and the requirements.
Participants thought the technology skills they had developed in the YI were beneficial in both high school and college. The equipment they could access at the YI also helped some to perform better academically. One
said that, when asked to make a presentation, “The fact that I could make a movie impressed the teacher and got me an A.”
Almost one-third of respondents reported they had learned critical thinking or organizational skills in the YI that helped them to be successful in college. One participant summarized this view: “You are introduced, at an early age, to life skills like critical thinking, time management, and group problem-solving skills. These are skills you absolutely need. Those are the most important skill sets I took to college.”
Focus group participants who had not chosen to pursue higher education or who were working while in college or after college graduation described the workforce skills they had developed in the YI. One summed up the categories of workforce skills: “The relational skills, the media skills, the organizational skills that we learned—I use them every day in my work.” Respondents most frequently said they used technology skills in the workplace, regardless of whether their jobs were technology-related. A few also reported that the YI taught them to be organized, self-directed, and hard working. For example, one respondent commented, “One thing that was drilled into me was being thorough, methodical, and meticulous.” Another said, “The YI taught me how to be self-directive: getting and taking care of an assignment, and then helping others accomplish their goals.” Some respondents also indicated the program had given them opportunities to network with professionals in their fields—opportunities that sometimes even led to employment.
**Program Components**
When asked to name the most important components of the YI, one participant echoed a common sentiment: “I don’t know if I could single out any one key factor. They all are very important and vital.” Participants most often cited the wilderness retreat as valuable because it helped youth to bond with one another and staff members, build team and communication skills, gain exposure outside their neighborhoods, and understand other cultures.
The wilderness retreat was the most impactful. It takes you out of the norm and exposes you to new things. You connect to people on a personal level, bonding you to staff and peers. We got to know each other personally: our strengths, our weaknesses, and what we shared in common. What we experienced together on that week makes you want to keep coming back. That is a part of what makes this program so successful.
Many participants thought the staff was the most important aspect of the program. Staff members established supportive relationships with participants—relationships that often extended into their young adult years. In particular, participants saw the positive environment the staff created, the role modeling they provided, the relationships they developed, and the youth development principles they implemented as critical. As one said, “You need to have staff members who really believe in working with youth and know what youth development is about. Without that, you have a program that doesn’t mean anything.” Another said:
It’s impactful for teenagers to go through this because they know there will be someone to pick them up when they fall. It offers a great support system with caring adult role models who really exemplify what it means to be a youth leader and a caring adult.
Some also noted the benefits of community involvement or travel opportunities. Both experiences helped them to further develop their leadership skills while exposing them to the larger world. One respondent had served as chair of the Long Beach District Youth Council: “Through that, I gained a strong sense of my leadership skills, and a commitment to service and advocacy.” Another said:
The traveling helped me because, before the program, I had never gone outside the city. It’s important to visit places to know there are bigger and better things outside these city walls. Those experiences helped me create my identity and find out who I was.
Many young adults appreciated that they could work at Change Agent Productions or be employed by the YI or YMCA. Although of course they saw the money as useful, they appreciated even more the opportunities to travel, network, and improve their job skills.
What I took most out of the YI was the experience of working. As a high school student, you can’t
find a good work environment to grow professionally. Here, you are put into a leadership position that challenges you to grow. They teach you how to work, to live, to be successful.
The technology focus was viewed as a valuable program asset as well. One said, “The YI prepares you for college, employment, or trade school. There are a lot of valuable technology aspects that you learn and technology jobs are growing in our economy. But, in any job, someone is always behind a computer.”
**Suggestions for Improvement**
Participants were extremely happy with the YI as it was currently structured. As one said, “The program is just great. I see it improving every year. They definitely assess what the needs are and evolve to meet the needs of the participants.” The most frequent suggestion was to expand the program to serve more youth or communities. These alumni were also very vocal about the need to have more trips and cultivate diversity to expose youth to a larger world. In response to the question about how to strengthen the program, one respondent said:
More trips, because you get exposed to life. Being low-income, underprivileged youth, we didn’t get exposed to the things the Youth Institute exposed us to like snowboarding and snorkeling. It exposed us to life and forced us to bond with each other. We were exposed to other cultures, what makes us different and similar. That helps us in the real world when we work with other ethnicities. We learned, here, the world is not one race.
Additional suggestions for program enhancement included providing college scholarships, having tutoring more available, partnering with businesses to establish apprentice programs, and providing transportation.
Several respondents also suggested ways to improve the YI program for college-age alumni. The most common was to develop electronic mechanisms, such as email, Facebook, newsletters, or an alumni section on the website, to keep all alumni apprised of opportunities and events. A few said that having more trips or other activities for college-age youth would be useful and provide needed ongoing support.
**Implications for High School OST Programs**
This pilot study explored young adults’ perceptions of whether and how the YI prepared them for young adulthood. Participants reported the YI helped them develop social and interpersonal competence and technology skills, all of which have been found to be useful in the transition to higher education and the workforce (Lippman et al., 2008; Warschauer & Matuchnik, 2010). The program also appears to have helped these low-income urban youth to do better in high school and to increase their educational aspirations. It gave many the knowledge needed to apply to college and access financial aid. Respondents perceived the ongoing, positive relationships they established with staff and peers as integral to their lives, providing support, encouragement, and a network to call on when financial, educational, and personal challenges arose. The fact that so many continued to rely on these relationships, even as young adults, reinforces the notion that vulnerable youth may require additional social supports to successfully transition into young adulthood (Fuligni & Hardway, 2004; Hamilton & Hamilton, 2009).
Although our results strongly suggest that well-designed high school OST programs can help low-income urban youth develop the knowledge, skills, and supports needed to transition into higher education and the workforce, the fact that it used a small, non-representative convenience sample limits the ability to generalize the findings. It is possible that alumni who participated in the study were more involved in the YI
than those who did not respond to the invitation; thus, their outcomes may be different from the outcomes of youth whose participation was more limited. Researcher bias and social desirability may also have influenced the findings. Future studies should incorporate a larger, more representative sample or include a comparison or control group to better understand the impact of high school OST participation on the life trajectories of young adults.
Nevertheless, the feedback we got from YI alumni is consistent with studies suggesting that comprehensive high school OST programs can contribute to positive outcomes in young adulthood (Gambone, Klem, & Connell, 2002; Gambone, Yu, Lewis-Charp, Sipe, & Lacoe, 2006). Respondents identified multiple program aspects as beneficial. The high regard for the wilderness retreat suggests that this type of activity may be critical. It established the bonding necessary to keep older teens involved, while building their leadership, communication, and diversity skills. Participants also saw academic support, community service opportunities, trips, project-based learning, technology, and internships as important to developing skills for higher education and work. Participants also saw the use of a youth development framework as a vital program component.
The YI provided these young people with mentors who contributed to their vision of the future or their belief that they could accomplish things. These beliefs have also been linked to college and workforce readiness and are thought to ease the transition into early adulthood (Daud & Carruthers, 2008; Hamilton & Hamilton, 2009). Thus, our findings echo research suggesting that high school OST programs must hire highly qualified staff who can be strong role models and who can establish positive and trusting relationships with youth while still holding them to high expectations (Daud & Carruthers, 2008; Jones & Deutsch, 2011).
Many have suggested that civic engagement prepares youth for a successful transition to adulthood (Flanagan & Levine, 2010; Philanthropy for Active Civic Engagement, 2010). Participants in our study supported this concept, frequently noting the importance of giving back to the community; community service helped some discover a career path. High school OST programs that require community service or create career pathways within their organizations can help young people develop important skills. Participants also suggested that high school programs need to expand horizons, helping youth from low-income neighborhoods to see beyond their boundaries: introducing the possibility of higher education, identifying diverse career paths, and showing youth the long-term benefits of both. Internships that allow youth to better understand careers while helping them to develop workforce skills may be particularly useful. Trips may also help low-income urban youth envision more positive futures.
Many study participants noted that the technology skills and access they gained in the YI had helped them in college and were highly valuable in the workforce. Participants reported that their technology skills gave them an advantage in both settings. Integrating technology into high school programs may help engage youth and can provide access and skills that low-income youth often lack but need for the 21st century (London et al., 2010). In addition, the use of project-based learning, especially in programs with a technology focus, might help youth to develop important critical-thinking skills.
The YI is designed to serve high-school-age youth, yet many of these college-age alumni still considered themselves part of the program or in need of continuing support. High school OST programs might explore ways in which they can continue to connect with and support their graduates. This practice can help both the young adults and the youth-serving organization, as graduates may be a good source of volunteer labor or staff.
Our findings echo previous research suggesting that high-quality programs for diverse high school youth should be multi-faceted to meet the young people’s diverse needs and desires (Strobel, Kirshner, O’Donoghue, & McLaughlin, 2008; The After-School Corporation, 2007). Other high school OST programs may want to implement some of the successful elements of the YI in their own efforts to help urban teens successfully transition to young adulthood.
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One day, as I was working with a student after school on a problem involving division with decimals, I told him which number goes in the “division house.” Suddenly the student blurted out, “That is not what my teacher told me, and I hate math!” I knew I had not yet found the key to helping this student. Was I addressing how he felt about math? Should I put the problem away and start over with the beauty of decimals, those smaller-than-one numbers that enable us to measure the speed of an Olympic athlete, the diameter of a pinhead, or the exact length of a ladybug? Teaching afterschool allows for such inner dialogues. As a learning support specialist providing academic support services both during school time and after school, I had the opportunity to dig deep.
I decided to find out how my other students felt about math. The emotional worry in some of their statements surprised me. They voiced intense, passionate feelings: “Math is boring … slow … hard for me.” “Fractions are hard. They burn like lava!” “Math is like a scary movie.”
My background as a certified classroom teacher and my work with students after school inspired me to explore new ways to help students learn math. Despite my lack of background in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math), I have always been fascinated by the myths that plague the teaching and learning of math.
I want my students to make the meaningful connection to math that I myself was able to make only as an adult. In school, I struggled to remember complex math procedures. As my attention slipped away, the teacher at the front of the classroom became a blur, like a prolonged lade in a movie. Math started to make sense to me only later, when I went back to school as an adult and drew on my experience as a dancer. I noted that balancing equations was similar to feeling balanced physically in the studio. Math and dance also share other common
MARGARET KULKIN is a Washington State certified teacher. After teaching fifth grade, she created Northwest K–8 Learning Support, which serves students in a variety of settings. Her practice focuses on work with students diagnosed with dyslexia and language learning differences. She participated in the Afterschool Matters Practitioner Research Fellowship through School’s Out Washington.
ingredients, such as steps and patterns. Just as I would close my eyes to visualize myself completing a particularly hard set of dance steps, so I could visualize steps and recognize patterns in math. I treasure these connections. When I sense student attention slipping away, I return to the recognition that math ideas are connected to problems that students are naturally interested in solving.
Afterschool teachers who tutor students or provide homework help have a unique opportunity to help students overcome the social or emotional barriers that so often block learning. We can embrace a creative and investigative approach to math learning. My interest in being a math attitude “myth-buster” led me to apply to a STEM-focused National Afterschool Matters Practitioner Fellowship, an 18-month professional development opportunity offered by the National Institute on Out-of-School Time. During that fellowship, I developed and administered a student survey, developed new student-centered curriculum, and conducted the case studies that inform this article.
My quest was to chip away at the “math is hard” idea to show students that math is accessible to all. Jung, Kloosterman, and McMullen (2007) suggest that children have an inborn sense of how to solve problems: “Mathematics is a science of patterns and relationships, and young children have far more ability to see those patterns than we may think” (p. 50). Math learning starts early, as children discover quantity and measurement by filling up and pouring out containers, create patterns by drawing pictures, or explore numbers by counting days on a calendar. We need to continue to nurture this math potential, grounded in real-life experience, as children grow older. My research with my own students helped me find ways to help them overcome math anxiety by creating learning opportunities based on their interests.
**Where Does Math Anxiety Come From?**
Buckley and Ribordy (1982) define math anxiety as an “inconceivable dread of mathematics that can interfere with manipulating numbers and solving mathematical problems within a variety of everyday life and academic situations” (p. 1). Common characteristics of math anxiety include “rigid thinking, lack of perseverance, poor or inconsistent performance, avoidance, and a resistance to monitoring one’s thinking about math” (Furner & Gonzalez-De Hass, 2011, p. 228). Recognizing math anxiety as a problem, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989) recommended that teachers assess their students’ mathematical dispositions.
The need is urgent, as Furner and Gonzalez-DeHass (2011) point out: “Clearly, mathematics anxiety is not the sole reason for low math achievement in this country; nevertheless, it is a critical academic problem” (p. 227). Furthermore, NCTM (2000) emphasizes as a “first principle” the importance of keeping opportunities to excel in math open to all students, including those who struggle with it.
Much of the research on math anxiety focuses on causes. Jackson and Leffingwell (1999) list causes including “[c]ommunication and language barriers, quality of instruction, evaluation methods, and difficulty of materials” (p. 88). Other causes of math anxiety include the negative attitudes that can be inadvertently communicated by teachers and parents who are themselves afraid of math (Kutner, 1992). An *Education Week* blog (Heitin, 2015) even suggests that “the beginnings of math anxiety in students can often be traced to the day they go to school and learn about fractions.” After all, fractions (like decimals) are much harder to visualize or find in real life than are whole numbers (Heitin, 2015).
My own practice suggests that strict emphasis on procedures and facts reinforces math anxiety. When teachers focus on performance, emphasizing grades or acquisition of specific skills, students come to believe that their performance depends on their ability—and that their ability is not sufficient (Furner & Gonzalez-De Hass, 2011). Instead of setting performance goals, Furner and Gonzalez-DeHass (2011) suggest, teachers can better serve their students by focusing on mastery goals. “In a mastery goal classroom, success is defined by improvement, value is placed on effort and the process of learning, satisfaction is gained from working hard and learning something new” (p. 236). Performance goals are often met in a climate of competition that prizes speed, memorization of facts, and acquisition of specific skills. In contrast, mastery goals emphasize real-world application and problem solving. Though students do need to perform procedures and understand concepts, they have achieved mastery when they can successfully apply concepts to such tasks as solving problems and predicting outcomes.
In the real world, the heart of math is problem solving. Artists consider proportion in composing their creations. Carpenters take exact measurements to ensure that their final products come out straight and solid. Setting up math problems in such everyday contexts motivates students to develop their mastery. Driven by the desire to answer meaningful questions, students can overcome math anxiety.
**Inquiry: How Do Students Feel About Math?**
I often wondered how I could align real-life experience to student mastery of specific math concepts and procedures. To find out, I started by gathering data from my students. Drawing on work on measuring math attitudes by Tapia and Marsh (2004), I developed a survey and gave it to five of my students, grades 4–6, who struggled with math. The survey asked students to respond to a set of statements on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 indicating complete agreement and 1 indicating total disagreement. For example, one statement was “When I hear the word *math*, I feel excited.” Two students gave this statement a 1, two gave it a 2 or 3, and one gave it a 4. By contrast, three students agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, “Math stresses me out,” though two students rated this statement 1 or 2. Perhaps these students weren’t aware of their stress or simply weren’t stressed despite their struggle.
Three students out of the five disagreed with the statement, “I like solving math problems in a group.” These same students disagreed with the statement that they could see themselves doing math their whole lives. I wondered whether these students were reluctant to solve math problems in a group because they were not confident in their ability to communicate with peers about increasingly hard-to-picture concepts such as decimals or fractions.
My survey also included open-ended questions, which elicited the comments I cite in the introduction of this article. For case studies of my new approach to math instruction based on real-life problem solving, I chose students who clearly had a high degree of math anxiety: “Terry,” who said that math “is like a scary movie,” and “Avery,” who said that math “burns like lava.” (The names are pseudonyms.)
**Case Studies in Mastery Through Problem Solving**
Since I work with students individually, I already understood a great deal about these two students’ math confusions, but I knew I could learn more. For both students, I intentionally created open-ended problem-solving activities that would require them to use math concepts to make or construct something. Each project took two to four of our once-a-week sessions. The problems I chose were based on the preferences and interests that the students had listed on intake forms or that I had observed.
**Parachutes and Decimals**
Terry was a sixth-grader with a definite inner intensity. He loved speed, including finishing his homework in record time, and liked sports. He needed to work on decimals, so I designed activities, based on his interests, that would require calculating with decimals and finding averages.
One day, when Terry arrived for his session, I sprang the news: “We are going to do an experiment today, and one of us will need to stand on my giant stool.” Terry looked puzzled, which was perfect. “First, though,” I said, “you need to make some parachutes.”
Terry seemed pleased that my usual mantra about “diving into decimals” had been back-burnered for the day. He was a ball of action and words. “Where’s the stool? Where are the parachutes? What will be attached? A Lego man? Cool! How about a hippo? Let’s try a giraffe! Which one will hit the ground faster? Let’s just tie them all together and watch them all crash into the ground at once!” The experiment began with a flurry of materials: tape, yarn, Lego characters, hole punch, and plastic bags. Terry was moving at the speed he loves most: fast!
The math investigation would require Terry to calculate the average time it took for two different kinds of parachutes to reach the ground with the courageous Lego man. I was the one who got to stand on the giant stool. (I didn’t want to explain to his parents how Terry sprained his ankle while learning math.) I dropped the parachutes while Terry timed the drops to the thousandth of a second, using a computer-generated stopwatch, and then recorded the times. Finally, he computed average times for the two different parachutes.
In another session, I challenged Terry to continue exploring decimals with an investigation based on another of his expressed interests: baseball. I found an activity on the Exploratorium website—a wonderful resource for creative, hands-on science and math activities—in which the student “hits” the ball thrown by a virtual pitcher and then records the reaction time to a hundredth of a second. Terry hit four times and calculated his average. His times were 0.23, 0.26, 0.20, and 0.21, so his average was 0.23 second. Then he asked, “What do I need to do the next time I’m up to bat to get an average reaction time of .022 second?” He wrote his answer: “My average is 0.23 of a second, so my average reaction time will need to improve by 0.01. My next hit will need to be 0.18 to improve my average by 0.01.”
As Terry worked on this second investigation, he took the reins and displayed real confidence, apparently fueled by his success with the parachutes. He was less worried about his performance and more focused on mastering the core math ideas.
**Fractions and Fabric Design**
When I first started working with Avery, her teacher emailed me, “I’ve noticed Avery’s biggest problem is self-confidence in math. . . . She also does not have a firm grasp with naming fractions using diagrams. For example, if you have a circle with 15 parts and three are missing, she’ll say the fraction is 3/12.” (personal communication, April 2013).
Avery had shared her love of design on many occasions; she was interested in patterns in clothes and jewelry. Based on the teacher’s comments and my own observations, I thought Avery might learn about fractions by solving problems based on quilt squares. I wanted to demonstrate how math is often embedded in design, especially when decomposing patterns and shapes into smaller, fractional parts.
I showed Avery some quilt designs. Then we looked at a quilt template I downloaded from the Riverbend Community Math Center (www.riverbendmath.org). I pre-cut shapes of different sizes for Avery to arrange on the quilt block. The problem was to design a quilt square, divided into nine parts, and then use varying shapes and sizes to cover all nine parts so they add up to one whole square. I showed Avery the shapes: triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids of various sizes. We classified them on a chart by their fractional proportion of a whole square: 1/2, 1/3, 1/6, 1/9, or 1/18. The next step was arranging the shapes on a square template. Then Avery added all of the fractional pieces by converting all the fractions to a denominator of 18 to make sure that they added up to 18/18 or 1. I noticed that Avery was engaged with the activity, and her conceptual grasp of fractions was already improving.
The next problem was the Quilt Square Challenge from the Mathwire website (Kawas, n.d.). The challenge is to match a complex black and white quilt square design using only black and white triangles that are all the same size. Avery wrote how she found the solution: “Figure out that the triangles were in the rectangle and to match up the triangles with the pattern.” We extended this challenge to create fraction problems comparing the number of black triangles with the number of white triangles.
This kind of spatial awareness, seeing how bigger shapes were made up of smaller pieces, enabled Avery to see the beauty of the whole as well as the pattern created by the smaller parts. These activities addressed Avery’s struggle with spatial organization and fractions. The combination of math and design allowed her to begin to overcome her math anxiety. Like Terry, she became more interested in understanding the underlying concepts and less worried about simply getting the problem right. She was shifting her focus away from performance and toward mastery. Her teacher emailed about Avery’s progress: “She is finally asking questions in class. She is at least able to voice her concerns. Before she didn’t even know where to begin to ask for help” (personal communication, May 2013).
**Changes in Attitudes About Math**
There was never an “Aha!” moment with either of these students. However, the experience of success and the exhilaration of completing their math investigations mitigated their fear. As Terry and Avery shifted their focus from performance to mastery, the undercurrent of anxiety that had governed their relationship with math was lessened.
I confirmed this finding when I administered my survey a second time. Terry, who had previously compared math to a “scary movie,” now compared math to a “book with many surprises.” He agreed that he enjoyed discussing math with peers and that he could see himself doing math his whole life. Similarly, Avery no longer thought that math “burns like lava.” After her quilt investigations, she said that, although math was difficult, it could also be “fun or easy like pie.”
I have continued to work with Avery. She still has difficulty putting math concepts into words. However, one day when I asked her to compare two fractions, she surprised me by drawing a beautiful picture that clearly depicted a well-grounded understanding. When we moved into area and perimeter, Avery cheerfully suggested designing a zombie park!
**Implications for Practice**
Terry and Avery have not finished their stories. Someday, they may find that challenging their fear of math helped them develop some of their greatest strengths, such as curiosity, confidence, and initiative. Any teacher or youth leader, in or out of school, knows that our best moments come when our “unreachable” participants get back in the game, building confidence with each new success. When students formerly blocked by fear change their trajectory, obstacles become stepping stones.
To achieve this result, we have to appreciate the role of emotions in learning. The point is not just to present students with fun activities. We have to address their anxiety to help them find their inner mathematicians. Once their emotional block is addressed, students are less likely to impose self-limiting beliefs that they don’t “fit the math mold” or can’t learn math. Using real-world experiences to teach math concepts will help them shift their focus away from anxiety about their performance so they can engage in learning. As Furner and Berman (2003) have said, “Educators can play an instrumental role in fostering an environment that focuses on numeracy, and help reduce students’ feelings of inadequacy and lack of confidence when working with mathematical ideas” (p. 173).
I recently team-taught a workshop on the benefits of STEM learning after school. I cannot describe the fun I had watching the teachers design the “perfect” carrier to bring a Lego character down a zip line. Some of the carriers failed, but we all laughed when the Lego people spilled to the floor. This activity had many embedded math problems: How fast were the carriers traveling? How did their size affect their speed and the distance they traveled? Adults who want to help students with math will be richly rewarded if they choose to entice students with problems that relate to everyday life. The excitement generated by even one positive math experience may turn some of our math-shy participants into the creators, designers, and problem solvers of the future.
**References**
Buckley, P. A., & Ribordy, S. C. (1982, May). *Mathematics anxiety and the effects of evaluative instructions on math performance.* Minneapolis, MN: Midwestern Psychological Association.
Furner, J. M., & Berman, B. T. (2003). Math anxiety: Overcoming a major obstacle to the improvement of student math performance. *Childhood Education, 79*(3), 170–174.
Furner, J. M., & Gonzalez-DeHass, A. (2011). How do students’ mastery and performance goals relate to math anxiety? *Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 7*(4), 227–242.
Heitin, L. (2015, February 10). “Fraction phobia”: The root of math anxiety? [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2015/02/fraction_phobia_the_root_of_mat.html
Jackson, C. D., & Leffingwell, R. J. (1999). The role of instructors in creating math anxiety in students from kindergarten through college. *Mathematics Teacher, 92*(7), 583–586.
Jung, M., Kloosterman, P., & McMullen, B. (2007, September). Young children’s intuition for solving problems in mathematics. *Young Children, 62*(5), 50–57.
Kawas, T. (n.d.). Quilt square challenge. Retrieved from http://mathwire.com/quilts/qschallenge.html
Kutner, L. (1992, August 13). Teachers and parents who are afraid of math can pass that anxiety to the next generation. *New York Times*, pp. B4, C12.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Commission on Standards for School Mathematics. (1989). *Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics.* Reston, VA: Author.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). *Principles and standards for school mathematics.* Reston, VA: Author.
Tapia, M., & Marsh, G. E. (2004). An instrument to measure mathematics attitudes. *Academic Exchange Quarterly, 8*(2), 16–21.
The U.S. government’s *Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans* suggest that children should engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity for 60 minutes per day (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [U.S. DHHS], 2008). However, recent data indicate that children in the U.S. are not accumulating enough physical activity (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). The concern is deepest for youth of lower socioeconomic status and youth of color (Moore, Davis, Baxter, Lewis, & Yin, 2008; Singh, Kogan, Siahpush, & van Dyck, 2008). As a result, professionals in a variety of fields have pushed for physical activity promotion for youth (Pate et al., 2006).
Schools are promising locations for promoting physical activity; most American children attend school, and schools have the infrastructure to accommodate physical activities (U.S. DHHS, 2000). First Lady Michelle Obama has endorsed physical activity and nutrition for all youth through the Let’s Move campaign (Let’s Move, n.d.). Let’s Move Active Schools outlines the role schools can play in promoting physical activity. Its Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs include five components: physical education, physical activity during school, staff involvement, family and community involvement, and physical activity before and after school (Let’s Move Active Schools, n.d.).
Afterschool programs, because they are attended by 10.2 million youth for an average of eight hours per week, are vital settings for promoting physical activity and health (Afterschool Alliance, 2014). Currently, 14 state-level afterschool organizations have adopted physical activity policies (Beets, Wallner, & Beighle, 2010).
HEATHER E. ERWIN, PhD, is an associate professor in the department of kinesiology and health promotion at the University of Kentucky.
STEPHANIE A. ROSE, MD, is clinical faculty in the department of internal medicine at the University of Kentucky.
SARAH R. SMALL, MD, is a resident in the department of internal medicine at the University of Kentucky.
JAY PERMAN, MD, is president of the University of Maryland, Baltimore.
Those policies vary greatly. Some simply advocate for providing daily play time; others offer more specifics, such as devoting 20 percent of program time to moderate to vigorous physical activity (Beets, 2012). None of the policies either were based on data collected in afterschool environments or include accountability measures (Beets, 2012). Although policies are important, they may not be effective if they are not evidence based or cannot be enforced.
National recommendations would have afterschool participants engaging in moderate to vigorous physical activity for at least 20 percent of program time or 30 minutes, whichever is more (Wiecha, Gannett, Hall, & Roth, 2011). Moderate-intensity activity requires a person to work hard enough to raise the heart rate and break a sweat; vigorous activity significantly increases an individual’s heart rate (World Health Organization, 2015). Recent studies have found that afterschool programs contribute between 13 and 24 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity for youth (Beets, Rooney, Tilley, Beighle, & Webster, 2010; Trost, Rosenkranz, & Dezwaltoawaki, 2008). Other studies suggest that afterschool programs provide less than one-third of the daily physical activity recommended for children (Beets, 2012). Although these figures are disappointing, they show that afterschool programs have a lot of potential to encourage physical activity.
Many afterschool physical activity programs and curricula are available, but evaluation of their effectiveness is needed (Beets, 2012). Well-marketed programs such as the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) Kids Club have shown limited effectiveness in increasing physical activity for participants in comparison to control groups (Kelder et al., 2005; Sharpe, Forrester, & Mandigo, 2011). However, other afterschool programs increased the amount of time children spent in physical activity by up to 17 percent (Beets, Beighle, Erwin, & Huberty, 2009). Effective strategies for increasing physical activity in afterschool programs include, for example, allocating time specifically for physical activity and providing professional development to help staff foster physical activity among youth and participate themselves in physical activity (Beets, 2012).
To add to this discussion of the effectiveness of afterschool physical activity programs, we developed, implemented, and studied a physical activity program called Jumpin’ Jaguars for elementary-aged children. This paper describes the implementation of Jumpin’ Jaguars in one school, outlines our findings on its physical activity outcomes, and offers recommendations, based on our findings, for improving physical activity levels in afterschool programs.
**Context**
Researchers from the University of Kentucky collaborated with an elementary school in Lexington to develop and implement Jumpin’ Jaguars in the 2011–2012 school year. This physical activity and nutrition education program consisted of twice-weekly 90-minute sessions in which the participants engaged in physical activities and ate nutritious snacks provided by local grocery stores.
The physical activity lessons, typically 60 minutes long, were usually led by the school’s physical education teacher. A local dance studio provided Zumba classes once a month, and the YMCA provided swimming lessons two afternoons a month.
On a typical afternoon, Jumpin’ Jaguars participants shared a healthy snack and then went to the school gym for 60 minutes of physical activity programming. On swimming days, they went by bus to the YMCA, which was located close to the school. Zumba was offered in the school gym.
On days when regular physical activities were offered in the gym, the instructor would turn on music for warm-up activities. Next, the instructor led the children through the fitness segment of the lesson, which engaged them in such cardiovascular activities, as running, jumping, galloping, and skipping during tag games. This segment might also work on flexibility or offer innovative ways of doing strength exercises such as push-ups and sit-ups. Most of these activities were offered circuit-training style: Students would do an activity for 30–45 seconds and then rest or stretch for 30–45 seconds. The final portion of the activity session involved a game. Often the game was some form of tag, in which children were eliminated once they were tagged and had to sit on the edge of the playing area. In the sessions we observed,
the game was played several times, so participants were not sitting for long periods of time.
**Methods**
We studied Jumpin’ Jaguar activities and participants to see how successfully the program engaged students in moderate to vigorous physical activity.
**Participants**
The school from which we recruited study participants was a K–5 elementary school in which 90 percent of students qualified for free or reduced-price meals. The school was 16 percent white, 67 percent African American, 12 percent Hispanic, and 5 percent other. The school ranked in the sixth percentile in the state in accountability performance; it had a classification of “needs improvement.”
Jumpin’ Jaguars was offered to all students in grades 1–5. The first 40 students who provided parental consent were allowed in the program. However, due to drop-outs and absences, 37 students participated fully. Of these, 38 percent were male. Based on their body-mass index, 24 percent of the children were classified as being of normal weight, 35 percent were overweight, and 41 percent were obese.
**Data Collection**
To measure the physical activity levels of participants and the context of the physical activity lessons, we utilized a widely used systematic observation system. System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) is a momentary time sampling and interval recording system designed to quantify factors believed to promote healthy physical activity (McKenzie, Sallis, & Nader, 1991). Following the SOFIT protocol (McKenzie, 2009), a researcher observed program activities in 10-second increments, followed by a 10-second increment for recording. Two researchers observed some sessions to establish observer reliability. Before the start of each session, the observer randomly selected four students to observe that day and watched them in a sequential pattern.
The observations were classified in three areas: physical activity, lesson context, and teacher activity-promoting behavior. The activity, context, or teacher behavior coded was the event taking place when an audio “record” prompt began the 10-second observation interval.
Physical activity was classified by intensity level for one of the four randomly selected students at a time during each 10-second observation interval. The five-point scale coded 1 for lying down, 2 for sitting, 3 for standing, 4 for walking, and 5 for vigorous activity, defined as anything more strenuous than ordinary walking. The category of vigorous activity did not consider body position so that, for example, push-ups and sit-ups could be included.
Lesson context had six possible codes (McKenzie, 2009):
- **Management**: time devoted to general content not intended to be physical education, such as transitions, breaks, and behavior management
- **Knowledge**: time focused on student acquisition of knowledge related to physical education
- **Fitness**: time spent on activities whose purpose was cardiovascular endurance, strength, or flexibility
- **Skill practice**: time spent on practice with the primary goal of developing skills
- **Game**: time spent in application of skills in a game or competitive activity
- **Other**: free play time
The third category was teacher activity-promoting behavior. There were three options for this category: promoting physical activity within the lesson, promoting physical activity beyond the lesson, or no physical activity promotion. Promoting physical activity within the lesson meant that the teacher verbally encouraged students, for example, “Jump in there and try to tag him, Johnny!” Promoting activity beyond the lesson would include verbal prompts to be active outside the afterschool program, such as “You can try this at home with your siblings or friends.”
We observed eight afterschool physical activity lessons, randomly selected from throughout the school year. Swimming days were excluded. Of the eight selected lessons, six sessions were led by the school’s physical education teacher and two by the Zumba instructor.
To analyze the data, we calculated frequency counts for each category and then compiled percentages.
**Observation Findings**
Our findings for physical activity levels across all eight days of observation are summarized in Figure 1. Jumpin’ Jaguar participants spent the highest percentage of time standing (41 percent), followed by walking (31 percent) and sitting (16 percent). The total time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity, which includes walking, was 42 percent of the physical activity time, or about 25 minutes each day.
As shown in Figure 2, the most common contexts of the afterschool physical activity lessons were games (39 percent) and fitness (29 percent). Management took up almost 19 percent of the time. Skills were emphasized about 10 percent of the time, while knowledge (direct instruction) was rarely observed.
Our findings on teacher behaviors related to promotion of physical activity are shown in Figure 3. Only about 10 percent of observations found the teacher promoting physical activity during the afterschool program. We observed no prompts for participants to be active beyond the afterschool program.
The limitations of our study included the fact that we worked with a small sample of participants who were selected on a first-come, first-served basis. This possible bias is not likely to have affected the outcomes because the participant sample was representative of the entire school population. Another limitation was the fact that the program was offered only two times per week. Findings should not have been affected, since we collected data only when youth were actually participating in the program. However, future studies should investigate the effects of afterschool physical activity programs that are offered for different numbers of days each week.
**Opportunities to Add Physical Activity Time**
Participants spent about 30 minutes, or about 42 percent, of Jumpin’ Jaguar program time in moderate to vigorous physical activity, leaving room for improvement during more than half of the time.
Our findings on intensity of activity showed that children spent quite a bit of time standing and sitting. Children do benefit more from short, frequent bouts of intense physical activity followed by short rests (Pangrazi & Beigle, 2016) than from sustained activity. Still, decreasing sitting time would likely have a positive effect on physical activity outcomes. Accomplishing this goal would require training staff so they know how to manage youth in a physical activity setting and can modify activities to maximize physical activity, as described in the box on page 37.
In terms of the lesson context, the fact that approximately 19 percent of the time was used for management offers another area for improvement. Only 3 percent of time was spent providing participants with knowledge that they might use in physical activities outside of the afterschool program. Among the motor activity contexts—fitness, skill practice, and games—the activity that occupied the highest percentage of time is games, at 39 percent. Different games offer different amounts of physical activity for participants. Modifications can be made to games—and to fitness and skills practice activities—to improve physical activity levels, as outlined in the box Strategies for Maximizing Physical Activity Time.
A final strategy for improvement would be increasing teachers’ activity-promoting behaviors. In our observation, instructors prompted participants to be active only 10 percent of the time. More prompts throughout the session would be likely to increase the amount of time spent in moderate to vigorous activity. Furthermore, instructors should promote physical activity beyond the afterschool program. Although research has not examined the effect
Our findings, coupled with a large body of research conducted with YMCA programs (Weaver, Webster, & Beets, 2013), suggest strategies for increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity in afterschool programs.
1. **Form smaller teams and provide more equipment.** Instead of one game with two large teams, afterschool staff can set up multiple games with small teams so children don’t have to stand or sit while waiting their turn.
2. **Eliminate elimination games.** Children should not sit out if they are tagged. Instead, staff could have them do a quick, fun activity to reenter the game or have two games going on simultaneously, so that children who are “out” in one game can continue in the other.
3. **Modify the space, equipment, or rules.** Staff can change activities with which they are already familiar to make them more active. For example, in traditional Duck Duck Goose, most children sit in a circle, and only two are active. Instead, children can play in pairs, facing each other and saying “duck, duck, duck…” until one of them says, “goose.” That player then chases the other to a line at the side of the activity area. This variation keeps all the children active.
4. **Reduce management time by fostering positive relationships.** When staff make personal connections, youth are more likely to be engaged and respectful. Staff can get to know students individually, make them feel valued, and preserve their dignity by, for example, disciplining them privately rather than in public. Mutual respect will go a long way toward decreasing management time and thereby allowing for more activity time.
5. **Encourage staff to be active themselves.** Studies have demonstrated that children who are encouraged by staff to be active during recess are in fact more active (Huberty et al., 2011). A “no-sitting” rule for staff may encourage them to interact with the children and thereby elicit more physical activity.
Promoting Lifelong Fitness
Afterschool programs can provide a safe environment for children to engage in much-needed physical activity. As organizations rise to meet providers’ demands for guidelines and resources, barriers to implementation, such as untrained staff or the push to address academic standards after school, are becoming more surmountable (After School Programs Office of the California Department of Education, 2009). With a minimal amount of training, afterschool staff can deliver physical activity curricula like CATCH Kids (Kelder et al., 2005) to help children accumulate at least half of their recommended 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Afterschool programs cannot be expected to end childhood obesity, but they can contribute to decreasing it through a multifaceted approach (Moore, 2008). As in any other behavioral endeavor, consistency is the key. Wherever children are, they should receive a consistent message that physical activity is an important part of their wellbeing. They should be able to enjoy activities in a supportive and safe setting that promotes lifelong physical activity. Afterschool programs that make physical activity an essential component of the program greatly increase the odds that physical activity will persist from childhood into adulthood (Mol, Dishman, Saunders, Dowda, & Pate, 2007). Afterschool staff can adapt our recommendations to their own needs in order to influence children’s physical activity levels not only during the program but also beyond.
References
After School Programs Office of the California Department of Education. (2009). *California after school physical activity guidelines*. Sacramento: California Department of Education.
Afterschool Alliance. (2014). *America after 3 PM: Afterschool programs in demand*. Washington, DC: Author.
Beets, M. W. (2012). *Policies and standards for promoting physical activity in after-school programs: A research brief*. San Diego, CA: Robert Wood Johnson Active Living Research.
Beets, M. W., Beighle, A., Erwin, H. E., & Huberty, J. (2009). Impact of after-school programs to increase physical activity and fitness: A meta-analysis. *American Journal of Preventive Medicine*, 36(6), 527–537.
Beets, M. W., Rooney, L., Tilley, F., Beighle, A., & Webster, C. (2010). Evaluation of policies to promote physical activity in afterschool programs: Are we meeting current benchmarks? *Preventive Medicine*, 51(3), 299–301.
Beets, M. W., Wallner, M., & Beighle, A. (2010). Defining standards and policies for promoting physical activity in afterschool programs. *Journal of School Health*, 80(8), 411–417.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Youth risk behavior surveillance: United States, 2013. *Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report*, 63(SS-4).
Huberty, J. L., Siahpush, M., Beighle, A., Fuhrmeister, E., Silva, P., & Weld, G. (2011). Ready for recess: A pilot study to increase physical activity in elementary school children. *Journal of School Health*, 81(5), 251–257.
Kelder, S., Hoelscher, D. M., Barroso, C. S., Walker, J. L., Cribb, P., & Hu, S. (2005). The CATCH Kids Club: A pilot after-school study for improving elementary students’ nutrition and physical activity. *Public Health Nutrition*, 8(2), 133–140.
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Let’s Move Active Schools. (n.d.). *Roadmap for creating an active school*. Retrieved from http://www.letsmoveschools.org/s/15-16-LMASFramework-10-19-15.pdf
McKenzie, T. L. (2009). SOFIT (*System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time*) generic description and procedures manual. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University.
McKenzie, T. L., Sallis, J. F., & Nader, P. R. (1991). System for observing fitness instruction time. *Journal of Teaching in Physical Education*, 11, 195–205.
Moore, J. B. (2008). The built environment and physical activity: Influencing physical activity through healthy design. *Journal of Public Health Management Practice*, 14(3), 209–210.
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Afterschool Matters is a peer-reviewed journal dedicated to promoting professionalism, scholarship, and consciousness in afterschool education. Published by the National Institute on Out-of-School Time with legacy support from the Robert Bowne Foundation, Afterschool Matters serves practitioners who work with youth in out-of-school time (OST) programs, as well as researchers and policymakers in youth development.
We are seeking articles for future issues of the journal, beginning with Spring 2017. Scholarly or practice-based work on all aspects of OST programming for children and youth, from a variety of disciplines and academic perspectives, will be considered. We welcome submissions that explore practical ideas for working with young people in OST programs. Personal or inspirational narratives and essays are appropriate for our section “Voices from the Field.”
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106 Central Street
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PACIFIC CITIZEN
Vol. 45 No. 5
Los Angeles, Calif.
Published Every Week — 10c
Friday, Aug. 2, 1957
Editorial-Business Office: 258 E. Ist St., Los Angeles 12, Calif., MADisen 6-4471
PRESIDENT'S CORNER:
Should our children be called 'Japs'?
National JACL's campaign to eliminate use of the word "Jap" from the American vocabulary was given a setback when Ambassador Koto Matsudaira, Japan's representative to the United Nations was quoted on John Wingate's television show in New York City as not objecting to the use of the word "Jap."
We feel that the Ambassador misunderstood the question. At any rate his statement was unfortunate and regrettable.
Many Americans make little distinction between Americans of Japanese ancestry and visitors from Japan. Furthermore many of us Nisei are judged by our physical appearances and automatically classed as being "Japanese" rather than Americans. Moreover, in too many cases the term "Japanese" is shortened to "Jap" either through ignorance, misunderstanding or maliciousness.
The only way this derogatory and sometimes insulting term can be eliminated is through education and effective public relations.
Very excellent work done by JACL in eliminating this word from a California textbook a few months ago demonstrates the effectiveness of a well organized, concerted effort.
Although elimination of the word "Jap" on a broader basis presents far greater problems, this goal is worthwhile. No Nisei would want his son or daughter to be called a "Jap."
We must remember that apathy and indifference are seeds from which racial abuses grow. Firm protests against the use of this word are in order.
When the National JACL Board meets in Chicago during the EDC-MDC convention, ways and means of effectively carrying out a national program to eliminate the word "Jap" will receive a high priority.
— Dr. Roy Nishikawa
Protest envoy acceptance of 'Jap'
Text of 'Night Beat' interviews on use of word 'Jap':
Ambassador Matsudaira doesn't care; professor dislikes term
NEW YORK—Full text of the transcription of the television interview in which Japanese Ambassador Koto Matsudaira to the United Nations expressed no objection to the use of the word "Jap" has been secured by Sam Ishikawa, New York representative of the Japanese American Citizens League.
On instructions from the Washington JACL Office, Ishikawa purchased a disc recording the complete interview for the "Night Beat" program last June 7 between John Wingate and Ambassador Matsudaira over Television Station WABD (5), New York.
As released by Ishikawa, the opening part of the interview is as follows:
John Wingate: Let's go. This may sound quick to you, but sometimes by indirectness we find out directness. We'd like to get sort of quick—let's call them Rorschach opinions on a number of things. Do you object Doctor, when you see in a newspaper headline, or when we read to you, the word "Jap"?
Ambassador Matsudaira: What do you mean?
John Wingate: Do you object to the use of that word?
Ambassador Matsudaira: Oh, I don't care. It's an English word. It may be American slang. I don't know. If you care, you are free to use it.
Almost a month later, July 3, on another "Night Beat" program, the same John Wingate interviewed Earl L. Reynolds, Professor of Anthropology at Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, who recently spent three years in Japan studying the radiation effects of the atomic bomb on the people of Hiroshima.
Different Reactions
Because this same question regarding the use of the word "Jap" was asked again on a disc of this program was also purchased and transcribed by JACL.
As released by the New York JACL representative, the pertinent parts reads, as follows:
John Wingate: We posed the question to the Japanese Ambassador to the U.N. some weeks ago—What reaction do you have with regard to the use of the word "Jap"?
Professor Reynolds: Well, Mr. Kishi probably has the same reaction that I have. He probably dislikes the term. I dislike the term "Jap". I dislike the term "nigger" or "Kike". "Wop" I dislike those terms. They unnecessary. Not just a matter of impoliteness. It's unkind. And since it costs nothing but a little energy to say the proper term, why not do it? It's a small contribution to cooperation and understanding, but it might help some.
John Wingate: It was, by the way, not Mr. Kishi on this program, but Mr. Matsudaira.
Professor Reynolds: Oh, I see.
John Wingate: ... who diplomatically said if people wanted to call him that, it was all right by him.
Professor Reynolds: He had no objection?
John Wingate: Yes, that was his comment.
The "Night Beat" television interview is a half-hour late evening show produced by Station WABD of the Dumont Broadcasting Company for the New York City area. It is like the program on which Mike Wallace became famous, before moving on to his nationally televised Sunday evening interview program.
JACL calls on senators to reject further substantive change to civil rights bill; 'heart' of House-passed measure cut out
WASHINGTON—While deploiring the July 24 Senate action in striking out broad safeguards to enforce civil rights, the Japanese American Citizens League called upon all senators, regardless of party, representing states in which Americans of Japanese ancestry reside, to oppose any further substantive amendments that would render the so-called civil rights bill ineffectual.
This plea was directed particularly to what is expected to be voted this week on whether an amendment requiring jury trials in cases of jury voir dire misrepresentation should be adopted. The JACL position, as explained by Mike Masaoka, Washington JACL representative, was against such amendment, which would make it difficult to securing of voting rights to Negro Americans in certain areas of the land, particularly in the Deep South.
"When the Senate by a 52 to 38 vote last Wednesday to strike out that section of the House approved civil rights bill that would provide for the desegregation of public schools and places of public entertainment and transportation, it reduced what was already a moderate civil rights bill to one simply involving voting rights," Masaoka explained.
Opposes Further Cuts
"At the same time, by in fact refusing to endorse the United States Supreme Court decision against segregation, senators may well be inviting further disobedience of law in certain areas of our country," he added.
Though what is considered to be the "heart" of the House-approved civil rights bill that would provide for the desegregation of public schools and places of public entertainment and transportation, it reduced what was already a moderate civil rights bill to one simply involving voting rights," Masaoka explained.
Wide-eyed youngster points to U.S. sub sailing to port, hollers 'It's a Jap!'
BERKELEY—An incident feared by unrelenting anti-Nisei movies made during the war years on TV came to light this past week in the Berkeley Daily Gazette.
Glen King, who conducts the "East Bay Story," happened to viewing a U.S. Navy submarine sail through the Golden Gate from Cliff House toward San Francisco.
He heard the shrill cries of an eight-year-old youngster nearby, "It's a Jap!", pointing to Uncle Sam's undersea craft.
"The World War was over four years before this youngster was born," King wrote. "But he has been seeing so many of the wartime atrocity pictures now being re-run by local stations, it was an automatic response.
"We have no objection to the TV boys making their million bucks, but if they mean what they say about codes, etc., they should re-examine their present programs."
"We know that during wartime we have to hate—to win, we must hate effectively. These pictures were appropriate to the national temperament—in 1945, 1944, etc. The Kazuo's colony was rounded out Japan's surrender 12 years ago, and that young Japanese Americans in school "are not hateful, murderous, inscrutable, treacherous, nor are they fanatical emperor-worshipers".
"Their schoolmates should not judge them on the basis of ancestry," he continued, "that much is obvious, but perhaps it is not obvious that impressionable youngsters can pick up ideas of racial superiority just as readily as they succumb to claims about the 'real' home-toughten."
"We presume that some of these wartime movies are so trashy the TV managers can lease them inexpensively, and because of the nature of the business to run a station, large numbers of films. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that many stations are unaware of the editorial content of these 'cheapies'.
"As a presumably, if nobody protests, these TV stations, licensed in the 'public interest, convenience and necessity' will continue to warn young minds about 'all sons of heaven who can never be trusted, etc., etc.,'" he concluded.
The story was brought to the attention of National JACL Headquarters through Kaname Date, active Berkeley JACLer and community leader. JACL and community leaders as well as the Pacific Citizen is always appreciative of this kind of reader-interest.—Editor.)
Cler hurt fatally in head-on mishap
SAN FRANCISCO—Harry Makita, 36, vice-president in charge of public relations for the San Francisco JACL, was fatally injured Saturday in a head-on collision and died two hours later while undergoing surgery at San Rafael General Hospital.
The accident occurred at the Black Point crossing just east of Highway 101 in Marin County. Alone in the car, he was headed for the San Francisco JACL 100th Club dining near Glen Ellen. His car was struck by a head-on driver, a Wet Reynoso, 68 of Napa. Highway patrolmen said Rothman, enroute to San Francisco, told them he remembers pulling out to pass another car on the highway but nothing more thereafter. Makita's car caught fire after the crash and he was pulled out by patrolmen.
Active with the local Nisei VFW post and Pilgrim Baptist Church, Makita is survived by his wife Grace, 1313 Broderick St., two children, parents, two brothers and four sisters. Funeral services were held last Wednesday.
Continued on Page 2
From the Frying Pan
by Bill Hosokawa
Denver, Colo.
FIRES ON THE PLAIN — Latest Japanese novel to be published in English is "Fires on the Plain" (Alfred Knopf, $3.50) by Shohei Ooka, lecturer on French literature at Meiji University. This is the grim and terrifying story of the defeated Japanese soldiers on Leyte in the Philippines where Ooka himself served. Disorganized, lost and overwhelmed in a hostile country, the Japanese are trying to make their way to a stronghold, where they hope to find food, shelter, leadership, and perhaps safety.
But they find none of these things. Hunger stalks them. Some turn to cannibalism — to eating the flesh of their comrades who have succumbed to exhaustion or jungle diseases. A few, like the horrible Nagamatsu, take to hunting their fellow humans for food in the primitive struggle to stay alive. And others, like Private Tamura who tells the story, are led to consume human flesh although they fight against it.
Throughout "Fire on the Plain" there is a sense of mysticism, a preoccupation with God. Some critics see in the story an analogy between cannibalism of the starving soldiers and the Christian doctrine of the Mass.
Yet, what impressed this reader most was the inevitable impact that this grim novel must have had on its Japanese audience. War is not glorified in this story. Rather, it is the story of the debasement that war brought to human beings, particularly the hapless pawns of Japanese military ambition. This is an enormously powerful novel, one that future generations of Japanese — or any other people, for that matter — might recall if ever dreams of military glory should stir again.
MUSCLE BENDING — A long time ago when I was a teen-ager, my Dad and I used to test the strength that was in our right arms. We'd face each other across a table and clasp right hands. The idea was to keep elbow on table and wrestle your opponent's arm down. Dad, having been a railroad section hand among other things, was a mighty stout fellow and didn't have much trouble disposing of his stripling son. Then one day I discovered to my elation that I could pin him. Either I'd grown so strong, or he had grown so old and decrepit, that I could handle him. We laughed and made much of it.
I didn't know how he felt that day. But now I know because my own son, Mike, visiting at home from his pick and shovel job, tangled with me in a test of strength and forced my arm back. After he won once, we tried again just to make sure it was no fluke. He laughed and won even easier, not even breathing hard.
This is how a father feels: A small touch of regret and disappointment that the good right arm is no longer sure. And a great surge of pride and elation that the fledgling is now a man.
BACKYARD DRAMA — Each year an enormously thrilling play takes place in our backyard vegetable garden. There are all the elements of good drama — suspense, anticipation, danger, beauty and ultimate triumph — as the vegetables fight weeds, drought, insects, blight, hail and heedless children.
This year has been no exception. At first it was some mysterious blight that was causing the tomato leaves to curl, dry up and die. Extensive spraying seems to have overcome this horror, but now I notice that a good many of the hard green young tomatoes have a rotten spot at the bottom. I'm helpless to save them. The cucumber vines are loaded with flowers but none of them are turning into cucumbers. The squash vines are flourishing gloriously, but the little yellow squash doesn't seem to be growing at all.
I'm glad I don't farm a couple of hundred acres like some fellows do. My 10x10 garden provides me with all the worries I can handle.
JACL protests Ambassador Matsuura's acceptance of 'Jap'
Continued from Front Page
other discriminatory local statutes, which circumscribed the lives and opportunities of those of Japanese ancestry in this country, it was during the reign of hate after December 7, 1941, by which Americans learned to think of the Japanese as barbaric, inhuman 'beasts' and those of Japanese ancestry in the United States as disloyal and traitorous.
'Out of our bitter experiences and memories, we sincerely resent the word 'Jap' as a racial slur and demand that it end regardless of the circumstances and the context in which it is used.
JACL Campaign
'Particularly since the end of World War II, the Japanese American Citizens League has conducted a nation-wide campaign to prevent the use of 'Jap' in the spoken and written language of our nation, not for ourselves alone but for those in Japan whose ancestors as a contribution to better and more dignified human understanding and international relations.
"Our campaign against the use of the word 'Jap' was carried on among Government officials and members of Congress; with the newspapers and the magazines, winning the cooperation of the New York locale of the American Newspaper Guild (and others); with the motion picture industry; with school textbooks and general histories, including a commitment recently from the California State Board of Education to avoid, with a certain reluctance, to eliminate the objectionable word 'Jap' from a history of World War II; and with the radio and television industry and publications. The National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters which has recently agreed to suggest the cancellation of motion pictures made in Japan and now being shown on television screens which impugn the loyalty of Americans of Japanese ancestry.
"The endorsement and cooperation of national organizations requiring the elimination of racially groups, human rights bodies, 'liberals', patriotic societies, and the many religious denominations were solicited, usually with success.
Used to Discredit
"Unfortunately, this campaign has not been as successful as we would have wished. It seems that from time to time when an individual or group desires to discredit the Japanese, they use the libel 'Jap'. For example, when certain domestic manufacturers denounce Japanese imports into the United States, they describe them as 'cheap Jap goods' made by 'cheap Jap labor'.
"In spite of these instances, however, we believe that real progress was achieved in reducing materially the use of the word 'Jap' in the public life of our country, especially in newspapers and other printed media.
"The so-called Girard case, with all its racial overtones, revived recently the use of the word 'Jap' in the language of our country, especially among the newspapers and the magazines. The use of such a racial slur in this case often implies discredit not only to the Japanese legal and judicial systems and in the Japanese Government itself.
"And, as the Japanese American Citizens League was considering ways and means of again 'improving good taste' in describing persons of our ancestry, the highest representative of the Japanese Government to the world organization that we presented to be concerned with increasing the dignity of man everywhere, in a television broadcast invited the use of this insulting label.
Campaign Dimmed
"We do not suggest that Ambassador Matsuura deliberately used the word 'Jap' with full knowledge of its connotation. But the fact remains that he did say what he did and many people heard him. This makes our own campaign to try to erase this racial slur from the English language much more difficult, if not impossible.
"When we now object to its use, or protest its use, a ready-made reply for the racists and bigots is 'Jap' here' will be the statement of a high Japanese official to the effect that he does not find the word to be repugnant or noxious to him.
"We believe that in the interests of international good relations, as well as clarifying for the American people the deep-rooted objection of all persons of Japanese ancestry to the use of the description 'Jap', Ambassador Matsuura and the Foreign Office of Japan should make clear their official objection to the use of the slur 'Jap' to the press, radio and television of the United States and that John Wingate of Television Station WABD should be so advised.
"After all, as far as we know, no other racial or nationality group in the United States has ever attempted to suffer this indignity of being referred to in print by a distasteful and contemptuous description which cannot be excused as a 'slang', an abbreviation, or a contraction.'
JACL Purposes Told
Then noting that Ambassador Asakai is a relative newcomer to the United States, having been assigned to Washington only last May, in order that he might understand the purposes and the viewpoints of JACL, Masakai wrote that he would include three recent excerpts from the "Congressional Record" which pay tribute to the organization for all that it has done to eliminate discrimination against those of Japanese ancestry in this country and in promoting Japanese-American relations.
The JACL protest letter ended by stating that copies of the letter to Ambassador Asakai, together with explanatory covering letters, would be sent to Ambassador Matsuura himself, to the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Tokyo, to the Secretary of State, and to John Wingate.
When asked why protests were not sent earlier, since the original incident took place two months ago, the Washington JACL representative explained that it was only recently that this matter had been called to his attention. Then, he said, he had to arrange to purchase the discs on which the actual interview was recorded and then have it transcribed.
"On a serious matter such as this, especially when a foreign government is involved, we had to make sure of the facts, to recheck them, before taking action. Once we had all the facts, we made our protest."
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VAGARIES
By Larry S. Tajiri
Nisei Behind Footlights
Denver
Two of the most successful theatrical properties in recent years, "Teahouse of the August Moon" and "The King and I", are giving many Nisei their first experience behind the footlights.
More than two dozen Nisei appeared in the Broadway company of "The King and I" with Meredith and Larry Parks touring versions of "Teahouse of the August Moon" in the past three years. The role of Lotus Blossom, done in MGM's screen version by Machiko Kyo, was played by an actress from Japan on Broadway, but two Nisei, Michi (Okamoto) Kobi and Reiko Sato, played it on the road. Shizu Moriya won accolades for the role of Miss Hira Jigo, a part which a number of other Nisei actresses have portrayed.
One member of the New York company, incidentally, was Dick Akagi, former Chicago representative for the JACL. Dick played one of the villagers of Tobiki for nearly three months with the "Teahouse" company. Now that his career in this theater came to a timely and much-deserved end, I'm doing sports and entertainment promotions for Look magazine," Dick wrote the other day. "Promotions," according to Dick Akagi, is "public relations" in a three-burner suit.
"Teahouse of the August Moon", John Patrick's comedy from Vern Stephens about the American occupation of Okinawa, is available this year for the first time to summer stock and amateur groups and the demand is great for performers of Japanese ancestry. When the Phoenix little theater put on "Teahouse," a Nisei cast was used and John Hirohata had his first stage role as Sakini. He did so well in the difficult part that he was later honored for the "best performance" of the Phoenix season.
CALIFORNIA PRODUCTIONS ENGAGE NISEI
"This past week a little theater group in Alameda, Calif., has sent out a casting call for 25 Nisei for their production of 'Teahouse'. We want to cast all these parts as authentically as possible," said Tol Avery of the Alameda Little Theater. "Especially, Sakini, the most important part." The Alamedans will present "Teahouse" on four weekends in September. Meanwhile, a dozen Nisei students at Sacramento State College are currently appearing in the Sacramento Little Theater's production of "Teahouse".
In Denver, the nation's oldest summer theater, Elitch Gardens, now in its 63d continuous year of professional stock, is considering "Teahouse of the August Moon" as the final production of its season. Elitch has two major reasons for considering "Teahouse". One is the outstanding success of a Japanese ancestry in Denver, as proved by the 23 children who made such a hit in The Denver Post Opera's production of "The King and I" before an audience of some 100,000 for the six nights in Christmas Park. The other is that this year's Elitch company includes the comic talents of Joel Marsan, a TV-movie personality, who would be ideal for the role of Sakini. If Elitch decides to do "Teahouse" a casting call will be sent out shortly.
"The King and I", of course, featured Yuriko Kikuchi and Michiko Isleri as dancers in the Broadway production, and they appeared in the 1948-49 and 1950-51 Central Fox movie versions. Yuriko and Michiko repeated their ballet sequence, "Small House of Uncle Thomas", for the movie. Last season in Aqua theater productions of "The King and I" in Seattle, Carolyn Okada (daughter of ex-JACL national presby Hiko Okada) danced the role of Elizabeth, and appearing this season in Aqua theater productions of "South Pacific" in her first dramatic role as the Tonkinese girl, Liat, whose ill-starred romance with the American lieutenant, Joe Cable, is one of the poignant moments of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical.
OTHER ASIAN THEMES MAY BE GROOMED
The success of "Teahouse" and "The King and I" probably will inspire other theatrical productions with Asian themes. One such, last season, was "Shangri-La", a musical version of James Hilton's "Lost Horizon", in which Shirley Yamaguchi had the feminine lead. Unfortunately, "Lost Horizon" lasted for only a few performances on Broadway.
"Teahouse", meanwhile, has had at least one imitator on the screen. That is the current Universal-International comedy, "Joe Butterfly", in which Burgess Meredith, as a sort of genial Japanese con man, has a role not unlike that of his Sakini. In this picture the leading female role was taken by Keiko Shima of Tokyo, but a Nisei actress, Sheri Kunz appeared briefly as "Tori Rose". Sheri Kunz has longer roles in RKO's "Escapade in Japan" and in Universal-International's "Lady Takes a Flyer" which stars Lana Turner and Jeff Chandler.
Success story of Japanese agricultural workers in Orange County cited by Hillings
WASHINGTON—Last week, Rep. Patrick J. Hillings (R., Calif.) inserted into the "Congressional Record" for the information of his colleagues in Congress a feature article from the Los Angeles Times on the so-called temporary Japanese agricultural workers program, the Washington Office of the Japanese American Citizens League reported.
The California Republican was a member of a special two-man Subcommittee that visited California last April to conduct hearings and investigations into the new program for the House Judiciary Committee.
In placing the article into the official record of the Congress, Congressman Hillings declared that "the Japanese nationals brought into our country under our immigration laws are playing an important role in California agriculture. The Judiciary Committee recently reported on this program and concluded that it was operating satisfactorily and urged a limited expansion of it."
He then noted that the Los Angeles Times of June 29, had carried an interesting article on what the Japanese nationals are doing in the Orange County area. It is important to note, Mr. Speaker, that Japanese nationals cannot be employed here and that no American farm workers are available; they must be paid the prevailing wage in each agricultural community; they do not interfere with the continuation of our Mexican labor program."
The article inserted by Congressman Hillings was written by Helen Johnson and is entitled: "Japanese Helping County's Farmers".
It begins by stating that "A Orange County farmers and American foremen relatives may seem to be subjects far apart. But put a Japanese man to work on that ranch, give him a chance to see what this country is like, and intercultural understanding begins."
"That is what is happening on all county ranches taking part in a new program developed through the Federal Government to ease the farm labor shortage in California."
Nisei win high honors in largest Seabrook class
SEABROOK, N.J.—In what was the largest graduating class in the history of Washington High School, four Japanese Americans were among the 331 seniors receiving their diplomas at spectacular outdoor commencement exercises last month.
Ayako Matsuda won top honors by being selected class valedictorian. She is the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Kunimitsu Matsuda, who came here with the Peruvian Japanese contingent following World War 2.
As the highest ranking scholar, Miss Matsuda pursued a science course in school and aspires to become a teacher.
The other graduates were Misao Iwata, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Shigeo Iwata; Toyoko Murono, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Ginzo Murono; and Vivian Morinaka, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Edward Morinaka.
Both Miss Iwata and Miss Murono also ranked among the highest in the fourth of the senior class in scholastic standing.
Dinner honoring ex-Gov. Sprague set for Aug. 25
PORTLAND—Dinner for ex-Gov. Sprague has been set for Aug. 25 at Salem. It was disclosed this week.
The dinner is being co-sponsored by the Portland and Gresham JACLs and the Oregon JACL which will honor the wartime National JACL sponsor with a scroll for "meritorious service". Sprague was unable to be present to accept the award when two other Oregonians were similarly honored earlier this year.
Full details are to be announced. Those desiring to attend, however, can make reservations with Shiz Ochiai (CA 3-7317).
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CSO 10th Anniversary
We were very proud to have been able to represent JACL at the 10th Anniversary celebration of the Community Service Organization, during its convention here last week at the Biltmore Hotel. The CSO is an organization of Mexican Americans, very similar to JACL in that it has chapters throughout California, Arizona and New Mexico.
At the convention banquet, City Councilman Ed Roybal, founder of CSO, was guest of honor. Ralph Richardson, member of the Los Angeles Board of Education and professor of political science at UCLA, accepted the Eastside area award with a plaque on behalf of CSO. During his speech in praise of Roybal mentioned that Tetsu Sugi, a Nisei who contributed a great deal to CSO, served as first chapter president of the Lincoln Heights Area—which was of particular interest to me. We wish to thank CSO President James J. Rodriguez for inviting us.
FRIENDSHIP DAY CAMP
A wonderful experience in seeing people working together at the Friendship Day Camp in Griffith Park was ours last week when Ez Weintraub, camp director, asked us to visit the children's camp.
Sponsored by non-profit organizations in the community, the Friendship Day Camp is operated over two periods: the first being from June 25 to July 30 and the second from Aug. 24, for children of all nationalities and cultural backgrounds to help them learn the true meaning of democracy. Ez informed us that the main purpose was not only to develop good citizens but to make them equally proud of their heritage.
Each day, the camp presents different programs showing the costumes, dances, songs and customs of various countries with many of the campers participating.
We were happy to learn that the Southwest L.A. Chapter had contributed $100, which partially assists four youngsters in their family to attend his camp. Mr. Weintraub was also interested in getting some Nisei counselors for next year's session to help guide children in their various activities, which include boating, hiking, swimming, camping, etc.
The camp is like planting the seeds of friendship and understanding among our coming generation.
WHITTIER INSTITUTE ON HUMAN RELATIONS
While attending the Whittier Institute last week, Lt. Harold Baudt of the U.S. Navy, the Negro Annapolis graduate who met housing discrimination in Garden Grove, gave an interesting talk of his experiences since leaving Orange County.
When he was transferred to this area, like other new service men, he bought a home from the officer he was replacing. The day the Baudts began moving in, they were met by a company of some 40 people gathered on the front lawn, asking they stay out because it would ruin the value of the property in the neighborhood to drop. They even offered him a sum of $3,500 if he bought a home elsewhere, but as the Negro naval officer explained at the Institute, Negroes have been forced to pay premiums for their homes because of private restrictions. Mindful of the community feeling of the plight came to the aid of the Baudts, as well as the local Community Service Club, to help relieve some of the pressure that was being applied. Today the Baudts have been accepted into the community and have not had any further incidences.
Baudt then followed up the practice of some agents and sellers who capitalize on the fact that minority groups have difficulty buying a house of his own choosing in an area of his own liking. Institute members, in attempting to discover an answer to this peculiar problem, were told that the Los Angeles County Department on Human Relations (of which JACL is among the 60 community organizations composing the conference) can be of some assistance.
It was suggested that when a party is going to move into a new district and his papers are already in escrow, he should contact one of the membership directors of the LACCCR or the LACCRC directly, which in turn would inform agencies in the particular area. This would be followed by calling the churches and leading citizens in the neighborhood to organize a welcoming committee and help discourage any violence that may arise. If no disturbance does arise before the LACCCR is notified, the entire force will do all it can to eliminate it.
RECENT VISITORS IN L.A.
The past fortnight saw quite a few visitors dropping in to say "hello". Mrs. Minamoto of San Francisco . . . Miki Gotanda, dance instructor for the Nisei West Festival . . . May Ishii, last year's Miss East L.A., candidate for Nisei West . . . Mrs. Tami Kamei of Downey and former East L.A. member . . . Pete Hirakata and family of Dayton, O., cartoonist for the PC . . . and my "dad"—Tats Kushida.
THIS IS HOLLYWOOD: by Paul 'Kar' Kawakami
When anyone mentions the name Hollywood, you immediately think of the corner of Hollywood and Vine. By association, this makes us all movie stars and producers.
Very few of us are acquainted with the motion picture industry. Very few of us live in the vicinity of Hollywood and Vine. Although our "territorial" boundaries are somewhat ill-defined, we include that area west of Downtown LA, north of SW 7th St., and east of Fernando Valley.
Small as we are, the local chapter intends to meet the challenging needs of our community. As much as Hollywood JACL is about the only organization which encompasses the interests of our entire community, we feel that we must take the initiative and responsibility to bring about closer ties among individuals and groups. It is for this reason that we joined with the board members of the Hollywood Community Center to co-publish a community wide newsletter. Although two issues have already been published, we are still in organizational stage. Very shortly, "Memo from Hollywood" will become a regular monthly. And, of course, we hope the recipients will ardently await each forthcoming issue. Since
Continued on Page 4
SAN FRANCISCO:
Speakers club along format of Toastmasters International makes big hit with male CLers; organization at chapter level told
A chapter project only four months old—the San Francisco JACL Speakers Club—has come to the attention of all the 85 JACL chapters across the country this past week in a detailed memorandum from Jerry Enomoto, national chairman of the program and activities committee.
On March 25, a nucleus of San Francisco JACLers met to adopt the principles and programs of Toastmasters International without becoming a part of that body for fear that it might cause some to shy away at least initially.
On June 20, its three officers were installed: Yone Satoda, pres.; Steve Doi, treas.; Kaz Watanabe, sec.; and Jim Noda, member of the Skyline Toastmasters, of San Mateo, adv. This local group is composed of about 20 men who meet on the second and fourth Mondays of each month at the Buchanan St. "Y."
When the chapter board of governors considered the project, it was envisioned that a Speakers Club along the lines of the Toastmasters would (1) assist JACLers secure a maximum degree of self-confidence in public communications on social and business levels through improved speaking ability, (2) provide another source of contact whereby fellowship and good will might be enjoyed and (3) provide a constructive and worthwhile program activity for the chapter.
Those who proposed the idea then decided to contact personally a small group of potential members, sound them out as to their interest and invite them to a planning meeting.
In this way a "core group" was established. A nucleus of persons already active in JACL, others added a sense of "at-home-ness" which would guarantee a successful launching of this program.
The idea of immediately forming a "Toastmasters Club" was also being felt, but it was cause to some "to shy away", at least initially. However, the principles and program of Toastmasters International did embody the kind of things that were desirable and stimulating.
The committee obtained the cooperation of Jim Noda, active in a Toastmasters Club, to attend the first meeting, outline the philosophy and program of Toastmasters International and he has continued to meet with the group in a resource and consultant capacity.
Pattern of Meetings
Patterned after the Toastmasters format, the semi-monthly meetings feature extemporaneous talks, prepared speeches, evaluation of speeches, etc. Various roles to be filled are alternated among members to insure participation by all. Enomoto feels that it is, of course, too early for an evaluation in the real sense of the word. Yet it would appear significant that a consistent group of approximately 20 men have attended each meeting and more importantly have displayed active interest and enthusiasm.
"It is hoped that this number will increase.
"The most important aspect of the program I feel to be the philosophy of self-improvement that guides it. The emphasis is upon group interaction through mutual criticisms to attain that philosophy.
"Learning how to make speeches is only a by-product of this program."
Potentialities Noted
Expected to be of interest to all JACL chapters, the Speakers Club has been pointed out by Enomoto to contain obvious potentials in training and preparing chapter members to assist in the public relations program of the local chapter.
Such a project would provide speakers to other Nisei groups to explain the purposes and functions of JACL as well as filling requests from non-Nisei groups which want to know about Japanese Americans.
CENTRAL CALIFORNIA DISTRICT SET FOR DEC. 8 MASS INSTALLATION
DINUBA—Kaz Komoto of Parlier was named general chairman for the Central California JACL District Installation at the Hacienda Motel in Fresno Dec. 8.
Komoto was appointed to the convention leadership at a meeting of the district council July 10 at the Buddhist Church.
Plans for the event include a mass installation of JACL chapter officers and a public relations dinner.
A bowling tournament will be held on Dec. 7 at Visalia Bowl with the Tulare County JACL in charge. Only singles events will be conducted this year. Entries are to be submitted to Tosh Sahadaira, 12064 Ave. 424, Orosi.
The nomination chairman for the district installation was Johnson Kebo of Sanger.
Dr. George Miyake of Fowler will handle the "chapter of the year" award. The presentation of the award at the banquet will be made by Jin Ishikawa, immediate past chairman.
During the district council meeting, James Matsunura of Tulare County chairman of the group studying the possibility of forming a Junior JACL, announced that a survey of high school and college age students is presently being made. He said he had received re-
CHICAGO:
Weekend outing by Wisconsin lake planned
The weekend of Aug. 9-11 has been selected as the dates of the Chicago JACL chapter's summer outing to be held at George, Williams, Coloma Camp, Lake Geneva, Wis. Plans for a full but enjoyable weekend are being outlined by a committee headed by Frank Ohno.
Activities for the weekend include swimming, boating, golfing, riding, tennis, badminton, cook-outs, dancing and boat excursions. Rates range from $5.50 to $12.75 per day for adults. Reservations are now being accepted at the Midwest JACL Office, MO 4-4382. Those desiring transportation should so indicate.
WANTED
STORIES AND PICTURES OF LONG TIME CL-ERS
LAST YEAR, we honored some of the old-timers in JACL in our mammoth Holiday Issue. These were the men and women who have been active in JACL for at least 20 years, or JACLers who were outstanding before evacuation and still support the organization, though they relinquished to the younger generation, the more vigorous reins of chapter responsibility.
AS WE start the second half of the year, our attention focuses on the 1957 Holiday Issue—soliciting original short stories, chapter reports that will point out the most unusual or most successful events of the year, holiday greetings from the community and readers and human-interest yarns of old-time JACLers.
WE HOPE this announcement will come to the attention of our JACL chapters across the country in selecting personalities they'd like to see featured in this year's special edition. We'd appreciate hearing from them at this time, indicating who they have in mind.
VERY TRULY YOURS:
'Semi-annual' report from JACL chapters
We are indebted to persons unknown for having asked a neighboring chapter: "Where's all the news about the so-called Idaho Falls chapter?" The result has been akin to a "semi-annual report" for PC readers.
The last time we heard from Idaho Falls was in January when Mas Satow visited with the group and of their successful carnival. This week's report shows that it has been as active as the other chapters which have been consistent in their reporting — only in this case, the publicity chairman was saving the items for one big splash.
With chapter activities at a minimum during the summer, there is a dearth of stories to fill the center spread of JACL chapter news. It is an opportune time for chapters which haven't been getting their share of coverage till now to rush their "semi-annual" reports.
We have a passion for printing names, still adhering to a basic principle in journalism that "names make news." A housewife recently commented that she enjoyed the PC because "often we see names of friends we have lost track of and not seen or heard from for years."
So the "semi-annual" reports from chapters which haven't been in print in recent months should remember this tip.
We are heartened by the response thus far for our Introductory Offer of 25 issues for $1 to new readers. Chapters are cooperating with us and we think our readers can help.
Details will be announced next week.
And let's close by calling attention to the Calendar on the back page. We try to list chapter-sponsored events and meeting notices at least one month in advance.
A postcard listing the particulars is all that is needed. Street addresses and starting times should be noted. If a speaker is engaged, his name and subject should be added. Jr. JACL and Auxiliary events also qualify for this popular PC feature. Tentative dates are also considered for insertion, but let us know when they're definite. — Harry K. Honda.
IDAHO FALLS:
Intermountain District convention, 1000 Club 10th Anniversary reunion preparations well underway for Thanksgiving holidays
BY YOSHIE OCHI
While the Idaho Falls JACL has had a plethora of well-timed reports, it is time JACLers be informed, it is not an indication of the thought and planning which has already sparked the chapter which will host the annual Intermountain District Council convention over the Thanksgiving holidays (Nov. 30-Dec. 1) this fall.
Enthusiasm has doubled for this convention since it will also mark the first reunion of 1000ers members who celebrate their founding here of 10 years ago.
Joe Nishioka, chapter president, has selected all of his IDC convention committeemen and much correspondence has already passed hands to assure those attending a good time.
The program has been set; speakers chosen and commitments in most cases already received.
Convention Site
Convention headquarters will be situated at Rogers Hotel, one of the favorite spots recommended by gourmet Duncan Hines. Many of the social activities will be held at the White Elephant Supper Club, largest dining spot in eastern Idaho.
Idaho Falls has been traditionally known throughout the country to show convention guests the best of everything and local JACLers are equally confident that 1000ers and IDC conventioners will be pleased completely.
The past six months under Nishioka have been hectic. Every holiday, whether it be Mother's Day or Memorial Day, found the chapter particularly busy in service.
For instance, all mothers and fathers were honored on their "day" with specially imported movies and refreshments.
Traditional Programs
Memorial Day found committee members from the chapter placing floral pieces on all the Issel and Nisei graves at the two local cemeteries. What would not be at the JACL here, some of these graves would go undecorated year after year.
The Idaho Falls JACL participated in the Boys State sponsorship program by sending Garth M. Hurley this year.
Karen Yamasaki, popular Idaho Falls High School co-ed and twterm president of the colorful marching team in school, was named the chapter candidate for the 1957 Put Ben Fino Masahisa Memorial Scholarship.
Hundreds from nearby communities as well as families from Montana, Utah and Wyoming attended the annual chapter picnic on June 8.
One of the most distinctive services performed recently by local JACLers was the manning of posts along the banks of the beautiful Snake River to serve watch for the body of a drowned Idaho Falls boy, Bill Wakeman. Eighteen JACL members volunteered to watch for three nights. The body was subsequently recovered downstream.
There are a few of the recent activities of the chapter, which is proud of its long record of service to the community.
Summer Trek
Many members are taking a summer respite from their community activities. A group has packed their fishing and camping gear, hitched their trailers and headed for Last Chance and Yellowstone National Park—Old Faithful and Morning Glory Pool.
They will unhook their boats on the shores of Yellowstone Lake at West Thumb for a day of fishing and then camp overnight before trying their fishing luck again at the cool and blue Jenny Lake near the $6,000,000 lodge in Jackson Hole country of the craggy Tetons.
They will continue down the Teton Pass with its many breathtaking hairpin bends, and across Palisades Dam, the greatest earth-filled dam in the world.
This summer trek is a family event that has grown in number and popularity each year.
Fowler JACL will again participate in the preparation of the Fowler community booth at the Fresno County Fair this fall. The local chapter will be returning after a year's absence on the planning group. It had co-sponsored the community booth for several years previous with the local Chamber of Commerce. Fowler has been among the top winners at the fair.
Last year, when the chapter felt it was unable to help, individuals of the JACL continued to give their support and served as various committees chairmen.
Frank Sakohira will be general chairman this year for the community booth. Kay Hiyama will be in charge of the local chapter's contribution and prepare the vegetables and plum display.
Other groups participating will be the Farm Bureau, Grange, St. Gregory Men's Club, Iowa Community Club and Future Farmers.
SAN FRANCISCO:
Hula dancers delight 1000ers frolicking at first get-together
Over sixty San Francisco JACL 1000 Clubbers and friends enjoyed a full day of frolic and gaiety at their first get-together at Veteran's War Sports in Kenwood. Early goers enjoyed a picnic lunch on the rolling green lawn. The warm waters of the swimming pool attracted many of the picnickers.
The steak barbecue was prepared by general secretary Harutohiro Aizawa, assisted by Sam Sato and Ki Tananachi, the newest 1000 Club member.
Mrs. Alice Nishi and Jerry Enomoto led the group in a songfest, "Three Dee Tokujii Henny," with volunteer assistance from loving Marshall Sumida, did a bang-up job of introducing the various talents which were displayed for the very first time.
Winning Quartet
Eight barbershop quartets vied for honors. The "Three Hits and a Miss" quartet of Yas Abiko, Jerry Enomoto, Ben Okada and Yo Hirounaka had to concede top honors to the masterful harmonizing of the "High and the Mighty" singing foursome of the "Thumbs Ki Tananachi, Dr. Carl Hirota, Judge John Aiso (visiting from Los Angeles), and Mrs. Alice Nishi. Their rendition of "In the Good Ole Summertime" won them honorable gary prizes.
Relatives amidst much applause, guffaws and laughter, were the delightful hula dancers. Attired in hula skirts fashioned from the colorful Sunday comics section and colorful leis, the girls swished quickly to the strains of "The Hula-Hoop," Hawaiian fishing song. Displaying their shapely legs and graceful hip movements were Marshall Sumida, Sato, Jerry Enomoto, Dr. Toji Henny, Harutohiro Aizawa, Yo Hirounaka and Daisy Uyeda.
All the Thousanders then joined in on the "Yaku-Yaku-Ondo", the Japanese baseball dance.
Mrs. Grace Yonezoe and Marie Koga-watari were lovely Japanese dancers, donned by Kai Matsuka, as holders of the lucky door prize tickets. Other prizes were claimed by Dr. Carl Hirota, Mrs. Alice Nishi, Thelma Takeda and Todd Iwado.
Social dancing in the outdoor pavilion completed the day's festivities.
CLAIMANTS THANK JACL IN 'OREI' TO ENDOWMENT FUND
Grateful evacuation claims recipients have this week donated a total of $22,287.70 to the JACL Endowment Fund. Dr. Roy M. Nishioka, National JACL President announced Monday as he publicly acknowledged and thanked the following contributors:
CALIFORNIA
Fresno—F. Y. Hirasura $324.06, Kiyo Yemoto $35; Los Angeles—Mrs. Aiko Hori Kakeo $110, Robin S. Kaneo $30.80, Mrs. Callie Kakeo $73.75, Mrs. S. Kurobata $35, Setsu Takamura $10, Harry B. Takeuchi $50, Mrs. M. Uyenishi $3; Oakland—E. J. Kashiwae $8.13, Umeno Tamura $5; Salinas—C. C. Yamaguchi $25; San Diego—Moto Asakura $125.75, Sarah Francesca, Mrs. H. Yamane $5; San Jose—Susumu Sakamoto $20, San Pedro—Yasutaro Tanaka $25; Santa Monica—Rinie Matsuiya $297.50, Stockton—Shoji Ishimaru $635, Torrance—Ootaro Yamamoto $9.75; Turlock—Kazumi Miyamoto $81.22.
COLORADO
Colorado Springs—Harry S. Kamoato $45.
ILLINOIS
Chicago—H. M. Fukuhara $35.
NEW YORK
Bronx—M. W. Hoshino $23.64.
WASHINGTON
Seattle—Hiroshi Gosho $125, Umajiro Imanishi $10.
PASADENA:
ANOTHER COOL IDEA: SLATE BREWERY TOUR
Summery pastimes of outdoor picnic and steak barbecues have been made available for Pasadena JACLers, but with the weather still hot, the chapter executive board has reserved Aug. 15 for tour of the Pabst brewery in Los Angeles with Ken Dyo, PSWC 1000 Club chairman, in charge.
The dates determined at the cabinet officer's meeting which met at the home of president Harris Ozawa were Aug. 20 as the next executive board meeting at the home of vice-president Joe Kurokawa, 1000 Castas Ave., and Oct. 5 for the chapter Japanese movie benefit.
With the membership drive about to be concluded, the losing team members were going to be reminded of the dinner bet.
GARDENA VALLEY GIRLS IN SOCIAL-SERVICE CLUB
GARDENA—Myrtle Atsuni was elected president of the Rei-Jo's service-social girl's group. Phyllis Ono, 1956 Miss Nisei Week, is vice-president.
JUDGE AISO ATTENDING RESERVE OFFICER'S SCHOOL
San Francisco—Judge John Aiso of Los Angeles, who holds a reserve commission of lieutenant-colonel, is attending summer school for Army Adjutant General Department reserve officers at the Presidio here.
NISEI WOMEN SCHOLARSHIP FROM CALIFORNIA GRANGE
YUBA CITY—Harvey K. Harada of Yuba City will major in pomology at California State Polytechnic College in San Luis Obispo on a $250 state Grange scholarship.
THE NORTHWEST PICTURE
By Elmer Ogawa
Seafair Pageantry
Seattle
When the good old summer time comes around, life is just one continual merry-go-round of outings and outdoor fun. Where each city has its own type of major events, and Los Angeles its Nisei Week, Seattle has its Seafair extravaganza of pageantry and salty fun called the Seafair, which will be well under way by the time that this edition is put to bed.
Davy Jones and his pirates take over the city, burn King Neptune's ship and have a high old time in general. Parades and sports events, everything from the rowing hydras in the gold medal event to a football game, is timely winter sport, maybe not tidily winks, but this is where the name of the minor sport will have to be changed in order not to offend its followers.
BON ODORI AND NISEI DRUM & BUGLE CORPS
Principal contribution of the Japanese community during Seafair Week is the two evening stand of the Bon Odori in front of the Buddhist Church. Although some small groups and individuals put on their special acts, one to watch will be the superlative drum and bugle corps of Troop 252 of the Buddhist Church, which will have its unit active in all the major Seafair parades.
The Chinese community has its own special night with a major parade featuring the nationally known Chinese girls drill team in their elaborate plumed costumes, and the 102-foot dragon plus many other attractions.
The Negro choirs and marching clubs have a week of Mardi Gras carnival in the East Union, East Madison district and their own parade presided over by a queen, as does the Chinese community.
The Japanese community does not have a queen these days. Some of the community fathers decided some years ago to enthrone the previous year's queen all over again. When the big squawk arose from some quarters, the matter was quickly changed, but the enthusiasm for queens gradually subsided—too hard to get candidates.
FIRST-RATE CHAPTER PICNIC
In the list of outings, the annual JACL picnic at Gaffney's Lake Wilderness has now passed into the limbo of past events. Fewer people attended this year, although the event was first rate in every respect concerning the program, fun and weather, and it was impossible to make oneself a stranger in the group.
Perhaps the weatherman's highly inaccurate forecast had some effect on the attendance. Perhaps it may have been because the Shoyukai held a big one at Wilderness the week before, as did Cathay Post and these two big weekends were just too much for even the entire community to help swell the ranks of the JACL stalwarts.
It was a fine family get-together, though, and former Seattleites and PC readers will recognize many of the names of those present, such as: the Sakaharas, the Mimbus, the Jim Matsushimas, two branches of the Nakamura family, the Kelly Yamamotos, the Kubotas, Chuck Ueno, Yasuguchi, the Iwas, the Natoris, Harry Takagis, Ken Nogakis, Frank Hatori, Paul Kashimos, Mac Kanekos, and — well forgive me — I can't remember anything. And Amy Haro won the top prize in the raffle, a 9 man tent, provided by her.
Biggest one of the summer will be the Nisei Vets annual at Foss' Shadow Lake on August 25. The department of vital statistics in this organization had decided to triple the usual generous order for ice cream, pop and prizes for the kids.
POINTING SOUTHWESTWARD: by Fred Tokata
Continued from Page 4
the first issues were received very favorably, we feel that we will gain momentum as we go along.
The recently concluded door-to-door Shonen fund drive was successful in more ways than one. Financially, we exceeded all expectations. Further, this gave us the occasion to work closely with other groups in our area as a team. The teamwork was wonderful. It fills us with great pride to think that we were partially responsible for the extra-wide smile that Mike Suzuki sports these days.
The Hollywood chapter numerically is a relatively small organization and, most likely, will remain small. Nonetheless, we hope to expand our activities, especially on the community level.
A few weeks ago, PC Editor Harry Honda nearly gave us his "Medal of Honor." Harry commended our record of ever-increasing membership. This timely praise gives us further impetus to increase our rolls, if only by one. By many more, we hope. Vacation's over Hide (Izumo, Membership VP), we need 50 more members!
Election of new president is fun. You delegate all the work, you blame all the vice-presidents for all the mistakes you make. If the critics pan this half-column, Miss Miwa Yanamoto, our Publicity VP, will get the blame. She refused to ghost-write for me.
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Cler wins station wagon in fish derby
SAN DIEGO—Kats Tanizaki, 528 Fifth St., landed a 21 lb.-6 oz. bluefin tuna in the final Yellowtail Derby. Staff last week that was worth a new station wagon. The hook-up came when the San Diego JACLer heard the judge announce that only three minutes remained for legal fish to be caught.
Thirty-five minutes later, the stocky gardener brought the tuna alongside where it was gaffed and stowed in a wet burlap bag. Life played out perfectly. Tanizaki was worth a new Mascot skipper, Mel Shears.
Rolla Nelson, San Diego Union outdoor writer, said: 'In a way it was a curious fishoff. A 26-pound fish was required to qualify, yet a 21-oz. was the top prize. Tanizaki qualified with a 20-13 albacore.'
Tanizaki used a 101-ft. fiberglass rod, spinning reel and a No. 6 hook. It was his first fishoff. His rod, which he had picked up Monday. The payoff fish was landed from the ribbon kelp lying off South Coronado Island.
Shorty Endow of Anaheim was one of the lesser prize winners with a 20-3 yellow, getting a rod-reel-line combination.
SEVEN CL BOWLERS COMPETE IN KOSOF ENDURANCE TOURNAMENT
POCATELLO—Seven local JACL bowlers are Ogden-bound to compete in the third annual Maxie Kosof endurance classic, vying for a $2,500 first prize in the 50-game team event. Kosof is featuring the singles endurance tournament as in previous years but the five-man team event is a new addition.
Local keglers making their bid for top money are Ace Mori, Tuff Nelson and Joe Sato, who will team with Buzz Fazio of Detroit and Billy Welo of Houston.
Competing on the team from Pocatello are Stan Compton, Al Pederson, Les Perry and Dan Crawford. A fifth man is to be named.
They will bowl 10 games a day for two days.
The singles endurance classic consists of 40 games without any time-out in between, usually lasting 12 hours.
Joe Sato, who ended fourth high scratch last year, is making his third appearance. Mori, Nelson and Crawford are competing for a second time.
Florin nine champs
FLORIN — Florin captured the 1957 Sacramento Valley Nisei Baseball League championship this past week by shutting out Riverside 3-0. Winning pitcher Jim Tsukamoto allowed four hits, fanned eight batters and did not issue a single walk.
LOS ANGELES — KHJ-TV (Channel 9) Monday 8:30 - 9:00 P.M.
SAN DIEGO — XETV (Channel 6) Thursday 7:00 - 7:30 P.M.
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Continued from Front Page
proved legislation has been cut out of the bill, Masaoka urged that no further compromise be made with the Southern opposition so that at least a meaningful voting bill will be enacted by this Congress.
Pointing out that there are no constitutional guarantees of a jury trial in contempt proceedings, the Washington JACL representative declared automatic jury trials in all contempt procedures would be the real reform proponents of the bill. In most Southern states, Negroes are not registered as voters; therefore, few, if any, of them would be eligible for jury duty and they would try those accused of denying voting rights to other Negroes. This means that in all probability those in sympathy with those charged with contempt would be the jurors.
Jury Trial Proposal
In this connection, the JACL lobby quoted from an analysis of the proposal for jury trials by Sen. Paul Douglas (D., Ill.), leader of the so-called "liberal" Democratic bloc in the Senate:
"The constitutional right to equal protection of the laws and the protection of the right to vote are also fundamental. This proper use of injunctions and contempt suits is necessary to protect these rights in accordance with due process under the Constitution. The aim of these provisions in the civil rights bill is prevention of violations of civil rights of citizens and equal rights of citizens. To equate these provisions with criminal prosecutions is to confuse and misread their meaning and effect."
In terms of the ACL chapter meetings, the Washington Office announced that of the 34 Democrats who voted last Wednesday (July 24) to return the bill to voting rights, ten are from states or districts of concern to the JACL.
Of the 18 Republicans who voted against the bill, seven are from states where the JACL has chapters—Senators Barrett of Wyoming, Bennett of Utah, Bricker of Ohio, Butler of Maryland, Curtis of Nebraska, Dworksh of Idaho, Goldwater of Arizona, and Malone of Nevada.
Senators Against Cut
Of the 13 Democrats who voted against the restrictive amendment, 11 are from states in which there are JACL chapters—Senators Carlucci of Colorado, Claiborne Pell of Rhode Island, Douglas of Illinois, Humphrey of Minnesota, Jackson of Washington, Lausche of Ohio, Magnuson of Washington, McNamara of Michigan, Morse and Neuberger of Oregon, and Symington of Missouri.
Of the 25 Republicans who voted against the amendment, 15 are from states where there are JACL chapters—Senators Allin of Colorado, Beall of Maryland, Case of New Jersey, Cooper of Kentucky, Dirksen of Illinois, Hruska of Nebraska, Ives and Jacobson of New York, Kirkland and Kuchel of California, Morton of Kentucky, Potter of Michigan, Thye of Minnesota, Watkins of Utah, and Wiley of Wisconsin.
SAN FRANCISCO. — A measure which would have expanded state old age pension benefits was adopted by Governor Knight July 17, but its failure does not affect many Issei, it was understood.
The governor killed the bill and 221 others by pocket veto when he had to sign them by the July 17 deadline.
AB 1738, introduced by Assemblyman S. C. Masterson of Richmond, was to clarify an earlier measure which benefited alien Issei. He was author of the 1955 bill which extended old age assistance to those ineligible for citizenship prior to the 1952 U.S. immigration and nationality act.
There were reports last year that some Issei applicants had been refused pensions because the 1955 law required them to have resided in the continental United States and state pension authorities ruled they could not have left the U.S. during those 25 years. In order to clarify the interpretation of legislation, Masterson last January introduced AB 1738 to change the word "living" to "residing."
Meanwhile, Assemblyman Bruce Means of Los Gatos introduced a bill to extend pension rights to all aliens living in the United States for 25 years or more up to Jan. 1, 1957.
Both Masterson and Allen bills were passed by the Assembly and combined in the Senate, which added a section requiring all recipients to show annually that they had attempted to gain American citizenship.
As far as Issei alien applicants are concerned, it was learned that state social welfare agency had eased its requirements on residence and the governor's pocket veto does not affect them.
National JACL Headquarters noted that a Los Angeles Issei applicant was denied her pension because she had visited Japan several times during her over-25-year residence in this country. It was appealed and the social welfare board upheld the Issei's plea.
At similar cases of state pension difficulty concerning Issei alien applicants may be referred to JACL Headquarters through any of the local chapters.
Nisei appear in Sac'to 'Teahouse' production
SACRAMENTO.—Hops Omachi of Loomis, language are major at Sacramento State College, is playing the lead role of Lotus Blossom this week in the state college theater workshop production of "Teahouse of the August Moon".
Mary Tsukamoto of Sacramento enacts the role of Hilda Jiga. She is portrayed by George Tomajian, Sierra College drama instructor.
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WASHINGTON NEWSLETTER
By Mike Masaoka
Voting Rights Bill
Washington
When the Senate on July 24, by a decisive margin of 52 to 38, voted to maintain all federal enforcement of the guarantees of the 14th Amendment, it in effect reduced the so-called civil rights bill from that for the furtherance of human dignity to that for the safeguarding of the rights of the franchise, or those assured by the 15th Amendment.
When the House was considering the original bill, the President dismissed all of its provisions as moderate and minimum "meaningful" civil rights. Administration support was credited with securing the needed votes for final passage.
In the Senate, however, with almost a month of consideration over, what was once called the Eisenhower civil rights bill is now being referred to as the Russell civil rights bill after Senator Richard B. Russell, Georgia Democrat who has successfully maneuvered the so-called Knowland-Douglas coalition of Republicans and "liberal" Democrats that it now appears virtually certain that the final Senate legislation will be confined only to voting rights, and even then with some concession to jury trials for possibly culpable voting "criminal contempt."
The Southern civil rights commission and the new Assistant Attorney General to head up a new Civil Rights Division in the Department of Justice will be included in the final Senate version with Russell sponsored amendments, since the South does not consider these provisions to be major ones.
The long heralded filibuster-to-the-death by the Southern opposition has failed to materialize thus far, because the South is gaining their points without having to resort to this desperation tactic. The Russell bill, some kind of compromise authorizing jury trials for "criminal contempt" this week, the Southern bloc will probably allow the voting rights bill—for that is all it is now—to come to a vote and be passed, possibly even without a token filibuster.
So complete is the Southern victory thus far that it appears that the bill will be sent to the White House for presidential signature—the legislation that is being presently hammered out in Senate debate and which will probably survive House-Senate Conference—will be one with which, according to opposition leaders, the South "can live" without too drastic a change in its pattern of life and operations.
All this is not by way of repudiating a voting rights only bill as a sham and a fraud that ought to be rejected by civil rights advocates, for in this concession to the Southerners represents substantial progress for Negroes. The real protection of the franchise is not so circumvented by amendments this week and next that it will be meaningless in actual practice. After all, this will be the first "civil rights" bill to be passed by the Congress since Reconstruction Days more than 75 years ago.
But contrasted to the high hopes of a month ago—when the possibilities for a meaningful civil rights bill that included injunctive authority to enforce the laws of the land as determined by the Supreme Court relating to the desegregation of public schools and in public places, transportation and in public transportation were considered better than ever, prospects appear far short of what was so recently considered as minimum civil rights.
What was hoped to be a far-reaching mile-stone toward assuring human dignity for all Americans has now become only a first step toward that goal. The congressional struggle over civil rights will only have begun with this session.
JURY TRIAL AMENDMENT
The debate this week concerns amendments extending the jury trial to alleged cases of voting violations.
The House-passed bill provided no such assurance—authorizing the judge without a jury to fine or imprison violators of voting rights—since there is no constitutional guarantee of jury trials in contempt proceedings.
The crucial Senate vote is expected to be on an amendment not for jury trials in all cases but only in "criminal" contempt proceedings—as distinguished from "civil" contempt actions.
Similar, though not identical, amendments have been offered along these lines by Senators Joseph O'Mahoney of Wyoming and Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, both Democrats and presently considered in the "triple-track" strategy.
No jury trial would be required in cases of civil contempt, under either amendment. This means that a judge on his own motion, for example, could fine or even jail a registrar who failed to carry out the judge's orders to register a Negro voter. In such a case, the registrar could free himself at any time, however, by simply complying with the court's mandate.
As the Wyoming lawmaker explains it, criminal contempt "would be a case in which, after a person ordered by the court to perform a certain act or abstain from a particular course of action, willfully refused, and in which the act or omission was also a violation of federal or state criminal law.
"It would be prosecuted like any other criminal offense, and under present law such a defendant, on demand, is entitled to trial by jury."
The Tennessean explains his amendment a little differently, explaining that the difference between civil and criminal contempt stems mainly from the purpose the judge has in mind.
"The judge wants to punish the registrar for his offense (in refusing to register a Negro) if he did. If so, he must offer the registrar the right of trial by jury. On the other hand, the judge may simply want to secure compliance with his order. There is no criminal charge in such an act—it is merely civil. He does have the power to jail the offending registrar but only until he complied with the order. The registrar would have the keys in his pocket, so to speak."
HOUSE SHELVES HAWAII STATEHOOD BILL; SENATE GROUP TO CONSIDER
WASHINGTON—The Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee unanimously approved Tuesday morning the bill for Hawaii statehood. Motion to approve was made by Sen. Clinton P. Anderson (D., N.M.) and seconded by Sen. Joseph C. O'Mahoney (D., Wyo.).
Sen. Gordon Allott (R., Colo.) voted for the Hawaii measure but said he had some reservations on the question of Communist influence in the territory and reserved the right to object to the bill if those doubts are not resolved by the time it comes up to vote in the Senate.
Sen. Henry M. Jackson (D., Wash.), chairman subcommittee on territories, which conducted hearings on statehood, told Mike Masaoka, Washington JACL representative, he hoped that the Senate would be able to consider and to pass the bill early in the session.
No action is expected to adjournment because that might well jeopardize the prospect for enactment of the long-overdue measure. Masaoka said JACL has long been in recent favor of statehood for the deserving territory of Hawaii and Masaoka testified before both the Senate and House subcommittees on territories this spring urging early and favorable action extending statehood to Hawaii.
WASHINGTON—While the bill for Statehood for Hawaii has apparently been shelved in the House for this session, it is possible though unlikely, that the Senate may take some action on this legislation this year, the Washington Office of the Japanese American Citizens League announced following a check with the House and Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committees, which have jurisdiction over the statehood measure.
The Hawaii Statehood bill is still pending in the House Interior Subcommittee on Territories and last week's decision to postpone House action on the contentious Alaska Statehood legislation will probably doom the Pacific Islands' chances until at least next year.
Last Friday, July 26, Chairman Leon L. W. O'Brien (N.Y.) of the Territories subcommittee announced that a rule for debate and vote on the Alaska Statehood bill which was reported by the full Interior Committee some time ago, would not be brought up of the full Committee until after Congress convenes in its Second Session beginning Jan. 3, 1958.
Radio announcer
WINNIPEG—Cary G. Sugimoto of Carmay Mano has been announcing news and sports activities since June 1 to become the first Canadian Nisei in radio broadcasting at a Portage la Prairie station.
$26,000 EVACUEE CLAIM APPROVED BY JUSTICE DEP'T
WASHINGTON—Over half a million dollars in evacuation claims were awarded in June to 122 claimants, the Department of Justice Japanese Claims Division, the United States Washington Office of the Japanese American Citizens League and the Committee on Japanese American Evacuation Claims.
In all $525,446 in claims were awarded but most of the average claim totalled $4,287. The largest award was for $26,190 to a claimant residing in Mount Vernon, Wash., while the smallest claim was for $30 awarded to a Seattle claimant. Twelve of the awards were for sums over $10,000.
June awardees reside in California, Illinois, Colorado, Minnesota, Oregon, Washington, New York, Michigan and Texas, according to the government list.
Non-profit corporations awarded claims include the Koyasan Beikoku Betatsu of Los Angeles, the Buddhist Church of San Diego, the Living Church Corporation, the Japanese School of Newcastle, the Linden Japanese School of Stockton, and the Buddhist Church of San Francisco, all in the State of California.
These non-profit corporations, as well as business corporations, certain internees and late filers, became eligible for awards only after enactment of the $25,000 fund sponsored by JACL and COJAEc last year. Previously, their claims were determined to be noncompensable.
An effort will be made to try to have the Congress approve all awards made in June this year by passing the necessary appropriations prior to adjournment, the Washington JACL-COJAEc Office declared.
Fore!
HOUSE SHELVES HAWAII STATEHOOD BILL; SENATE GROUP TO CONSIDER
WASHINGTON—The Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee unanimously approved Tuesday morning the bill for Hawaii statehood. Motion to approve was made by Sen. Clinton P. Anderson (D., N.M.) and seconded by Sen. Joseph C. O'Mahoney (D., Wyo.).
Sen. Gordon Allott (R., Colo.) voted for the Hawaii measure but said he had some reservations on the question of Communist influence in the territory and reserved the right to object to the bill if those doubts are not resolved by the time it comes up to vote in the Senate.
Sen. Henry M. Jackson (D., Wash.), chairman subcommittee on territories, which conducted hearings on statehood, told Mike Masaoka, Washington JACL representative, he hoped that the Senate would be able to consider and to pass the bill early in the session.
No action is expected to adjournment because that might well jeopardize the prospect for enactment of the long-overdue measure. Masaoka said JACL has long been in recent favor of statehood for the deserving territory of Hawaii and Masaoka testified before both the Senate and House subcommittees on territories this spring urging early and favorable action extending statehood to Hawaii.
WASHINGTON—While the bill for Statehood for Hawaii has apparently been shelved in the House for this session, it is possible though unlikely, that the Senate may take some action on this legislation this year, the Washington Office of the Japanese American Citizens League announced following a check with the House and Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committees, which have jurisdiction over the statehood measure.
The Hawaii Statehood bill is still pending in the House Interior Subcommittee on Territories and last week's decision to postpone House action on the contentious Alaska Statehood legislation will probably doom the Pacific Islands' chances until at least next year.
Last Friday, July 26, Chairman Leon L. W. O'Brien (N.Y.) of the Territories subcommittee announced that a rule for debate and vote on the Alaska Statehood bill which was reported by the full Interior Committee some time ago, would not be brought up of the full Committee until after Congress convenes in its Second Session beginning Jan. 3, 1958.
Radio announcer
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| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. | I need ___________ more information in this matter. |
| | (1) a few (2) few |
| | (3) little (4) a little |
| 2. | Mona ___________ ancient Indian history and culture. |
| | (1) interested in (2) interested at |
| | (3) is interested about (4) is interested in |
| 3. | Saket is ___________ playing cricket. |
| | (1) good in (2) good at |
| | (3) good into (4) good on |
| 4. | I don’t know how ___________. |
| | (1) old is he (2) he old is |
| | (3) old he is (4) is he old |
| 5. | I am looking forward to ___________ soon. |
| | (1) hearing from you (2) hear from you |
| | (3) hear you (4) be hearing from you |
| 6. | We postponed the trip ___________ the bad driving conditions. |
| | (1) because (2) in spite of |
| | (3) because of (4) despite |
| 7. | She remains busy ___________ her social work. |
| | (1) in (2) with |
| | (3) for (4) about |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 8. | Rakesh came and sat ............... his friend.
(1) for (2) besides
(3) beside (4) away |
| 9. | Those who aim ............... stars, must hit the trees first.
(1) at (2) to
(3) towards (4) on |
| 10. | ............... water in that jug is not suitable for drinking.
(1) A (2) An
(3) The (4) Some |
**Instructions for questions 11-19**: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate answer.
| 11. | Of these two books, the ............... is more interesting.
(1) later (2) latter
(3) second (4) last |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| 12. | The artist received a ............... from the audience.
(1) bunch of applause (2) handful of applause
(3) plenty of applause (4) round of applause |
| 13. | The sun ............... in the west when clouds gathered in the east.
(1) was set (2) sets
(3) was setting (4) had set |
| 14. | He ............... the utensils before the maid servant came.
(1) cleaned (2) will clean
(3) had cleaned (4) has cleaned |
| 15. | Shashwat wished he ............... upon his teacher’s advice.
(1) had acted (2) acted
(3) was acting (4) would act |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 16. | No sooner did the children ___________ a snake than they ran away. |
| | (1) see (2) saw (3) had seen (4) have seen |
| 17. | If I ___________ you, I ___________ the challenge thrown by the opposite camp. |
| | (1) were, would have accepted (2) was, would accept (3) am, should accept (4) were, would accept |
| 18. | ___________ others for one's failure is a cowardly act. |
| | (1) To blame (2) Having blamed (3) By blaming (4) Blaming |
| 19. | It is foolish ___________ your money like that. |
| | (1) wasting (2) doing waste of (3) to waste (4) having wasted |
| 20. | Instructions: In this question the given sentence has been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it. |
| | The sum and substance of the matter are that this dispute can never be resolved. |
| | (1) The sum and substance (2) of the matter (3) are that this dispute (4) can never be resolved |
| 21. | Instructions: In the questions from 21 to 30, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it. |
| | The Chairperson as well as the committee members are to blame for this unfortunate decision. |
| | (1) The Chairperson (2) as well as the committee members (3) are to blame (4) for this unfortunate decision |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 22. | It rains rare in this part of the country during the winter season. |
| | (1) It rains (2) rare in this |
| | (3) part of the country (4) during the winter season |
| 23. | The news of the Indian Hockey team's victory against Australia is very good to believe. |
| | (1) The news about (2) the Indian team's victory |
| | (3) against Australia is (4) very good to believe |
| 24. | The security guards found a man lying unconsciously on the pathway. |
| | (1) The security guards (2) found a man |
| | (3) lying unconsciously (4) on the pathway |
| 25. | He brought as many as five kilos of ghee from the bazaar yesterday. |
| | (1) He brought (2) as many as |
| | (3) five kilos of ghee (4) from the bazaar yesterday |
| 26. | These mangos are more sweet than those put in that basket. |
| | (1) These mangos are (2) more sweet than |
| | (3) those put in (4) that basket |
| 27. | He was deprived from his right to his ancestral property. |
| | (1) He was (2) deprived from |
| | (3) his right to (4) his ancestral property |
| 28. | I still do not understand why he did not reply my e-mail. |
| | (1) I still (2) do not understand |
| | (3) why he did not (4) reply my e-mail |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 29. | When I visited him, he was writing an application by a pen. |
| | (1) When I visited him (2) he was writing |
| | (3) an application (4) by a pen |
| 30. | The train arrived at the station rather lately. |
| | (1) The train (2) arrived |
| | (3) at the station (4) rather lately |
| 31. | Instructions: In the questions from 31 to 36, the given sentences have |
| | been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a |
| | grammatical error in it. |
| | The teacher forbade the student not to take his pen. |
| | (1) The teacher (2) forbade the student |
| | (3) not to take (4) his pen |
| 32. | There are no means of reaching the station from this part of the city. |
| | (1) There are (2) no means of |
| | (3) reaching the railway station (4) from this part of the city |
| 33. | My father is a professor in the reputed university in a metropolitan |
| | city. |
| | (1) My father is (2) a professor |
| | (3) in the reputed university (4) in a metropolitan city |
| 34. | This is a cow that was grazing yesterday in the garden maintained by the|
| | municipality. |
| | (1) This is a cow (2) that was grazing yesterday |
| | (3) in the garden (4) maintained by the municipality |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 35. | The Mount Everest is the high mountain in the world and it is situated in Nepal. |
| | (1) The Mount Everest (2) is the high mountain |
| | (3) in the world and (4) it is situated in Nepal |
| 36. | Their family went on an European trip last year. |
| | (1) Their family (2) went on |
| | (3) an European trip (4) last year |
| 37. | It is a measure taken in advance to avoid something unpleasant. |
| | (1) Precaution (2) Delivery |
| | (3) Care (4) Substitution |
| 38. | Something which is a solution to all the problems or diseases. |
| | (1) Utopia (2) Dystopia |
| | (3) Nostalgia (4) Panacea |
| 39. | It is something, generally money, which is given to someone in recognition of loss or injury. |
| | (1) Escalation (2) Defamation |
| | (3) Extortion (4) Compensation |
| 40. | It is a form of government in which all power is vested in a few persons or in a dominant class. |
| | (1) Democracy (2) Gerontocracy |
| | (3) Bureaucracy (4) Oligarchy |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 41. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: ABSURD |
| | (1) Ridiculous (2) Good |
| | (3) Sensible (4) Meaningful |
| 42. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: EXPANSE |
| | (1) Height (2) Expenditure |
| | (3) Area (4) Extreme |
| 43. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the underlined word in the following sentence. |
| | The INSV Tarini is an indigenous sail boat of Indian Navy. |
| | (1) Global (2) Important |
| | (3) Domestic (4) Efficient |
| 44. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: FALLACY |
| | (1) Delusion (2) Clueless |
| | (3) Truth (4) Heavy |
| 45. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: LETHARGIC |
| | (1) Cute (2) Exhausted |
| | (3) Active (4) Intelligent |
| 46. | Identify the most appropriate antonym of the underlined word in the following sentence. |
| | A boisterous horse must have a rough bridle. |
| | (1) Rowdy (2) Loud |
| | (3) Bouncy (4) Calm |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 47. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: Spill the beans
(1) Cook the beans carelessly
(2) Leak a secret
(3) The act of loving beans too much
(4) To help someone in an extraordinary way |
| 48. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: To lose your touch
(1) To lose someone very close
(2) To lose a skill which you had
(3) To lose confidence
(4) To be happy |
| 49. | Select the most appropriate option to substitute the underlined segment in the given sentence.
Riding a horse was a piece of cake for him.
(1) very easy task
(2) very difficult task
(3) an intricate affair
(4) confusing work |
| 50. | Select the wrongly spelt word:
(1) reduction
(2) penitence
(3) ruthlesness
(4) residue |
| 51. | Select the correctly spelt word:
(1) lieutinent
(2) lieutinant
(3) leutenant
(4) lieutenant |
| 52. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding past tense:
Are they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament.
(1) Did they practice diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(2) Were they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(3) Had they practiced diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(4) Would they be practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament? |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 53. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense: My mother was having tea when the telephone bell rang.
(1) My mother will have tea when the telephone bell rings.
(2) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell will ring.
(3) My mother would have tea when the telephone bell rang.
(4) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell rings. |
| 54. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense: Was Sanchit learning a new lesson?
(1) Will Sanchit learn a new lesson?
(2) Will Sanchit have learnt a new lesson?
(3) Will Sanchit be learning a new lesson?
(4) Would Sanchit be learning a new lesson? |
| 55. | Denouement in drama is:
(1) The final unraveling of the plot
(2) The anticlimax
(3) The expected consequence
(4) The rising tension |
| 56. | Who coined the term ‘dissociation of sensibility’?
(1) I.A. Richards
(2) Matthew Arnold
(3) T.S. Eliot
(4) S.T. Coleridge |
| 57. | Which of the following is alternatively called the Age of Sensibility?
(1) The Elizabethan Age
(2) The Age of Milton
(3) The Age of Johnson
(4) The Age of Wordsworth |
| 58. | Replacing a supposedly offensive or disagreeable term by a less direct or less colloquial term is called:
(1) Euphemism
(2) Euphuism
(3) Bowdlerization
(4) Spoonerism |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 59. | The gravestone of which Romantic poet carries the epitaph: ‘Here lies one whose name was writ in water’? |
| | (1) Wordsworth (2) Shelley |
| | (3) Keats (4) Coleridge |
| 60. | The Nobel prize for literature awarded to Rabindranath Tagore in |
| | (1) 1911 (2) 1912 |
| | (3) 1913 (4) 1914 |
| 61. | The King James version of the Bible was published in |
| | (1) 1611 (2) 1711 |
| | (3) 1811 (4) 1911 |
| 62. | Name the first Indian novel in English which won the Sahitya Akademi Award: |
| | (1) *The Serpent and the Rope* |
| | (2) *Midnight’s Children* |
| | (3) *The Guide* |
| | (4) *The God of Small Things* |
| 63. | Which of the following novels written originally in Hindi won the International Booker Prize? |
| | (1) *The White Tiger* |
| | (2) *Kanthapura* |
| | (3) *Hang Woman* |
| | (4) *Tomb of Sand* |
| 64. | Who wrote the book *The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian*? |
| | (1) Nirad C. Chaudhuri (2) Nissim Ezekiel |
| | (3) Keki N. Daruwalla (4) Mulkraj Anand |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 65. | Toba Tek Singh’s famous story on the theme of Partition was written by:
(1) Ismat Chughtai
(2) Yashpal
(3) Amrita Pritam
(4) Saadat Hasan Manto |
| 66. | Which of the following poets was blind?
(1) Dr. Johnson
(2) William Blake
(3) John Milton
(4) William Goldsmith |
| 67. | The oldest English epic is:
(1) *Iliad*
(2) *Shield of Heracles*
(3) *Beowulf*
(4) *Odyssey* |
| 68. | Portia in ‘The Merchant of Venice’ disguises herself as a man in the trial scene. Which name she assumes?
(1) Hieronimo
(2) Balthasar
(3) Bellagio
(4) Christo |
| 69. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘The Deserted Village’?
(1) William Langland
(2) William Cowper
(3) Oliver Goldsmith
(4) William Hazlitt |
| 70. | Who wrote the famous play *Doctor Faustus*?
(1) Marlowe
(2) Congreve
(3) Jonson
(4) Shakespeare |
| 71. | Who is considered to be the father of English poetry?
(1) Geoffrey Chaucer
(2) William Shakespeare
(3) Edmond Spenser
(4) Phillip Sidney |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 72. | Who is considered as the father of English essay?
| | (1) Francis Bacon
| | (2) Joseph Addison
| | (3) William Carlyle
| | (4) Dr. Johnson |
| 73. | Which of the following are famous tragedies by William Shakespeare?
| | (1) Othello, The Twelfth Night, Macbeth
| | (2) Macbeth, King Lear, As You Like It
| | (3) Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet
| | (4) Othello, Hamlet, The Tempest |
| 74. | Queen Elizabeth-I reigned during:
| | (1) 1558-1603
| | (2) 1560-1601
| | (3) 1837-1901
| | (4) 1660-1700 |
| 75. | Which of the following phrases applies to John Donne as a poet?
| | (1) Metaphysical poet
| | (2) Neoclassical poet
| | (3) Sentimental poet
| | (4) Romantic poet |
| 76. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard’?
| | (1) Matthew Arnold
| | (2) Thomas Gray
| | (3) S.T. Coleridge
| | (4) Alexander Pope |
| 77. | Who wrote the famous English epic Paradise Lost?
| | (1) William Langland
| | (2) Ben Jonson
| | (3) Edmond Spenser
| | (4) John Milton |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 78. | Which of the following poems have the famous line: ‘If winter comes, can spring be far behind’?
(1) ‘Ode to the West Wind’
(2) ‘Ode to the Nightingale’
(3) ‘Dover Beach’
(4) ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ |
| 79. | Which of the following is a Neoclassical poet?
(1) Thomas Carew
(2) John Dryden
(3) William Blake
(4) Ezra Pound |
| 80. | Who among the following is not a first-generation English novelist?
(1) Henry Fielding
(2) Daniel Defoe
(3) Samuel Richardson
(4) George Meredith |
| 81. | Who wrote the famous line: ‘Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven’?
(1) P.B. Shelley
(2) S.T. Coleridge
(3) William Wordsworth
(4) John Keats |
| 82. | Which of the following poems by John Keats consists of the famous line: ‘Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too’?
(1) ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’
(2) ‘Ode to Autumn’
(3) ‘Ode to a Nightingale’
(4) ‘Ode on Melancholy’ |
| 83. | Which of the following is not a novel by Jane Austen?
(1) Pride and Prejudice
(2) Wuthering Heights
(3) Sense and Sensibility
(4) Mansfield Park |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 84. | Who among the following writers is famous for his personal essays?
| | (1) Charles Lamb (2) Susan Sontag
| | (3) Robert Lynd (4) C.P. Snow |
| 85. | Which of the following historical factors was a great influence of the Victorian literature?
| | (1) The Industrial Revolution (2) The French Revolution
| | (3) The American Civil War (4) The Restoration of Monarchy |
| 86. | Which of the following novels were written by Charles Dickens?
| | (1) *Oliver Twist, Hard Times, The Vanity Fair*
| | (2) *David Copperfield, Far from the Madding Crowd, Great Expectations*
| | (3) *Oliver Twist, Hard Times, Great Expectations*
| | (4) *Hard Times, Oliver Twist, Wuthering Heights* |
| 87. | Mary Ann Evans was the real name of:
| | (1) Jane Austen (2) Emily Bronte
| | (3) George Meredith (4) George Eliot |
| 88. | Who was the first Poet Laureate of England?
| | (1) John Milton (2) John Dryden
| | (3) William Wordsworth (4) William Shakespeares |
| 89. | Who among the following wrote the famous book *Poetics*?
| | (1) Plato (2) Aristotle
| | (3) Socrates (4) Longinus |
| 90. | Who made a distinction between primary imagination and secondary imagination?
| | (1) Aristotle (2) Walter Pater
| | (3) S.T. Coleridge (4) T.S. Eliot |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 91. | Which of the following critics developed the Touchstone method to evaluate literature? |
| | (1) Matthew Arnold (2) William Hazlitt |
| | (3) Cleanth Brooks (4) E.M. Forster |
| 92. | Who wrote the famous essay 'Tradition and the Individual Talent'? |
| | (1) Ezra Pound (2) T.S. Eliot |
| | (3) F.R. Leavis (4) I.A. Richards |
| 93. | Who wrote the seminal feminist essay 'A Room of One's Own'? |
| | (1) Mary Wollstonecraft (2) Mary Shelley |
| | (3) Virginia Woolf (4) D.H. Lawrence |
| 94. | Who among the following are known as the New Critics? |
| | (1) I.A. Richards, Raymond Williams, Cleanth Brooks |
| | (2) J.C. Ransom, T.S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks |
| | (3) I.A. Richards, Ezra Pound, Ferdinand de Saussure |
| | (4) T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, E.M. Forster |
| 95. | Which of the following is known as a Leftist poet? |
| | (1) Wilfred Owen (2) W.B. Yeats |
| | (3) W.H. Auden (4) Sylvia Plath |
| 96. | Who among the following is a famous war poet? |
| | (1) Wilfred Owen (2) T.S. Eliot |
| | (3) W.B. Yeats (4) D.H. Lawrence |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 97. | Which among the following was the winner of the Booker Prize in 2022?
(1) *Girl, Woman, Other* by Bernardine Evaristo
(2) *The Testaments* by Margaret Atwood
(3) *The Promise* by Damon Galgut
(4) *The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida* by Shehan Karunatilaka |
| 98. | Who among the following has not won the Booker Prize so far?
(1) Arvind Adiga
(2) Kiran Desai
(3) Indra Sinha
(4) Vikram Seth |
| 99. | Which is the highest award in India given for a writer's overall contribution to literature?
(1) Bharat Ratna
(2) Jnanpeeth Award
(3) Sahitya Akademi Award
(4) Param Vir Chakra |
| 100. | Who wrote the famous modernist novel *Ulysses*?
(1) James Joyce
(2) D.H. Lawrence
(3) Dorothy Richardson
(4) Virginia Woolf |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. | Who is considered to be the father of English poetry? |
| | (1) Geoffrey Chaucer (2) William Shakespeare |
| | (3) Edmond Spenser (4) Phillip Sidney |
| 2. | Who is considered as the father of English essay? |
| | (1) Francis Bacon (2) Joseph Addison |
| | (3) William Carlyle (4) Dr. Johnson |
| 3. | Which of the following are famous tragedies by William Shakespeare? |
| | (1) *Othello, The Twelfth Night, Macbeth* |
| | (2) *Macbeth, King Lear, As You Like It* |
| | (3) *Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet* |
| | (4) *Othello, Hamlet, The Tempest* |
| 4. | Queen Elizabeth-I reigned during: |
| | (1) 1558-1603 (2) 1560-1601 |
| | (3) 1837-1901 (4) 1660-1700 |
| 5. | Which of the following phrases applies to John Donne as a poet? |
| | (1) Metaphysical poet (2) Neoclassical poet |
| | (3) Sentimental poet (4) Romantic poet |
| 6. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard’? |
| | (1) Matthew Arnold (2) Thomas Gray |
| | (3) S.T. Coleridge (4) Alexander Pope |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 7. | Who wrote the famous English epic *Paradise Lost*?
(1) William Langland
(2) Ben Jonson
(3) Edmond Spenser
(4) John Milton |
| 8. | Which of the following poems have the famous line: ‘If winter comes, can spring be far behind’?
(1) ‘Ode to the West Wind’
(2) ‘Ode to the Nightingale’
(3) ‘Dover Beach’
(4) ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ |
| 9. | Which of the following is a Neoclassical poet?
(1) Thomas Carew
(2) John Dryden
(3) William Blake
(4) Ezra Pound |
| 10. | Who among the following is not a first-generation English novelist?
(1) Henry Fielding
(2) Daniel Defoe
(3) Samuel Richardson
(4) George Meredith |
| 11. | Select the correctly spelt word:
(1) lieutinent
(2) lieutinant
(3) leiutenant
(4) lieutenant |
| 12. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding past tense:
Are they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament.
(1) Did they practice diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(2) Were they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(3) Had they practiced diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(4) Would they be practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament? |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 13. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense: |
| | My mother was having tea when the telephone bell rang. |
| | (1) My mother will have tea when the telephone bell rings. |
| | (2) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell will ring. |
| | (3) My mother would have tea when the telephone bell rang. |
| | (4) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell rings. |
| 14. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense: |
| | Was Sanchit learning a new lesson? |
| | (1) Will Sanchit learn a new lesson? |
| | (2) Will Sanchit have learnt a new lesson? |
| | (3) Will Sanchit be learning a new lesson? |
| | (4) Would Sanchit be learning a new lesson? |
| 15. | Denouement in drama is: |
| | (1) The final unraveling of the plot |
| | (2) The anticlimax |
| | (3) The expected consequence |
| | (4) The rising tension |
| 16. | Who coined the term ‘dissociation of sensibility’? |
| | (1) I.A. Richards |
| | (2) Matthew Arnold |
| | (3) T.S. Eliot |
| | (4) S.T. Coleridge |
| 17. | Which of the following is alternatively called the Age of Sensibility? |
| | (1) The Elizabethan Age |
| | (2) The Age of Milton |
| | (3) The Age of Johnson |
| | (4) The Age of Wordsworth |
| 18. | Replacing a supposedly offensive or disagreeable term by a less direct or |
| | less colloquial term is called: |
| | (1) Euphemism |
| | (2) Euphuism |
| | (3) Bowdlerization |
| | (4) Spoonerism |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 19. | The gravestone of which Romantic poet carries the epitaph: ‘Here lies one whose name was writ in water’?
(1) Wordsworth
(2) Shelley
(3) Keats
(4) Coleridge |
| 20. | The Nobel prize for literature awarded to Rabindranath Tagore in
(1) 1911
(2) 1912
(3) 1913
(4) 1914 |
| 21. | Instructions: In the questions from 21 to 26, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The teacher forbade the student not to take his pen.
(1) The teacher
(2) forbade the student
(3) not to take
(4) his pen |
| 22. | There are no means of reaching the station from this part of the city.
(1) There are
(2) no means of
(3) reaching the railway station
(4) from this part of the city |
| 23. | My father is a professor in the reputed university in a metropolitan city.
(1) My father is
(2) a professor
(3) in the reputed university
(4) in a metropolitan city |
| 24. | This is a cow that was grazing yesterday in the garden maintained by the municipality.
(1) This is a cow
(2) that was grazing yesterday
(3) in the garden
(4) maintained by the municipality |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 25. | The Mount Everest is the high mountain in the world and it is situated in Nepal. |
| | (1) The Mount Everest (2) is the high mountain |
| | (3) in the world and (4) it is situated in Nepal |
| 26. | Their family went on an European trip last year. |
| | (1) Their family (2) went on |
| | (3) an European trip (4) last year |
| 27. | It is a measure taken in advance to avoid something unpleasant. |
| | (1) Precaution (2) Delivery |
| | (3) Care (4) Substitution |
| 28. | Something which is a solution to all the problems or diseases. |
| | (1) Utopia (2) Dystopia |
| | (3) Nostalgia (4) Panacea |
| 29. | It is something, generally money, which is given to someone in recognition of loss or injury. |
| | (1) Escalation (2) Defamation |
| | (3) Extortion (4) Compensation |
| 30. | It is a form of government in which all power is vested in a few persons or in a dominant class. |
| | (1) Democracy (2) Gerontocracy |
| | (3) Bureaucracy (4) Oligarchy |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 31. | Of these two books, the ............... is more interesting. |
| | (1) later (2) latter |
| | (3) second (4) last |
| 32. | The artist received a ............... from the audience. |
| | (1) bunch of applause (2) handful of applause |
| | (3) plenty of applause (4) round of applause |
| 33. | The sun ............... in the west when clouds gathered in the east. |
| | (1) was set (2) sets |
| | (3) was setting (4) had set |
| 34. | He ............... the utensils before the maid servant came. |
| | (1) cleaned (2) will clean |
| | (3) had cleaned (4) has cleaned |
| 35. | Shashwat wished he ............... upon his teacher's advice. |
| | (1) had acted (2) acted |
| | (3) was acting (4) would act |
| 36. | No sooner did the children ............... a snake than they ran away. |
| | (1) see (2) saw |
| | (3) had seen (4) have seen |
| 37. | If I ............... you, I ............... the challenge thrown by the opposite camp. |
| | (1) were, would have accepted |
| | (2) was, would accept |
| | (3) am, should accept |
| | (4) were, would accept |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 38. | .............. others for one's failure is a cowardly act. |
| | (1) To blame (2) Having blamed |
| | (3) By blaming (4) Blaming |
| 39. | It is foolish ............... your money like that. |
| | (1) wasting (2) doing waste of |
| | (3) to waste (4) having wasted |
| 40. | Instructions: In this question the given sentence has been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it. The sum and substance of the matter are that this dispute can never be resolved. |
| | (1) The sum and substance (2) of the matter |
| | (3) are that this dispute (4) can never be resolved |
| 41. | Which of the following critics developed the Touchstone method to evaluate literature? |
| | (1) Matthew Arnold (2) William Hazlitt |
| | (3) Cleanth Brooks (4) E.M. Forster |
| 42. | Who wrote the famous essay 'Tradition and the Individual Talent'? |
| | (1) Ezra Pound (2) T.S. Eliot |
| | (3) F.R. Leavis (4) I.A. Richards |
| 43. | Who wrote the seminal feminist essay 'A Room of One’s Own'? |
| | (1) Mary Wollstonecraft (2) Mary Shelley |
| | (3) Virginia Woolf (4) D.H. Lawrence |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 44. | Who among the following are known as the New Critics?
(1) I.A. Richards, Raymond Williams, Cleanth Brooks
(2) J.C. Ransom, T.S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks
(3) I.A. Richards, Ezra Pound, Ferdinand de Saussure
(4) T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, E.M. Forster |
| 45. | Which of the following is known as a Leftist poet?
(1) Wilfred Owen
(2) W.B. Yeats
(3) W.H. Auden
(4) Sylvia Plath |
| 46. | Who among the following is a famous war poet?
(1) Wilfred Owen
(2) T.S. Eliot
(3) W.B. Yeats
(4) D.H. Lawrence |
| 47. | Which among the following was the winner of the Booker Prize in 2022?
(1) *Girl, Woman, Other* by Bernardine Evaristo
(2) *The Testaments* by Margaret Atwood
(3) *The Promise* by Damon Galgut
(4) *The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida* by Shehan Karunatilaka |
| 48. | Who among the following has not won the Booker Prize so far?
(1) Arvind Adiga
(2) Kiran Desai
(3) Indra Sinha
(4) Vikram Seth |
| 49. | Which is the highest award in India given for a writer's overall contribution to literature?
(1) Bharat Ratna
(2) Jnanpeeth Award
(3) Sahitya Akademi Award
(4) Param Vir Chakra |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 50. | Who wrote the famous modernist novel *Ulysses*? |
| | (1) James Joyce (2) D.H. Lawrence |
| | (3) Dorothy Richardson (4) Virginia Woolf |
| 51. | The King James version of the Bible was published in |
| | (1) 1611 (2) 1711 |
| | (3) 1811 (4) 1911 |
| 52. | Name the first Indian novel in English which won the Sahitya Akademi Award: |
| | (1) *The Serpent and the Rope* |
| | (2) *Midnight’s Children* |
| | (3) *The Guide* |
| | (4) *The God of Small Things* |
| 53. | Which of the following novels written originally in Hindi won the International Booker Prize? |
| | (1) *The White Tiger* |
| | (2) *Kanthapura* |
| | (3) *Hang Woman* |
| | (4) *Tomb of Sand* |
| 54. | Who wrote the book *The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian*? |
| | (1) Nirad C. Chaudhuri (2) Nissim Ezekiel |
| | (3) Keki N. Daruwalla (4) Mulkraj Anand |
| 55. | ‘Toba Tek Singh’ a famous story on the theme of Partition was written by: |
| | (1) Ismat Chughtai (2) Yashpal |
| | (3) Amrita Pritam (4) Saadat Hasan Manto |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 56. | Which of the following poets was blind?
| | (1) Dr. Johnson
| | (2) William Blake
| | (3) John Milton
| | (4) William Goldsmith |
| 57. | The oldest English epic is:
| | (1) *Iliad*
| | (2) *Shield of Heracles*
| | (3) *Beowulf*
| | (4) *Odyssey* |
| 58. | Portia in ‘The Merchant of Venice’ disguises herself as a man in the trial scene. Which name she assumes?
| | (1) Hieronimo
| | (2) Balthasar
| | (3) Bellagio
| | (4) Christo |
| 59. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘The Deserted Village’?
| | (1) William Langland
| | (2) William Cowper
| | (3) Oliver Goldsmith
| | (4) William Hazlitt |
| 60. | Who wrote the famous play *Doctor Faustus*?
| | (1) Marlowe
| | (2) Congreve
| | (3) Jonson
| | (4) Shakespeare |
| 61. | Who wrote the famous line: ‘Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven”?
| | (1) P.B. Shelley
| | (2) S.T. Coleridge
| | (3) William Wordsworth
| | (4) John Keats |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 62. | Which of the following poems by John Keats consists of the famous line: 'Where are the songs of spring'? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too'?
| | (1) 'Ode on a Grecian Urn' (2) 'Ode to Autumn' |
| | (3) 'Ode to a Nightingale' (4) 'Ode on Melancholy' |
| 63. | Which of the following is not a novel by Jane Austen? |
| | (1) Pride and Prejudice (2) Wuthering Heights |
| | (3) Sense and Sensibility (4) Mansfield Park |
| 64. | Who among the following writers is famous for his personal essays? |
| | (1) Charles Lamb (2) Susan Sontag |
| | (3) Robert Lynd (4) C.P. Snow |
| 65. | Which of the following historical factors was a great influence of the Victorian literature? |
| | (1) The Industrial Revolution (2) The French Revolution |
| | (3) The American Civil War (4) The Restoration of Monarchy |
| 66. | Which of the following novels were written by Charles Dickens? |
| | (1) Oliver Twist, Hard Times, The Vanity Fair |
| | (2) David Copperfield, Far from the Madding Crowd, Great Expectations |
| | (3) Oliver Twist, Hard Times, Great Expectations |
| | (4) Hard Times, Oliver Twist, Wuthering Heights |
| 67. | Mary Ann Evans was the real name of: |
| | (1) Jane Austen (2) Emily Bronte |
| | (3) George Meredith (4) George Eliot |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 68. | Who was the first Poet Laureate of England?
(1) John Milton
(2) John Dryden
(3) William Wordsworth
(4) William Shakespeares |
| 69. | Who among the following wrote the famous book *Poetics*?
(1) Plato
(2) Aristotle
(3) Socrates
(4) Longinus |
| 70. | Who made a distinction between primary imagination and secondary imagination?
(1) Aristotle
(2) Walter Pater
(3) S.T. Coleridge
(4) T.S. Eliot |
| 71. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: ABSURD
(1) Ridiculous
(2) Good
(3) Sensible
(4) Meaningful |
| 72. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: EXPANSE
(1) Height
(2) Expenditure
(3) Area
(4) Extreme |
| 73. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the underlined word in the following sentence.
The INSV Tarini is an indigenous sail boat of Indian Navy.
(1) Global
(2) Important
(3) Domestic
(4) Efficient |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 74. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: FALLACY
(1) Delusion (2) Clueless
(3) Truth (4) Heavy |
| 75. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: LETHARGIC
(1) Cute (2) Exhausted
(3) Active (4) Intelligent |
| 76. | Identify the most appropriate antonym of the underlined word in the following sentence.
A boisterous horse must have a rough bridle.
(1) Rowdy (2) Loud
(3) Bouncy (4) Calm |
| 77. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: Spill the beans
(1) Cook the beans carelessly
(2) Leak a secret
(3) The act of loving beans too much
(4) To help someone in an extraordinary way |
| 78. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: To lose your touch
(1) To lose someone very close (2) To lose a skill which you had
(3) To lose confidence (4) To be happy |
| 79. | Select the most appropriate option to substitute the underlined segment in the given sentence.
Riding a horse was a piece of cake for him.
(1) very easy task (2) very difficult task
(3) an intricate affair (4) confusing work |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 80. | Select the wrongly spelt word:
(1) reduction (2) penitence
(3) ruthlesness (4) residue |
| 81. | Instructions: In the questions from 81 to 90, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The Chairperson as well as the committee members are to blame for this unfortunate decision.
(1) The Chairperson (2) as well as the committee members
(3) are to blame (4) for this unfortunate decision |
| 82. | It rains rare in this part of the country during the winter season.
(1) It rains (2) rare in this
(3) part of the country (4) during the winter season |
| 83. | The news of the Indian Hockey team's victory against Australia is very good to believe.
(1) The news about (2) the Indian team's victory
(3) against Australia is (4) very good to believe |
| 84. | The security guards found a man lying unconsciously on the pathway.
(1) The security guards (2) found a man
(3) lying unconsciously (4) on the pathway |
| 85. | He brought as many as five kilos of ghee from the bazaar yesterday.
(1) He brought (2) as many as
(3) five kilos of ghee (4) from the bazaar yesterday |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 86. | These mangos are more sweet than those put in that basket. |
| | (1) These mangos are (2) more sweet than |
| | (3) those put in (4) that basket |
| 87. | He was deprived from his right to his ancestral property. |
| | (1) He was (2) deprived from |
| | (3) his right to (4) his ancestral property |
| 88. | I still do not understand why he did not reply my e-mail. |
| | (1) I still (2) do not understand |
| | (3) why he did not (4) reply my e-mail |
| 89. | When I visited him, he was writing an application by a pen. |
| | (1) When I visited him (2) he was writing |
| | (3) an application (4) by a pen |
| 90. | The train arrived at the station rather lately. |
| | (1) The train (2) arrived |
| | (3) at the station (4) rather lately |
| 91. | Instructions for questions 91-100: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate answer. |
| | I need .................. more information in this matter. |
| | (1) a few (2) few |
| | (3) little (4) a little |
| 92. | Mona .................. ancient Indian history and culture. |
| | (1) interested in (2) interested at |
| | (3) is interested about (4) is interested in |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 93. | Saket is ............... playing cricket.
| | (1) good in
| | (2) good at
| | (3) good into
| | (4) good on |
| 94. | I don’t know how ............... .
| | (1) old is he
| | (2) he old is
| | (3) old he is
| | (4) is he old |
| 95. | I am looking forward to ............... soon.
| | (1) hearing from you
| | (2) hear from you
| | (3) hear you
| | (4) be hearing from you |
| 96. | We postponed the trip ............... the bad driving conditions.
| | (1) because
| | (2) in spite of
| | (3) because of
| | (4) despite |
| 97. | She remains busy ............... her social work.
| | (1) in
| | (2) with
| | (3) for
| | (4) about |
| 98. | Rakesh came and sat ............... his friend.
| | (1) for
| | (2) besides
| | (3) beside
| | (4) away |
| 99. | Those who aim ............... stars, must hit the trees first.
| | (1) at
| | (2) to
| | (3) towards
| | (4) on |
| 100. | ............... water in that jug is not suitable for drinking.
| | (1) A
| | (2) An
| | (3) The
| | (4) Some |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 1. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: ABSURD
(1) Ridiculous (2) Good
(3) Sensible (4) Meaningful |
| 2. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: EXPANSE
(1) Height (2) Expenditure
(3) Area (4) Extreme |
| 3. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the underlined word in the following sentence.
The INSV Tarini is an indigenous sail boat of Indian Navy.
(1) Global (2) Important
(3) Domestic (4) Efficient |
| 4. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: FALLACY
(1) Delusion (2) Clueless
(3) Truth (4) Heavy |
| 5. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: LETHARGIC
(1) Cute (2) Exhausted
(3) Active (4) Intelligent |
| 6. | Identify the most appropriate antonym of the underlined word in the following sentence.
A boisterous horse must have a rough bridle.
(1) Rowdy (2) Loud
(3) Bouncy (4) Calm |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 7. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: *Spill the beans*
(1) Cook the beans carelessly
(2) Leak a secret
(3) The act of loving beans too much
(4) To help someone in an extraordinary way |
| 8. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: *To lose your touch*
(1) To lose someone very close
(2) To lose a skill which you had
(3) To lose confidence
(4) To be happy |
| 9. | Select the most appropriate option to substitute the underlined segment in the given sentence.
Riding a horse was *a piece of cake* for him.
(1) very easy task
(2) very difficult task
(3) an intricate affair
(4) confusing work |
| 10. | Select the wrongly spelt word:
(1) reduction
(2) penitence
(3) ruthlessness
(4) residue |
| 11. | Instructions: In the questions from 11 to 20, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The Chairperson as well as the committee members are to blame for this unfortunate decision.
(1) The Chairperson
(2) as well as the committee members
(3) are to blame
(4) for this unfortunate decision |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 12. | It rains rare in this part of the country during the winter season. |
| | (1) It rains (2) rare in this |
| | (3) part of the country (4) during the winter season |
| 13. | The news of the Indian Hockey team's victory against Australia is very good to believe. |
| | (1) The news about (2) the Indian team's victory |
| | (3) against Australia is (4) very good to believe |
| 14. | The security guards found a man lying unconsciously on the pathway. |
| | (1) The security guards (2) found a man |
| | (3) lying unconsciously (4) on the pathway |
| 15. | He brought as many as five kilos of ghee from the bazaar yesterday. |
| | (1) He brought (2) as many as |
| | (3) five kilos of ghee (4) from the bazaar yesterday |
| 16. | These mangos are more sweet than those put in that basket. |
| | (1) These mangos are (2) more sweet than |
| | (3) those put in (4) that basket |
| 17. | He was deprived from his right to his ancestral property. |
| | (1) He was (2) deprived from |
| | (3) his right to (4) his ancestral property |
| 18. | I still do not understand why he did not reply my e-mail. |
| | (1) I still (2) do not understand |
| | (3) why he did not (4) reply my e-mail |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 19. | When I visited him, he was writing an application by a pen. |
| | (1) When I visited him (2) he was writing |
| | (3) an application (4) by a pen |
| 20. | The train arrived at the station rather lately. |
| | (1) The train (2) arrived |
| | (3) at the station (4) rather lately |
| 21. | Instructions for questions 21-30: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate answer. |
| | I need .................. more information in this matter. |
| | (1) a few (2) few |
| | (3) little (4) a little |
| 22. | Mona ....................... ancient Indian history and culture. |
| | (1) interested in (2) interested at |
| | (3) is interested about (4) is interested in |
| 23. | Saket is ..................... playing cricket. |
| | (1) good in (2) good at |
| | (3) good into (4) good on |
| 24. | I don't know how ............... |
| | (1) old is he (2) he old is |
| | (3) old he is (4) is he old |
| 25. | I am looking forward to ............... soon. |
| | (1) hearing from you (2) hear from you |
| | (3) hear you (4) be hearing from you |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 26. | We postponed the trip ............... the bad driving conditions. |
| | (1) because (2) in spite of |
| | (3) because of (4) despite |
| 27. | She remains busy ............... her social work. |
| | (1) in (2) with |
| | (3) for (4) about |
| 28. | Rakesh came and sat ............. his friend. |
| | (1) for (2) besides |
| | (3) beside (4) away |
| 29. | Those who aim ............... stars, must hit the trees first. |
| | (1) at (2) to |
| | (3) towards (4) on |
| 30. | ............... water in that jug is not suitable for drinking. |
| | (1) A (2) An |
| | (3) The (4) Some |
| 31. | Which of the following critics developed the Touchstone method to evaluate literature? |
| | (1) Matthew Arnold (2) William Hazlitt |
| | (3) Cleanth Brooks (4) E.M. Forster |
| 32. | Who wrote the famous essay ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’? |
| | (1) Ezra Pound (2) T.S. Eliot |
| | (3) F.R. Leavis (4) I.A. Richards |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 33. | Who wrote the seminal feminist essay 'A Room of One's Own'?
(1) Mary Wollstonecraft
(2) Mary Shelley
(3) Virginia Woolf
(4) D.H. Lawrence |
| 34. | Who among the following are known as the New Critics?
(1) I.A. Richards, Raymond Williams, Cleanth Brooks
(2) J.C. Ransom, T.S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks
(3) I.A. Richards, Ezra Pound, Ferdinand de Saussure
(4) T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, E.M. Forster |
| 35. | Which of the following is known as a Leftist poet?
(1) Wilfred Owen
(2) W.B. Yeats
(3) W.H. Auden
(4) Sylvia Plath |
| 36. | Who among the following is a famous war poet?
(1) Wilfred Owen
(2) T.S. Eliot
(3) W.B. Yeats
(4) D.H. Lawrence |
| 37. | Which among the following was the winner of the Booker Prize in 2022?
(1) *Girl, Woman, Other* by Bernardine Evaristo
(2) *The Testaments* by Margaret Atwood
(3) *The Promise* by Damon Galgut
(4) *The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida* by Shehan Karunatilaka |
| 38. | Who among the following has not won the Booker Prize so far?
(1) Arvind Adiga
(2) Kiran Desai
(3) Indra Sinha
(4) Vikram Seth |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 39. | Which is the highest award in India given for a writer's overall contribution to literature?
(1) Bharat Ratna
(2) Jnanpeeth Award
(3) Sahitya Akademi Award
(4) Param Vir Chakra |
| 40. | Who wrote the famous modernist novel *Ulysses*?
(1) James Joyce
(2) D.H. Lawrence
(3) Dorothy Richardson
(4) Virginia Woolf |
| 41. | The King James version of the Bible was published in
(1) 1611
(2) 1711
(3) 1811
(4) 1911 |
| 42. | Name the first Indian novel in English which won the Sahitya Akademi Award:
(1) *The Serpent and the Rope*
(2) *Midnight’s Children*
(3) *The Guide*
(4) *The God of Small Things* |
| 43. | Which of the following novels written originally in Hindi won the International Booker Prize?
(1) *The White Tiger*
(2) *Kanthapura*
(3) *Hang Woman*
(4) *Tomb of Sand* |
| 44. | Who wrote the book *The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian*?
(1) Nirad C. Chaudhuri
(2) Nissim Ezekiel
(3) Keki N. Daruwalla
(4) Mulkraj Anand |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 45. | ‘Toba Tek Singh’ a famous story on the theme of Partition was written by:
(1) Ismat Chughtai
(2) Yashpal
(3) Amrita Pritam
(4) Saadat Hasan Manto |
| 46. | Which of the following poets was blind?
(1) Dr. Johnson
(2) William Blake
(3) John Milton
(4) William Goldsmith |
| 47. | The oldest English epic is:
(1) *Iliad*
(2) *Shield of Heracles*
(3) *Beowulf*
(4) *Odyssey* |
| 48. | Portia in *The Merchant of Venice* disguises herself as a man in the trial scene. Which name she assumes?
(1) Hieronimo
(2) Balthasar
(3) Bellagio
(4) Christo |
| 49. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘The Deserted Village’?
(1) William Langland
(2) William Cowper
(3) Oliver Goldsmith
(4) William Hazlitt |
| 50. | Who wrote the famous play *Doctor Faustus*?
(1) Marlowe
(2) Congreve
(3) Jonson
(4) Shakespeare |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 51. | Instructions: In the questions from 51 to 56, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The teacher forbade the student not to take his pen.
(1) The teacher
(2) forbade the student
(3) not to take
(4) his pen |
| 52. | There are no means of reaching the station from this part of the city.
(1) There are
(2) no means of
(3) reaching the railway station
(4) from this part of the city |
| 53. | My father is a professor in the reputed university in a metropolitan city.
(1) My father is
(2) a professor
(3) in the reputed university
(4) in a metropolitan city |
| 54. | This is a cow that was grazing yesterday in the garden maintained by the municipality.
(1) This is a cow
(2) that was grazing yesterday
(3) in the garden
(4) maintained by the municipality |
| 55. | The Mount Everest is the high mountain in the world and it is situated in Nepal.
(1) The Mount Everest
(2) is the high mountain
(3) in the world and
(4) it is situated in Nepal |
| 56. | Their family went on an European trip last year.
(1) Their family
(2) went on
(3) an European trip
(4) last year |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 57. | Instructions for Questions 57-60: Identify the most appropriate one-word substitution from the options given below for the group of words given in the question.
It is a measure taken in advance to avoid something unpleasant.
(1) Precaution (2) Delivery
(3) Care (4) Substitution |
| 58. | Something which is a solution to all the problems or diseases.
(1) Utopia (2) Dystopia
(3) Nostalgia (4) Panacea |
| 59. | It is something, generally money, which is given to someone in recognition of loss or injury.
(1) Escalation (2) Defamation
(3) Extortion (4) Compensation |
| 60. | It is a form of government in which all power is vested in a few persons or in a dominant class.
(1) Democracy (2) Gerontocracy
(3) Bureaucracy (4) Oligarchy |
| 61. | Who is considered to be the father of English poetry?
(1) Geoffrey Chaucer (2) William Shakespeare
(3) Edmond Spenser (4) Phillip Sidney |
| 62. | Who is considered as the father of English essay?
(1) Francis Bacon (2) Joseph Addison
(3) William Carlyle (4) Dr. Johnson |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 63. | Which of the following are famous tragedies by William Shakespeare?
(1) *Othello, The Twelfth Night, Macbeth*
(2) *Macbeth, King Lear, As You Like It*
(3) *Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet*
(4) *Othello, Hamlet, The Tempest* |
| 64. | Queen Elizabeth-I reigned during:
(1) 1558-1603
(2) 1560-1601
(3) 1837-1901
(4) 1660-1700 |
| 65. | Which of the following phrases applies to John Donne as a poet?
(1) Metaphysical poet
(2) Neoclassical poet
(3) Sentimental poet
(4) Romantic poet |
| 66. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard’?
(1) Matthew Arnold
(2) Thomas Gray
(3) S.T. Coleridge
(4) Alexander Pope |
| 67. | Who wrote the famous English epic *Paradise Lost*?
(1) William Langland
(2) Ben Jonson
(3) Edmond Spenser
(4) John Milton |
| 68. | Which of the following poems have the famous line: ‘If winter comes, can spring be far behind’?
(1) ‘Ode to the West Wind’
(2) ‘Ode to the Nightingale’
(3) ‘Dover Beach’
(4) ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 69. | Which of the following is a Neoclassical poet?
| | (1) Thomas Carew
| | (2) John Dryden
| | (3) William Blake
| | (4) Ezra Pound |
| 70. | Who among the following is not a first-generation English novelist?
| | (1) Henry Fielding
| | (2) Daniel Defoe
| | (3) Samuel Richardson
| | (4) George Meredith |
| 71. | Who wrote the famous line: ‘Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven’?
| | (1) P.B. Shelley
| | (2) S.T. Coleridge
| | (3) William Wordsworth
| | (4) John Keats |
| 72. | Which of the following poems by John Keats consists of the famous line: ‘Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too’?
| | (1) ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’
| | (2) ‘Ode to Autumn’
| | (3) ‘Ode to a Nightingale’
| | (4) ‘Ode on Melancholy’ |
| 73. | Which of the following is not a novel by Jane Austen?
| | (1) *Pride and Prejudice*
| | (2) *Wuthering Heights*
| | (3) *Sense and Sensibility*
| | (4) *Mansfield Park* |
| 74. | Who among the following writers is famous for his personal essays?
| | (1) Charles Lamb
| | (2) Susan Sontag
| | (3) Robert Lynd
| | (4) C.P. Snow |
| 75. | Which of the following historical factors was a great influence of the Victorian literature?
| | (1) The Industrial Revolution
| | (2) The French Revolution
| | (3) The American Civil War
| | (4) The Restoration of Monarchy |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 76. | Which of the following novels were written by Charles Dickens?
(1) *Oliver Twist, Hard Times, The Vanity Fair*
(2) *David Copperfield, Far from the Madding Crowd, Great Expectations*
(3) *Oliver Twist, Hard Times, Great Expectations*
(4) *Hard Times, Oliver Twist, Wuthering Heights* |
| 77. | Mary Ann Evans was the real name of:
(1) Jane Austen
(2) Emily Bronte
(3) George Meredith
(4) George Eliot |
| 78. | Who was the first Poet Laureate of England?
(1) John Milton
(2) John Dryden
(3) William Wordsworth
(4) William Shakespears |
| 79. | Who among the following wrote the famous book *Poetics*?
(1) Plato
(2) Aristotle
(3) Socrates
(4) Longinus |
| 80. | Who made a distinction between primary imagination and secondary imagination?
(1) Aristotle
(2) Walter Pater
(3) S.T. Coleridge
(4) T.S. Eliot |
| 81. | Instructions for questions 81-89: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate answer.
Of these two books, the ............... is more interesting.
(1) later
(2) latter
(3) second
(4) last |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 82. | The artist received a ____________ from the audience.
(1) bunch of applause
(2) handful of applause
(3) plenty of applause
(4) round of applause |
| 83. | The sun ____________ in the west when clouds gathered in the east.
(1) was set
(2) sets
(3) was setting
(4) had set |
| 84. | He ____________ the utensils before the maid servant came.
(1) cleaned
(2) will clean
(3) had cleaned
(4) has cleaned |
| 85. | Shashwat wished he ____________ upon his teacher's advice.
(1) had acted
(2) acted
(3) was acting
(4) would act |
| 86. | No sooner did the children ____________ a snake than they ran away.
(1) see
(2) saw
(3) had seen
(4) have seen |
| 87. | If I ____________ you, I ____________ the challenge thrown by the opposite camp.
(1) were, would have accepted
(2) was, would accept
(3) am, should accept
(4) were, would accept |
| 88. | ____________ others for one's failure is a cowardly act.
(1) To blame
(2) Having blamed
(3) By blaming
(4) Blaming |
| 89. | It is foolish ____________ your money like that.
(1) wasting
(2) doing waste of
(3) to waste
(4) having wasted |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 90. | Instructions: In this question the given sentence has been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The sum and substance of the matter are that this dispute can never be resolved.
(1) The sum and substance (2) of the matter
(3) are that this dispute (4) can never be resolved |
| 91. | Select the correctly spelt word:
(1) lieutinent (2) lieutinant
(3) leutenant (4) lieutenant |
| 92. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding past tense:
Are they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament.
(1) Did they practice diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(2) Were they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(3) Had they practiced diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(4) Would they be practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament? |
| 93. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense:
My mother was having tea when the telephone bell rang.
(1) My mother will have tea when the telephone bell rings.
(2) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell will ring.
(3) My mother would have tea when the telephone bell rang.
(4) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell rings. |
| 94. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense:
Was Sanchit learning a new lesson?
(1) Will Sanchit learn a new lesson?
(2) Will Sanchit have learnt a new lesson?
(3) Will Sanchit be learning a new lesson?
(4) Would Sanchit be learning a new lesson? |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 95. | Denouement in drama is:
(1) The final unraveling of the plot
(2) The anticlimax
(3) The expected consequence
(4) The rising tension |
| 96. | Who coined the term ‘dissociation of sensibility’?
(1) I.A. Richards
(2) Matthew Arnold
(3) T.S. Eliot
(4) S.T. Coleridge |
| 97. | Which of the following is alternatively called the Age of Sensibility?
(1) The Elizabethan Age
(2) The Age of Milton
(3) The Age of Johnson
(4) The Age of Wordsworth |
| 98. | Replacing a supposedly offensive or disagreeable term by a less direct or less colloquial term is called:
(1) Euphemism
(2) Euphuism
(3) Bowdlerization
(4) Spoonerism |
| 99. | The gravestone of which Romantic poet carries the epitaph: ‘Here lies one whose name was writ in water’?
(1) Wordsworth
(2) Shelley
(3) Keats
(4) Coleridge |
| 100. | The Nobel prize for literature awarded to Rabindranath Tagore in
(1) 1911
(2) 1912
(3) 1913
(4) 1914 |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. | Instructions for questions 1-9: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate answer.
Of these two books, the ............... is more interesting.
(1) later (2) latter
(3) second (4) last |
| 2. | The artist received a ............... from the audience.
(1) bunch of applause (2) handful of applause
(3) plenty of applause (4) round of applause |
| 3. | The sun ............... in the west when clouds gathered in the east.
(1) was set (2) sets
(3) was setting (4) had set |
| 4. | He ............... the utensils before the maid servant came.
(1) cleaned (2) will clean
(3) had cleaned (4) has cleaned |
| 5. | Shashwat wished he ............... upon his teacher's advice.
(1) had acted (2) acted
(3) was acting (4) would act |
| 6. | No sooner did the children ............... a snake than they ran away.
(1) see (2) saw
(3) had seen (4) have seen |
| 7. | If I ............... you, I ............... the challenge thrown by the opposite camp.
(1) were, would have accepted
(2) was, would accept
(3) am, should accept
(4) were, would accept |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 8. | .......... others for one's failure is a cowardly act.
(1) To blame
(2) Having blamed
(3) By blaming
(4) Blaming |
| 9. | It is foolish ............... your money like that.
(1) wasting
(2) doing waste of
(3) to waste
(4) having wasted |
| 10. | Instructions: In this question the given sentence has been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The sum and substance of the matter are that this dispute can never be resolved.
(1) The sum and substance
(2) of the matter
(3) are that this dispute
(4) can never be resolved |
| 11. | Which of the following critics developed the Touchstone method to evaluate literature?
(1) Matthew Arnold
(2) William Hazlitt
(3) Cleanth Brooks
(4) E.M. Forster |
| 12. | Who wrote the famous essay ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’?
(1) Ezra Pound
(2) T.S. Eliot
(3) F.R. Leavis
(4) I.A. Richards |
| 13. | Who wrote the seminal feminist essay ‘A Room of One’s Own’?
(1) Mary Wollstonecraft
(2) Mary Shelley
(3) Virginia Woolf
(4) D.H. Lawrence |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 14. | Who among the following are known as the New Critics?
(1) I.A. Richards, Raymond Williams, Cleanth Brooks
(2) J.C. Ransom, T.S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks
(3) I.A. Richards, Ezra Pound, Ferdinand de Saussure
(4) T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, E.M. Forster |
| 15. | Which of the following is known as a Leftist poet?
(1) Wilfred Owen
(2) W.B. Yeats
(3) W.H. Auden
(4) Sylvia Plath |
| 16. | Who among the following is a famous war poet?
(1) Wilfred Owen
(2) T.S. Eliot
(3) W.B. Yeats
(4) D.H. Lawrence |
| 17. | Which among the following was the winner of the Booker Prize in 2022?
(1) *Girl, Woman, Other* by Bernardine Evaristo
(2) *The Testaments* by Margaret Atwood
(3) *The Promise* by Damon Galgut
(4) *The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida* by Shehan Karunatilaka |
| 18. | Who among the following has not won the Booker Prize so far?
(1) Arvind Adiga
(2) Kiran Desai
(3) Indra Sinha
(4) Vikram Seth |
| 19. | Which is the highest award in India given for a writer's overall contribution to literature?
(1) Bharat Ratna
(2) Jnanpeeth Award
(3) Sahitya Akademi Award
(4) Param Vir Chakra |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 20. | Who wrote the famous modernist novel *Ulysses*? |
| | (1) James Joyce (2) D.H. Lawrence |
| | (3) Dorothy Richardson (4) Virginia Woolf |
| 21. | Who is considered to be the father of English poetry? |
| | (1) Geoffrey Chaucer (2) William Shakespeare |
| | (3) Edmond Spenser (4) Phillip Sidney |
| 22. | Who is considered as the father of English essay? |
| | (1) Francis Bacon (2) Joseph Addison |
| | (3) William Carlyle (4) Dr. Johnson |
| 23. | Which of the following are famous tragedies by William Shakespeare? |
| | (1) *Othello, The Twelfth Night, Macbeth* |
| | (2) *Macbeth, King Lear, As You Like It* |
| | (3) *Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet* |
| | (4) *Othello, Hamlet, The Tempest* |
| 24. | Queen Elizabeth-I reigned during: |
| | (1) 1558-1603 (2) 1560-1601 |
| | (3) 1837-1901 (4) 1660-1700 |
| 25. | Which of the following phrases applies to John Donne as a poet? |
| | (1) Metaphysical poet (2) Neoclassical poet |
| | (3) Sentimental poet (4) Romantic poet |
PG-EE-June-2023 (English) Code-D
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 26. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard’? |
| | (1) Matthew Arnold (2) Thomas Gray |
| | (3) S.T. Coleridge (4) Alexander Pope |
| 27. | Who wrote the famous English epic *Paradise Lost*? |
| | (1) William Langland (2) Ben Jonson |
| | (3) Edmond Spenser (4) John Milton |
| 28. | Which of the following poems have the famous line: ‘If winter comes, can spring be far behind’? |
| | (1) ‘Ode to the West Wind’ (2) ‘Ode to the Nightingale’ |
| | (3) ‘Dover Beach’ (4) ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ |
| 29. | Which of the following is a Neoclassical poet? |
| | (1) Thomas Carew (2) John Dryden |
| | (3) William Blake (4) Ezra Pound |
| 30. | Who among the following is not a first-generation English novelist? |
| | (1) Henry Fielding (2) Daniel Defoe |
| | (3) Samuel Richardson (4) George Meredith |
| 31. | Select the correctly spelt word: |
| | (1) lieutinent (2) lieutinant |
| | (3) lieutenant (4) lieutenant |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 32. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding past tense:
Are they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament.
(1) Did they practice diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(2) Were they practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(3) Had they practiced diligently to perform well in the tournament?
(4) Would they be practicing diligently to perform well in the tournament? |
| 33. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense:
My mother was having tea when the telephone bell rang.
(1) My mother will have tea when the telephone bell rings.
(2) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell will ring.
(3) My mother would have tea when the telephone bell rang.
(4) My mother will be having tea when the telephone bell rings. |
| 34. | Convert the following sentence into its corresponding future tense:
Was Sanchit learning a new lesson?
(1) Will Sanchit learn a new lesson?
(2) Will Sanchit have learnt a new lesson?
(3) Will Sanchit be learning a new lesson?
(4) Would Sanchit be learning a new lesson? |
| 35. | Denouement in drama is:
(1) The final unraveling of the plot
(2) The anticlimax
(3) The expected consequence
(4) The rising tension |
| 36. | Who coined the term ‘dissociation of sensibility’?
(1) I.A. Richards
(2) Matthew Arnold
(3) T.S. Eliot
(4) S.T. Coleridge |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 37. | Which of the following is alternatively called the Age of Sensibility?
(1) The Elizabethan Age
(2) The Age of Milton
(3) The Age of Johnson
(4) The Age of Wordsworth |
| 38. | Replacing a supposedly offensive or disagreeable term by a less direct or less colloquial term is called:
(1) Euphemism
(2) Euphuism
(3) Bowdlerization
(4) Spoonerism |
| 39. | The gravestone of which Romantic poet carries the epitaph: ‘Here lies one whose name was writ in water”?
(1) Wordsworth
(2) Shelley
(3) Keats
(4) Coleridge |
| 40. | The Nobel prize for literature awarded to Rabindranath Tagore in
(1) 1911
(2) 1912
(3) 1913
(4) 1914 |
| 41. | Instructions: In the questions from 41 to 46, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it.
The teacher forbade the student not to take his pen.
(1) The teacher
(2) forbade the student
(3) not to take
(4) his pen |
| 42. | There are no means of reaching the station from this part of the city.
(1) There are
(2) no means of
(3) reaching the railway station
(4) from this part of the city |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 43. | My father is a professor in the reputed university in a metropolitan city.
(1) My father is (2) a professor
(3) in the reputed university (4) in a metropolitan city |
| 44. | This is a cow that was grazing yesterday in the garden maintained by the municipality.
(1) This is a cow (2) that was grazing yesterday
(3) in the garden (4) maintained by the municipality |
| 45. | The Mount Everest is the high mountain in the world and it is situated in Nepal.
(1) The Mount Everest (2) is the high mountain
(3) in the world and (4) it is situated in Nepal |
| 46. | Their family went on an European trip last year.
(1) Their family (2) went on
(3) an European trip (4) last year |
| 47. | It is a measure taken in advance to avoid something unpleasant.
(1) Precaution (2) Delivery
(3) Care (4) Substitution |
| 48. | Something which is a solution to all the problems or diseases.
(1) Utopia (2) Dystopia
(3) Nostalgia (4) Panacea |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 49. | It is something, generally money, which is given to someone in recognition of loss or injury. |
| | (1) Escalation (2) Defamation |
| | (3) Extortion (4) Compensation |
| 50. | It is a form of government in which all power is vested in a few persons or in a dominant class. |
| | (1) Democracy (2) Gerontocracy |
| | (3) Bureaucracy (4) Oligarchy |
| 51. | Instructions: In the questions from 51 to 60, the given sentences have been divided into four segments. Identify the segment that has a grammatical error in it. |
| | The Chairperson as well as the committee members are to blame for this unfortunate decision. |
| | (1) The Chairperson (2) as well as the committee members |
| | (3) are to blame (4) for this unfortunate decision |
| 52. | It rains rare in this part of the country during the winter season. |
| | (1) It rains (2) rare in this |
| | (3) part of the country (4) during the winter season |
| 53. | The news of the Indian Hockey team's victory against Australia is very good to believe. |
| | (1) The news about (2) the Indian team's victory |
| | (3) against Australia is (4) very good to believe |
| 54. | The security guards found a man lying unconsciously on the pathway. |
| | (1) The security guards (2) found a man |
| | (3) lying unconsciously (4) on the pathway |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 55. | He brought as many as five kilos of ghee from the bazaar yesterday. |
| | (1) He brought (2) as many as |
| | (3) five kilos of ghee (4) from the bazaar yesterday |
| 56. | These mangos are more sweet than those put in that basket. |
| | (1) These mangos are (2) more sweet than |
| | (3) those put in (4) that basket |
| 57. | He was deprived from his right to his ancestral property. |
| | (1) He was (2) deprived from |
| | (3) his right to (4) his ancestral property |
| 58. | I still do not understand why he did not reply my e-mail. |
| | (1) I still (2) do not understand |
| | (3) why he did not (4) reply my e-mail |
| 59. | When I visited him, he was writing an application by a pen. |
| | (1) When I visited him (2) he was writing |
| | (3) an application (4) by a pen |
| 60. | The train arrived at the station rather lately. |
| | (1) The train (2) arrived |
| | (3) at the station (4) rather lately |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 61. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: ABSURD
(1) Ridiculous (2) Good
(3) Sensible (4) Meaningful |
| 62. | Select the most appropriate synonym of the given word: EXPANSE
(1) Height (2) Expenditure
(3) Area (4) Extreme |
| 63. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the underlined word in the following sentence.
The INSV Tarini is an indigenous sail boat of Indian Navy.
(1) Global (2) Important
(3) Domestic (4) Efficient |
| 64. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: FALLACY
(1) Delusion (2) Clueless
(3) Truth (4) Heavy |
| 65. | Select the most appropriate antonym of the given word: LETHARGIC
(1) Cute (2) Exhausted
(3) Active (4) Intelligent |
| 66. | Identify the most appropriate antonym of the underlined word in the following sentence.
A boisterous horse must have a rough bridle.
(1) Rowdy (2) Loud
(3) Bouncy (4) Calm |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 67. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: Spill the beans
(1) Cook the beans carelessly
(2) Leak a secret
(3) The act of loving beans too much
(4) To help someone in an extraordinary way |
| 68. | Select the most appropriate meaning of the given idiom: To lose your touch
(1) To lose someone very close
(2) To lose a skill which you had
(3) To lose confidence
(4) To be happy |
| 69. | Select the most appropriate option to substitute the underlined segment in the given sentence.
Riding a horse was **a piece of cake** for him.
(1) very easy task
(2) very difficult task
(3) an intricate affair
(4) confusing work |
| 70. | Select the wrongly spelt word:
(1) reduction
(2) penitence
(3) ruthlesness
(4) residue |
| 71. | The King James version of the Bible was published in
(1) 1611
(2) 1711
(3) 1811
(4) 1911 |
| 72. | Name the first Indian novel in English which won the Sahitya Akademi Award:
(1) *The Serpent and the Rope*
(2) *Midnight’s Children*
(3) *The Guide*
(4) *The God of Small Things* |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 73. | Which of the following novels written originally in Hindi won the International Booker Prize?
(1) The White Tiger (2) Kanthapura
(3) Hang Woman (4) Tomb of Sand |
| 74. | Who wrote the book *The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian*?
(1) Nirad C. Chaudhuri (2) Nissim Ezekiel
(3) Keki N. Daruwalla (4) Mulkraj Anand |
| 75. | ‘Toba Tek Singh’ a famous story on the theme of Partition was written by:
(1) Ismat Chughtai (2) Yashpal
(3) Amrita Pritam (4) Saadat Hasan Manto |
| 76. | Which of the following poets was blind?
(1) Dr. Johnson (2) William Blake
(3) John Milton (4) William Goldsmith |
| 77. | The oldest English epic is:
(1) *Iliad* (2) *Shield of Heracles*
(3) *Beowulf* (4) *Odyssey* |
| 78. | Portia in ‘The Merchant of Venice’ disguises herself as a man in the trial scene. Which name she assumes?
(1) Hieronimo (2) Balthasar
(3) Bellagio (4) Christo |
| 79. | Who wrote the famous poem ‘The Deserted Village’?
(1) William Langland (2) William Cowper
(3) Oliver Goldsmith (4) William Hazlitt |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 80. | Who wrote the famous play *Doctor Faustus*?
(1) Marlowe (2) Congreve
(3) Jonson (4) Shakespeare |
| 81. | Instructions for questions 81-90: Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate answer.
I need ............... more information in this matter.
(1) a few (2) few
(3) little (4) a little |
| 82. | Mona ............... ancient Indian history and culture.
(1) interested in (2) interested at
(3) is interested about (4) is interested in |
| 83. | Saket is ............... playing cricket.
(1) good in (2) good at
(3) good into (4) good on |
| 84. | I don’t know how ...............
(1) old is he (2) he old is
(3) old he is (4) is he old |
| 85. | I am looking forward to ............... soon.
(1) hearing from you (2) hear from you
(3) hear you (4) be hearing from you |
| 86. | We postponed the trip ............... the bad driving conditions.
(1) because (2) in spite of
(3) because of (4) despite |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 87. | She remains busy ............... her social work.
(1) in (2) with
(3) for (4) about |
| 88. | Rakesh came and sat ............... his friend.
(1) for (2) besides
(3) beside (4) away |
| 89. | Those who aim ............... stars, must hit the trees first.
(1) at (2) to
(3) towards (4) on |
| 90. | ............... water in that jug is not suitable for drinking.
(1) A (2) An
(3) The (4) Some |
| 91. | Who wrote the famous line: ‘Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven”?
(1) P.B. Shelley (2) S.T. Coleridge
(3) William Wordsworth (4) John Keats |
| 92. | Which of the following poems by John Keats consists of the famous line: ‘Where are the songs of spring”? Ay, where are they ? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too”?
(1) ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’ (2) ‘Ode to Autumn’
(3) ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ (4) ‘Ode on Melancholy’ |
| 93. | Which of the following is not a novel by Jane Austen ?
(1) Pride and Prejudice
(2) Wuthering Heights
(3) Sense and Sensibility
(4) Mansfield Park |
| Question No. | Questions |
|-------------|-----------|
| 94. | Who among the following writers is famous for his personal essays?
(1) Charles Lamb (2) Susan Sontag
(3) Robert Lynd (4) C.P. Snow |
| 95. | Which of the following historical factors was a great influence of the Victorian literature?
(1) The Industrial Revolution (2) The French Revolution
(3) The American Civil War (4) The Restoration of Monarchy |
| 96. | Which of the following novels were written by Charles Dickens?
(1) *Oliver Twist, Hard Times, The Vanity Fair*
(2) *David Copperfield, Far from the Madding Crowd, Great Expectations*
(3) *Oliver Twist, Hard Times, Great Expectations*
(4) *Hard Times, Oliver Twist, Wuthering Heights* |
| 97. | Mary Ann Evans was the real name of:
(1) Jane Austen (2) Emily Bronte
(3) George Meredith (4) George Eliot |
| 98. | Who was the first Poet Laureate of England?
(1) John Milton (2) John Dryden
(3) William Wordsworth (4) William Shakespears |
| 99. | Who among the following wrote the famous book *Poetics*?
(1) Plato (2) Aristotle
(3) Socrates (4) Longinus |
| 100. | Who made a distinction between primary imagination and secondary imagination?
(1) Aristotle (2) Walter Pater
(3) S.T. Coleridge (4) T.S. Eliot |
| Q. NO. | A | B | C | D |
|-------|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
| 2 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 4 |
| 3 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| 4 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| 5 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
| 6 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 1 |
| 7 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 4 |
| 8 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 4 |
| 9 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| 10 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 3 |
| 11 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 1 |
| 12 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| 13 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 |
| 14 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 |
| 15 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| 16 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
| 17 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 4 |
| 18 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 |
| 19 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 |
| 20 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 1 |
| 21 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 1 |
| 22 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 1 |
| 23 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 3 |
| 24 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
| 25 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| 26 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 |
| 27 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 4 |
| 28 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 1 |
| 29 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 2 |
| 30 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 |
| 31 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
| 32 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 |
| 33 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 |
| 34 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 3 |
| 35 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
| 36 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| 37 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 3 |
| 38 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 1 |
| 39 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 40 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 3 |
| 41 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| 42 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 1 |
| 43 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 |
| 44 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| 45 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 2 |
| 46 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| 47 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 1 |
| 48 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 4 |
| 49 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| 50 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 4 |
| Q. NO. | A | B | C | D |
|-------|---|---|---|---|
| 51 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| 52 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| 53 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 |
| 54 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| 55 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 3 |
| 56 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 |
| 57 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| 58 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 4 |
| 59 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 |
| 60 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 |
| 61 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 |
| 62 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 3 |
| 63 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 3 |
| 64 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| 65 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| 66 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 |
| 67 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 2 |
| 68 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
| 69 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
| 70 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 3 |
| 71 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
| 72 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 3 |
| 73 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 |
| 74 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 |
| 75 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 |
| 76 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 |
| 77 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 3 |
| 78 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| 79 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 80 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 1 |
| 81 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 |
| 82 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 |
| 83 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| 84 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| 85 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 |
| 86 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 3 |
| 87 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 2 |
| 88 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 3 |
| 89 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 1 |
| 90 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 3 |
| 91 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 3 |
| 92 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 |
| 93 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 2 |
| 94 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 1 |
| 95 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 96 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| 97 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| 98 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| 99 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
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The relationship between primary agony and the reading processes of children!
Anne Boisseuil
To cite this version:
Anne Boisseuil. The relationship between primary agony and the reading processes of children!. Congrès Européen en Psychiatrie, Mar 2015, Vienne, Austria. 2015. hal-01447040
The relationship between primary agony and the reading processes of children
Methodology and hypothesis:
This presentation is a clinical research based on practice with sessions of children in the age of 6, when children learn how to read. I believe this age is a critical period when primary anxieties are reactivated. Learning to read and write requests a deep identity reorganization. Children with narcissistic disorders, autistic aspects have difficulties. Letters can be overvalued to protect from feelings. In psychotherapy, the transference relationship enables innovative approaches to the use of words, to their symbolic meaning. Why some children know how to write and read but still have issues with symbolization? Why are they frightened by the feelings?
Transform primary agony and build a sense of being:
Abstract thinking relies on sensory connections: Primary symbolization
For children, thoughts are first experienced as sensations, concrete objects. The psychic job is to transform these sensations in thoughts. Abstract spoken words are acquired but their relationship to reality is still sometimes very narrow. Thus puns are only accessible after a certain period, usually after 6 years. What happened during that period? Neuroscience studies tend to show that there is a sensitive period conducive to the development of new knowledge. The learning process is processed by the "primitive brain". For them, when a children asked to read, specific brain function are required and one of them is the rhythmic adjustment and the awareness of the environment.
The ego as a bodily projection; a container for an inner world
The body is our first experiment space, our skin the first limit, the shape of the letters another one. What a joy to create the world through writing, but a terror if the primary anxiety become true! That's why, for a while, the adult share with the children his « container » ability.
Reading is first and foremost being read then reading emotions
Face recognition incorporates a host of other data, including emotional. Winnicott has shown that it is through the emotional game, read on the face of the mother, the baby made a first experience, mirror understanding their emotional states.
In the early stages of learning to read and write, the child uses this feature mirrored. That is why we see mirrored in the early writings of learning. (S. Dehaene)
The words: a new possession that reactivates the first: birth of the object
Neurosciences studies show the complexity of the integration of children's life experiences in learning new skills. In the clinic, the psychic processes arise in somatic activity, motor sensory, emotional primary. The first sensory-affective-proven engines to the most elaborate performances. The shape emerges from an initial undifferentiated matrix so the learning process is a construction of a separate object. What Bion calls the «proto-space».
Learning how to read: discovery and tolerate the unknown
The desire to know is related to the feeling of helplessness, to the infant's distress, the Hilflosigkeit (S. Freud). The epistemophile impulse is linked with the sadistic fantasies. The sense of being of the infant might be fragilized by them. So, the shapes of letters are rigid, without symbolism.
Clinical vignette: Sam, 5 years old: a concrete use of letters to symbolism
Sam, a geometric world to support the inner structure. He is obsessed with words:
- the cross on churches
- the signs of words, their shape
He can not read. What is he looking for?
The assumption is that the structure of the cross is found in the words. It is a search for an internal seduction, a primary psychic organization. Verbal, horizontal, clear and repetitive, these signs reassure Sam. He defends the world by projecting his body image and its flaws. It's a very concrete way of reading, full of fears because it does not open to imagination.
The straight forms, clearly distinguished as are the crosses of the churches, are representations of his attempt internal structure. The rigid shapes of the letters could support projections Sam fantasies. Within the transference relationship, he relied on me to play.
First step: play with the shapes of the letters.
Neither his nor mine, opening a transitional space
Sam expresses primary anxieties when he threatens me to stop him from the drawing if I speak, or do something wrong. He needs to control my voice and my inner world. Reading loudly is a concrete experience of penetration. His sense of being is attacked. After the interpretation of his fantasise to be devoured while I speak, he drew.
Drawing n°2: Two teeth: Recognize and tolerate the projection of his inner world
The shapes of its dentures geometric and have minimal contours. The two teeth are represented with, inside, the letters. The letters are all uppercase, they do not touch. The fantasy of eating the words is represented here in a concrete way. Playing with the meaning of words is a new experience for him.
Drawing n°3: Access symbolism: word games « DansGE (Danger means In -I Have) »
The word is meaningful with danger and inside. The danger is inside of the others, fathers and male identifications. Here that the letters are not represented. The interior of man is hidden: Sam has internalized the concept of secrecy. He can think without disrupting, the other is hiding things, that there are puzzles. Opening possible sense shows that Sam identifies himself with the fantasies. The letters tell a conscious and repressed history. There is a veil that gives its symbolic content of the word.
Conclusion
Learning to read is a time of significant change for the child. Psychic work which is requested mobilizes primary aspects of his identity. So deep anxieties can reappear. We must have in mind that the use of the letters may be a defence against the emotional impact of the discovery of symbolic meanings.
The shapes of the letters are seen only by their visual surface. Reading aloud, tolerating differences between the visual and auditory percept can refer to early anxieties about identity continuity. In therapy, we have showed that the child is able to use rigid defences, paranoid or schizoid subsidue. So that the world becomes a creation of words, those words will be necessary to read in our where the letters have to be integrated with their sensory perception and therefore also the emotional impact.
The psychoanalytic models of primary symbolization allowed us to understand differently the learning process of reading for children with primary anxiety. We saw that this very specific period of 6 years old asks the child to mobilize both a verbal and a sensory language, more novel, more connected to the body sensations.
We came to the conclusion that the rigid use of words is a defensive reaction and may be related to anxiety regarding the integrity of the self. The substitution of words in the construction of the self and primary agony excluded the capacity of inner integration. The space is higher invested for adapting the new challenge. The rigid language might destroy their sense of being. Through play, through play, sensory letters can become metaphors.
In other words, for some children, you need to play with the letters as sensory signs. This process activates the primary sensory apparatus and allows to contain fantasies, especially those aggressive. Then the infant can deconstruct its defenses and will play with words as metaphors of his inner world.
Sources :
Bion W. (1970), L'attention et l'interprétation, Paris, Payot, 1974
Freud S. (1926), Inhibition, symptôme et angoisse, 4ème ed. Paris : PUF, 1993
Dehaene S., Pegado F., et al. (2010) "How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language", Science, 6009, 1359-1364.
Freud S. (1926), Inhibition, symptôme et angoisse, 4ème ed. Paris : PUF, 1993
Winnicott D. W. (1953), International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, « Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena, A Study of the First Notion », 34, p.89-97. | b73c5a8a-20ce-4adc-9535-45fc5844a3d2 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://hal-amu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01447040/document | 2020-10-27T12:39:29+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107894175.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20201027111346-20201027141346-00323.warc.gz | 361,865,888 | 1,730 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.960764 | eng_Latn | 0.998637 | [
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Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range
World Heritage “Omine Okugakemichi”
“Omine Okugakemichi”, connecting Yoshino and Kumano is one of the sacred sites and pilgrimage routes in the Kii mountain range designated as the world heritage in July 2004, with the history of 1,300 years as the route for practices of the mono-no-gyōja (a practitioner of Shugendo) and the route where the famous “En-no-gyōja” who was the founder of Shugendo. The route is still used by practitioners of Shugendo, and a part of Okugakemichi of about 20 km runs through Kumano-machi village and is located at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 m of the sea level. Although the route is not a steep mountain trail, being the steepest part of the pilgrimage route in the Omine mountains, the ancient road is maintained as natural as possible as it used to be in the ancient times, along which the trees of forest are growing naturally and there are many fine old azaleas and rhododendrons seasonally bloom. Also, the route leading to one of the practice sites called “Sho-no-iwasy” where the hardest midwinter abitation was practiced is now maintained as a trekking route from Mt. Wasamatayama so that visitors can walk the route relatively safely.
Yoshino-Kumano National Park
“Mt. Odaigahara” – one of 100 most famous mountains in Japan –
The recommended route in Mt. Odaigahara surrounded by the vast majestic nature is the Higashi-odai route. The route is highlighted with an amazing panoramic view and many trees and flowers for all four seasons. You will enjoy rhododendrons in spring, five leaf azaleas in late summer, deep green foliage and refreshing streams in autumn, autumn leaves, fog deposit in winter, and the clear sky in winter. On the other hand, the Nishi-odai route is easily walked in a short distance route. However, the route is the precious primordial forest mainly consisting of Japanese beech and including swamps, marshes, and mooses, and you will enjoy songs of forest birds and an encounter with the native beauty.
* Caution: In September 2016, Nishi-odai was designated as Use Coordination District because of the damage of Japanese beech forest by the strong typhoon. The government remained untouched. You are required to take necessary procedural steps in case of entering Nishi-odai.
* For more information, call Kamikitaoyama Village Association of Commerce at 07468-3-0070
Wasamata Trekking Route (including the loop route, swamp route, huge tree route, etc.) for inexperienced and intermediate trekkers.
Mt. Wasamatayama is located at mountain ranges extending in the east and west directions from Mt. Daifugen-dake in the Yoshino-Kumano National Park. It is one of the eight main peaks in the pilgrimage route of the world heritage “Omine Okugakemichi” such as Mt. Okugahara, Mt. Hakkyogatake, and Mt. Gyojagatake from the mountain range of the altitude of 1,344 m. Also, one of the ascetic practice places “Sho-no-Iwasy” is located between Mt. Daifugen and Mt. Wasamatayama and is included in the world heritage. Sho-no-Iwasy is known as a spiritual power spot and is allegedly mentioned in the following of Kojiki (Kojiki is a Japanese ancient book). The Wasamata trekking route includes various routes with these two sites set as the goal.
Nishi-odai Trekking Route (recommended for intermediate and advanced trekkers)
(Use Coordination District, overall distance: 9 km, time required: 5 hours)
Climbing Nishi-odai is relatively difficult because it is easy to be lost in the vast forest. It is recommended to go up the mountain alone and visit there with someone familiar with the area.
This route is surrounded by the majestic nature of the coast of Pacific beach, and you may be immersed in a mysterious atmosphere as you walk through the forest of Japanese beech such as Japanese fish heliotrope, Thalictrum actaeifolium, and mountainous pompy will be the place where you can enjoy the sounds of many streams, and please be very careful when the streams are swollen (about 2 hours is required to reach Kodokoro onsen hot spring from the parking lot).
Higashi-odai Route (recommended for inexperienced and intermediate trekkers)
(overall distance: about 9 km, time required: about 4 hours)
Mt. Odaigahara can be broadly divided into two districts of Higashi-odai (eastern side) and Nishi-odai (western side). The Higashi-odai route includes a lot of highlight spots such as Mt. Higashidake, the largest Japanese beech forest in the Kii Alps, Odaigahara, thrilling Daigigura, Masagishara field, and Ushidagihara field. The route is provided with guide plates and is easy to walk even for inexperienced trekkers, so everyone can enjoy the route. The route is maintained well and is easy to walk in the great nature at leisure.
Mt. Odaigahara area is designated as one of the special protection zones in Yoshino-Kumano National Park. Please observe the rules to enter the area in order to protect the beautiful nature.
Kamikitayama Village, whole area is included in “Biosphere Reserve”! “Mount Odaigahara, Mount Omine, and Osugidani Biosphere Reserve” accredited by UNESCO
Kamikitayama Village MAP (northern area)
Contact Info for Inquiries about Mountains
General Information: Kamikitayama Village Office, Local Promotion Division (Kamikitayama Sightseeing Association)
TEL: 07468-2-0001
About Mt.Odaigahara area: Odaigahara Visitor Center (open from the middle of April to early December) TEL: 07468-3-0312
About Mt.Omine area: Wasamarutayama Hütte TEL: 07468-3-0027
See left part of reverse side
See right part of reverse side
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Coefficient - the number in front of the variable - tells how many of the variable you have.
Variable is a letter that represents a number
Coefficient is a number being multiplied by the variable
Operation is what you do to the variable
Constant is a number that does not change
Write an expression where:
Coefficient is 4
Variable is t
Operation is -
Constant is 9
Writing Expressions
How do you translate algebraic expressions?
Components of algebraic expressions:
- **Coefficient** - number in front of the variable
- **Constant** - terms with numbers only
- **Variable** - letter used to represent an unknown number
\[ \frac{a}{b} = a \div b = \frac{a}{b} \]
An expression is a mathematical expression that has variables, numbers, and operations.
Add: \( 3y + \frac{5}{4}x + 15 \)
\[
\begin{align*}
&\text{Coefficient} \\
&3y + \frac{5}{4}x + 15 \\
&\uparrow \quad \uparrow \\
&\text{Var} \quad \text{Var} \\
&\frac{3}{4} \text{ more than an unknown number} \\
&\text{an unknown increased by } \frac{3}{4}
\end{align*}
\]
Subtract: \( 13.47 - y \)
- An unknown number subtracted from 13.47
- 13.47 minus an unknown number
- 13.47 decreased by an unknown number
- The difference between 13.47 and some number
multiply
\[ 6x \]
Six times a number
the product of six and some number
division
\[ \frac{y}{4} \]
the quotient of a number and four
some number split into four pieces
multiple ops
\[ 1.8y - \frac{5}{9}(x-11) \]
the product of 1.8 and a number minus \(\frac{5}{9}\) times the quantity of an unknown number minus 11.
\[ -\frac{1}{6} + 3x - 2y \]
\(-\frac{1}{6} + 3\) times a number minus the product of 2 and another number
Words to Algebra
Words to algebra
3 times the sum of a number and $\frac{8}{3}$
$3(x + \frac{8}{3})$
-1.7 less than $\frac{1}{2}$ of a number
$\frac{1}{2}m - (-1.7)$ or
$\frac{m}{2} - (-1.7)$
three fourths of the difference of a number and 9
$\frac{3}{4}(x - 9)$
the quotient of a number and 15
$\frac{y}{15}$ or $y \div 15$
Real-World
Jill ran a certain number of miles on Monday.
On Tuesday, Jill ran 5.3 miles farther than three times what she did on Monday. Represent the miles Jill ran on Tuesday as an algebraic expression.
Let Monday = $x$
$[3x + 5.3]$ on Tuesday
Paul exercises $h$ hours a day for 5 days. Over the weekend, he exercises a total of 4.5 hours. What expression represents the number of hours Paul exercises in a full week?
$[5h + 4.5]$
the city is building a parking lot for an office building. The parking lot should have 4 rows for cars, but due to the shape of the lot, each row will have a different number of spots. The second row will have half as many spots as the first row. The third row will have two fewer spots than the second, and the fourth row will have four fewer than the 2nd row.
\[ x = \text{1st row} \quad \text{2nd row} = \frac{1}{2}x \quad (or) \quad \frac{x}{2} \]
What expression represents the total number of spots?
\[ 3rd \ row = \frac{x}{2} - 2 \quad 4th \ row = \frac{x}{2} - 4 \]
\[ x + \left( \frac{x}{2} \right) + \left( \frac{x}{2} - 2 \right) + \left( \frac{x}{2} - 4 \right) \]
\[ \frac{2x}{2} + \frac{x}{2} + \frac{x}{2} + \frac{x}{2} - 2 - 4 \]
\[ \frac{5x}{2} - 6 \quad \text{let } x = 10 \]
\[ \frac{5(10)}{2} - 6 = \frac{50}{2} - 6 = 25 - 6 = 19 \]
\[ \frac{5x}{2} - 6 = \frac{5(30)}{2} - 6 = \frac{150}{2} - 6 = 75 - 6 = 69 \]
\[ -\frac{3}{6}(x+7); \ x = 9 \quad -\frac{3}{6}(9) + 7 = -\frac{45}{6} + 7 = \frac{-45}{6} + \frac{42}{6} = \frac{-3}{6} = -\frac{1}{2} \]
Writing & Evaluating Expressions
How can you use expressions to solve a real-world problem?
Marissa is building a rectangular garden behind her house. She wants to use the house as one side of the garden for shade, and the length of the house should be 3 times the width of the garden. Write an algebraic expression that will model the amount of fencing Marissa will require.
Question - How much fencing will Marissa need?
Clues - \( l = 3 \times \text{width} \)
Strategy -
\[
\begin{array}{c|c}
w & w \\
\hline
3w &
\end{array}
\]
Check - \( w + 3w + w \Rightarrow 5w \)
Marissa found the expression \( 5w \) for fencing. She already has 52 ft of fencing, what is the largest width she can have for her garden? Evaluate using a width of 1 ft.
\[
52 - 5w \quad \text{Let } w = 1
\]
Substitution \(\Rightarrow\)
\[
\begin{align*}
52 - 5(4) &= 52 - 20 = 32 \\
52 - 5(8) &= 52 - 40 = 12 \\
52 - 5(7) &= 52 - 35 = 17 \\
52 - 5(9) &= 52 - 45 = 7 \\
52 - 5(10) &= 52 - 50 = 2 \\
52 - 5(11) &= 52 - 55 = -3
\end{align*}
\]
Writing & Evaluating Division Expressions
Maurilo bought 8 pizzas for his baseball team to share equally after the game. If each pizza has 10 slices, how many slices will each player receive?
\[ P = \# \text{ players} \quad \frac{8(10)}{P} \Rightarrow \frac{48}{P} ; \text{Let } p=11 \]
\[ \frac{48}{11} = 4\frac{4}{11} \]
Evaluate Expressions with Given Values
A truck driver covers 63.5 miles per hour for \( x \) miles. Along the way, the driver accidentally took a wrong turn and lost 33.5 miles. If the driver spent 6 hours on the road, how far did she travel in the correct direction?
1. Write an expression.
\[ 63.5x - 33.5 \]
2. Evaluate the expression.
Let \( x = 6 \)
\[ (63.5)(6) - 33.5 = 381 - 33.5 \]
\[ = 347.5 \]
3. Answer Question
She traveled 347.5 miles in the correct direction. | ab87d5e6-ecf9-4181-a88d-f7ec2a748c6a | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://userfiles-secure.educatorpages.com/userfiles/mrsmlee/scanned%20notes%209.14.20.pdf | 2020-09-23T09:19:07+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400210616.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200923081833-20200923111833-00509.warc.gz | 670,559,777 | 1,785 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.939699 | eng_Latn | 0.968489 | [
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Preparatory Reading Pack
VleW – Virago-empowered Women
This project has been funded with support from the Erasmus+ Program of EU. Project Number: KA2 - 2023-1-BG01-KA210-YOU-000155509. This document has been prepared for the European Commission. However, it reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
# Table of Contents
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| VIEW – VIRAGO-EMPOWERED WOMEN – PROJECT DESCRIPTION | 3 |
| WELCOME TO THE VIRAGO - EMPOWERED WOMEN TRAINING! | 4 |
| WHY DO YOU NEED TO READ THIS PREPARATORY PACK? | 6 |
| LITHUANIA’S GEOGRAPHY | 7 |
| 12 KEY FACTS ABOUT LITHUANIAN HISTORY | 8 |
| CULTURAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BULGARIANS, LITHUANIANS, CYPRIOTS AND SPANIARDS | 9 |
| CROSS-CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS | 10 |
| WHAT WE WILL EXPLORE IN VILNIUS | 11 |
| BASICS OF ARCHITECTURAL STYLES | 12 |
This project has been funded with support from the Erasmus+ Program of EU. Project Number: KA2-2023-1-BG01-KA210-YOU-000155509. This document has been prepared for the European Commission. However it reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
VleW – Virago-empowered Women – Project Description
**Partners:**
SNC "Parallel Silistra", Bulgaria Association;
"TAVO Europe", Lithuania;
"Association for Cooperation and Social Inclusion Amanei", Spain;
"Dorea Educational Institute", Cyprus
**Associated Partners:** Local authorities and institutions, NGOs.
**Duration:** 18 months
**Target participants:** Women from 18 up to 29 with fewer opportunities from remote areas, who face barriers to their inclusion in the community, as well as refugee women from Ukraine.
**Goal:** The goal of the project that unites us is to connect and activate youth workers and female volunteers from Bulgaria, Lithuania, the Canary Islands, Spain and Cyprus. We will involve them in an international training in Lithuania and several national ones to develop their competencies as youth leaders committed to protecting human rights. We will motivate them to undertake youth initiatives in their communities to solve problems such as human rights violations and the irresponsible use of natural resources and promote resilience against war. In this process, we will aim to include 180 different women and refugees from Ukraine.
**Activities:** During a workshop in Cyprus, the partners will discuss and share eight successful practices for promoting youth participation in local development partnerships and initiatives. They will incorporate the best of their experience into a training manual to support youth workers. In the spring of 2024, they will perform an international training for young women in Lithuania. In 2024-2025, the partners will organize national campaigns in which 180 young people will be directly involved and will be followed by at least 220 people online. The campaign participants will talk about their initiatives through 8 digital stories created by the young project participants and through numerous photos, Facebook posts, media publications, flyers, and brochures, uploaded on the project website.
**Results:** Four civil society organizations will work in partnership to increase the competencies of 8 youth workers and 16 women to involve 180 young people in initiatives as part of the democratic life of the EU. These events will attract at least 220 people online. Through the VIEW platform, participants will digitally tell their stories of solving problems such as human rights violations, the irresponsible use of natural resources, and societal resilience against the war in Ukraine.
**Contacts**
email@example.com
firstname.lastname@example.org
email@example.com
firstname.lastname@example.org
This project has been funded with support from the Erasmus+ Program of EU. Project Number: KA2 - 2023-1-BG01-KA210-YOU-000155509. This document has been prepared for the European Commission. However it reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
Welcome to the VIRAGO- Empowered Women Training!
Dear VIRAGO Participants,
A warm welcome to every one of you! We are thrilled to embark on this empowering journey together, where we will explore, learn, and grow as a community of strong and VIRAGO-empowered women. What does the word VIRAGO stand for? Apart from meaning ‘powerful women leaders’, the VIRAGO concept stands for:
| V | Vision |
|---|--------|
| | We envision a Europe where citizens actively contribute to a democratic, inclusive, and sustainable society. |
| I | Inspiration |
|---|-------------|
| | By drawing inspiration from diverse perspectives and experiences, leaders can enhance their cultural intelligence, leading to more informed and empathetic decision-making. |
| R | Resilience |
|---|------------|
| | The development of resilience serves as a main pillar for individuals, enhancing personal, social, and learning-to-learn competence by strengthening skills to overcome challenges, adapt to diverse social contexts, and embrace life-long learning with a positive and proactive mindset. |
| A | Activism |
|---|----------|
| | We aim to improve organizational competence to reach out to diverse youth |
| G | Green thinking |
|---|----------------|
| | Green thinking contributes to improved competence in sustainable green initiatives by fostering an environmentally conscious mindset that aligns with and drives responsible actions toward environmental sustainability. |
| O | Overcoming |
|---|------------|
| | Overcoming challenges is directly linked to digital competence and effective problem-solving skills. Individuals who use digital technologies can leverage them to devise innovative solutions and navigate complex issues. |
As we embark on this transformative journey together, it's crucial to reflect on the significance of the VIRAGO - Empowered Women Training, it's a catalyst for change, a call to action that extends beyond our time together. Here's why the training is essential and what meaningful actions await you:
1. **Building a Supportive Network**: Since April 2024 we must strengthen the connections forged during the training by actively participating in post-training forums and collaborative initiatives.
This project has been funded with support from the Erasmus+ Program of EU. Project Number: KA2-2023-1-BG01-KA210-YOU-000155509. This document has been prepared for the European Commission. However it reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
2. **Applying New Skills and Knowledge**: From April 2024 until March 2025, during the National Actions, you should use the skills and knowledge gained during the VIRAGO training. Please, apply what you've learned to effect positive change, whether it's in your community, workplace, or personal life.
3. **Advocacy and Community Engagement**: Become advocates for women’s empowerment in your communities. Engage in conversations, lead initiatives, and amplify the voices of those whose stories deserve to be heard. Be the change agents who drive societal progress.
4. **Social Impact Projects**: Collaborate with your fellow VIRAGO participants on social impact projects. Use the skills honed during the training to address challenges in your community, contributing to positive and sustainable change.
5. **Celebrating Achievements**: Acknowledge and celebrate your achievements, whether big or small. Your successes contribute to the collective narrative of empowered women, inspiring others to achieve their goals.
---
**Neris River in Vilnius**
This project has been funded with support from the Erasmus+ Program of EU. Project Number: KA2-2023-1-BG01-KA210-YOU-000155509. This document has been prepared for the European Commission. However it reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
Why do you need to read this Preparatory Reading Pack?
Generally, learning about a country before visiting demonstrates a commitment to responsible and respectful travel. Here are some compelling reasons why learning about a country before visiting is essential:
1. **Cultural Understanding**: Understanding a country's customs, traditions, and social norms helps travellers show respect for the local culture. Being aware of cultural nuances prevents unintentional disrespect or misunderstandings. Learning basic phrases in the local language can facilitate communication and enhance the traveller's ability to interact with locals. This effort is often appreciated and fosters positive connections. You can consider [Cultural Differences between Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Cypriots and Spanish](#).
2. **Food Culture**: Knowing about a country's cuisine allows travellers to explore local dishes and traditions. It enhances the culinary experience and helps avoid cultural misunderstandings related to food practices.
3. **Historical Context and Appreciation of Sites**: Learning about a country's history ([Read 12 Key Facts about Lithuanian History](#)) provides context for visiting historical sites and landmarks. Appreciating the significance of these places enriches the travel experience.
4. **Sensitivity to Local Issues**: Being informed about local environmental and social issues allows travellers to minimize their impact on the destination, which includes respecting wildlife, understanding conservation efforts, and being aware of social challenges.
5. **Appreciation of Art and Architecture**: Familiarity with a country's art and architectural styles enhances the appreciation of museums, historical buildings, and contemporary art. Since we are going to explore some historical sites in Vilnius, [you'd better read ……](#).
6. **Mindful Tourism**: Sustainable Travel Practices: Learning about responsible tourism practices helps travellers minimize their environmental impact and contribute positively to local economies.
7. **Health and Safety**: Being informed about healthcare facilities, emergency services, and local health risks prepares travellers for unexpected situations and ensures they can seek help. Read about [Lithuania's Geography and Climate](#) to get prepared for this experience!
**Your Virago Journey Begins Here!**
Embrace the opportunity to learn and grow together, fostering a supportive network of empowered women. The knowledge you gain about Lithuania will catalyze meaningful conversations, shared experiences, and a deeper understanding of our world. See you in Lithuania, ready to write the next chapter of our VIRAGO story!
Lithuania borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland and the detached Russian oblast of Kaliningrad to the southwest, and the Baltic Sea to the west.
**Relief**
The contemporary Lithuanian relief is a low-lying plain scraped by Ice Age glaciers. The country has a relatively short coastline along the Baltic Sea. The coastal region is flat and sandy, with dunes and a unique landscape.
Lithuania is known for its numerous lakes, especially in the eastern and northeastern regions. Lakes are a prominent landscape feature, contributing to the country's natural beauty. The Nemunas River, the largest river in Lithuania, flows across the country, influencing the surrounding landscape and forming river valleys.
The eastern part of Lithuania is home to the Eastern Highlands, also known as Aukštaitija. This region features rolling hills, lakes, and forests. It represents a transition from the lowlands to more elevated terrain. The northwestern part of Lithuania includes the Samogitian Uplands. This area houses slightly elevated terrain with hills, lakes, and dense forests.
**Climate**
Lithuania has a humid continental climate. The average temperature for January, the coldest month, is about −5 °C, while July, the warmest month, has an average temperature of about 17 °C.
Lithuania consistently ranks high in quality of life as it boasts low pollution, excellent healthcare, and high living standards at a lower cost than most Western European countries.
12 Key Facts about Lithuanian History
1. **Early Settlement:**
Lithuania is one of the oldest countries in Europe, with its statehood dating back to the early medieval period. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established in the 13th century.
2. **Union with Poland:**
In the late 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed a political union with the Kingdom of Poland. The Union of Lublin in 1569 officially created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
3. **The Grand Duchy of Lithuania:**
At its height, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was one of the largest and most powerful states in Europe, covering a vast territory from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea.
4. **The Statute of Lithuania:**
The Lithuanian Statute, was a legal code written in 1529-1566. It played a crucial role in shaping legal and social norms in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
5. **The Great Northern War:**
In the early 18th century, Lithuania, along with Poland, faced significant challenges during the Great Northern War. The region experienced invasions and occupations by various powers, including Sweden and Russia.
6. **Partitions of Poland-Lithuania:**
The late 18th century saw the partitions of Poland-Lithuania by neighboring powers—Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Lithuania became part of the Russian Empire.
7. **Independence (1918-1940):**
Lithuania declared its independence on February 16, 1918, during the aftermath of World War I and the collapse of the Russian Empire. The interwar period saw the establishment of the modern Lithuanian state.
8. **Soviet Occupation and World War II:**
In 1940, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, followed by Nazi Germany in 1941 during World War II. The country experienced significant losses during the war.
9. **Post-War Soviet Annexation:**
After World War II, Lithuania was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union, marking a period of Soviet occupation that lasted until the early 1990s.
10. **Restoration of Independence:**
Lithuania declared the restoration of its independence on March 11, 1990, becoming the first Soviet republic to do so. This declaration eventually led to the recognition of Lithuania’s independence by the international community.
11. **European Union and NATO Membership:**
Lithuania joined the European Union in 2004 and NATO in 2004, solidifying its place in European political and security structures.
12. **Modern Lithuania:**
Today, Lithuania is a democratic republic with a diverse cultural heritage, a strong emphasis on education, and active participation in European and global affairs. Vilnius, the capital, is known for its historic Old Town and cultural richness.
Cultural Differences between Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Cypriots and Spaniards
Perceptions and cultural differences among Bulgarians, Cypriots, Spanish, and Lithuanians can be multifaceted and influenced by historical, geographical, and socio-cultural factors. Here are some broad observations with examples, but keep in mind that cultural generalizations may not apply to every individual:
**Bulgarians:**
- **Collectivism and Hospitality:** In Bulgaria, family and community ties are strong, and hospitality is highly valued. Inviting guests into one's home is a common practice, and Bulgarians often prioritize social connections.
- **Reserved Communication Style:** Bulgarians may initially appear reserved in communication, especially with strangers. Trust and relationship-building are crucial before more personal topics are discussed.
**Cypriots:**
- **Mediterranean Hospitality:** Cypriots, influenced by Mediterranean culture, are known for their warmth and hospitality. Visitors may experience generous offers of food and a genuine interest in their well-being.
- **Communication Style:** Communication in Cyprus often involves expressive body language and gestures. People may engage in lively conversations and value personal connections.
**Spanish:**
- **Emphasis on Relationships:** Spaniards often prioritize personal relationships over punctuality. Socializing is a significant part of Spanish culture, and relationships are nurtured through regular gatherings.
- **Siesta Tradition:** The tradition of siesta reflects the Spanish approach to time and work-life balance. Afternoon breaks allow people to rest and recharge before resuming daily activities.
**Lithuanians:**
- **Reserved Nature:** Lithuanians may initially appear reserved or formal in communication, especially in professional settings. Building trust is essential for more open interactions.
- **Connection to Nature:** Lithuania's natural landscapes influence cultural values. Many Lithuanians have a deep connection to nature, and outdoor activities are popular.
Cross-Cultural Considerations
Factors Affecting Cross-Cultural Communication
- **Communication Styles**: Bulgarians and Lithuanians may share a reserved communication style initially, while Cypriots and Spaniards might be more expressive. Understanding these differences is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication.
- **Family and Social Structure**: Family plays a central role in Bulgarian and Cypriot cultures. In contrast, the Spanish and Lithuanians may have a broader social network beyond the immediate family.
- **Approach to Time**: The perception of time varies; punctuality may be less stringent in Spanish and Cypriot cultures compared to Bulgarian and Lithuanian cultures.
- **Cultural Expressions**: Each culture has unique cultural expressions, including traditional dances, music, and art, reflecting historical influences and local traditions.
It's essential to approach cultural differences with an open mind, recognizing that individual experiences may differ. Cultural awareness and sensitivity contribute to effective communication and positive intercultural interactions.
What We Will Explore in Vilnius
1. Vilnius, Lithuania's capital, is known for its baroque architecture, especially in its medieval Old Town. But the buildings lining this district's partially cobblestoned streets reflect diverse styles and eras, from the Gothic St. Anne's Church to the neoclassical Vilnius Cathedral.
2. Vibrant Vilnius Old Town, or Vilniaus Senamiestis, offers a lively atmosphere and a chance to explore critical sites, starting with the 16th-century Gate of Dawn, renowned for its chapel and the Picture of Holy Mother of Ostra Brama.
3. The Basilian Monastery, a short walk away, is a complex featuring the Orthodox Church of the Holy Trinity and the Uniate Basilian Monastery, which has historical significance for Polish Romantic literature.
4. Visit for relaxation amidst baroque architecture, where you can appreciate the Classical town hall, the Church of St. Casimir, and the captivating palaces of Pac and Sapiehas.
5. Cathedral Square is a focal point with the impressive Cathedral Basilica of St. Stanislaus, featuring two domed chapels and a standalone bell tower, offering a stunning view from the Upper Castle's Tower of Gediminas.
6. The Town Hall Square in Vilnius has this fantastic mix of Gothic and Renaissance vibes in its architecture. Check it out – the buildings around the square are all detailed and fancy, giving off those medieval and early modern feels. You'll spot some Gothic elements like pointed arches and fancy decorations on the facades, and some Renaissance-style symmetry and balance. The whole vibe at the Town Hall Square is this fantastic blend of historical styles, making it the super charming and culturally rich spot in Vilnius.
Basics of Architectural Styles
1. **Gothic**: Gothic architecture and art originated in the 12th century. They are known for their pointed arches, ribbed vaults, glass windows and flying buttresses. These design elements are meant to inspire medieval perceptions of the sacred and sublime power of God. The gothic style evokes a sense of awe and spiritual contemplation, encouraging a connection with the divine and full submission.
2. **Renaissance**: The Renaissance, spanning the 14th to the 17th century, marked a revival of classical art, literature, and learning. Renaissance architecture emphasizes symmetry, proportion, and the use of classical elements like columns and domes. It reflects a humanist philosophy, celebrating the achievements of individuals and the beauty of the natural world.
3. **Baroque**: Baroque is an ornamented and elaborated artistic and architectural style that emerged in Europe in the 17th century. It is characterized by grandeur, drama, and emotional intensity, often expressed through intricate detailing, curved forms, and rich ornamentation.
4. **Neoclassical**: Neoclassical style emerged in the 18th century as a revival of classical Greek and Roman aesthetics. It is characterized by simplicity, symmetry, and the use of classical orders such as Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns. Neoclassical buildings often convey a sense of order and rationality.
5. **Socialist**: Socialist architecture, prevalent during the 20th century in communist countries, emphasizes collective values and functionalism. It often features large, utilitarian structures with minimal ornamentation, reflecting the socialist ideology of equality and communal living. Common elements include repetitive patterns and a focus on mass production to convey the meaning of the power of the communist party. | 4bd22537-6c60-4c49-9435-7b6b3d7906df | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | https://dorea.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/5.VIeW_Preparatory-Reading-Pack.pdf | 2024-03-04T14:24:11+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947476452.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20240304133241-20240304163241-00779.warc.gz | 216,375,988 | 4,422 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993849 | eng_Latn | 0.995721 | [
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Contemporary Methods of Reading Instruction in Class I and II
by
G. HOSKING
Inspector of Education
Natal Education Department
THE methods in contemporary use may be briefly summarised as follows:
1. **Programmes based on Linguistic concepts**
Bloomfieldian-Barnhart;
Fries;
Lefevre.
2. **Programmes based on Phonological regularity**
Daniels and Diack Method;
Initial Teaching Alphabet;
Diacritical Marking Scheme;
Words in Colour.
3. **Language Experience Approach**
Chandler — Language Experience Readers.
5. **Approach based on total learning teaching situation**
Eclectic Methods used in Janet and John, Beacon Readers, Ladybird Series, etc.
1. **Programmes based on Linguistic Concepts**
In 1961, C. L. Barnhart presented the reading materials developed by the late Leonard Bloomfield in a book entitled “Let’s Read: A Linguistic Approach” (Wayne State University Press, Detroit.) The main emphasis is on phonemic analysis. Intonation and syntax are treated rather superficially. The impression created is that, though interesting, the materials are rigid and artificial. It is difficult to reconcile the child’s language experience and his needs in respect of creative writing, with the method which is suggested. The method is in fact a variation of the conventional phonic method.
In 1963, Fries produced his “Linguistics and Reading” (Holt, Rinehart and Winston). The approach to reading is what may be described as neo-Bloemfieldian. In this instance the emphasis is on a programmed development of recognition of English spelling patterns. In promoting this concept, Fries first of all stresses the regularity of symbol and sound. He therefore presents only those words which have grapheme-phoneme correspondence. Fries maintains that since over eighty percent of English syllables are phonetically regular, the child will learn phonetic features while recognising the significant contrastive features of whole words. (e.g. tub—tub e—tube). The first steps involve instant and automatic recognition of letters shapes, and to achieve this children are at first introduced only to upper case letters. The reason for this is their simplicity and uniqueness. They consist only of circles and strokes, and do not cause confusion due to close resemblance. The second step involves the instant recognition of what Fries refers to as function words. These one hundred and fifty odd words form the bulk of the words used in any continuous sequence of English sentences.
Modern linguistic studies show their influence clearly and powerfully in the work of C.A. Lefevre. The basic method proposed is the whole-sentence method; the reason being the conventional one that meaning can only be conveyed by whole language patterns at the sentence level. This method has several great advantages. In the first place it enables Lefevre to highlight intonation curves and demonstrate their role in conveying meaning. In the second place it enables him to show how meaning is signalled by syntactical-function order in sentence patterns. Thirdly, he is able to demonstrate the role played by about three hundred “empty” structure words, showing how they may operate as noun markers; verb markers; phrase, clause or question markers; and sentence connectors. Finally, it enables him to demonstrate the significance in respect of meaning of word-form changes.
The significance of all these features in signalling meaning is undeniable, and it is only on account of the inadequacies of the traditional grammatical description of English that these features have in the past been overlooked. But it is knowledge which on a conscious plane is clearly of more significance to teachers than to pupils. It represents valuable background knowledge for teachers, but appears to be of very limited value as a method of teaching reading.
2. **Programmes based on Phonological regularity**
Daniels and Diack, like Fries, restrict the words used in reading books to those which are phonetically regular until children have a secure foothold. Their phonic-word method is used in the “Royal Road Readers”. Such an approach is bound to
place limits on the material that children may wish to use in making their own reading books and captioning their own pictures. The most serious restriction, however, is an early start on creative writing.
The most impressive of the methods based on phonological regularity is *the Initial Teaching Alphabet*. Very briefly, the facts are as follows:
(a) A large number of teachers in Britain and in the U.S.A. no longer look upon I.T.A. as still experimental.
(b) This fact is borne out by the number of books already printed in I.T.A. In Britain alone there are more than four hundred titles available, and twenty-five publishers have been involved.
(c) Sir James Pitman designed I.T.A. to regularise spelling, but for the sake of transfer, he kept it within limits of recognisability of traditional orthography.
(d) All the symbols are in one case and are reproduced strictly in one pattern.
(e) The forty-four symbols have an almost one to one correspondence with the phonemes of English. This gives I.T.A. a logical foundation for the synthesising of words, and spelling is regularised.
(T.O. I like my bike)
(I.T.A.: ie liek mie biek)
(f) Compared with other systems such as the Diacritical Marking System (which has certain advantages in respect of ease of transfer in reading) and Words in Colour, I.T.A. has marked superiority in Writing.
(g) It has been clearly demonstrated that I.T.A. children have experienced practically no set-back on transfer to T.O.
(h) The longitudinal research programme is now in its fourth year. After due allowance has been made for Hawthorn effects* and Reading Drive, one is forced to accept the fact that I.T.A. children are a long way ahead of T.O. children in reading ability; are, in their third year, better at spelling than in the traditional way; and are able to write creatively with greater fluency.
It is significant that of the hundreds of teachers now using I.T.A. methods, none have reverted to their former methods, or have expressed any desire to do so.
(i) Teaching is not made easier for the teacher by I.T.A. There are still a handful of pupils who have to transfer during their third year. The great majority, some ninety per cent of them, complete the equivalent of "Janet and John Book IV" within the two years and transfer completely before their third year. Many achieve this within a year.
(j) It takes children longer to transfer to T.O. writing than to T.O. reading. The answer in the written situation is to accept transfer gradually; to do as much T.O. reading as possible; and to encourage a lot of T.O. writing, highlighting spelling differences.
Many of these pupils gain almost a year, and a major problem has been to capitalise on these gains. It is claimed in Britain and the U.S.A. that the worst reading instruction occurs in the child's 3rd, 4th and 5th years at the primary school, largely because they are not extended.
*Hawthorn effect: Tests carried out in an American Industrial situation to assess increased production due to novelty, etc.
vowels, and to show digraphs (i.e. combinations of consonants which represent a single phoneme.)
3. Language Experience Approach
The Chandler Language-Experience Reader has been produced under the editorship of Dr. L. W. Carrillo. This approach may be outlined in four steps, as follows:
(a) **Experience**: The first essential is a first-hand group, or individual experience which contains sufficient inherent interest to produce a discussion.
(b) **Awareness**: The teacher leads the children in a discussion of the experience, writing phrases and sentences used by the children on the board.
(c) **Composition**: The class, with teacher guidance, decides on the sentences and the order of these sentences needed to tell their story. This is written on the board, and the class reads the story.
(d) **Permanence**: Depending upon the nature of the story, the teacher may decide to give the material greater permanence by transferring it to a chart or large sheet.
The great advantage of this system is that the language comes directly from the children and is meaningful to them. A further advantage is that, since the experiences are recent and real to the children, they find the work intrinsically interesting and are motivated to make an effort. The limitations of the language experience approach are that the language tends to vary widely and provide insufficient repetition for any word to insure retention; and the discussion and organisation of the story is apt to be dominated by a few individuals.
The language-experience method would appear to be a good variation and worthy of use in conjunction with other methods.
4. Approach based on total learning teaching situation
This is the basis of the eclectic method used in our schools. The method is eclectic because it is based on word recognition which is reinforced by phonic instruction. Because it is based on the total learning situation, the maturity of the child has a decisive influence on the selection of vocabulary. These "Grade Readers", or "Basal Readers" as they are called in the United States, are being changed to place slightly more emphasis on phonics than has been the case during the last decade. Content too is being changed to make them more interesting and culturally valid to modern children. These changes will take cognisance of rural and urban interests, new scientific interests, and even colour prejudices!
Other Approaches
To complete the picture, brief reference is made to other approaches to the teaching of reading.
A Colour Story Reading technique has been developed by G. Jones (England). Jones uses only four colours; red, green, blue and black. In his method, if a letter changes its sound, it changes its colour; otherwise it keeps the same colour. Black letters, for example indicate non-conformity; a blue circle will indicate a silent letter. Jones uses, in addition, nine digraphs (e.g. th, ph, sh, etc.) He has obviously been influenced by Prof. Durrell (U.S.A.) in that his theory is based on first associating sound and symbol, and then moving to word recognition and phonic synthesis.
The Visual-Verbal (V-V) method has been developed by James Webster, Director of the Reading Clinic in Jersey. It is an extension of 'Look and Say' and is directed mainly at assisting "Word-blind" pupils. The method is to present simultaneously, picture and word: the word being written in the upper case and superimposed on the picture it represents. The method is to eliminate the object or picture by getting a conditioned response, and for this purpose packs of cards are used.
The Kinaesthetic approach was also developed (by Grace Fernald) during pioneer work in the field of Word-Blindness. This method harnesses the motor sense, or the sense of feeling and movement, to those of sight and hearing. The original approach consists in essence of tracing word shapes in the air, but any form of modelling, cutting, painting or tracing letters on paper is an example of kinaesthetic reinforcement at work.
C. Delacato, a neurologist, has made a close study of word-blindness, or dyslexia; and has come to the conclusion that laterality is at the root of the problem. His approach is to devise a reading programme in an environment which is sufficiently controlled to work on the neurological structure of the child. The interest of American neurologists in reading has recently been emphasised by the work of one of Delacato's colleagues, Glenn Doman, whose book "Teach your Baby to Read" has caused quite a stir. Doman maintains that the sensitive period for learning a language is between one and five and to achieve this he has devised what is basically a Look and Say approach. Though his assertions conflict with present notions of reading readiness, there seems to be something in what he says. There is no doubt that at one time six years of age was regarded as the "correct" age at which to start reading. I.T.A. has demonstrated, however, that four and a half year olds, even under normal school conditions, can learn to read. | b4aa8cba-73b4-45c5-b5a6-d69085d5488f | CC-MAIN-2024-42 | https://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/813e7970-bfb5-474a-b68e-8542d8a53758/content | 2024-10-16T07:53:31+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-42/segments/1727944595810.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20241016061231-20241016091231-00342.warc.gz | 540,663,913 | 2,537 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99865 | eng_Latn | 0.998807 | [
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The image depicts a nativity scene set up in a church, surrounded by Christmas trees adorned with lights. The scene includes figurines representing Mary and Joseph, baby Jesus, shepherds, and other biblical characters. The background features stained glass windows and a wooden structure resembling a stable. The overall atmosphere is festive and religious.
The Christmas season is a time for reflection, celebration, and giving back to those in need. This year, the St. Joseph’s Church in Munich, Germany, has organized a special event to support the local community during the holiday season.
On December 24th, the church will host a Christmas concert featuring a variety of musical performances, including traditional carols and contemporary songs. The event will also include a special guest appearance by a local choir, who will be singing their hearts out to bring joy to all present.
In addition to the music, the church will be hosting a food drive to collect non-perishable items such as canned goods, pasta, and cereal. All proceeds from the food drive will go towards supporting local families in need.
The church is also encouraging parishioners to participate in a community service project on Christmas Day. Volunteers will be needed to help distribute food and supplies to those in need, as well as to assist with cleaning up after the event.
Overall, the St. Joseph’s Church in Munich is committed to making the holiday season a time of joy and generosity for all. With its beautiful nativity scene and warm welcome, the church is sure to make this Christmas season one to remember.
The nativity scene in the church is beautifully set up with figurines and decorations.
The Christmas season is a time for reflection, celebration, and giving back to those in need. Here are some ways you can make a difference during this special time:
1. **Donate to Charities**: Consider donating to organizations that support the less fortunate, such as food banks, shelters, or hospitals.
2. **Volunteer**: Spend your time volunteering at local charities or community centers. This could involve helping with meals, organizing events, or assisting with administrative tasks.
3. **Support Local Businesses**: Shop locally and support small businesses. This not only helps the local economy but also supports the community.
4. **Give Back to Nature**: Participate in tree planting or other environmental conservation efforts. This helps protect our planet and its resources.
5. **Educate Yourself**: Learn about global issues and how you can contribute to solving them. This could be through reading books, watching documentaries, or attending workshops.
6. **Practice Kindness**: Small acts of kindness can have a big impact. Offer to help a neighbor, volunteer at a shelter, or simply smile at someone on the street.
7. **Celebrate Differently**: Instead of focusing solely on materialistic gifts, consider gifting experiences or experiences that promote learning and growth.
8. **Attend Community Events**: Participate in or organize community events that bring people together. This could be anything from holiday parties to charity runs.
9. **Support Arts and Culture**: Attend local art shows, concerts, or theater performances. This supports local artists and cultural institutions.
10. **Educate Yourself About Diversity**: Learn about different cultures and traditions. This can help foster understanding and appreciation for diversity.
By following these suggestions, you can make a meaningful impact during the Christmas season and beyond.
The Christmas season is a time for reflection, celebration, and giving back to those in need. Here are some ways you can make a difference during this special time:
1. **Donate to Charities**: Consider donating to organizations that support the less fortunate, such as food banks, shelters, or hospitals.
2. **Volunteer**: Spend your time volunteering at local charities or community centers. This could involve helping with meals, organizing events, or assisting with administrative tasks.
3. **Support Local Businesses**: Shop locally and support small businesses by purchasing gifts and goods from them. This not only helps the local economy but also supports small entrepreneurs.
4. **Host a Holiday Meal**: Organize a meal for families in need. This could be a simple gathering or a more elaborate feast, depending on your resources and the number of people you want to help.
5. **Create a Gift Basket**: Assemble a gift basket filled with essentials like toiletries, snacks, and warm clothing. This can be a thoughtful gesture for those who might otherwise go without.
6. **Participate in a Charity Event**: Look for local charity events and participate. These can range from fundraising concerts to holiday markets, all of which contribute to the community’s well-being.
7. **Educate Yourself**: Learn about the causes you care about and educate others. Sharing information can inspire others to get involved and make a difference.
8. **Pray**: If faith is part of your life, consider praying for those in need. Prayer can be a powerful tool for healing and hope.
9. **Write Letters**: Send letters of encouragement to those who may be feeling isolated or alone. A simple message can make a big impact.
10. **Practice Kindness**: Small acts of kindness can go a long way. Offer to help a neighbor with their groceries, hold the door open for someone, or simply smile at strangers.
By combining these actions, you can create a ripple effect of positivity and support during the holiday season. Remember, every little bit counts, and together we can make a significant difference in the lives of those around us. | 9073344c-eda6-4645-a658-5caccf9d1a85 | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://franziskaner-do.de/images/allgFotos/startseite/2023/01/flucht.pdf | 2023-02-05T20:09:06+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500288.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20230205193202-20230205223202-00572.warc.gz | 290,240,936 | 1,103 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998202 | eng_Latn | 0.998061 | [
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LESSON : 1
MISCONCEPTS OF HEALTH COMPONENTS OF HEALTH
PHYSICAL & MENTAL HEALTH
AIM: -
After going through this lesson you can –
- Understand the common mis-concepts of health.
- Understand different health conception and factors effecting it.
- Learn and bring into practice different ways of improving physical and mental health.
SUBJECT:
1. Health
1: 1 Introduction
1: 2 Mis-Concepts of health
1: 3 Health definitions
1: 4 Philosophy of life
2. Different Extensions of Health
2: 1 Physical
2: 2 Mental
2: 3 Social
2: 4 Spiritual
2: 5 Emotional
2: 6 Professional
2: 7 Other
3. Factors determining health
3: 1 Hereditary
3: 2 Environment
3: 3 Life Style
3: 4 Social, Economical Factor
3: 5 Health Services
4. Physical Health and its care
5. Mental health and its care
5: 1 Helping factors of mental health.
5: 2 Symptoms of mental health.
5: 3 Mental Health and joint personality.
HEALTH
From ages health is considered as identical factor of all culture and civilization. May be that the form of health changed with the change of civilization. It is seen that always every culture had its own definition and attraction towards health. Every human being either a king or a poor, a man or a woman, a young or an old wants to be healthy. Each and every one desires to have good health, the one who understand the valve and always tries to achieve or the one who does not understand or know the merits and advantages of Health. So, now the question arises – What is health? Generally, Lack of disease in body is considered to be good health. In many ancient culture health & harmony is considered to be one. Harmony is considered to be an undivided and balanced component of Self, Society, God and the universe. Based on this concept only the ancient Indian and Greek thinker investigation have given a wrong notion – that whenever there is an imbalance in the physical harmony of a body than it gets a disease and the health is effected.
Whenever our health is effected we start finding its treatment and cure and least bothered regarding our health. That time we think only about the disease and its cure. We find that modern therapy system helps us in curing our disorders, because it is not related to health, it is only concerned with disease. Because these modern therapy system do not focus on the progress of health, they only project on the treatments of disease and that is why we are unaware of the mis-concepts of health. Today we all know the factors which are responsible for different types of disease, but we do not know which are the factors responsible or helps us towards good health. There are many different types of instrument which can identify and measure the intensity of any disease, but we have only few countable instrument to assess good health. So it really very important to improve and progress in this field. Through which we can know how to progress gradually in this direction.
After investigating the situation, the conclusion derived tells that ignorance is not the only reason behind. Actually in our real life, we find that whatever importance we give to money, power, position, status etc. We do not give even a percentage of it to our health. It has been seen personally that until and unless our health reaches to savageous stage, we do not take care of it. Not only this, but if we study on social, national and international level we find that health has been given least value. After the first world war, when the bill was announced by the group of nation - health had no place in it. It was added later. Similarly after second world war when UNO has announced their declaration – health had no place in it and later on it was added. Health was not an important topic of discussion in the conference organized by UNO in Sanfransisco in 1945.
But in last two decades in changing situation and new environment, people have become quite aware of health. Now they are trying to present health in form of cardinal human right. Now all over the world health is presented in as a social need. Now the stress in on the qualitative life rather than quantitative, means a healthy life rather than a long life. In 1977 it was decided by World Health Organisation (WHO) that in coming years, government of all nations along with WHO will decide, that each and every human being should get a chance to live a healthy life beside living a useful and meaningful life. This proposal was accepted by UNO in 1979 that health is an important factor of social and economical progress. The acceptance not only gave importance to health, but it was also considered as an important factor in social progress.
**MIS CONCEPTS OF HEALTH:**
To know and understand what health is? first we have to understand all different mis-concepts related to it. It is also important to know health because it is defined differently in different spheres of the society. And also it principles are different in each and every spheres’ but due to new search and investigations the definition of health kept on changing and new ideas came in front. Health has been considered from personal to social level world wide. And now it is considered as to be a qualitative base of human life. It is necessary to know the true definition of health in every specific spheres of society.
**They are as follow-**
1. Bio – Medical Misconcepts
2. Environment misconcepts
3. Psycho – Social Misconcepts
4. Over – all view
(1) **BIO – MEDICAL MISCONCEPTS:** Generally lack of any disease in the body is said to be a healthy body and the person is considered as healthy person. On the basis of this a notion came into existence called, “Bio-medical – mis-concept” and which was very popular in modern medical science in 20th century. According to modern medical science a body works as a machine and whenever there is a disorder in the machine it appears in the form of a disease, and then the responsibility of medical science is repair the system. So then it is concluded that the aim of health is limited only up to few medicines. This concept
explained the importance or contribution of environmental, Social, Physiological or cultural factors affecting health. So in spite of the success of medical science, it was unable to solve many disease such as lack of nutrition, intoxication, mental disease, environmental pollution, increase in population etc; had no solution in medical science, and that is why health did not expected importance in medical science.
(2) **ENVIRONMENTAL MISCONCEPTS:** The shortcomings and failure of medical science gave birth to other mis-concept. Environmentalist brought a very interesting imagination, which said that there is a strong balance between human being, health and the environment and all the disease are the result of imbalance between them. According to Dubose a famous environmentalist, “Health is that state in which pains and inconvenience are in negligible amount and are in balance with environment. Due to which all our activities mental or physical function smoothly. The change in environmental and cultural balance not only give birth to diseases but also effects the availability of food and also in the increase of population. And which finally effect health. Environmental mis-concepts mainly give rise to two points. (1) Imperfect Human being. (2) Imperfect Environment.
Imperfect human being means – imbalanced behaviour of person, whereas imperfect environment means – imbalance in essential factors of environment. From the study of all these it is concluded that good health and long life is the result of balanced behaviour of man and nature; although it lacks the facilities of modern medical science. The give and take process between man and nature non stop goes on development of a human being is also due to these environmental happenings. In which even form or proportion these factors are present during our birth with the same proportion these factors changes and are present in the body. And for all activity environment is very helpful. So we find that if the process of give and take between nature and man is smooth and balanced than the body remains healthy.
(3) **PSYCHO – SOCIAL MISCONCEPS:** The contemporary investigation in the field of social science has shown that health does not have its limitation only up to Bio-science, but it is effected by many social, psychological, cultural, economical, political factors also. The rules and regulation any specific field has indirectly deep effect on human health. The daily routine of a person is affected by psychological situation, thinking etc., and cultural practices compel a man to follow old ideologies. Economic factors effects the standard of living of a man deprives him of getting the necessities of life. Due to political factors, government aids and services do not reach a common man. So we have to take all these factors into account while estimating the health of a society. Here one more thing should be cleared that health is also affected in the same way by social or organic factors also. That is why we cannot ignore any of these.
(4) **OVER ALL VIEW:** If we mix all the 3 mis-concepts discussed above, than over all view comes out in which all Social, economical, political and environmental are given importance and graphed. We can say that over all view is derived after including all the above factors. It is a multi-dimensional process in which person’s health is estimated in on environmental outlook along with all above mentioned factors. And further efforts were made to progress towards the best. This mis-concept is similar to a very ancient Indian belief in which it had been said “A healthy mind can only dwell in healthy body, healthy family and healthy environment”. According to over all view all the fields of a society i.e. agriculture, cattle farming, food industry, education, residence, social and public activity, communication etc – they all effect health in some or other form. But the aim of all these is to nourish and protect good health.
**DEFINITIONS OF HEALTH**
We all know what health is? But when it comes to define it is really difficult. This is the reason why everyone has defined it differently. Every institution, thinker or scientist have given their view in different way. Important one are given as follows:-
(1) **According to Bebster:** A combined and excellent stage of body, mind, and consciousness in which there is no physical disease or pain is called health.
(2) **According to Oxford English**: Health is a stage of mind and body when they are fully active and function smoothly, on time and with their full capacity.
(3) **According to World Health Organisation (WHO) report No.137 in 1957**: When the qualitative stage of a person’s routine works smoothly and in time in any genetic or environmental level, then it is called health.
(3) **According to Devbose, R 1968**: Health is such a preface of human life, which enables a man to lead his life peacefully in adverse circumstances in complete world.
(4) But commonly accepted definition is given by WHO in 1948 in its constitutional proposal. Definition was as follow:-
“Health is a stage of complete balance between physical, mental, social factors and not only lack of disease or helplessness of a body”. In later years this definition was revised and was explained in much better way; in which it was said, “Health is physical, mental, and social balance of life along with economical and social forms”.
Some have criticised WHO’S definition – saying that it is not practical at all, it is only idealistic. According to it – Health is not a stage but it is an art or capacity of balancing in the ever changing situation. A person can enjoy life because of good health. These critics agree that this definition of course is suitable with the lifestyle of few people but not with every one, in every situation on every society. Some people have taken this definition irrelevant because hardly there is some one who is biologically, psychologically or socially active. So this means if we accept this definition, then according to it no one is healthy – every is sick. After considering all we come to an conclusion that, the definition given by WHO is preferably good and can be accepted. And to achieve good health we use this definition as our base.
**PHILOSOPHY OF HEALTH**
In recent years philosophy of health has been given new acceptance. The main principles of it are as follows:-
(1) Health is an important part of Development.
(2) Custody of Health is an important social responsibility.
(3) Health is combined responsibility of man, society, nation & world.
(4) Health is the pivot point of qualitative & meaningful life.
(5) Health is the mirror of life.
(6) Health is an Cardinal Human Right.
(7) Misconcept of Health are not related to any caste or creed.
(8) Health is the aim of world.
When we give an overall view to all the above mentioned principle then it becomes philosophy of life. The success of any philosophy depends upon its practical use its principles. And all the principles mentioned in philosophy of life are not only use full a particular human being but they are the foundation, the base of progress of human civilization.
**DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF HEALTH**
There are many dimensions of health but 3 main dimensions are commonly excepted, they are Physical, Mental and Social dimensions. Many scientist, philosopher & thinker have discussed about other dimensions also e.g. Spiritual, Emotional, Vocational and Political dimensions. According to Acharya Mahapragya among physical, mental, knowledgeable and emotional dimensions, emotional dimension is most effective. Due to this dimension most of the radical changes in health and personality is seen. Though all these dimensions work independently but they all influence each other by working independently. All these have their own specific quality and it is important to understand each of them.
(1) **PHYSICAL DIMENSION**: A body working according to its need in a balanced way is called physical health. Biologically if we see then we find that each cell, each organ of our body, when function with their full capacity, helping each other and maintaining the equilibrium of the whole body - This state of the body is called physical health. It can also be considered as clean skin, bright eyes, dark black hairs, fit body, smooth breathing, good urge of eating and drinking, sound sleep, smooth functioning of excretory system etc., We can also see good physical health if all the organs of the body are well developed, work in normal way – sense organ functioning normally, normal blood pressure and normal functioning of nervous system.
(2) **MENTAL DIMENSION**: Good mental health does not mean absence of any mental dimension. But mental health is to work according to the situation, balancing intelligibly and effectively. According to new definition of mental health – Balance between a man and its environment, with the world, amenity between us and others, being courteous in nature, realization of self and others with the feeling of co-existence is known as mental health.
Few decades back body and mind has got recognition as independent entity, which does not influence each other. But according to modern scientist body and mind influence each other completely. New research has proofed it that psychological reason not only give birth to mental problem but due to them many disease which comes in the category of physical disease arises, e.g. – High blood pressure, peptic ulcer and bronchial asthma. Not only these but there are many disease which are connected to mind but arises due to the biological and physical disorders, e.g. Sadness, illusion etc., So, it is proofed that for mental health the balance between psychological, biological and practical activity is essential. Only the balance of all mental activities are not sufficient enough to keep mental health strong.
Although mental health is an important factor for stability, its scientific fundamentals are not very clear. And may be because of this only, the mechanical techniques to analyse mental health were not developed. It is analysed only on the basis of psychological questions test and some instruments.
(3) **SOCIAL DIMENSIONS**: The simple meaning of social health is the feeling of friendliness for the society and also for the whole humanity. In other words we can also say social health means limitation and quality of mutual relations of a person and the society. A person’s inclinations and capability towards social activity and his dedication towards the society can be considered as his good social health. A man is a small unit of a family and a society is made up of many such families – So personal contribution of a person stands for social health.
(4) **SPIRITUAL DIMENSION**: Life is of 2 types – Aimless and Aimful, who are we? From where did we come? Where will go? What is the meaning & aim of our life? To lead the life for finding the answers to these questions is known as aimful life. And this is the first stage of spiritual dimension. Leading aimful life balances all the activities, behaviours and daily routine of a human being. And anyone from any field can go on this path. The difference is only that the person leading such life thinks or behaves some what in which his physical & mental action rises up from the level of reactions and he naturally from common man to an important man. In this type of lifestyle important place is given to physical – mental indivisibility, ethics, compliance of life values and the urge to do something very special in life. Existence of these qualities only rises the level of health and life of a person.
(5) **EMOTIONAL DIMENSIONS**: Health’s emotional dimensions is related feelings. In mental dimension where we have discussed about the different factors related to knowledge and cognition, when we bring this knowledge and cognition to our level of mind and we feel them and define them on the basis of there mutual relation and when we are ready to derive any imaginative result then that comes in the category of emotional health. Scientist have tried to analyse it in detail, under a branch in science called psychobiology. When we imagine the result of any incidence or experience either negative or subjective it badly influences our health and the result are normally aggressiveness or tension.
(6) **VOCATIONAL DIMENSIONS**: Every man adopts a work field. And his workfield becomes the source of his living and also an undetachable part of his life. This field only is known as vocational or his career. And this professional knowledge get attached to his health and influence his health. A man’s position regonigation increase according to the nature of his professions, its result its obstacles, its respect and recognition and respect in the society. A person estimates himself best or most according to his profession and due to it only his self-respect and level of confidence increase or decrease. These all directly influence his health. A person who is well settled, well-satisfied, well recognized and has good position in society is definitely healthy.
(5) **OTHER DIMENSIONS**:
*Some of the less influential dimensions are listed below:*
1. Philosophical Dimensions
2. Cultural Dimensions
3. Socio-economic dimensions
4. Environmental dimensions
5. Educational Dimensions
6. Nutritional dimension
7. Curative dimensions
8. Preventive dimension
All above mentioned dimensions are some or how related to a man and the changes in them influences the health. It is not necessary that all the dimensions should be media in nature – eg – Cultural, Education and Social. Altogether they help to raise the health of a man to that stage where he leads a healthy and meaningful for himself and for society. Lack or imbalance of any of these effects the health and creates problem in life.
**DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH:**
Health of a person depends on many factors. These factors can be interpersonal or can be external in the environment or society in which the man lives. Mainly there are two reasons for the disorder in health. First one is related to man’s birth that is Heredity. Second are those which are related to the environment in which a man lives. Cause of any disease depends upon the co-ordination of these both. Many times, positive and qualitative progress has been seen due to the mutual co-ordination of both. So it is understood now that health depends upon the balanced and imbalanced activities of internal and external factors. The factors of these 2 are many but some important ones are discussed below:
1. Heridity
2. Environment
3. Life Style
4. Socio-economic conditions
5. Health Services
6. Others
(1) **HERIDITY**: It is clear from the biological construction of a human body that whatever qualities are found in him were decided during his birth by his genes in his chromosources, and once it is decided genes cannot be changed. So it means that we cannot even change our own qualities. Every human cell has 23 pairs (total 46) of quality and genes are placed on them. During ovulation, 23 qualities from father and 23 quality comes from mother. They both combine and in this process genes are re-suffled, which changes the numbering of the genes in such a way that some qualities come in focus in the form of hereditary disease in front of us. These diseases influence the health for life time. And than the human being has to face problems in leading a normal life. These diseases are non-curable. Thelusmeia and diabetes are burning examples of this.
(2) **ENVIRONMENT**: Environment affecting human beings can be classified into 2 parts. (1) Internal environment (2) External environment. Internal environment is related to bodies, each cell, each organ, each system and not only to their co-existence but also balance and homeostasis between mechanical and bio-chemical activity of these. The different types of activities performed by these creations determine the health of a human being. External environment which is also known as macro environment is related to those external objects or situations which are attached with human beings after his birth. Means the things which are around him, which surrounds him. External environment can be divided into physical, biological, and psychosocial categories. Summer, Winter, Rain, Dampness, air, and all climate-related things come in the physical category. Adverse change in this affects the health, mutual activity of other living things (trees, creatures, etc.) also affects the health. Due to these living beings, human beings' biological and bio-chemical activities are affected, and which in turn affects the health.
Residence, environment of living, fulfillment of water and electricity, psychosocial tensions, family environment, and relation with society, monetary help, etc., are factors which affect health falls in the psychosocial category. The environmental factors of all these 3 are co-related in such a way that we cannot study them individually. Whenever we discuss about environment factors, then we have to take these 3 jointly and analyze straight and simply. If we see we find that when the environment is favorable than a man can utilize all his mental and physical powers nicely, which in turn results in good health—mentally & physically. May be this is the reason that no aim of the whole world is to bring qualitative progress in family and environmental situations.
(3) **LIFE STYLE**: Social values, following traditions, daily routine, and behavior—they all together are known as lifestyle. Along with all cultural and practical ways, man's personal habits are also included in it. E.g. Smoking & Drinking, etc. Many aspects of lifestyle are learned from parents, elders, friends, college, etc. The eating habits, the way of communication with people, timings of eating, sleeping, etc., are such normal things which seem to be very simple but even they influence the whole family's, society's, and personal health. The figures of scientific research show clearly that there is a definite relation between lifestyle and health. The mechanical life of developed and is cause of many serious diseases (Heart disease, Lung Cancer, Intoxication) arising; there little bit of change in lifestyle are helpful in progress of health. E.g. Adopting healthy food habits, Sufficient Sleep, Including Yoga & Exercise in daily routine, etc. For having excellent health, we have to adopt health-promoting Lifestyle.
(4) **SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS**: It is a truth that social & economical conditions of a place affect the person's health. It has been found by the research done by many countries that the health of that particular country changes according to the socio-economic condition. Per capita income, education, opportunities of employment, nourishment, standard of living, and political system are the factors of social and economical changes, and they should be analyzed. Among these factors, economical status, education, and political system are the most important ones.
(i) **Economical Status**: - The best way to assess the economical status of a country or a group is to assess per capita income. And the research figures show the improvement in economical status has reduced the death rate. It increases the average age and improves the quality of living (List – I). Economical status determines the trading power, lifestyle of citizens, quality of living, results of family, birth of disease, and common people's reaction on it. The progress of health increases & decreases with economical status. So finally, it can be said now that economical status is the mirror of health.
High economical status doesn't always mean good health. Many economically sound countries are problems of many serious diseases like heart problems, diabetics, etc.,
LIST – I: SELECTED HEALTH & SOCIAL SELECTORS 1995:
| Sr. | Subject | Underdeveloped countries | Developing countries | Developed countries |
|-----|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------|----------------------|---------------------|
| 1 | Life expectation on birth (in years) | 50.6 | 62.4 | 74.5 |
| 2 | Death Rate (Per 1000) | 119 | 62.4 | 14 |
| 3 | Death rate in 1-2 years of age (per 1000) | 33.4 | 20 | 2.4 |
| 4 | Doctors-Population ratio (per 1000) | 1.6 | 4.7 | 25.1 |
| 5 | Nurses-Population ratio (per 1000) | 2 | 7.5 | 51.6 |
| 6 | Average per capita income (in U.S $,1993) | 213 | 520 | 16,000 |
| 7 | Per capita national health loss (in U.S.$,1991) | 5 | 24 | 2000 |
| 8 | Rate of Adult Education | 40 | 65 | 97 |
(ii) **EDUCATION**: - Rate of education also influences the health of a common man. Specially final education plays an important role in uplifting personal and health of society. The graph of poverty, ill nourishment, sickness, infant death rate etc, the health related problem, goes with the graph of illiteracy. Only education can bring wakefulness for health in the society. And than only we can overcome the above mentioned problem and can be helpful in maintaining health of a common man.
(iii) **OCCUPATION**: Working in for the business of his taste and to be satisfied by: Where as unemployment and anxiety for future makes a man sad and sick. Unemployment and unwillingness towards occupation develops guilt feeling in a person. And if this situation prolongs then results are disrespect in society and many other types of psychological problems arises due to economical problem, which harms the health very badly.
(iv) **POLITICAL SYSTEM**: Political system also influences health. The politicalization of health services had unabled them to reach a common man. In multiparty political system, each party has their own agendas of them own interest. Because of this the policies and decisions of non technical health services are not granted and a common man is deprived of getting those services. We can raise the level of health in political system by allotment of processings, introducing mass power using policies, and by determing right technique.
(5) **HEALTH SERVICES**:
Many different programmes are organized under health and family welfare services in which comes treatment of disease of a person and mass, control of disease and health nourishment. The aim of these programme is to bring progress in health. Immunization help to fight many disease in children. Many dangerous disease arising from water can be controlled by the availability of clean water. Death rate of mother and child can be controlled by taking proper care of pregnant lady. Life at national level can be improved by proper health service in down trodden or lower class of the society. Near about all the states try to achieve the goal of good health under primary health service.
(6) **OTHER FACTORS:** Besides above mentioned factors there are some factors also, which influence the health of common mass such as: - Agriculture and food grains, Social welfare, Rural development, Population, Normal Social environment are the factor which influences the health of common mass. The determination and activation of all policies of health services should be decided by keeping these factors in mind, then only there will be progress in the state of health.
**PHYSICAL HEALTH AND ITS CARE:**
Physical health is an important factor of complete health. In it comes total care of each and every part of body and to practice those things, which are helpful in smooth functioning of their parts. These parts and System are taken care under physical health.
1. Skin
2. Hair
3. Teeth
4. Eyes
5. Ears
6. Nose
7. Hand & Legs and their nails
8. Digestive System
9. Respiratory System
10. Circulatory System
11. Reproductive System
(1) **CARE OF SKIN**: Skin is made up of external skin called “EPIDEMIS” and internal skin called “DURMIS” and between them is found oil glands and perspiration. Skin protect our body, it helps in temperature regulation. It also works as excretory organs. Following are the ways to take care of our skin:
(i) Regular bath:- Cold water bath, warm water bath, steam bath & oil bath.
(ii) Blanced Diet
(iii) Use of mosquito net
(iv) Use of safe cotton cloth.
(v) Minimum use of cosmetic
(2) **HAIR CARE**: To some extent state of hair tells us the nourishment level and normal health of the body. Thin and weak hair depicts the low nourishment level. If hair is breaking that means all nourishment of shaft of heirs. Whitening of hair before time is due to shocks and ill nourishment. Hair should be washed regularly with good soap and shampoo. Scalp massage is important for hair. It increases the blood circulation in hair and give good nourishment. Once in a week we should put coconut or badam oil in our hair. Plus we should properly massage our scalp with finer tips. Clean scalp protect us from many disease.
**CARE OF TEETH**: For taking proper care of teeth, following ways should be followed.
(1) **BRUSHING OF TEETH**: We should brush our teeth twice in a day with soft bristle tooth brush after meals, so that food particles does not stuck in any corner. Neem stick brush are also very useful for brushing teeth. While brushing we should gently move the brush up and down. Then rinsing the mouth with Luke warm water, use tongue cleaner to clean the tongue. We can use a quality tooth paste for brushing teeth, though it is not that important. After brushing, we should massage the gums gently with finger tips.
(ii) **USE OF FLOURIDE:** Places where preparation of fluoride is less than 0.5 milligram per litre, there people should use fluoride tooth paste. But place where fluoride is in sufficient quantity in water, there use of fluoride toothpaste is not necessary.
(iii) **REGULAR DENTAL CHECK-UPS:** Disease related to teeth takes the form of complex disease in future, if not taken care properly. So we should go for dental check-ups twice in a year.
(iv) **FOOD:** Avoid eating food like – Sugar, Cakes, Pastry, Chocolate, Sweets, Biscuits etc., as they stick to our teeth. If we eat these food then immediately after that we should brush or rinse our teeth properly.
(v) **CARE OF ARTIFICIAL TEETH:** Just after meals we should remove the teeth set and clean it. At night remove the set and dip it clear soda mixed water. After removing the set wash your mouth with luke warm water.
(3) **CARE OF EYES:** For proper eye care following ways should be follows:
(i) **CONTROL OF EYE INFECTION:** Eyes are very delicate and sensous organ. Any type of discharge, reddening of eyes or pain in eyes should be soon treated or eyes will be effected by नेत्रलस्था शार्द disease. Eyes should be give proper treatment till it becomes normal. We should also follow good health habits of using clean clothes, Control on house flies etc.,
(ii) **HURT OR WOUND:** Sometime while working or playing or while bursting cracker our eyes gets hurt. In such situation we should immediately consult an eyes specialist. Dust particles, Coal particles or glass bits makes wound in the eyes. If they fall in our eyes we should immediately splash and wash our eyes with cold water and take the particle out. We should not rub our eyes.
(iii) **EXERTION ON EYES** We put exertion on eyes by reading, writing or doing very minute technical work with eyes. Insufficient light, light coming from wrong angle, reading in a moving train, reading while lying – all these exerts pressure on eyes. Always sit and read. A book should be placed at the distance of $1 \frac{1}{2}$ ft. From the eyes in angle of 40 To 70. Never read in a moving vehicle. Give rest to the eyes while reading from less distance or while working. Protect eyes from very powerful & dazzling lights. Wash your eyes 3 times a day, splash at least 100 times with cold water.
(iv) **NUTRITIOUS FOOD:** Many eyes disease arises due to lack of nutritious. We should include green leafy vegetable, fresh fruit, milk, butter in our food. We should include those food items in our meal from which we get enough quantity of Vitamin A.
(v) **SQUINT EYE:** If there is squint eye problem, then it should get proper treatment from childhood only. It is possible to get rid of squintness of eyes. It cannot be cured when a person grows up.
(vi) **REGULAR CLEANING & EXAMINING OF EYES:** Cleanliness of eyes should be maintained regularly. Eyes and its surrounding should be cleaned by good soap & water. Wash your eyes before going to bed at night. Everyone should use separate towel to wipe face and eyes. We should do yoga, exercise for relaxation of eyes in the morning. Contact eye specialist immediately if any type of problem arises e.g. watering of eyes, pain in eyelids, swelling in eyelids, vision is not clear, headache etc. We should not take these problem lightly and should not be late in consulting doctor for it.
(1) **ENTERTAINMENT:** Entertainment means separating yourself from work and relaxing. Entertainment decrease tiredness of body and freshness your mind. Entertainment can be
active or passive. Doing exercise comes in active entertainment. Radio is entertainment which can be done alone or in mass. After the work we should take out some time for entertainment. It makes both body & mind health. But it should be seen that entertainment remains only on entertainment, it should not form a habit.
**NOURISHMENT AND DEFECATION:**
Good nourishment is the base good health. Ill nourishment is the cause of many disease, lot of carbohydrate, protein, fats mineral salts, vitamins, bran and water, should be present in our daily food. This type of food is called balanced diet. Before you have learned about balanced diet in detail. We good nourishment for balanced diet only. Balanced diet has the capacity to activate the body for normal and special function it give energy to the body and also has the capacity to control disease, making our body healthy.
The process of metabolism in each and every cell of the body start with help of nutrients obtained from food and oxygen. Many waste and chemical substances are produced through this process. And it essential to excrete them out of the body. In defecation process following things are important.
(2) In take of water and liquids should be in large quantity.
(3) Lots of Yoga exercise related to abdomen should be practiced regularly.
(4) Habit of going to the toilet twice in a day at fix time should be made.
**MENTAL HEALTH AND ITS CARE:**
Mental health is the personality and positive, balanced behaviour of a person which depicts his behaviourism with his friend and colleagues. Mental health doesn’t mean behaviour between 2 person but a persons with the mass, society and with the organization where he works, because these mass, society, organizations determine his life style, working style, Economical status his permanent position and his self.
In 1950 a committee of WHO has examined all the definitions of mental health and said that both biological and social factors influences mental health deeply. There are always changes going on in mental stages. This change is related to the changing living environment of a creature changes or mental level determines that how a person or creature is going to behave with his co-creature. How far he can maintain stability with changing situations and what will be his creative contribution to the society
**MENTAL HEALTH AND ITS RELATED FACTORS:**
Though the foundation of mental health starts in the childhood only by, but there are other factors helping in development of brain – Some of them are as follows:-
(1) **Physical Health:** It is always said that a healthy mind dwells in healthy body. When all the parts and systems, all biological and bio-chemical activities works smoothly then the body is healthy.
When any of these are diseased or sick than even our mind become sad and sick. So it is proofed truth that good physical health is the first stage of good mental health.
(2) **Basic Needs:** Without fulfillment of basic needs mental health cannot be acquired. Main are physical, psychological and social basic needs.
(a) Physical Needs:- Food, clothes, residence, entertainment, Sleep are the things which comes in physical category.
(b) Psychological Needs:- Fulfillment of freedom, love affection, fame achievement, appreciation etc. are psychologically needed.
(c) Social Needs: - Reputation, Status, Social appreciation honour are needs which are fulfilled under social needs.
(3) HABITS: - Every person has some habits – Some are good where as some are harmful, addiction of work, studying, relaxing & sleeping at fixed time are some good habit which are helpful in maintaining good health. Control on our feeling in and outside our house, stable in any situation appreciating and honouring others work, maintaining self confidence, working according to his aim are some habits which help to build on mental health strong.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MENTALLY HEALTHY PERSON:
Some of basic characteristics of a mentally health person is as follows:-
(1) Always Self Satisfied
(2) Never criticizes self or others or never sympathies himself.
(3) Always tension free and happy
(4) Always be organized and does organized work.
(5) Never gets disturbed or angry on his criticism. Thinks over them seriously, analyses them and does needful.
(6) Respects other, their feelings and requirement and behave humanly
(7) Faces the situation patiently and tackles them intelligently.
(8) Stable and balanced behaviour in happy & sad moment, favourable and unfavourable condition and maintains self control.
MENTAL HEALTH AND PERSONALITY RELATED
There are 4 extensions of any personality – physical, mental, intellectual and emotional, physical organization like – Height, length, weight, colour texture etc comes under physical extension. Under mental extension comes capacity to think and understand, analyse thoughts. Under intellectual extension comes the sharpness and capacity of persons mind. Stability of mind in unfavourable and tense situation comes under emotional extensions. According to Acharya Maha pragya among all these 4 extension, emotional extension is most important. Person’s balanced and imbalanced behaviour depends upon it. It controls the balance of mental health of a person and develops all round personality of a person. That is why it is said nourishment of mental health is helpful in the development of a personality.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE.
(1) Essay type long question:-
(a) Explain different extensions of health, define health?
(b) Explain in detail – physical and mental health.
(2) Answer in brief (in 1 page)
(a) Which are health determining factors?
(b) Explain factors related to mental health.
(3) Short Question (Answer in One word or One sentence)
(a) What do we get from sleep?
(b) Life is of 2 type aim full and ………..
(c) What is the literacy rate in adults in depended countries.
LESSON : 2
ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH
AIM: - After the study of this lesson a student will know:
- Environment and its factory.
- Will able to explain the inter-relation between a human and environment.
- Their contribution in maintaining environment from health point of view.
SUBJECT:
1. Introduction
2. Environment
2:1 What is environment?
2:2 Factors of environment?
3. Ecology
3:1 Introduction
3:2 Meaning
3:3 Definition
3:4 Ecology and human health.
4. Ecosystem
4:1 Types of ecosystem
4:2 Human is ecosystem
5. Environment Pollution and health.
5:1 Water pollution & health
5:5 Air pollution & health
5:6 Land pollution & health
5:7 Noise pollution & health
INTRODUCTION:
From ages man has been influenced by environment. It is helpful in maintaining good health if environment is balanced, gets fresh air, no noise, excessive cold, hot, rain and humidity. Opposite to this if there is impurities in water, poisonous gas in air such as Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide etc affect the human health adversely. It proofs that there is a relation between our health and environment from ages and will continues in future even. We don’t have any other option rather than to keep environment clean, if we want to be healthy.
In Indian culture maintenance & importance of environment is explained everywhere in different forms. A cultural person will see nature very personally, closely and will try to obtain its essence. He will never tolerate exploitation of nature. A wish of desire has been explained in gayatri mantra “………………” it’s a request that “The sun which is enlightening the earth, the sky the heaven – should enlighten my mind also”. To combine the power of sun to the power of intelligence our mind in what? It is combining natural substance with culture.
In Vaman puram the stress was given on recollecting all the 5 elements of nature, so that the bless us early in the morning with their own specific qualities. i.e. fragrance of earth, flow of water, power of fire, sound of sky and touch of air (Vaman puram 14.26).
Along with the worship of Sun and 5 natural elements intimacy with earth is also said in Athav Ved. According to it – The earth on which grows vegetation and medicinal plants, where exist immovable or stationary and movable creatures, we are obliged to it and take a vow to protect its independence” (Atharv Ved 12:1:31).
1. Jain religion 21/6 elegance of nature has been described and said that as Lotus of winter is floats on water without connecting or being effected by it, in the same way, inspite of all the feelings of affection we should be determined to protect the nature.
In spite of all these lively example when a person destroys nature and environment due to his greed the results are very dangerous. We all are aware of this fact that, world of vegetation and creature is directly related to social welfare many painfull diseases arises due to pollution of environment. And this time vegetation with medicinal qualities only give relief from pain and such disease.
According to famous historian Sri. Radha Kumud Mukherji that “a very practical form was given to all the instruction of pedagogy of ancient Indian education…………learning from plant life was an essential part of medical studies. From the subject (list 123) we come to know that we have to put pressure to arise the feeling of examining, health queries and detation, which important factors of intellectual culture.
Other religion also had accepted the importance of environment. There are 2 important elements in Hindu religion “Similarities and Compassion with every livingthing”. Besides this many other things like river, pond, many types of plants – like – Banyan tree, Peepal, Tulsi etc m and air, fire it has been given equal importance. Non-Violence has been give a special importance in Jain religion, respect is given to each and every creature and plants. These theme towards environment should be respect and followed. According to Buddhism respect should be given to each creature and damage to the nature for bidded. Islam and Christianity says that we are not the lord of nature, we are only its care take and we can be safe and healthy by taking care of environmental factors.
After going through all these theories now it becomes essential to study environment in detail. And accept its principals to create healthy society & contributing in fulfillment of aims of Biology.
2:1 What is environment?
Environment means our surrounding what ever surrounds a specific thing is called its environment. According to it – air, water, sun, humidity, forest, vegetation, living creature etc comes in human environment. These all influence a human being every second in some or any way. Whatever man is today – its because of environment.
Any creature cannot dwell alone, that is why every species has a large number of its creature. And they live with their own kind together. It influences the condition and origin of existence of these co-habitants. Physical environment is also very important from this point of view. Because maximum energy of a creature is spend in the adjustment with physical situations. In this way a creature and its environment are co-related to each other. The same thing goes with human being also. Including man, every creature depends on plants for their food. Many plants even depends on creatures. Plants also depends on light, humidity, water and soil for its growth. So it proves that human being & other creature are influenced with materials in any how. And this world and life are the result of their eternal relation.
While defining environment it can be said that – It is the combination of physical and biotic situation which influences all different types of their responses.
According to Douglas & Holland:- Environment is a word which explains all external powers, effect & situation in a group, which effects the life, behaviour, nature, development, growth, strength etc., so that means what ever is these around us are a part of environment.
We can also call environment as biosphere. After re-anlysing we come to know that biosphere is not only a creation but a combined form of Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Atmosphere. In 1951 Hess has said for these factors of Biosphere that – though many type of creature and plants are found in air but then also it does not have any fixed characteristics. In hydrosphere 2 types of creatures are found
oceanic or salted water creature and non-salted water creature. In Lothospher only land comes into account. Although we can say that environment is such a thing which is not stable on fixed, it changes with the influence factors. If it is a fact that man is influenced by the environment, it is also true that man influences the environment most.
2.2 FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENT:
1. **Atmosphere**: - Air envelopes the earth. And this envelope of air is called atmosphere. It is the fastest changing factor of environment. If changes with the change in climate and change with the change in sea level. When we examine the atmosphere under the water in ocean, we find 78.9% Nitrogen gas and 21% Oxygen there. As we come up towards water level, oxygen level reduces. In the same way when we go higher from the sea level the density of air decrease. From 32 km of earth level, density of air is approximately 99%. Scientist have divided atmosphere into 4 level –
(a) Troposphere - From earth level to 12 km up
(b) Stratosphere - From 12 km to 50 km up
(c) Mesosphere - From 50 km to 85 km up
(d) Thermosphere - From 85 km and above (till 500 km)
**TILL 500 KM**
* Thermosphere * Temperature increases 85
* Mososphere * Temperature decreases (Ionosphere) 50
* No effect of climate change
* Best for flying air craft
* Stratosphere * Temperature increases
* Ozon found here 12
* Temperature decreases
* Troposphere * Clouds, Storm restricted till here o
o earth level o
Temperature decreases with the rising height in troposphere which is from earth level to 15 km up. All clouds, storms are restricted in this region only. Next to this is stratosphere in which there is no climate related activity or cloud - this layer is best for flying air craft. In this level the temperature increase. In this layer only the ozon gas is found which destroys the effect of ultra violet rays and protects us from its harmness. Above it is mesosphere which is also known as ionosphere because in it is found electrically charged particles which turns the electric-magnetical waves – resulting the……of radio waves. As we go up in this level the temperature decreases. Height of the top most layer which is known as thermosphere is near about 500 km. As we go up in the layer temperature increase due to Ultra Violet rays.
2. **Lithosphere**: Lithosphere is the concrete part of rocks on earth. Lose soil, Sub Soil, rocks transformed rock, natural rocks are found there. The width of this layer is nearly 60 km. Ocean Sea covers near 71 percent of the earth. Only 29 percent is land of different island. And all land creature and plantation depends upon the soil of this land.
3. **Hydrosphere**: - The water part of Biosphere is known as Hydrosphere in this includes all the rivers, ponds, water falls, oceans Sea all the water source 71% of earth is covered with water. Some water is found in form of ice on mountains and some underground. Other than is some water is found as water vapour in air and in the body of creature in enough quantity. There is a water cycle going on the earth. The water gets warm on the earth, evaporate goes up in the sky, than cools down their and comes down in form of rain. This water cycle is known as Hydiological cycle. The metabolic activities of creature, the temperature all depends on this water cycle.
3.0 Ecology:-
3.1 Introduction: All the activities of nature are planned and automotive. There is no fault in it. The body of a creature is designed according to its quality and its environment in such a balanced way that we cannot see any default in it. Human being is also a part of this nature. But human being due to his prejudice and ego has forgotten this and is busy in collecting luxuries of life. And this mistake because the cause of many diseases. Know it is very important to see all its work association with nature and also the factors which take him for from nature. First we will see ecology under these factors.
3.2 Meaning of ecology: It is an Latin word which is derived from 2 words Oikos and Logos. Oikos means home And logos means knowledge. So together it means to get knowledge of home life of creatures. Home is the environment of all creature. How a creature acts in his environment are are going to study all those things in ecology. We can consider ecology as same as environmental science, through there is a difference between the principals of both but yet they both are
3.3 Definition of Ecology: Defining ecology a German Bio-scientist has said “Ecology is not only related to environment but also with complex mutual relation of a creature, which Darwin has named as struggle for life “Different environment have defined it in different way – Some of the important ones are as follows:
1. Relation of creature or creatures with its environment is ecology.
2. Ecology is science of mutual relation of creature and its environment – Philips Handler (1970)
3. Ecology is the Science of all creations of all creature with all its environment – Tailor(1936)
4. Ecology is the study of relation of intra specific and inter specific with physical environment
5. The study of relation of plants and creature with their surrounding environment is ecology.
6. The study of conservation and function of nature is ecologic science – Odum.
7. The study of relation between alive systems and environment is ecology science - Turk & witts (1972)
8. The totality and pattern of the relation of creature and its environment is ecology.
9. Ecology is nothing but environment bio-science in which relation of creatures is defined.
In easy word “ecology is that field in which we study the relation of creature and its environment”.
3.4 Ecology & Human Health: As much as a human being is related to himself - the same is he related with environment and co-dwelling creatures. He take food and air for other creatures for his existence. He uses it for metabolic activities inside the body and creates different types of chemical products on the inter relation of which depends the movement of mechanical and chemical activities of body. Due to these activities whatever evereatory product are formed are returned to the environment. The factors of environment - Temperature light & heat, etc influences these activities and also influence other, creatures apparently or non apparently. The balance between above mentioned activities and contribution of influencing factors is essential for good health. This shows that ecological balance is the key point of human health. It is important to determine the points referring ecology for studying human health in detail. Some of the important ecological balancing points which are important for taking care of health are given below:
1. Knowledge of difference. Cohabitation and progress of creature.
2. The definite knowledge of food chain going on between creature and their obstacles coming in this chain.
3. Sources of energy, their conservation and their diffusion with environment.
4. Detail study of adaptation related environment change.
5. Study & knowledge of a eocotype of a place.
6. The study of factors and reasons influencing the habitutional capacity of a place.
Keeping these points as base, if we adopt environment and its co-habitate creature with broad and humanism and determine their lifestyle then our health and it nourishment and protection is possible.
ECOSYSTEM: Ecosystem is a working unit of community of creatures and their physical environment. Solar energy, water, air, soil etc are Abiotic factor and plants and creature and biotic factors working is ecosystem. Mutual functioning through the flow of energy & matter goes on between biotic and abiotic factors and influences each other through them. It is same with human health also. Till the functioning of matter and energy goes on it normal speed the health of a man is good. All the ecosystem jointly makes a big unit called Biome. All the Biomes of the world altogether make a sustainable unit called Biosphere.
The term ecosystem was first used by A.G. Tansel in 1935. According to him it is a shapeless complex nation. In this system a creature obtains matter and energy from its environment & grows and creates carbonic matter. Later these carbons matter breaks up into components. And in this way cycles of Carbon, Oxygen, Water etc goes on. Human being has to take his health resources from these cycles only. We are healthy till the give & take process from cycles is balanced. Otherwise we have to face health related problems.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM:
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
2. Aquatic Ecosystem
We can divide Terrestrial ecosystem into 4 category.
1. Grassland
2. Forests
3. Desert
4. Tundra
Aquatic ecosystem is also divided into 3 categories according to the presence of salt in water.
1. Fresh Water - Sea, Lake, Pond
2. Medium Salty - Mouth of river, Bays
3. Ocean Water - Excessive Salty Water
Ecosystem can be categorised in following way also:
HUMAN BEING IN ECOSYSTEM:
"ECO SYSTEM"
Living Factor
Producer Consumer Decomposition
First Stage Consumer
Second Stage Consumer
Third Stage Consumer
Non-living factor
Hydrosphere Lithosphere Atmosphere
Modern man has impressed world’s ecosystem and nature’s balance with scientific wonders. On the basis of his scientific achievements man has mistaken himself to be the master of ecosystem. Actually man is just a biotic factor of ecosystem. Due to his bigotry nature he uses physical matter and other creature in his own self interest. In the effort of developing self dependence is himself sometime he makes the whole environment against him. In this effort man has destroyed many species living in parts of universe and tried to develop artificial species. They are cutting trees blindly in order to satisfy their needs and luxurious wants. All the green lands are slowly converting into deserts. On the other side we see man had spread the network of canals and made the deserts green. He had transferred water from heavy rain fall area to low rainfall area and had destroyed the balance of nature. In order to give speed to the progress rate he started using harmful pesticides, chemicals and radioactive matters which not only effected the balance but polluted the environment. Now the presence of man, his existence and his health are in serious problem by this polluted environment. And this problem increased with the increase in population. So it can be said that the ecosystem is much effected by the man.
Agriculture land are decreasing because of Urbanisation and industrialization water and mineral from industry is polluting water whereas of machines and vehicle have polluted air and noise pollution increased. Now seeing all these it has become indispensable that we should take initiatives to balance the ecosystem or the results are going to be very dangerous (For details see Lesson: 5)
**ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION AND HEALTH.**
It is best to use the organs of environment in their pure forms but it is difficult to get any product in its pure form. There are some impurities in the water we drink, the food we eat or the air in which we breathe. In water, there are solid dust particles, dissolved salts and some germs even. In air we find Carbon Mono-Oxide, Sulphur – di-Oxide and dust particles. The same thing can be said about soil and food. Pollution is mixing of portion of one matter with other. We call any product or matter polluted when the proportion of mixture increases from normal to some what more. And the use of that matter becomes harmful. If the matters in the environment which we live is polluted then it will influence our health adversely and sometimes it is really dangerous. We find that pollution of matter and its negative effect on our health, all these information are neglected. The environmental factor which when polluted effects our health most are as follows:
1. Water Pollution.
2. Air Pollution
3. Soil Pollution
4. Sound Pollution
5. Radioactive Pollution
**WATER POLLUTION:** Life is not possible without water. Water is essential for any type of Life. Even our body is made up of two thirds water. Water plays an important role in different mechanical and bio-chemical activities of our body. Water being an important nourishment for body also carries other elements in it. There is 55% of water in our body blood it carries essential nutrients to different tissues, parts and even to each and every cell through blood circulation. This blood helps in discarding the excretory products obtained by metabolic activities. Besides physical activities, water is essential for life’s basic activities. Water is indispensable in activities like Cooking, Washing, Cleaning, Industry, Production of electricity, factories etc.,
**WATER SOURCES:** Rain is the main source of water in the world environment. Water which is accumulated in water bodies through rain evaporates slowly and goes up into the atmosphere and takes the form of clouds. Due to the temperature change in the atmosphere this water comes down in the form of rain.
After rain water is available on the earth in 2 sources (1) Ground water and (2) Underground water. Ground water is easily available for human beings to use. We get water from following bodies.
1. River (2) Lakes (3) Pond (4) Waterfall (5) Tanks.
**DEFINITION OF WATER POLLUTION:** Water can be defined in following ways:
(1) Mixing of outer elements in water decreasing its qualitative capacity and making it unfit for use is known as heater pollution.
(2) The degradation of physical and chemical form of water by the mixing of carbonic and non-carbonic element is called water pollution.
(3) The decrease in the real use of water due to the luxurious activities of a man is called water pollution.
(4) Presence of any solid or liquid element in water can be called water pollution, which influences its chemical and physical qualities and makes it harmful for health.
Water pollution can be divided into 4 groups on the base of their form and intensity to Pollute water. (1) Physical Pollution (2) Chemical Pollution (3) Body functioning pollution. (4) Biological Pollution.
Physical pollution means, change in physical qualities of water as – colour, odour, tastes
Etc., chemical pollution is due to mixing of industrial waste in water. These chemicals harms the chemical quality of water. When the due to water there is a negative effect on different parts of body and their functioning then it is called body function pollution. When different types of bacteria, germs and other creature comes in water then it is called bio-water pollution. This water is highly poisonous for health.
5.3.1. **SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION:** There are 2 ways how water gets polluted. First is natural and second is through human activities.
5.3.1. **NATURAL WATER POLLUTION:** Soil erosion, remains of chemical element, plants and creatures when they mix slowly with time then such pollution is called natural water pollution. Dust particles. Atoms, carbon particles, dust and many gases mixes with the rain water. These pollutions are very slow, that is why we never realize any harmful effect of it normally but when situation changes when there is scarcity of water, natural water sources dries up, then these slow pollution take a dangerous form.
There is mud, chemical matter near the natural sources of water as well, pond, waterfall and they get mixed up with this water. When the preparation of these chemical product increase in water than it has ill effect on human health.
5.3.2 **WATER POLLUTION DONE BY HUMAN BEINGS:** Although growth of human civilization took place in most of natural water sources but due to his enjoyment attitudes, he is destroying these sources. Man have destroyed many natural properties in the name of modernization, industrialization and urbanization and water is one of them. Due to human beings daily activities these matters get mixed up with water and pollutes it.
1. Domestic effluent
2. Sewage
3. Industrial Effluent.
4. Agricultural effluent
5. Thermal Pollution
6. Oil Pollution
7. Radio active materials waste.
5.4 WATER POLLUTION’S EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH:
Water is an important element for life’s activity. Man depends upon water to lead his life. If the water is polluted it surely effects his life. According to world health organization 75% of death in developing countries is due to water pollution. 80% of abdominal disease are caused due to polluted water. Near about 65% diseases are caused due to polluted water. In list 1 details of main diseases caused by water is given. Human health is effected by polluted water in 3 ways:-
(1) Through drinking water
(2) Coming in contact with water
(3) Due to dissolved chemicals in water.
5.4.1 EFFECTS OF DIRTY WATER:
If we drink dirty water then many there is possibilities of water born disease. Because there are many types of micro-organism, bacteria and virus in polluted water. These diseased micro-organism carry different types of disease.
Details of some of the disease carrying micro-organism are given in list (1) and also name of disease caused due to them.
LIST : 1 DISEASE CAUSED BY WATER POLLUTION:
| Sr.No. | Chemical Product Causing water pollution: | Expected disease & harm |
|--------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------|
| 1. | Carbonic & non-carbonic matter mixed in sewage. | Disease of Digestive System |
| 2. | Calcium & Magnesium Sulphate. | Burning in Instant time |
| 3. | Sodium & Pottassium | Poisonous effect |
| 4. | Floride | Dental diseases |
| 5. | Sulphide | Breathing problem |
| 6. | Chloride | Kidney Problem |
| 7. | Amonia | Breathing Problem |
| 8. | Urea | Disease of digestive system |
| 9. | Chlorin | Breathing problem |
| 10. | Fenol | Breathing problem |
| 11. | Oil & Greese | Disease of digestive system |
| 12. | Synaid | Poisonous effect |
| 13. | Mercury | Kidney, heart& nervous system problem |
| 14. | Zinc | Kidney problem |
| 15. | Cronnium | Ulcer |
| 16. | Lead | Kidney, heart and joint pain |
| 17. | Colour and colour dye | Skin disease & headache |
| 18. | Tenil | Skin |
| 19. | Pesticides products | Disease of Skin, Head-ach, insomnia, lungs and kidneys |
LIST: 2 SPREAD OF MICRO ORGANISM DUE TO WATER AND DISEASE CAUSED DUE TO IT.
| Sr.No. | Name of germs & parasites | Disease caused due to them |
|--------|---------------------------|----------------------------|
| 1. | Virus | Viral hepatitis, Polio |
| 2. | Bacteria | Dysentery, typhoid, paratyphoid, gastro, diarrhoe |
| 3. | Protozoa | Ambic diarrhea, Giardiosis, Thremboisis |
| 4. | Hetimenthic | Round worms, Hook worms, Thread worm (All diseases related with germs inside the stomach) |
| 5. | Snail | Schistosamiasis |
5.4.2 HEALTH PROBLEM DUE TO CONTACT WITH POLLUTED WATER: There are many parasites in ponds, rivers and other natural water sources. When man goes near these sources for bathing, washing or any other water activities then these parasites enter our body through our skin and cause many types of diseases. Schistosamiasis, Ankylostomiasis, Strongloidiasis, Leptospirosis are the example of these types of disease.
5.3.5 ILL HEALTH EFFECT OF CHEMICAL PRODUCTS PRESENT IN POLLUTED WATER.: Many types of chemical products are present in water. But when their proportion increases from normal, than it influences our health, e.g. Fluoride is essential for our teeth but when the quantity of fluoride increases in water, then our teeth become rough and also makes cavities in teeth, make teeth yellowish. In the same way, excessive ferrous bio-carbonate in underground water causes indigestion and constipation.
Due to agricultural activities, the nitrates which are achieved with water go inside our body and change into nitrites and mixes with hemoglobin found in red blood corpuscles and decrease the supply of oxygen. This type of poisoning of blood sometimes becomes the cause of death in infants. In the same way, D.D.T., Mercury, Lead, arsenic etc., present in pesticides go inside our body with food, accumulate and increase body salt. The increase in chemical proportion causes constipation, Neohritis, Wrist drop, Foot drop types of diseases.
5.5 AIR POLLUTION:
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION: As pure water, even pure air is needed for good health – Normally we find Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon-di-Oxide, Neon, argon etc gases in air. Air on Sea level is said to be pure. In it, the proportion of 5 gases are as follows:
| Gases | Proportion (%) |
|-------------|---------------|
| Nitrogen | 78.084 |
| Oxygen | 20.956 |
| Carbon-di-oxide | 0.934 |
| Argon | 0.931 |
| Neon | 0.002 |
Besides these gases, we find water vapor in air. When this air is on sea level, the proportion of gases changes.
Each and every living being breathes for life; plants and creatures take in oxygen and give out Carbon di-oxide. Plants with Chlorophyll take in carbon-di-oxide for photosynthesis process and breathe out oxygen during the process. This process maintains the balance of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide in air. So green plants play an important role in maintaining balance in ecosystem.
As other creature human being also needs oxygen for breathing, which he takes from air of atmosphere. A healthy person, normally breathes 21000 to 22000 time and intakes near about 20 kgs of air inside. The quantity of air consumed is more than the quantity of food and water. This only fact shows the importance of air in human being life. But because of Urbanisation, industrialization and modernization, and in the race of gathering the luxurious of life, man is destroying the purity of this life giving air. We know the results are going to be very dangerous.
5.5.1 **FORMS OF AIR POLLUTION**: Any in predictable change in physical, chemical or bio-qualities of air which is harmful for human being, other creature is called Air Pollution. World Health Organisation had defined air pollution as - Air pollution is limited only upto where the harmful elements from outer atmosphere increase are harms the environment.
**AIR POLLUTION CAN BE SEEN AS:**
1. Aerosol – The perplexity of very minutes solid gas atoms creates clouds which is called aerosol e.g – smoke, fog.
2. Dust – There are some solid particles bigger than colloidal shapes, are present in air, known as dust. These particles settles down with time due to gravitational forces.
3. Fly ash: - By burning of various facts the ash obtained, mixes up with air and is called fly ash.
4. Mixture of poisonous gases:- When the proportion of useless and poisonous gases increase in the air then, it becomes harmful for the health.
5. Smoke: - The carbon particles produced by burning of different fuels, makes smokes.
5.5.2 **SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION**: Generally air is polluted by activities done by man. But there are some air pollution which are caused due to natural factors. So we see both man and nature are sources of air pollution.
(a) Natural Source:- Ash obtained by arubtion of volcanoes, Dust spread due to storm, smoke, from jungle fire and methan gas formed due to natural swamps are some of the factors which cause gas in our body, so they do not effect health too much.
(b) Human Source:- The main cause of getting poisonus gas and its particles is various activities done by human being. Mainly among these are carbon-di-oxide, mono-oxide, sulphur-di-oxide, clorine, Nitrogen oxide, Amonia, Aldihadus, Verilium, Lead, Arsonic, Cadmium, Asbestos, Benjipiarin, Hydrocarbon and Radio active minerals. Commonly industries are claimed to be main air pollution. Because maximum amount of air pollution is done by them. Besides this burning of fuel and use of pesticides pollutes the air. In Urban area, unlimited moving of vehicle also come under consideration.
5.5.4 **EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION**: Our respiratory system is mainly effected by air pollution. Asthama, Bronchitis pain and burning effect in throat, phenumonia are the some breathing problems which are caused due to air pollution. If a person has to stay in air polluted air for a longer period then possibilities of lung cancer is there.
**BREATHING SYSTEM:** The main function of breathing system is to take out Carbon-di-oxide produced by metabolic activities of each cell and to take oxygen to them. Air goes through nasal cavity and air pipe to both of our lings (fig.No.1). There is a network of Blood capillaries on the walls of our lungs in which there is no stop of blood flow. Red blood corposules are found in blood in which we find a product called Hemoglobin an which does the work of oxygen carrier.
When our lungs are filled with air after breathing then takes place – Gaseous exchange function. In this process through diffusion, oxygen enters into blood and Carbon-di-oxide come out of blood and mixes up in the air present in lungs. Which is taken out of lungs through exhalation. After entering blood, oxygen
combines with hemoglobin and produce “oxyhemoglobin” which is carried to each and every cell of body by blood circulation.
As oxygen Carbon-mono-oxide, Combining with hemoglobin makes “Carboxyhemoglobin” which interrupts in blood circulation. We feel suffocated if it is in excess and with inadequate supply of oxygen. Brain and Heart stop working in this situation and if the situation is prolonged it causes death Uncountable Alveolar sacs present inside the lungs plays important role in Gaseous exchange. Big dust particles closes the opening of these sacs and cause interruption in gaseous – exchange. There are hairy cells and mucous cells present in nasal cavity, air pipe and Bronchi and Bronchioles. Dust and other particles are obstruct by these hairy cells while entering lungs. But when they increase in air due to air pollution then pass through bronchioles and enters lungs from there it is impossible to take them out. These particles interrupts in gaseous exchange and enters into blood through blood capelleries making sore in it. It cause Bronchitis, Bisnosis, throat pain, phenol and dangerous disease like lung cancer. And full chances of Asthama if these particles get accumulated in air pipe and Broncholes.
Besides these, smoke from the vehicles have lead in it, which mixes with our food and water and enters our body an damages the tissues of lever and Digestive canal. Benjoparin and multiple hydro-carbon present in air causes lunh cancer, and due to sulphur-di-oxide and Nitrogen-di-oxide, there is problem of disease like cancer, heart problem Diabaties and Amfisema.
The details of factors of air pollution and disease caused by them is given in LIST (3) main air pollution, their source and their ill effects.
**LIST : 3 SOURCE OF AIR POLLUTION & THEIR EFFECT**
| Polluters | Sources | Effects |
|----------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Carbon-di-oxide | By burning process vehicle | Increase in earth’s temperature and poisonous effect of gas. |
| Carbon-mono-oxide | Incomplete burning Process and burning Of petrol. | Dangerous disease caused by lack of oxygen in body. |
| Sulpher-di-oxide | Vehicles which run on Coal and diesel, smoke From factory and oil Refineries | Dangerous breathing disease, coughing with too much cough |
| Nitrogen-k-oxide | Solar instruments, burningOf fuel in vehicle, forest Fire | Breathing problems Burning sensation on skin and eye. |
| Solid particles of Other matters | Heavy industries Factories, cement industry, Electric houses, coal and Rock mines. | Poisonous effect on internal body parts, breathing problem, Poisonus effect on skin. |
5.5.5 **GREEN HOUSE EFFECT**: Green house effect is used for the temperature of earth. It is said that the temperature of earth which is 15 C from last 50 years, is increased by 1 C. Scientist believe that it is because of gaseous pollution in the atmosphere, due to which carbon-di-oxide in atmosphere has increased - resulting increase in earths temperature. If carbon – di – oxide is doubled then the temperature can even increase upto 50 C. If the temperature increase only by 3.6 C then the ice on artic and antartica will start melting, increasing water level in Oceans from 12Cm to 1.5 meter. Scientist
believes that if same rate of pollution continues till next 50 years than due to green house effect, temperature of earth will increase at least up to 4.5°C. On the poles 9°C increase is possible. This will be a dangerous situation, because due to increase in water level all the towns and cities will submerge under water. Glasgo, Florida, Stockholm, Cophengan and Kolkatta etc. will surely submerge underwater.
5.5.6 HOLE IN OZON LAYER: The ozone layer present in stratosphere level of atmosphere. It absorbs the ultra violet rays from Sun rays, so they do not reach earth. Due to ultra violet rays the upper layer of skin cells gets damaged and the blood cells present in layers of skin swells up and get damaged. Due to this there is burning effect and soars on skin. Burning, Swelling and soars in eyes. It influences the reproductive capacity of creatures. It also affects the changes and setting of germs during division of reproductive cells, due to which the child born has many diseases. And also decreases the capacity to fight a decease.
Scientist have tried to find the cause how holes are formed in ozone layer. They found that presence of C.F.C. and Helon gas in atmosphere is main reason for these holes. They also believe that chloroflouro – Carbon gas, halon gas are 90% responsible for damaging ozone layer. Beside them Nitric Oxide and Chlorin-Oxide gas are also responsible for the damage. All these gases are produced due to air pollution.
5.3 EARTH POLLUTION: The loss of productivity and utility of soil by unwanted physical and chemical changes is called earth pollution. It is caused to mixing of solid, liquid and poisonous waste of matters with soil. Mainly earth pollution is due to following reasons:-
(1) Domestic Wastes
(2) Municipal Wastes
(3) Industrial Wastes
(4) Agricultural Wastes.
All types of dry and moist waste, skin of fruits and vegetables all rotten fruit and vegetable, used tea leaves are included in domestic wastes. In municipal waste comes – waste from houses, urine and faces, rotten vegetable and fruit waste from vegetable market, waste from small scale, waste from roads and gutters and any type of waste from public places.
In industrial waste comes – Bio-decompositable chemical matter, inflammable, poisonous foul smelling and inactive chemical matter.
In Agricultural waste comes – Rat poison, Snake poison and poisonous gas and their residues etc. Pesticides kills the pest and make the soil poisonous. They are the cause of soil pollution.
220.127.116.11.1 EFFECT OF EARTH POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH: On one hand where earth pollution damages the lush green earth, on other had it spread very bad & foul smell. Due to garbage there is an increase in mosquitoes, flies and rat and also many types of diseases germs. Infectious germs of dysentery, Typhoid, Cholera, Eye disease which harm human health come out of these garbage.
When urine and faces are not properly released, it causes soil pollution which spoils the whole environment and then there is full possibility of dangerous disease like – Typhoid, Dysentery, Cholera, Hepatitis, Polio etc. If there is a heap of garbage near our house then possibility of plague increases. And if there is blocked water on which mosquito breeds then malaria can attack.
Some time in agriculture faces water is used for irrigation which blocks the soil pores slowly and after some time, soil is totally clogged due to which air cannot circulate through soil. Land with such soil is called sick or dead land. Not only these particles of face water is circulated in the fruit and vegetable growing on that land and when consumes these, it effects the health adversely.
5.7 NOISE POLLUTION: Sound of flowing water, thundering noise of sky, loud and continuous sound of ocean are nature’s truth. Even due to each human activities, sound is produced. When they make noise during celebrating the good and sad moments, vehicles sound, Noise of loud speaker during public functions all together they take the shape of noise pollution. Human ears can hear sound of 20 vibration per sec to 20000 per sec. We measure the intensity of sound by a unit called Decibel. It is based on a scale.
Sound intensity, Decibel – $10 \log \left( \frac{1}{10} \right)$ here 10 is that intensity of sound through which we measure the intensity (1) of other. Due to proportion a little change in Decibel brings major effect on its hearing. We can see in List (4) the common sound on Decibel Scale.
**LIST (4) COMMON SOUND LEVEL (IN DECIBEL)**
| Sound Source | Decibel |
|-------------------------------|---------|
| Heart beats | 13 |
| Whispering | 20 |
| Type writing | 40 |
| Vehicle Noise | 40 – 70 |
| Barking | 66 |
| Noise of Car & Truck | 80 |
| Inside Jet Plane | 85 |
| Noise from factory | 90 – 140|
| Horn – from 8 mts | 100 |
| Aeroplane Sound –from 10 mtr | 130 |
Research done by – Environment studies – Dr. R.B. Saxecena, Arya book department, Delhi (1998)
It is believed that less than 80 decibel sound is not harmful permanently. It comes lack of sleep, Roughness of behaviour, irritative nature, frequent anger and headache. If the sound level increase from 80 decibel to 100 decibel then it harms human health seriously, creating complex problem. It creates hearing problem, high blood pressure, Heart diseases, problems in digestive system, breathing problems, sometime it cause abortion. When level increase from 100 decibel then blood vessels contracts, obstacle in blood circulation and causes Heart Attack.
**SIMPLE QUESTION FOR PRACTICE**
1. Essay type question: -
(1) Define ecology and ecosystem.
(2) Explain different types of environmental pollution and their effect on human health.
2. Short question (Answer in 150 words)
(1) What are the effect of water pollution on human health
(2) What do you understand by environment.
3. Objective question (Answer in 1 word)
(1) Stratosphere is which level of Atmosphere?
(2) What is the proportion of increase in temperature of earth from last 50 years.
(4) Proportion of Oxygen in air is……….percent.
LESSON 3: HEALTH EDUCATION & COMMUNITY HEALTH
Aim: After studying this lesson you will learn:
- You will understand the basic mis-concepts of Health Education.
- You will know various working fields of Health education.
- You will get the knowledge of educational process of health, obstacles coming in way and their solution.
- Can impire in increase of community health and can help in appointing yourself in it.
Subject:
1. Introduction
2. Definition, Aim and observance
2.1 Definition of Health education.
2.2 Aims of Health education
2.3 Observance of increase in Health
2.4 What can we get from Health education.
3. Work fields of Health education.
4. Theories of Health education.
5. Communication in Health education
6. Observance of health education
7. Community health Nursing.
1.0 Introduction:
Public health is community effort of branch of Art and Science which is helpful in controlling different disease, long life, increase in health and development in its capacity. In ancient time relation of public health with the help of law was to make environment clean and to keep contagious disease away. By the changing time it was felt the need of making mass aware of health conservation and its increase. It was also felt that in this services we should also find out the factors influencing public health. In fact health education is a medium to understand the total behaviour of a man. Previously the stress on this was given by both un developing and developed countries, on public health its increase and control on diseases. They have understood that man is the cause of increase in health and origin of disease. And public health is noting different from it but a community effort and a part of a programme in which we put in practice our view point for health.
2.0 Definition, Aims and Observance:
2.1 Definition of Health Education: Health education is a process which is started with definite aims which has benefited the large part of society. The scope of this education is very wide, it pays attention to the health nourishment of each man. But the aim is nourishment of health of the whole society. Each and every man has different needs & problem, so when we talk of health nourishment of society then we have to think differently for different class of people. All these needs are taken into consideration in health education. Some of the people think health education is only a publicity, where as some think that it is unknown to the health specialist and is trying to carry minute health details to the uneducated, illiterate mass. Some people think it to be a chain between quality health and normal health.
A specialized committee of world health organization has defined Health Education in 1954 as “As any other study, education, even health education changes the behaviour, knowledge, experience of common mass. Much attention is given towards health techniques in this creative process which is essential for attending quality and complete health”. According to health education union (1988) – “Health education is a consolidated form of Planned Social Activities and experiences, due to which common mass can
control factors of health, health transactions and social situations, which influences the health on different levels.
According to world health organisation’s definition health education is an important component of knowledge point of view and behaviour. Health education brings notable change in all these component through person, family and society’s behaviour. It is a fact that any study of knowledge, should be based on scientific theories and current situation. Aim of education also should be such which can utilize the available sources and take the capacity of mass to the activation level. This is possible only when the view of mass, their mis concepts, their faith, values, needs and sources is studied properly and then the rules are made. The same can be applied with health education. If we run the programme of health education by keeping all these in view than definitely we will achieve success in health nourishment of a person, family and the society. M.R. Somars (1977) had given a definition which was accepted by all –
“Health education is such a process which accepts the health life style of common mass and helps, inspires them to move with full control.”
2.2 Aims of Health Education: - World health organization had ascertained 3 important aims of Health education which are as such –
1. To determined, that public health is a valuable possession and to accept the nourishment and protection of it.
2. To educate public about knowledge, capabilities and those tendency through which they can protect and care there own health.
3. To inspire and encourage mass to take full advantage of available government health services and also to contribute in them.
NORMALLY WE FIND 3 MORE AIMS OF HEALTH EDUCATION: -
First - To make common man aware of all health related mis concepts, doubts, ignorance etc and to erase them.
Second – Public themselves with their own efforts should help in health nourishment.
Third - To make public aware towards health to take part activity in such programmes.
Every society have their own believes, mis concepts, culture and tradition due to which people give least importance to health. Due to these believes, misconcepts they have to face serious health problems. Health education breaks those believes and misconcepts and brings the truth in front. It is also found that capable people also due to unknown causes are seen being careless with their health do not take even simplest care of their health. These type of people are educated and are inspired to take proper decision and to act on those decisions, under health education. It includes programes which changes people’s habits, certain change in their behaviour and to develop their strong will power. Every government sometime or their runs such family welfare program for the betterment of their citizens. Even our government is also running many such program such as National program for abolition of Malaria, National family planning program, Polio abolition program etc. Success of such program depends upon the community help and participation of each Health education gives stress on this that each and every person concerning society should actively participate in such program.
2.3 Proforma of health nourishment and its community process -
Three proforma can be applied on the process of health nourishment.
(1) Through Controller law:- Law should be made and implemented on government level. Little bit of indispensable problems arise in the way of success through this prices. First of all it will need a well organized big system. Secondly if people don’t know about these laws then they do not participate
whole heartedly. e.g. government had made law for No smoking in public places and in vehicles – but we can clearly see indifference behaviour of people towards their law.
(2) **Through Services**: - Under this people get special health nourishing facilities free on administrative and National level, in hope that people will utilize them and improve their health. But it is seen that these facilities are beyond their understanding and also not yearly approachable, so inspite of being free, they are not used by common people.
(3) **Through Education**: - To active the laws of health, to bring progress in health, education is considered as best medium. Through this work of inspiring people, making them aware of many decisions and their positivity and negativities and benefits etc., Though the process through this medium is slow, but it is permanent and confirmed. It is also seen that some health related problems can be delt only through education e.g. nourishment, care of infants and kids, personal hygiene, family planning, immunization, malaria and aids are some of the dangerous diseases which are attached with lots of mis concepts and there problem can be delt by education only.
2.4 **What is achieved through Health education ?**
The role of Health education………an important role in improving the health level of each and every class people and making them aware about their health. Following things can be achieved by doing so :-
1. **Development of good health habits** – Health habits such as – Cleanliness, Drinking Clean Water, Personal hygiene, breast feeding, Infant care and health etc., can be developed with Health education.
2. **Control on disease** – Inspires to adopt those habits through which diseases can be controlled e.g. immunization against diseases, regular checkups at initial stage of any disease, mother and childs proper care etc..
3. **Right use of medicine**: - We get the knowledge of right medicine in right time, which helps in curing disease and rehabilitation after care of few disease e.g. T.B. and Leprosy.
4. **Identification of disease on our body**: - Some times a common man does not recognize the disease after seeing the symptoms of that disease on his body due to ignorance or un awareness. Health education not only gives proper knowledge to be aware of disease but also educates where (Hospital and doctors) to contact on having such disease.
5. **Community Help** – Health education make mass aware about the primary health service given at state level and also inspires common public for co-operating.
3.0 **Working fields of Health Education**:
Imaging community health without health education is incomplete. So health education can be considered as the base of community health. We can reach to different levels of a community through health education only. When we are talking about different levels of community, then it is important to analyze those fields in which this programs can be implemented. From this point of view following fields can be considered.
1. Human Anatomy & Physiology.
2. Nutrition.
3. Sanitation
4. Mother and child care and family planning.
5. Immunization.
6. Preventive measure to avoid accidents.
7. Use of Health Services
3.1 Human Anatomy and physiology:- Human anatomy is very strange. Nature has given so many special qualities, which are very difficult to understand and are also amazing. After knowing a lot, still a lot remain un-understood. To know the basic anatomy of the body, it is essential to know function of each part of our body. Through Health education, simple knowledge of human anatomy and its function is given. Through which common man can understand, how our body works, what are its need, which are the factors influencing body function and how imbalance come in the functioning of body. How much physical efforts are needed for maintaining our health or how much rest or sleep is needed? What happens when there is an imbalance of body efforts and sleep? How health is effected by consuming of intoxicants like Cigarette, Liquor etc? Why not to consume them? Not only this but also how the reproductive cycle works? Important tips from pregnancy till the birth of child. All these important knowledge are given.
3.2 Nutrition: Balanced diet is essential for healthy life. The basic knowledge of nutrients in our food is always neglected (e.g. Carbohydrate, Protein, Fats, minerals & vitamins), what are the sources of these nutrients? what is their function? Lack of these leads to malnutrition, and how they harm our health? Generally we are unaware of these important knowledge. In Health education we are made aware of importance of nutrients, how to cook? how to preserve food and all the mis concepts related to nutrients. It is essential to change our wrong habits related to food without which food instead of giving benefits, becomes harmful. Health education inspires and educates public as when to eat. How much to eat, How to eat habits
3.3 Sanitation:- While making health increasing programmes we should stress on sanitation. Keeping all bio and physical factors in their natural form is what we means by sanitation. This work can be done on two stages.
Personal Stage:- Daily personal activity (toiletry) bathing, wearing of clothes, eating food, cleanliness of body, spitting, coughing, sneezing, taking care of sleeping and sitting areas etc. all comes in personal stage.
Environmental Stage:- Other than body, when man cleans his surrounding it comes in environmental stage. This also has 2 angles – Domestic and community. In domestic comes cleanliness of house, proper arrangement of light and air, cleanliness of floor and walls, sanitation of kitchen and control on pests (rats and flies). And in community sanitation comes supply of safe drinking water, town planning, nice airy houses, proper drainage and proper discard of diseases and urine.
3.4 Mother and child care and family planning: Healthy child is the maker of healthy society. And a child can be healthy only when proper care of him is taken during pregnancy period. Many misconcept are attached with health care of pregnant mother. Different believes are attached with from her daily activities to her food. Due to which the pregnant mother passes her days in pain and the child inside, before his birth gets many diseases and does not get appropriate treatment through out his life. Through health education all these misconcepts are tried to abolish. During pregnancy balanced nutritious diet to the mother, benefits of vaccination, care during pregnancy and delivery, breast feeding for infant after birth, importance of vaccination for infants etc., Knowledge of all these are given in health education programmes. Explaining the benefits of difference between 2 children inspires them for family planning. A mother is educated for all these, which in returns educates the whole family. The result of which is Healthy society.
3.5 Immunization:- The environment in which a man, there is possibility of getting effected by germs and microorganisms and fall sick. There are many infectious disease which not only effects a person but is harmful for the whole society. There are some disease which are caused due to virus and bacteria are not infectious in nature but there ill effect are on greater mass. In health education awareness of many infections, disease (like – polio, typhoid etc.), there nature, factors causing them, their ill effects is given.
And immunization program and its benefits are explained in these health education program and inspires them to participate is these programme.
3.6 Preventive measures to avoid accidents:- It is natural to meet small accident while working. But it is a fact that big accidents occur only due to carelessness. Accident mainly takes place in 3 main places, such as – While coming out of the house – road accident, while working kitchen – home accident or accident in our working field. Road accidents are caused due to rash driving, intoxication, breaking laws of traffic and pressure of increasing vehicles on road. Inside the house accidents are mainly due to either too much use of electrical appliances or due to LPG gas. In work field like factories all accidents, mainly occur due to breaking important laws. Through health education public is educated how to get rid of carelessness causing accidents. How they can follow small things to avoid big accidents. By controlling accident not only public property is saved but even public health becomes safe.
3.7 Use of Health Services: Many programmes are made on state level for protecting and conserving public health. If the duty of people to be aware of these services and take maximum benefits of them. Main aim of health education to educate people for taking maximum benefits of these community health services. People living in far off villages fail to take advantage of these facilities due to their ignorance and disinterest. Programmes like abolition of Malaria, Polio abolition, mother & child health services and family planning etc are boon for health conservation. Through health education public is inspired to take full advantage of health services.
4.0 Theories of Health Education:- Health education is not an object which be given to person to person. Activities like education, learning and understanding should be included in it. So that aspiration towards living healthy life gets deep into their heart, they accept it full heartedly. Psychologist have thought seriously on the learning and memorizing technique and based health education on it. They say that every man keeps on learning something or other and plans his future on his learning. Learning and teaching is a 2 way process which goes on between a teacher and student. We cannot teach anyone; anything till he wants to learn. The teaching & learning process is not limited only up to classroom but runs society level also. And Health education is one of them. Educationist has given following theories on this base.
(1) Interest
(2) Participation
(3) Comprehension
(4) Communication
(5) Motivation
(6) Reinforcement
(7) Learning by doing
(8) Good Human Relations
(9) Leadership.
4.1 Interest:- According to psychologist, man does not pay attention to those things which are not of his interest. So to make Health education effective and successful, it is essential to make it interesting. Now public is no more interested in slogans as “Take care of your Health” or “Keep Healthy”. So now health education works has taken responsibility to find health necessities of common man and then base their health education programme on these necessities to make it successful.
4.2 Participation:- To listen and learn by being inactive and neutral, its better to be active and learn. In Health education programme chance is given to the learner to actively participate in it. That is why group discussion, expert discussion and workshop, has special place in health education.
4.3 Comprehension:- Any type of knowledge is not complete till the comprehensive level of the learning group is not clear. It is essential to know are the learning group has the capacity of understanding the topic.
taught. Because if the topic taught fails to reach there brain, than teaching is useless. So before starting health education programme, it is necessary to know the comprehension of the Target group.
4.4 Communication:- Communication is in the base of technique of any study. It is very important how and in which language the teachers and learner interact. In target group generally people whose education is very less or little bit. That is why while teaching it is necessary to be particial about the language. Easy words should be used. By doing such the things which are taught can be understood and excepted easily.
4.5 Motivation:- Every man wishes to learn something from his heart. In some people this is very desperate, were as in some its not so desparate. So the people in whom the wish of learning is not very cognent. So by efforts these wishes needs to be made desparate. These efforts are known as motivation. It is also of 2 type Primary & secondary. Sex, hunger wish to live arc primary inspirations where as appraisal, completion, award, punishment etc are secondary inspirations. Primary inspiration needs less effort to arise them. The inspiration got from health education help in new ideas and thoughts. Inspiration are attached with punishment and awards. It helps to make changing process fast & success. E.g.- If a lady is said to reduce weight for good health, she won’t pay much attention, but if the same lady is said that if she reduces weight her beauty and position in society will increase than she will immediately practice it. Health education takes help of such inspirational processes.
4.6 Reinforcement:- It is not necessary that things said in Health education will accept it immediately, so in health education each and every thing is repeated time and again, so that it is cemented in the mind of learners and it results are good.
4.7 Learning by Doing:- It is difficult to listen and learn, read and learn in comparison when we do and learn and it becomes clear in our mind quickly.
There is a Chinese Proverb –
“Whatever I listen I forget”
“What I see, I try to remember”
“Whatever I do, I know it”
So following this, in health education total involvement is given preference.
4.8 Good Human Relation :- The success of a health educator is in his sweet behaviour not his technical qualification. Any thing to cement in mind and heart of people, depends how close relation the educator has with people. The educator should be very polite, sensitive and patienceful. Through his behaviour he has make people believe that he is their true well wisher and friend, than only they will listen to him carefully and do what he says.
4.9 Leadership:- Psychologist believe that we listen and accept things from those people only, whom they respect and faith. Any policies can be put into practice by consulting the community leader or their head. Because these leaders or head works as agents of transformation.
5.0. Communication Health Education: - Education basically depends upon communication. A health educator should know how to interperate the things to the people with whom he is working. The work of communication is to interperate ideas from one person to other, one group to other. Through this expected changes can be brought. Main factors of communication are:-
(1) Communication
(2) Message or Information.
(3) Audience
(4) Channels of Communication.
5.1 Ways of Communication:- Communication is an art which essential for all human relations, to influence other by talking, to persue, others to do according to your program depends upon our communication power. Following ways of communication can be used –
(1) One way communication:- In this follow of ideas are from one side, its direction is from sender to the gainer. In this way there is no provision for feedback. Demerit of this process is that we don’t come to know how much the learner has gained.
(2) **Two Way Communication**:- In this way the learner listens the ideas and through communication tries to understand be satisfied. It is called feedback. This is better than one way communication and is effective also.
(3) **Verbal Communication**:- In this, in front of each other with the use of language, ideas are put in front of the learners.
(4) Nonverbal Communication:- In this beside using words message can be send to the audience by body language as – by smiling, by staining by body postures etc. Silence is also a type of nonverbal communication. Sometimes it has been found that silence speaks louder and more effectively than words.
6.0 Health education should be run mainly on 3 levels –
(1) Personal Level (2) Group Level (3) Public Level
6.1 Health Education on Personal Level:-
Health Officers who are personally in contact with patients and their relatives, give them health knowledge. Tells them about symptoms of diseases, their prevention, how to be safe from them, Other measures of safety etc. The biggest benefit of health education on personal level is that. Can give knowledge on various aspects of healths, can do argument, can satisfy people. Health Officers and people both fulfill their responsibility and are fully satisfied.
6.2 Health Education on Group Level:-
In group comes school going children, same type of patient, industrial worker, pregnant women And after delivery mothers - Each group can be educated by selecting a topic related to them. For group level health education periodic select of the topic is important. Following process are used for group level health education
(1) **Didactic Process:**
(a) Lecture (b) Film © Flash Cards (d) Chart
(2) **Socratic Process:**
(a) Group Discussion (b) Pannel Discussion © Symposium (d) Workshop (e) Play
6.3 Health Education on Public Level:-
For education common public medium of communication are best. The medium are:-
(1) Posters (2) Health Magazines (3) Radio & T.V.
(4) Health Exhibition (5) Health Museum
Posters are put to attract common mass, so its need artistic creativity. The message on the poster should be straight, simple could very clear and understood on first glance. Good health magazines with many types of knowledge is an important medium of communication. And newspapers are considered to be a broader medium for communicating. Radio and T.V. are very common and are available everywhere. By organizing health exhibition, people are made more aware. Health museums are also strong medium for inspiration.
7.0 Community Health Nursing:-
Health level of the members of particular community, factors influencing their health level, their problem and health facilities available in the community is called Community Health Nursing. Promotion of health, prevention of disease, care all these activities jointly is
community health. The traditional and important duties of health (as conservation of environment, prevention of contiguous diseases are also included in mis concept community health.
Actually community health is related to a small mass of people, so community diagnosis and community care are given stress in it. It means the whole community is looked upon as 1 patient and the health of community is looked upon as 1 unit health.
7.1 Community Health Nursing and its theories. Community health nursing is run under an organized and pre planned procedure. And its procedure points are –
(1) Recognition
(2) Assessment
(3) Intervention
(4) Evaluation
(5) Organisation
(1) **Recognition**:- Community health nursing starts with the health level of community which can be achieved by seeing, understanding and by assuming.
(2) **Assessment** - Through this all the technical and possible activities of health nursing is decided.
(3) **Intervention**:- In this level the planning are activated
(4) **Evaluation**: After activation of all planning, getting their results is called evaluation. The analysis of the obtained result decides further direction.
(5) **Organization**:- If community Health Nursing is expected to run on big scale successfully than working as organization is more success.
Community health services are based on above mentioned theories only, but when going into broader sense we can consider following points even –
(1) Meeting with leader or head of the organization and taking their approval.
(2) For recognition of problems and need of community health services, help of survey, available records should be consulted and inquired.
(3) To determine the priority of the problem, help of source of problem, seriousness of problem, need of problem.
(4) Identification of health problem and then decide for the necessary solution and keeping in view all these planning should be made.
(5) Activation of the plan which is ready.
(6) Solution for the problem and its positive assessment.
**SAMPLE QUESTION FOR PRACTICE**
I. **Essay Type Questions.**
(1) Explain the fields of health education.
(2) Explain in detail the theories of health education.
II **Short Answer Question – (Answer in 10 words)**
(1) Define Health Education?
(2) Explain the ways of communication in health education.
III **Objective Question (Answer in one word or 1 sentence)**
(1) Health Education should be run on how many level?
(2) How many factors are there in communication?
**Ref:** Books:
(1) Park’s Text book of preventive and Social Medicine – K. Park
M/s. Banaraidas Bharot Publisher, “Jabalpur”
CHAPTER -4: BIOLOGY AND HEALTH IMPROVEMENT
AIMS: After studying this chapter you will-
1. Get information about the relations between Biology and health improvement.
2. Understand the aspects of health improvement through Biology.
3. Be capable of providing practical training of Biology.
Topics-
1.0 Biology and Health improvement
2.0 Training process
2.1 Excretion
2.1.1 Defense
2.2 Preksha-Meditation
2.2.1 Process of Preksha-Meditation training
3.0 Health improvement through regulated life style
3.1 Elements of ‘Anuvrat’
3.2 Anuvrat-Acharsamhita
3.3 ‘Anuvrat’- also a social constitution
1.0 Biology and health improvement
Biology is the science of life. It is a teaching about how to live life. It is an art about how to adorn life. Health is the first step to achieve the ultimate goal of life. So definitely the attitude of teaching of Biology has been positive towards health. In this teaching, as much attention is paid to increment of physical, mental, spiritual and intellectual health as it is being paid in moral and spiritual development of a person. In order to increment of health, mainly three schemes are being paid more attention.
1. Theoretical training
2. Experiments of ‘Preksha-Meditation’.
3. Following ‘Anuvrat-Acharsanhit’.
Under theoretical training initially misconception of health, aspects of health, and various elements and situations affecting health are described. The way level of health changes according to the continuously changing conditions, it is necessary to know about it. Body has its own limitations. When body fails to accommodate changing environmental conditions, supporting mechanisms are needed. Various experiments of ‘Preksha-Meditation’ are supportive to maintain health. So in this order all the theoretical backgrounds of experiments and practical methods are arranged. For the protection and maintenance of health our life style is also equally important. ‘Anuvrat-Acharsanhitai’ are the regulations of such a life style which created ideal conditions for health. Under theoretical training, definitions of all those regulations, their effects and possible benefits to health by them are acknowledged.
1. Health, physical control and Biology: Persons control is done by various systems of body. There is a competent system for accomplishment of each and every action. For this steady system, there are four elements working- Body, Breath, Speech, and Mind. In the sequence of health increment of a person, these four elements are adorable as well as obstructing. They are goals as well as hurdles in the sequence of evolution. If they are learned, then they are supporting, otherwise obstructing. So the basic question is of acquiring their training, and studying. Our body’s controlling system is Nervous system which has two main parts- Brain and Spinal cord. These two form two poles. The upper pole is brain and the lower pole is the end of spinal cord at lower end of back bone. Brain exerts consciousness while the lower end of spinal cord exerts energy. Consciousness and energy are very important factors
in our life. Both of them are maintained by these two poles- Intellectual centre in the form of brain, and energy centre in the form of spinal cord. If both of them develop properly, then our activities are controlled with ease and comfort as well as health is also maintained.
The second element is Breath. It is usually under-evaluated. Every organ of body is full of life because of breath. It is as important internally as it is in external world. A person is associated with other animals, plants etc. in outer world. Breath is one of the aims for this. Breath is first inhaled and then exhaled. Apparently this is a very simple process, but is very important. It has got a very important role in affecting a person’s health. With breath oxygen enters in body and with expiration, carbon-dioxide is exhaled. Without oxygen, no tissue can work. These tissues need energy to work which is derived from oxygenation of food. For this process to take place, presence of oxygen is necessary. The health of a body depends up on the competency of unit cells. This way, breath is a supporting factor in the maintenance of health.
The third element is Speech. Speech is the major gadget of our activities and sociality. There is no social life without speech. One person communicates with other through speech. Mutual correspondence can bring about favourable as well as adverse situations. Because of adverse situations, such stimulatory changes take place in our body that affect health. That is why control and training of speech is important.
The fourth element is Mind. Mind is the medium for memory, imaginations, and thinking. The journey of our life moves ahead on the base of these three. Without memories, life can not move ahead. Without imagination no one can think about progress and without thoughts these imaginations can not be materialized. It is mind which embodies these three elements. Besides this it is a fact that mind and body are the two inseparable parts of a personality. To achieve health, training of mind is extremely necessary because if mind becomes weak then these three elements will get dispersed and the person will become handicapped mentally as well as physically.
These four elements-Body, Breath, Speech, and Mind are the solid foundations of our activities. Without these four being coordinated, our activities can not be controlled and without the control of our activities, health can not be maintained. But sometimes they create hurdle also. In the process of this obstruction mind plays major role. Suppose a work is to be done. At this time unnecessary memories come in to play. Mind is distracted due to unknown fear, thoughts start to come in to mind. The work gets delayed and sometimes it is even left uncompleted. Memories start to play like a reel one after another and the cycle becomes infinite. Memories if are supportive, they are obstructive also. Imaginations if play creative part, futile imaginations even lead to failure on the other hand. Thinking is necessary as well as obstructive. Sometimes a person so much thinks that the whole sap of action is directed to thoughts and action does not occur. Until thought process breaks, no action takes place. Ultimately leads to depression and anxiety. For the improvement of health these elements have to be trained and to be given a proper direction.
Everyone understands the speech hurdle. A little bad word makes a good friend an enemy forever. All the activities of mind depend on speech. Memory, imagination, thinking, etc. all need speech. This way where breath plays assistance, it also plays as an obstruction. Excessive anger, lust, jealousy, etc. all have breath in their background. If breath is not mastered then it becomes a reason for the creation of all these feelings. There are two types of breath-deep breath and shallow breath. A natural breath should be deep. Some people believe that a natural breath is deliberately made deep, but it is not so. Biology believes that a natural breath has to be deep. 15-16 respirations per minute are not natural. According to our Anatomy, no more than 7-8 breaths per minute should be there. There are our mentalities behind this increased respiratory rate besides our anatomy. Breath becomes shallow when it is affected by mentalities. Breath becomes shallow during excitement, and excitement occurs when breaths are shallow. Our central nervous system aids in controlling our activities. In this process, if motor and sensory nerves are performing their functions properly then only our life can be balanced. If there is some disturbance in their
functions, then all the physiological processes are obstructed and this creates lots of perversions in our body. That’s why for the better health of our body we have to train our body, mind, speech and breath.
2.0 Training Process
The process of health improvement with Biology involves training of all the above mentioned elements. There are four parts of this training process- ‘Karyotsarg’, ‘Preksha’, ‘Anupreksha’, and consciousness.
2.1 Karyotsarg: It is the process of getting relief from stress. It is necessary to learn this process to stay healthy. In modern times one person out of two is under stress. Stress despite of not being an illness itself, it gives rise to many diseases. So a proper direction can be achieved for health improvement by relieving stress. ‘Karyotsarg’ is done to eliminate harmful effects caused by stress. Below mentioned adverse changes take place in our body in a stressful condition.
1. Digestive process becomes sluggish.
2. Salivary secretions diminish.
3. Metabolic rate changes.
4. Respiratory rate increases.
5. Heart rate increases and blood pressure rises.
6. Contraction and relaxation of body tissues intangible increase.
Because of these changes, chemical secretions and bio-electricity increase in our body. If these changes are unwanted then excess of energy and secretions create tension in tissues. If this situation is prolonged or occurs repeatedly then it gives rise to serious consequences. For example, if raised blood pressure is prolonged; and constriction of blood vessels persists then it may cause heart attack or haemorrhage. If stomach and other digestive organs are deprived of adequate blood supply for a long time then digestive disturbances are created. If rapid breathing is prolonged then it brings about serious problems of respiratory system. Tension in body tissues causes pain in beck, back, etc. Besides these, persistent stress may lead to depression and other psychiatric problems.
2.1.1 Prevention: Tranquilizer drugs invented by modern medical science provide temporary relief. But after a long time these medicines themselves prove to be more dangerous than the ailment itself. At this point a question arises that whether we are destined to get exterminated because of situations of modern age and atmosphere or is there any other way through which we can accommodate these situations so as to protect ourselves from adverse effects of routine stress. Nature has provided us with such a defense mechanism due to activation of which such a physical condition is created which is different from Fight-or-Flight situation. Nobel Prize winner Dr. Walter has named this system as ‘Topotrophic Reaction’. Describing this system as a defense mechanism, Dr. Walter has said that with this system an antagonist reaction can be generated against the reactionary process created by stress. Dr. Herbert Benson has named it ‘Stress free mechanism’. Everyone can train himself and activate his defense mechanism by ‘Autosuggestions’. By balancing hormones and thereby establishing a proper coordination between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems stress can be prevented. This Autosuggestion is the base of ‘Karyotsarg’.
For the health improvement learning supportive elements of Karyotsarg are also equally important. This includes many physical activities as well as exercise. Exercising them aids blood circulation in body tissues. There are opponents for almost each and every tissue groups. When one contracts, other gets relaxed. If one group of tissues is kept tense for a long time then it causes reduction in blood circulation. This leads to accumulation of metabolic end products like lactic acid etc. in those body tissues. This causes pain and fatigue. So, to prevent such material in body tissues it is necessary to maintain blood circulation in those tissues.
Asanas and other procedures adopted for the tissues to get contracted and relaxed rhythmically, improves blood circulation and besides that, pain and fatigue are relieved. Our body tissues have to work against the gravity of the earth and wrong postures make this situation worse resulting in deformities in them. That is why, a proper teaching of asanas and postures is necessary.
2.2 Preksha-Meditation: Preksha-Meditation is the easy and ready to hand process which simply means ‘To See’. Glance of a soul by a soul, glimpse of mind by mind, attempting to see a hidden insight through material sight. ‘To see’ is the foundation element of Preksha-Meditation.
Achieving a sacred mind is the first step of achieving health. When mind is overwhelmed by bad mentalities, then the stream of self awareness can not flow in heart. Without this, bio-chemical processes and other mechanisms can not perform harmoniously in our body; at this situation the imagination of health is futile.
Various scientific processes are intended to find out truth, but their subjects are merely material. Scientific inventions take place only in the presence of physical equipments and machines. Perhaps this is the reason why it is stretched up to material things only. It can not reach the level of insight. This is the reason why science has not accepted the entity of independent reign of insight. It is clearly quoted in spiritual articles that meditation has an invaluable aim- Knowledge of self existence, experiencing the independent reign of insight. Now, science has started accepting that meditation relives stress and helps improving general health.
The aim of Preksha-Meditation in behavioural aspect is growth of the whole personality. Whole personality means complete and balanced development of all the components (Physical, Mental, Intellectual, and Emotional). Health is also included. A person having the asset of complete personality is having following aspects.
1. Balance of intellectual and emotional development.
2. Spiritual and scientific thinking.
3. Ability to control emotions.
4. Balance of mechanical and chemical processes of body.
5. Ability of various skills.
6. Want of stress habits (Mental and emotional).
7. Disciplined and merciful life style.
8. Ability of friendliness and cooperation.
9. Decision power and self confidence.
10. Sensitivity to human relationships.
Preksha-Meditation helps in developing all these qualities that ultimately contribute in enhancing health.
2.2.1 Process of Preksha-Meditation Training: In the syllabus of Preksha-Meditation, following processes are observed-
1. Movement of ‘Upasampada’ – This has five facets- 1. Bhavakriya, 2. Abstinence from Reaction (‘Pratikriya Virati), 3. Friendship (‘Maitri’), 4. Soft speech (‘Mit Bhashan’), 5. Proper diet (‘Mitahar’).
Bhavakriya- Bhavakriya has three meanings-Living in present, devotion, and staying conscious. The one with lives in present, and feels the present moment can be free of feeling of jealousy. Such a person cannot receive physical stimulations. Without devoting to a work, results cannot be as per expectations. Because of this we have to face despair which is harmful to health. So, whatever work we do, we should do with devotion and commitment. Without consciousness, sacredness of mind is not possible. That is why we should be conscious about our activities.
**Abstinence from Reaction (‘Pratikriya Virati’)-** A person’s aim should be action, and not reaction. We should safeguard from reaction out of getting affected from external environment and other situations; because, it is the reaction which creates physical irregularities.
**Friendship-** The third element is friendship-friendly behaviour. This is possible only if the person is free from reaction.
**Proper diet (‘Mitahar’)-** This means taking a balance diet in an adequate quantity. Diet has got equal effect on mind and insight as well as body and health. Unnecessary food creates deformity in body as well as in mind. So diet should be taken care of in terms of its type, quantity and time.
**Soft Speech (‘Mitt Bhashan’) –** Speech is necessary in our routine life, provided it has a limit. Speaking more than necessary becomes a reason for stimulation in some form which is harmful for body and health.
2. **Supportive factors of Preksha-Meditation**
There are four complimentary factors of Preksha-Meditation
1. Aasan, 2. Pranayam, 3. Mudra, 4. Dhvani
You have already learned about various types and procedures of Aasan, Pranayam, Mudra, and Dhvani and their benefits.
3. **Major parts of Preksha-Meditation**
There are eight parts of Preksha-Meditation which are described.
1. Karyotsarg 5. Chaitanyakendra Preksha
2. Antaryatra 6. Leshya-Meditation
3. Shwas Preksha 7. Bhavna
4. Sharir Preksha 8. Anupreksha
**Karyotsarg-** You have already learned about the principle and training of Karyotsarg.
**Antaryatra-** In meditation it is necessary to develop Nervous energy of the Nervous system. The main part of our central nervous system is ‘Spinal Cord’. The lower end of spinal cord ‘Energy Centre’ is the main centre of vital energy. During Antaryatra, concentration is brought from this energy centre to knowledge centre through spinal cord. With the Antaryatra of insight, vital energy flows upwards. Repetitions of Antaryatra develop nervous energy of nervous system which is equally important for balanced health as it is for meditation practice.
The centre of our consciousness, knowledge is –Nervous System. It is extended in the whole body, but the area from lower end of spinal cord to brain is the basic centre of consciousness. It is the site of expression of soul. This is the site of mind. It is the site of nourishment of mind and senses. Sensations, reflexes, and impulses are all transferred from here. It is the site of energy too. It is the centre for sensory and motor fibers. It is only a human who can transmit energy upwards. By merely changing direction, the downward flow of energy changes to upwards. Flow of energy of brain downwards is the entrance in a materialistic world. Flow of energy upwards is the entrance in to spiritual world. On downward flow of energy, material pleasure is achieved and on upward flow of the same gives spiritual pleasure. This spiritual pleasure leads us to ‘Pratikriya Virati’ which lowers metabolic rate in body, provides physical peace and health is boosted.
**Breathing Preksha (‘Shwas Preksha’)**
Breathing is the inseparable element of metabolic processes. Breath and life go hand in hand. Mind can not be caught directly. But to catch mind, catch life and to catch life, catch breath. By changes in breathing we can develop our mind. Breathing Preksha is the simple way to concentrate our mind.
For the concentration and peace of mind, it is very necessary that breath be calm. There are two forms of peaceful breath – 1. Mild breathing (‘Sukshma Shwas-Prashwas’) and 2. Deep and calm breathing (‘Mand / Deergh Shwas –Prashwas’).
In Karyotsarg, breathing is not stopped but it is made mild (‘Sukshma’). Oxygen should be inhaled gently and should be exhaled gently. This is called ‘Mand Shwas-Prashwas’.
There are many exercises of Breathing Preksha – Deergh-Shwas Preksha, Samavritti Shwas Preksha etc.
**Deergh Shwas Preksha**
The one, who exercises Preksha-Meditation, first controls its breathing. He tries to make his respiration long and rhythmic. Usually a person takes 15-17 breaths per minute; deergh shwas Preksha reduces this rate. After general exercises this rate falls bellow 10 and after special exercises it can fall even further. To make the respiration mild or deep, diaphragmatic muscles are exercised. While exhaling abdominal muscles contract and while inhaling, these muscles relax.
Making respiration mild, deep or calm gives mental peace. With this, aggressions also calm down. Irritabilities, stimulations, and desires alleviate. When breathings are shallow, desires rise, irritations occur. All these mental perversions have one vehicle-Breath. Whenever you feel that irritation is coming to your mind, immediately make your breathing deep and find the irritation gone. The reason behind this is that the vehicle is not available then for the irritation to appear. No irritation or desire can manifest without dependency. A regular practicing of meditation provides a mastery to find out the depth of mind. The person then can know as to which centre of brain a perversion is arising from. So the person practicing meditation is not affected by those mental perversions and his health is not affected by the adverse effects.
Breath is the present fact. To observe it means living in stability, living free of bad feelings. The one who observes breath becomes free of stress. It is a simple procedure to train our mind to concentrate on current activities. It increases aptitude.
**Samavritti Shwas Preksha**
This is also an important factor of Preksha-Meditation. Inhaling from left nostril and exhaling from right one and vice versa-is ‘Samavritti Shwas Preksha’. Observing it, concentrating it and uniting it with mind are very important. Initially it is facilitated with finger and then it can be voluntarily done by decision power. With Samavritti Shwas Preksha, important centers of insight can be aroused. This way we can see that shwas Preksha is not only a gadget for concentration but also it can avail energy required for various physical activities that can be exercised to remove physical perversions.
**Physical Preksha (‘Shara Preksha’)**
In this all the body organs are concentrated and wherever some irregularity is observed, it is refurbished by vital energy. It also enhances immunity power. These works are fulfilled on the principle of ‘Faith Healing’. An attempt is made to balance all the systems of body and achieve the goal of health enhancement.
**Chaitanyakendra Preksha**
The aim of Preksha-Meditation is sanctity of mind. To make our mind sacred, we have to undergo purity of our feelings, habits and actions; and for that we have to understand where do these impurity arise from and where do they become evident. If we understand this then it becomes easy to make them sanctified. We have to think about it according to the ‘Yoga therapy’ and modern Anatomy.
According to science there are two types of glands in our body – Glands with ducts and Ductless glands. Ductless glands are endocrine glands. Pineal, Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus, Adrenal, Gonads, etc. are the endocrine glands. Their secretions are called hormones. These hormones have great
deal of influence over our physical, mental and emotional activities. They also have an important role in the metabolic activities of our body which are responsible for our health.
Whatever habits a human develops, are all due to glands. Our body has two major control systems – Nervous system, and endocrine system. In Nervous system all our expressions are manifested, come to experience and then enter into behaviour. Behaviour, expression and experience are the functions of nervous system. But habits arise in endocrine system. These habits are then transferred to brain, are expressed and then come to behaviour. That is why a new term is developed in science- ‘Neuro-Endocrine System’.
Hormones are of two types – one-the hormones which cause physical stimulation, and the other which reduce this stimulation. In the exercises of Chaitanyakendra Preksha, these hormones are balanced.
**Leshya Meditation**
‘Leshya’ is a terminology used in Jainism, which means – ‘Result or level of insight being produced due to contact with a matter having a particular colour’. Waves of mental perversions and waves generated after their purity- embodying these waves in the form of emotions, and transferring them to thought, action and process is the function of ‘Leshya-Meditation’. Leshya is the synchronization between material and immaterial body.
Leshya is such a level where change in personality starts. The whole personality changes if Lehyas are good or bad. So the change will occur on both ways. Now the question is how to reach there? We will have to take resort to colours. Colours have a great influence on our personality. If we understand the procedures and psychological influences of colours then it provides a great help in personality development. Personality development directly affects our health. This way, development of health occurs along with personality development.
**Feeling (‘Bhavna’)**
The person who studies feelings masters meditation. To master meditation, four feelings have to be studied.
1. **Gyan Bhavna** – Knowledge base study with abstinence from jealousy, and affection.
2. **Darshan Bhavna** – Vision base study with abstinence from jealousy, and affection
3. **Charitra Bhavna** – Practicing a balanced chastity with abstinence from jealousy, and affection.
4. **Vairagya Bhavna** – Practicing abstinence from affection, expectations and fear.
Whatever practice a person repeats, whatever a person mulls over, his culture is formed in that particular form. This is self-hypnotism. It is also called ‘Jap’. The one who spiritualizes soul, gets settled down to soul. That is what the gist of ‘Soham Jap’ is. Those who spiritualize ‘Arhat’ become ‘Arhat’. Some people are absorbed in God. The one who spiritualizes himself in any expert action, his spirit moves him to his goal.
Spirituality is like a boat; a boat takes it’s travelers to shore. Same way, spirituality brings a person out through sorrows.
Spirituality can change nature, behaviour and action. A spirit of being away from affection surely gives results. Spirit of calmness changes anger, politeness changes pride, spirit of satisfaction changes temptation.
The spirit of achieving health is one of the spirits. It can surely help beyond expectation.
**Anupreksha**: Meditation means ‘Preksha’ - ‘To see’. After its end, concentrating over subjects which bring the mind in to conscious state is ‘Anupreksha’. Our mind becomes overwhelmed by the subject over which repeated contemplation is done. So the fulfillment of that contemplation is but natural.
Insight is the innovative form of soul. It has two functions - ‘To see’, and ‘To know’. Our insight is not existent in its pure form, so our vision and our knowledge are undisclosed. It is behind a barrier. This barrier is called ‘Darshanavarān’ and ‘Gyanavarān’ respectively. This barrier is set by our own affection only. We do not only see or know, but with that a feeling of like or dislike is created. This stimulates maliciousness and spitefulness. These two elements create affection; and affection creates barrier before knowledge and vision. This cycle goes on. There is only one way to break this cycle, and that is ‘Gyata Bhav’ or ‘Drashta Bhav’. You should only to see and know. The one who only knows and sees, utilizes his existence. The one, who develops the feeling of like and dislike along with seeing and knowing, gets away from his true existence and goes to ignorance.
3.0 Health improvement through regulated life style (‘Anuvrat’)
‘Anuvrat’ is the integration of small ‘vrat’ which inspires us to adopt such a life style which emphasizes coexistence, friendliness, and mercy. This helps us in observing those moral values which are not only helpful for personal benefits, but are also helpful in establishing natural and situational balance. It provides us freedom from the sources of those physical and bio-psychic stimulations which create various deformities inside us. Anuvrat were setup for the purpose of moral and spiritual progress of common people; and inspiring them to adopt the principles of truth, non-violence and celibacy. Absence of these values in our life makes us weak in physical, mental, and spiritual aspects. By adopting ‘Anuvrat’, we can get rid of these scarcities and live a happy and healthy life. Morality and truth are the mottos of ‘Anuvrat’. Self evaluation and self criticism are its gadgets. By observing it, we can achieve a great deal of physical and mental welfare.
3.1 Elements of ‘Anuvrat’
1. Sensibility towards the existence of others.
2. Unity.
3. Spirit of coexistence.
4. Religious cooperation
5. Non-violence.
6. Limited consumption.
7. Priority to behaviour.
8. Optimism
9. Fearlessness, balanced mind, and truthfulness.
3.2 Anuvrat Acharsambhita
1. “I won’t kill any innocent animal”.
- I will not commit suicide.
- I will not kill foetus.
2. “I won’t attack.”
- I will not support molest.
- I will make efforts for global peace and non-violence.
3. “I won’t participate in any sabotage activities”.
4. “I will have faith in unity”.
- I will not believe in discrimination on the bases of race, or colour.
- I will not believe in not touching people of lower community.
5. “I will observe religious empathy”
- I will not spread out religious agitation.
6. “I will be honest in my profession and behaviour”
- I will not harm others for my personal benefits
- I will not cheat.
7. “I will observe celibacy and repression”
8. “I will not act immorally.”
9. “I will not support bad social rituals.”
10. “I will live an addiction-free life.”
- I will not consume intoxicating substances like alcohol, ganja, charas, bhang, tobacco, etc.
11. “I will be conscious about environmental problems.”
- I will not cut trees.
- I will not misuse water.
3.3 ‘Anuvrat’- also a social constitution
For any constitution to evolve, regional situations play an important role. The aim of Anuvrat system is to establish such a system for human beings, which can form a balance between person and society. Thinking over social constitution with the view of Anuvrat, following mottos have been resolved.
1. Violence is not the solution of a problem.
2. Faith in unity.
3. Want of exploitation of other’s work.
4. Development of human relations.
5. Decentralizing finance and authority.
6. Developing mercy in behaviour.
7. Empathy in thoughts.
8. Improvised diet and freedom from addictions.
9. Prohibition of useless social rituals.
With the help of these mottos, such a social constitution can be established in which every person becomes physically and mentally capable and can contribute to the society according to his capacity. Following aspects of social life can be defined with the help of these mottos.
**Violence-not a solution**- For the constitution of a healthy society, violence can not be considered to be the solution of problems. In the present politics, weapon is considered to be the solution and this is the root of problem. At one end a weapon is made and at the other end, efforts are started to make a more powerful weapon against it. This competition has made the situation worse. The first motto of Anuvrat is that “I won’t attack”. If a person is not attacking someone, then non-violence will be established on itself.
**Unity** – We have to accept the fact of geometry and history that human society is divided into many parts. This has created borders between nations. It is not possible to wipe these borders but emotional distances can be reduced if people have faith in human unity. Borders are lifeless but if there are borders between human minds, they are stronger. So faith in human unity becomes an important factor.
**Coordination** – One belief has always been there about social constitution that – a stronger one eats a weaker one and maintains its existence. This is in fact the rule of a jungle. Humans can maintain existence by coordination. One person’s benefit is not against the other person’s benefit but is for his benefit too. Let some people exploit poor people with their intellectual skill to achieve success, but this system cannot last longer. In such a system, poor people keep mum for a certain period of time but ultimately they revolt. Here when a few people are compelled to live a miserable life, others cannot live peacefully too. On the other hand if a man does not exploit others then not only he himself lives a peaceful life but also provides a background for peaceful life to others.
**Improvisation in diet** – Food is the primary requirement of humans. It is the major element of development of human personality. It doesn’t only provide nutrition to body, but is also having a major role in formation of different kinds of mentalities. At one end where people die because of dearth of balanced food, at the other end there are people who die because of over eating.
Freedom from addictions – Addictions have adverse effects on health. Insight also becomes fade. It sets off a sequence of crime. It has tarnished the image of humanity. The intensity of addictions has stirred the finance system of the whole world. Youths are having problems of black money and thefts. In such a situation the matter of improvisation of diet and freedom from addiction is applied necessarily.
Comparativeness - Every person has some personality and the first expression of a personality is – thoughts. Thoughts are expressed as disputes and difference of opinions. It is not possible that everyone starts thinking same. This is not natural either, because truth is so much multi-faceted that it can not be identified in a single form. In such a situation it is necessary that it is identified in multiple facets and is thought over in different angles. Where compulsion of thoughts takes a man to untruth, on the other hand comparativeness brings a man to confront truth. It is the revelation of comparativeness which can provoke empathy in human hearts. We have a privilege to believe in our own thoughts but at the other hand we are not entitled to reject others thoughts by considering them wrong. Spirit of empathy is the true religion. This universal acceptance can establish religions understanding.
Traditions and morals – Human is a social animal. Where there is a society, there are rituals. Every ritual or tradition has a useful occurrence. But as situations change by the time, many traditions lose their usefulness. These rituals not only themselves become burdensome and futile but they also make the social constitution sick. So Anuvrat has always been protesting rituals. Traditions can not be denied, but persistence of useless traditions is not the sign of a healthy society and nation. Thus, possibility of protesting blind rituals is always prevalent.
The gist of these statements is that observance of Anuvrat Acharsamhita helps in enhancing personal as well as social health.
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY
1. Assay
1. Define Biology and Health enhancement.
2. How is ‘Anuvrat Acharsamhita’ useful in physical and social health?
2. Short questions (Answer in 100 words)
1. Mention the visions of Anuvrat.
2. Which are the elements of Health education by Biology?
3. Objective questions (Answer in a word or a sentence)
1. What does proper diet mean?
(A). Eating repeatedly (B). Eating less
(C). Eating three times (D). None out of these
2. There are four elements of healthy life-
(A). Body, Breath, Physic, Mind (B). Body, Speech, Breath, Heart
(C). Body, Breath, Speech, Mind (D). Body, Spirit, Mind, Life
References:
1. Jeevan Vigyan ki roop-rekha – Muni Dharmeshkumar
2. Jeevan Vigyan Siddhant and Prayog – Acharya Mahapragya
3. Prekshadhyvan: Siddhant aur Prayog – Acharya Mahapragya
4. Preksha Yoga for Common Ailments – Dr J.P.N. Mishra
5. Preksha Dhyan: Theory and Practice – Acharya Mahapragya
CHAPTER-5: DEBILITY, VAYU IMPURITY, HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE, CORYZA, ACIDITY
AIMS - After studying this chapter students will-
1. Acquire knowledge of natural history and common causes of diseases.
2. Learn the process of symptoms, causes and diagnosis of some particular diseases.
TOPICS
1. Preface
2. Causes of disease
3. Classification of diseases
4. Debility
5. Indigestion
6. Hyperacidity
7. Cold-coryza
8. High Blood Pressure
1. Preface
Everyone knows that disease is the physical or psychological irregularity. Our body excretes impurities through expiration, pores of skin, perspiration, stool and urine. If due to any cause these normal functions are disturbed, than nature has to take resort to some abnormal ways to perform them. These abnormal ways are known as diseases. Disease is the impurity which is being accumulated in our body since long and to remove which, nature initiates some abnormal processes such as fever, abscesses, diarrhea etc.
Thus, the efforts and arrangements made by nature to remove impurities in order to protect hour body can be known as diseases or symptoms. Disease is the other name of reaction of our body against over accumulation of toxins.
Famous Therapist Dr. Rakesh Jindal mentions in his book ‘Prakritik Ayurvedigan’ that disease is the sign which alarms us that impurities have accumulated in our body, to which we should be cautious and conscious. Another name of disease is the abnormal stage of body.
According to Dr. Jesmimsear Gehmann, “The alternative adverse condition of health is called disease”. Disease condition is different from that condition in which there is no pain, no problem, and there is no change in the normal functions. Because of improper life style, the internal environment of body gets contaminated leading to changes in health condition and disease. So it can be said that health and disease are the two conditions of one mechanism.
In baseline condition i.e. when disease is spread out through one single part or the whole body in its latent form as toxic material, there is no evidence of disease. But soon as it is manifested outwardly, it is known as different names. The stored toxin of body gets materialized in the form of fever, diarrhea etc. depending on the situation. The reason is same, but its manifestations are different.
After understanding that disease can be in both tangible and intangible forms in our body, it is difficult to say whether a particular body is free from disease because, even if the body is seemingly healthy there may be an underlying illness which can come to surface under favourable conditions. It is only after this manifestation of the disease that we can diagnose it.
It should be cleared that a disease does not take its form suddenly in a body, but it takes sometimes many days to achieve this stage. The latent form of disease is more dangerous than its visible form because when a disease comes to surface, then the toxic material gets excreted and the body becomes disease free.
after a certain period of time. But when latent, it gradually damages internal organs. As a result the body becomes devastated. This condition of the disease is more dangerous.
If it is said that a disease comes in a body to provide health, then it sounds contradictory, but it is a hundred percent fact. We often see that a diseased person, who is otherwise healthy, becomes debilitated and thin when the disease continues for long, but once he gets cured, he starts feeling even better than before the illness. Here it is to be considered as to why the person fell ill? and why did he fall ill at a particular time? Actually, the person was ill for long time but as the disease was in its latent phase, no one could see it. This disease because of want of treatment went on increasing and took a serious form and became visible to all. It is this condition which we call illness. In other words, toxic material got accumulated in the body because of irregular lifestyle and improper food habits. This material has to be eliminated from the body, and to do so, body reacts in various ways called diseases.
When we get away from the nature and start disobeying the basic rules of thought process, breathing, food habits, rest etc. then nature gives us warnings for our benefit just like a good caring mother. These warnings are called diseases. This way, diseases are proved to be the results of our own mistakes.
Nothing happens in this world without a reason. So diseases also have to have reasons. Astrologers attribute them to stars and planets. Exorcists believe them to be due to ghosts and spirits. Vaidyas believe ‘Tridosha’ as the reasons of diseases. Doctors blame germs for the disease conditions. But, naturotherapists have different opinion. According to them, the patient himself is the reason of disease.
Disease mainly has two reasons-Objective, and Subjective. Behaving out of basic rules of health is the objective reason, and destructive mentalities, depressive anxiety, imaginative fear, etc. are the subjective reasons. All the physical and mental illnesses are due to these reasons. To remain healthy, it is necessary to observe timely meals, exercise, adequate sleep, restrain, etc. Being away from these basic rules invites disease. Same way, destructive mentalities like desire, anger, temptation, jealousy, etc. also create various mental and physical diseases. Objective reasons physically affect body and subjective reasons secretly affect mind. All the diseases arise at mental level and then get manifested physically.
Mahatma Gandhi has mentioned somewhere that an English poet Milton says that it is the human mind which is heaven or hell. It is the mind which is behind obstruction or emancipation. So it can be said that a man himself is responsible behind his health or disease. Just like we fall ill due to our actions, so as we do because of our thoughts.
2. Important causes of diseases.
(A) Unnatural lifestyle- Dr. A. Joust has mentioned that, “Many people believe that disease and early death are the results of love and grace of God. To support such a belief is like making God scorn at us. Because whatever disease we have are because of our unnatural lifestyles”.
Not only Dr. Joust but also almost all of the doctors and learned people of western and eastern countries have started accusing our modern unnatural lifestyle. All of them are now emphasizing on natural lifestyle. They say that natural lifestyle is the only solution for numerous diseases of today’s world.
If you want to rule over sadness, then destroy happiness. If you want to rule over insult, then destroy praise. If you want to rule over grief, then destroy pleasure. Same way if you want to rule over disease then you will have to destroy consumption (Unnatural lifestyle). This is the only method. In fact, we have some bad habits which do not let us stay healthy. Some of these habits are-
1. Food related habits
2. Laziness
3. Least use of five elements
4. Affection with unnatural things
5. Unregulated use up
6. Futile treatment
7. Bad thoughts
Natural life is a restrained life. It is called modesty. Restraint, modesty, saintliness are the synonyms.
(B) Impurity (Toxins)- Another reason for disease is the spread of toxin in our body due to irregular lifestyle and want of their normal excretion through body outlets. This toxin has many names like impurity, contamination, poison, perversion etc. In Ayurveda, it is called “Dosha”, and all the Vaidyas also consider this to be the reason for diseases.
All the impurities created in our body like stool, urine, perspiration, sputum, gas, contaminated breath or blood etc. can not be part of the body. On the contrary, it proves harmful to our body. This impurity is called toxin. It can be solid, liquid or gas.
Initially, toxic material gets accumulated around the outlets of body or surrounding organs like abdomen or pelvis, and then it spreads to rest of the body. These areas can not grow properly because toxic material which is accumulated in these areas hampers nutritional supply. So these organs are underdeveloped.
The toxic material has got a power to change its form. It is made of those particles which are dispersible and crushable. These particles can get depressed and during this depressive phase, microorganisms start growing in it which leads to growth of toxic material. This depression generates heat. The more is the depression, the more heat is generated. Two or more objects when subject to friction create heat. Because of this heat all the diseases like fever, coryza, headache, abdominal pain, dyspepsia, diarrhoea etc. are created. Because of toxic material heat increases in our blood which is known as fever. Fever occurs only when there is toxic material in our body and its all outlets are almost blocked.
Seasonal change, external injury, depression etc. set the toxic material in to action and it finally takes form of fever. Here by fever we mean a disease. If at this stage it is not provided a proper outlet to leave the body, then it destroys the particular organ by creating excess heat. On whichever part of body toxic material creates an impact, the impact is known as the disease related to that particular organ.
It is not only mistakes in diet which creates toxic material. There are some other ways also through which toxic material enters in body.
1. Fine dust particles, microorganisms, smoke etc. enter body through breath. (Result of environmental pollution).
2. Contamination, microorganisms etc. in water enter through oral route in body.
3. Venomous animals like snake, scorpion etc. introduce their poison through their sting in our body.
4. Toxic material is introduced in body through harmful medicines and injections.
5. Consumption of narcotic agents like tobacco, ganja, charas, cigarette, etc. also increases toxic material.
C. Diminution of Vital Energy (Immunity Power) – Reduction of vital energy in body is the third reason of diseases. It is well known that lean, thin and debilitated people are more prone to diseases. A debilitated body does not have strength to remove toxins. Due to overload of toxins, the person becomes charm less. He loses attraction and beauty; becomes irritable by nature. Appetite and sleep are lost. Development of body gets hampered and the body is always haunted by one or another disease. It is a non-controversial fact that the diseased condition of body is because of diminished vital energy which itself is a disease and is treated at the first instance by Naturopathy. This is because it is hopeless to treat disease without enhancing vital energy. There are three main reasons for the diminution of Vital Energy-
1. Over exertion.
2. Working at night.
3. Anxiety and other psychiatric problems.
4. Consumption of artificial medicines and unnecessary treatment.
(D) Hereditary reasons – Off springs of debilitated and unhealthy parents are also unhealthy and debilitated. This is a natural law. But in this condition also the culprit is the presence of hereditary toxic material. Because it is but natural that toxic material is transmitted through blood of affected parents to their children. Even if this material is minute in amount, it surely imposes its effect on children.
This starts from the very beginning when sperm and ovum of father and mother meet. According to previous actions, such a soul enters in this seed which is appropriate for this particular time and situation. This way many diseases of parents or ancestor get transmitted to children.
(E) Unnecessary treatment - Accumulated impurities in body is the actual disease. The one who believes this will never wish that any other toxic material enters in body and takes form of a disease. E.g. Entering choleric toxin in a healthy body for the protection from cholera, operating upon or completely removing a body organ unnecessarily which compels the disease to take a serious form. On getting ill, introducing strong medicines instead of knowing and treating the disease in a proper way is the third example of unnecessary treatment. These methods introduce extra toxin in body and facilitate the disease to become more chronic.
(F) External injury or accident – A healthy person gets mechanical disease by getting injuries over skin, tissues, vessels, bones etc. by external injury or accident. Operative procedures also fall under this category because it is also an external injury.
(G) Microorganisms – All the microorganisms of the world cannot initiate a disease process in a healthy body. But a little toxic material can do so by setting these microorganisms in to action because, these microorganisms grow on this toxic material. When these organisms prove to cause disease then they are called disease producing microorganisms. Still it will be a mistake to consider the cause of disease to be limited to microorganisms. These organisms are more responsible for production of enzymes than disease symptoms.
Just like they eat and produce decay in other things, they also eat and create decay in toxic material. These organisms multiply in this toxic material. This way it is cleared that organisms are reason as well as process of diseases. Many people die due to cholera, small-pox etc. because major portion of body is filled with toxic material in which microorganisms strike and create symptoms of that particular disease.
3. Classification of diseases.
Types of diseases – In relation to health, there are three aspects of human body-Physical, mental, and emotional. The body which is healthy in all these three aspects is considered healthy in a real sense. No one can stay healthy by ignoring anyone of these aspects. Debility causes mental diseases. Same way mental weakness gives rise to physical ailments. These three aspects are related to each other. According to Indian erudites there are three types of illnesses. Diseases created by fate are called ‘Adhidaivik’. Physical illnesses are known as ‘Adhidaihik’. Diseases created by elements, animals, etc. are called ‘Adhibhautik’.
1. Physical diseases
Classification of physical diseases - There are numerous forms and symptoms of diseases which are classified into four groups in ‘Ayurveda’.
1. Diseases caused by toxic material (‘Dosha’) are known as physical disease. E.g. Fever.
2. Diseases caused by external impact are called ‘Agantuk’.
3. Diseases caused by anger, fear, sorrow are called mental diseases.
4. Appetite, thirst, etc. and deadly situations are called natural diseases.
Diseases created in body because of accumulation of toxic materials are divided into two parts. One part comprises of severe diseases, and the other comprises of mild diseases.
Severe disease – This is known as ‘Acute disease’. These diseases are severe-just like cholera, coryza etc. These diseases arise suddenly, same way they quickly subside also. These diseases themselves are their
treatment. When there is accumulation of excessive toxic material in a particular part, their excretion takes place in the form of an acute disease, which subsides itself once its purpose is solved and leaves behind a healthy body. Acute diseases are more common amongst those who have strong vital energy i.e. children and young people. Acute disease becomes chronic when an obstruction is created in the way of its process of excretion. Symptoms of acute diseases point out to our notice as to how body is making efforts in order to remove impurity and make the body healthy. These symptoms should be welcomed and not to be suppressed by medicines and injections. In acute diseases, fasting and rest are very helpful. This is the reason why nature compels a patient of acute disease to stay bed ridden. With that, appetite is also lost. Appearance of an acute disease in a body is the proof that the vital energy of body is strong enough.
Dr. Lindlhar has mentioned five common stages of acute diseases in his book ‘Nature Cure’.
The first stage can be called the preparation phase of a disease. In the whole body or in a particular part, there is a stimulation because of accumulation of toxic material. After that, activation of that toxic material occurs either gradually or rapidly due to which the disease takes a particular form. This situation may last from a few minutes to many years. During this period complimentary processes of production of toxic material or bacterial growth takes place.
In the second stage the disease takes a serious form. Problems increase during this phase. Swelling, fever, redness etc. increase and the patient starts feeling weakness and pain.
In the third stage, the particles get destroyed at the site of disease, which paves a way. A wound is created. Pus and blood discharge starts as happens in case of a boil. Toxin gets excreted though urine and perspiration. Breath becomes offensive. Diarrhoea starts. Vomiting can also occur. In these vigorous efforts of excreting toxins, there might be loss of some useful elements along with toxic material. This gives rise to weakness, and debility. This is the most severe stage of an acute disease. It is a critical phase, a phase of ordeal of vital energy. If vital energy becomes strong at this stage, then it successfully excretes all the toxic material from the body and the patient becomes free of disease. A clever therapist aids vital energy by ‘Satyopachar’ at this phase and takes the credit.
The fourth stage is the initiation of relaxation of disease. During this stage, disease symptoms start vanishing one by one. Swelling, redness, fever etc. reduce. Offensiveness of breath also diminishes. Diarrhoea becomes less. Vomiting stops. Perspiration becomes natural. Body starts feeling somewhat strength.
Fifth stage is the stage of complete repose of the disease. Body becomes completely free of toxic material and the useful elements which were lost start to gradually form again. The body becomes normal within a few days.
**Mild disease** – When the toxic material in body remains suppressed and lasts for a long time in body. It is known as ‘Chronic disease’.
When the cleaning process of acute disease is obstructed repeatedly, then a chronic disease is resulted. When coryza is suppressed repeatedly by medicines, it can take the form of asthma. On suppression of an acute disease, everything seems apparently normal but the toxic material gets hampered inside body and gives rise to a chronic disease.
Parents having low vital energy and suffering from chronic disease transmit the disease to their children in heredity.
Acute diseases are more troublesome. But chronic diseases despite of having no troublesome symptoms, life becomes miserable.
To remove chronic disease, decency of thoughts, patience, and faith on the therapist are very much necessary. With Naturopathy, chronic diseases get cured with difficulty, but they are cured for sure from their root. Long term complaints naturally take long time to get cured. If a patient gets discouraged
midway, then he can not achieve his target. In treating such a disease, patient’s vital energy should be enhanced first. Then gradually they should be turned into acute form. This stage is called effervescence (‘Ubhar’). This stage requires a lot of caution or it can lead to dangerous situation. On treating the problem with patience and caution, every effervescence is followed by a better condition and the patient gradually gets rid of the chronic disease.
2. Mental disease
Mental diseases are more troublesome and dangerous than physical ailments. What is more surprising is that they arise out of such trivial matters that can be tackled easily if we deal with them rationally. Some of the reasons of these problems are hatred, violence, temptation, anxiety, laziness, depression, pride, jealousy, ignorance, lust, selfishness, mistrust, doubt, etc.
**Reasons of mental diseases** – Even if mental diseases appear different from physical diseases, the reasons are not different. They also arise out of extra load of toxic material in body. According to Loui Coone, they arise when excess of toxic material affects through back to head and finally nerves of brain. Disturbed digestion due to loss of vital energy and unnatural lifestyle leads to accumulation of toxic material surreptitiously and ultimately create mental diseases. Presence or absence of mental diseases depends upon amount and growth of toxic material.
People having balanced mind and descent thoughts are less prone to mental diseases. Females have less possibility of mental illness compared to males because females are more controlled compared to males. Also they have less consumption of alcohol, tobacco etc.
Besides this there are many points like loss of interest in life, sad atmosphere, unsuccessful marriage life, failure in achieving goals, financial crisis, obstacles in progress, physical unhealthiness, etc. which are the reasons for mental diseases. Excessive strain can also impact mental health. In children, mental peace is lost because of quarrels between their parents. In this situation, children easily become short tempered, thief, and fraud.
There is one more reason for psychiatric diseases. When a man controls and suppresses his malicious desires, they are not destroyed but get hidden. These desires by the time when find the man mentally weak, come to surface in him the form of mental diseases.
**Harms created by mental diseases and evolution of physical diseases out of them** - The famous American psychiatrist Berth Salon has written in one of his books that it is the complete health which is the natural and normal condition of a human. He says that one should get rid of thoughts of death, imaginations of diseases. Because such imaginations destroy our creativity and make us ill.
Mental perversions or illnesses hamper our nerve routes and destroy nerves obstructing the process of vital energy. Thus they hamper excretion of toxins and make the physical illness more serious. Anyone can see fever increasing due to impatience, anger, and irritability.
Same as good thinking helps in elimination of diseases, bad mentalities and mental perversions give rise to diseases. Western psychologists have proved that anemia, heart disease, hysteria, secretary dysfunctions, paralysis, tuberculosis, etc. diseases have mental perversions in their roots. So it is not an over say that 90% of diseases are related to mental condition. Physical illnesses are the gifts of mind.
Fear is a mental disease. It has got a very deep impact. People may also die due to fear. It attacks when body is filled with toxin and heart rate becomes high. Vision is disturbed or sometimes even lost. Appetite is lost. Diarrhea and other diseases begin to appear. The patient begins to shiver and becomes dull. Fear has many forms but all of them are efficient enough to shake the roots of life.
Anger is another mental disease. It also has got many forms. In this case also there is production of excessive toxin in the patient’s body. In the situation of anger, chemicals being secreted from glands of
human body get changed. Adrenaline gland starts secreting adrenaline in blood which intoxicates blood. Anger reduces digestive power and the digestive juice gets changed into toxin.
Anxiety is the third mental disease which is considered to be worse than myre ('Chita'). Anxiety is the enemy of beauty and health. Fear is the mother of anxiety. In case of anxiety, changes occur in blood just as in case of anger which makes blood impure. Body becomes lean and thin, skin becomes lusterless, lips become dry, cheeks cave in. An anxious person does not sleep well and life becomes miserable.
According to the famous erudite Arnold Vannat, it is for sure that our 80% anxieties are meaningless. And of course they are harmful too. Anxiety is such a bug which eats off the roots of happiness. If it is possible to live without meaningless and foolish anxieties, then the world is a heaven.
Jealousy is the fourth mental disease related to which not only psychologists have proved but also medical science has proved that it is as harmful for health as heart disease. These diseases not only bring about mental perversion but also give rise to paralysis, cancer etc. In case of jealousy also, our blood becomes intoxicated.
**How mental diseases can be prevented?** – Mental diseases are very much obstinate and difficult to cure but not incurable. But yes, if confidence is less, vital energy is almost destroyed and toxic material has achieved such a stage that it is impossible to eliminate it, then these diseases have to be considered incurable.
In the treatment of mental diseases, psychotherapy is very much helpful. Below mentioned regulations may help in preventing mental diseases.
1. On getting mentally disturbed, mind should be diverted from the cause of disturbance and one should stop thinking over it.
2. One should always respect others' privileges. Because we can expect the same thing from others only after we ourselves do so.
3. We should always oblige others. But if we do not receive the compensation for those obligations, we should not mind it.
4. Getting irritated, showing aggression, making arguments, scolding and threatening others, being self-centered, etc. are mental weaknesses, and we will have to forget them.
5. If the mind becomes mischievous, then start reading loudly, or start enchanting God's name, or take a glass of cold water, or get away from that place.
6. Always keep feeling a sense of confidence and self-respect.
7. Do not start defending with your mind on getting perverted mentally. Try to make your mind your slave which is its actual form.
8. Always keep in mind that whatever mental problems, and difficulties arise, are for others and not for us. Such thinking provides self-satisfaction.
**3. Imbalance of emotional health**
Person to person meet to form a society. The society is single but there are differences in the people of society. Some people are always happy, whereas some people are never. This difference is due to variation in emotions, which forms nature of a person. Formation of nature depends upon sensations. Where these emotions, sensations are located? We have two elements for them – Body and Mind, which are the external elements, whereas our emotions are internal. These emotions arise in the hypothalamus of our brain and then they affect our mind.
Our mental field is expressive whereas emotional field is unexpressive. Every event takes place there first, and then it comes out. We give importance only to outer events. That is why we cannot reach
the origin of a problem. If we scrutinize, we come to know that the root of all problems is emotional field. Until this field is tackled, neither personal peace nor world peace is possible. We will have to face this emotional field because a commotion is originated here. Turmoil is taking birth from here. Thus we come to know that there is a direct relation between nature and sensation. By nature we come to know as to what sensations a person is living with. So for emotional health, identification of emotion and sensation are necessary. If a person wants to stay healthy in emotional aspect, then he has to be conscious about his sensations. Thus, emotional health is primary. Without that, no other kind of health can be achieved. One motto of emotional health is- keeping conscious about sensations and the other motto is- keeping conscious about digestion. Besides nature, digestion is also a facilitating factor in emotional health. If a person’s digestion is not correct, then he cannot maintain a good emotional health. His nature becomes irritable, due to which he has to suffer from a lot of physical and mental problems. Besides digestive system, endocrine glands are also connected with nature. That means, endocrine glands also have an impact over emotional health. Endocrine glands have to be in a balanced situation.
To summarize, a balance of emotions and sensations is very important. In absence of emotional health a person’s nature and personality get perverted.
The imbalance of emotional health is marked as emotional disease. This becomes the reason of mental disease.
**Causes and effects of emotional health**
As above said, balance of emotions and sensations is called emotional balance. This happens if there is an adverse situation for emotions and sensations. The person does not seek for solutions and become victim of this and many other problems. Gradually the intensity of sensations increases up to an extent that the person loses control over his thoughts and ultimately loses emotional balance and becomes victim of many emotional diseases.
**Signs of a healthy body**
Today’s man is so much away from nature that as a result it is very much difficult if not impossible to find a completely healthy person. Based on the statistics about healthy people, Dr. J. H. Tildon has mentioned that in this enormous world, there is not even a single healthy person amongst one thousand. Thus, it is difficult to decide how a truly healthy person should be. Keeping this fact in mind, Dr. Froyed has mentioned somewhere that a trivial ailment in a human body is the proof of health. According to Naturotherapists, that person is healthy whose body is free of toxic material and all of his senses and organs are functioning in a harmony and his mind and soul together are healthy. According to Dr. Loui Coone, that person can be called healthy whose organs are functioning with equilibrium without any stress. A healthy person has a sacredness and peace visible in his eyes. Excellent digestion is the chief sign of health. Defaecation should occur in such a way that it does not hurt the anal opening and it remains clear. A healthy person is always happy and is never afraid of anything.
Here are some signs of a healthy body through which a person can be judged whether he is excellent or average in health.
1. Heart says that he is absolutely free of diseases and is hundred percent healthy.
2. Does not have any information or experience related to health-related problem.
3. Who does not need to know whether he has got an object called ‘body’.
4. Who can enjoy work at the time of work and rest at the time of rest.
5. Who is having a great threshold, who is not afraid of hard work, having liberty of thoughts, brave, determined, confident, smiling, merciful, courteous, and long living. He should be rich in divine assets like truth, nonviolence, and love.
6. Skin is smooth, slimy, clear, and warm, which does not leave marks on scratching. Pores of skin are having beautiful and delicate hair. Perspiration does not smell. The person who can tolerate heat, cold and rain.
7. Face is wrinkle free, free of dryness.
8. Eyes are shiny, clear, big, and are having redness near the inner corners. Eyes should not be red, yellow or half closed.
9. Tongue is greasy, wet, pink, clear and even.
10. Teeth are complete, strong, and shining like pearls.
11. Every part of body is having good shape, functioning properly. Nails are pink and colour of soles of feet is matching with skin tone.
12. Waist is thin and chest is wide for about 5-7 inch than abdomen. Head is having eighth part of total height of body and is having good hair growth.
13. Neck is straight and is having adequate height.
14. Breaths are even, normal and are without any smell. The person is not keeping his mouth open while asleep.
15. Sleep is uninterrupted, long, and without dreams.
16. Body veins are not prominent.
17. Mouth is not having any bad taste and the person does not have to spit off and on.
18. On waking in morning, the person feels enough freshness and energy.
19. There is no abdominal discomfort following meals, there is no feeling of laziness also. Digestion is proper.
20. Stool is passed once in 24 hours which does not hurt anal opening. Stool colour should be wheatish.
21. Urination is easy and without any difficulty. Urine should be slightly warm, pale yellow in colour and flows in a stream.
22. Appetite is good and is at particular time which is sated by natural food.
23. Thirst is neither excessive nor less; it should be quenched by pure water.
24. Who is interested in natural foods like fruits, milk, and vegetables etc. balanced food.
25. Is not excited in food habits and behaviour.
26. Is having sacred thoughts and takes pure food.
27. Mind is controlled and is sacred by both mind and body.
28. Who is optimistic, and does not get panic when in trouble.
29. Who understands nature’s signs and follows them.
4. Description of some particular diseases
(A). Debility (Physical weakness)
For the various physical and mental performances, energy is required. Source of energy is food which we take from outside. After a proper digestion and absorption, necessary nutrition is supplied to the blood vessels. In these vessels this food gets oxidized and energy is released. This energy is utilized by cells for the related functions of that particular organ. With the use of this energy, various mechanical actions are also performed. Besides this, as a result of complex procedure of metabolism, bio-chemicals are formed and reabsorbed which are required by the body to aid mechanical and bio-chemical activities. Due to unavailability of nutritional elements, abnormality in physical parts, or due to mental depression, body cannot produce energy required by its functions. In this case the functions required in maintaining health and stamina does not occur in a proper time, proper ratio in a proper way and the person starts feeling weak. This is called physical weakness.
To protect ourselves from this problem, we require to make our lifestyle regular and balanced, take food which is having adequate nutritious value, and ‘Aasans’, ‘Pranayam’, and meditation are performed regularly to keep our endocrine glands and other organs functioning.
(B) Dyspepsia
This is also called indigestion (‘Mandagni’, ‘Agnimandya’). It has got same reasons as constipation. Improper digestion of food, sour burps, abdominal distension, mild pain in abdomen, burning in chest and throat, salivary secretion in mouth (‘Waterbras’), nausea, palpitation, uneasiness, constipation, anorexia are the symptoms of dyspepsia.
One should do fasting by keeping on water added with lime juice, or on fruit juices. Carrot, orange, tomato, etc. juices are preferable. After that, minimal food intake should be continued till 4-5 days. In morning, ripe apple, or two ripe tomatoes, in lunch boiled vegetables in a little quantity and a little carrot, tomato or pineapple juice, and in dinner a little amount of boiled vegetables or its juice should be taken.
During these days, warm water enema once a day or twice a day should be taken. ‘Kunjal’ process should be done for a week followed by once or twice in a week for one or two months.
After fasting simple food should be taken according to appetite and digestive power.
Light exercise, dry friction-bath, mental peace in open air helps a lot to remove disease. An ordinary indigestion does not require more than this but in case of chronic indigestion, following therapies should be given according to need
1. Take ‘Epsom salt bath’ once in a week. Take hot fomentation with a towel soaked in warm water for 15 minutes. In between take fomentation with a towel soaked in cold water every 3-4 minutes for one minute.
2. Keep wet bandage over lower abdomen overnight or apply wet bandage over waist.
3. Take one glass of cold water one hour before meal.
In Yogic therapy, following experiments are desirable:
1. ‘Agnisar process’, ‘Nauli’ and ‘Vasti’
2. Aasan-‘Soorya-Namaskar’, ‘Trikonasan’, ‘Halasan’, ‘Tadasan’, ‘Katichakrasan’, ‘Matsyasana’, ‘Ardhamatsyendrasan’.
3. ‘Bhastrika Pranayam’ along with ‘Kumbhak’.
4. ‘Uddiyan’ and ‘Mahabandh’.
5. ‘Karyotsarg’ and ‘Dvargha-shwas Preksha’
6. ‘Pachan-shuddhi Anupreksha’.
6. Hyperacidity
As a result of unregulated lifestyle and improper food intake, toxic material gets accumulated in the body gradually which by the time gets activated and contaminates blood or increases acidity to make the body diseased. This acidity when attacks digestive organs, it is called ‘Acidity’. In this problem burning in throat, reflux, nausea, abdominal heaviness after meals or occasional mild pain, excessive appetite, etc. symptoms are found. When this acidity or toxic material is driven to skin then small pustules are formed over the skin which get infected and do not heal easily. Pus discharge stops but a mixture of blood and serum continue. When the disease is driven to muscles, then gout etc. diseases start.
For treatment, intestine should be cleaned using warm water enema, ‘kati-Snan’, and use of wet bandage on waist for a few days. After that, steam bath should be taken twice in a month for 10-15 minutes. Linen should be wrapped around twice in a week for an hour. Wet clay bandage should be applied over lower abdomen twice a day. Water added with lime juice and honey should be drunk initially warm for a few days and then cold. ‘Kshar Dharmi’ food should be taken. Fresh fruits, half cooked vegetables, curd, butter, milk etc. are called ‘Kshar Dharmi’ food.
In Yogic therapy, following experiments are expected.
1. ‘Vastra Dhauti’
2. Aasan- ‘Karyotsarg’, ‘Uttanpadasan’, ‘Vajrasan’
3. ‘Shitali’, ‘Bhramari’, and ‘Chandrabhedi’ pranayam.
4. Concentration of white colour over body with ‘Sharir-Preksha’.
7. Cold-Coryza
Discharge of thin mucus through nose is called cold-coryza. This gives rise to redness of eyes, throat discomfort and headache. Whatever we eat is digested first and then oxidization of blood occurs. On getting inadequate oxygen through nose this process is not completed and excess heat of blood leads to this disease. The food taken comes out in the form of cold-coryza. In this illness, sensation of taste and smell are lost. After three to four days, the discharge becomes thick and it comes out with mild cough or sneeze.
Constipation is also the main reason for this illness. Consumption of Kaf and ‘Vayu’ producing food items, loss of perspiration, inadequate warmth of body, etc. many other reasons are also there. If this disease is prolonged then vision becomes week, hearing ability is reduced, hair become gray and start falling.
Cold-coryza is as a result of body efforts to expel accumulated toxic material in body.
If the disease is in its initial stage, then one should perspire in mild sunlight. But then he should immediately take warm sponge for one minute to make the body warm again. But if the patient is weak then he should take rest and take one glass of warm water added with lime juice, or plane water every half an hour. This will result in opening of nasal cannula and running nose will start reducing the intensity of cold.
**Naturotherapy** – One can protect himself from cold-coryza by keeping the habit of ‘Jalneti-Sutraneti’. ‘Bhastrika Pranayam’ and use of juice of ‘Safed’ leaves also helps.
If fasting or consumption of juices does not clean up bowels then it should be done by applying clay bandage over lower abdomen for 20-30 minutes and warm water enema in evening. Once in a day or alternate days foot-bath cleans up chest and Coryza is cured.
Massage over chest and back in sun light, as well as patting over both the sites clears up chest. Take a bath after taking massage.
**Diet** – Fasting helps a lot in cold-coryza. So, complete fasting for one or two days with use of warm water only four times and use of lime juice with honey should be taken. This will cure Coryza. Consumption of oranges, fruits and vegetable juice for one whole week also helps.
Take ginger, cardamom and black pepper added tea twice a day. Take juice, soup and this tea 6 times in a day. This will bring a great change in the body. After this, take simple meal one time and fruit juice and vegetable soup other time with use of ginger added tea twice a day. Continue his regime for one month. Adopting this food habit will protect you for one-two years for every kind of illness. If there is associated cough, then add one or two spoonful of honey to ginger juice and take it twice a day.
**Yoga therapy-**
1. Clean-up procedures- ‘Kinjal’, ‘Jal’, and ‘Sutraneti’.
2. Exercising Yoga of head and chest.
3. Aasan- ‘Uttanpadasan’, ‘Sinhasan’, ‘Bhujanasan’, ‘Matsyasan’.
4. ‘Nadishodhan’ and ‘Suryabhedi’ Pranayam.
5. Concentrating yellow colour on face.
6. ‘Anupreksha’ of determination of cure of Coryza.
8. High Blood Pressure
What is blood pressure? - Blood circulates in all the body parts through arteries. This is done by the pumping action of our heart. Heart contracts and expands like a pump and pushes blood forwards through arteries. This creates a pressure on the walls of arteries which is called ‘Blood pressure’. This is a natural physical process without which no one can live. Following are the conditions in which blood pressure naturally increases in any person which is inevitable.
1. On getting excited.
2. On getting anxious or fearful.
3. Excessive happiness
4. On looking at an interesting site, strong smell, listening to harmonious sound or excessive noise.
5. Mental or emotional aggressiveness.
6. During sexual intercourse.
But those who say, “We have blood pressure”, actually mean that their blood pressure is abnormally and persistently high and has taken a serious form. High blood pressure can be dangerous at any time. It makes the heart weak. This illness does not occur suddenly but it takes a serious form gradually.
Till the blood vessels are normal, their elasticity is normal and their canals are open, heart does not get extra load in pushing the blood forwards and blood easily flows through them. But when the vascular lumen becomes narrow because of some reason, heart has to push more to push blood through the lumen. This exerts extra load on heart and it ultimately becomes weak.
The only reason behind high blood pressure and indirectly, narrowing of vascular lumen is our unregulated and unnatural life style, and improper food habits. Excess of toxic material is circulated by blood as an extra load which gradually makes the blood vessels stiff and the lumen gets narrowed because of adherence of this toxic material. The more the toxic material, the more it adheres to the vascular lumen giving rise to narrowing. Severity of the disease is directly proportional to it. High blood pressure can have following possible reasons.
1. Excessive consumption of oily food, sugar, spices, sour things, fried items, cream, coffee, tea, cigarette.
2. Frequent and excessive eating.
3. Addictions like smoking, tobacco chewing etc.
4. Inadequate exercise.
5. Stressful life and unregulated life style.
6. Anxiety, fear, anger etc.
7. Diseases of bladder, irritable bowel syndrome, constipation.
How much is the blood pressure? – To know the blood pressure whether it is normal or high, an equipment called ‘Sphygmomenometer’ is recommended. When this equipment was not invented, doctors use to judge the intensity of blood pressure by taking the pattern of pulse but it was incorrect. A healthy person has 120 mm of mercury systolic and 80 mm of mercury diastolic blood pressure. By experiments, it has been recommended that a systolic blood pressure ranging from 120 to 130 should be considered normal. A blood pressure above 130 is considered high.
Blood pressure is not equal in every portion of our body. It varies according to the part’s distance from the heart. So to measure blood pressure the artery of left arm has been selected where blood pressure is higher compared to the other parts of the body because left arm is nearer to heart.
Besides knowing blood pressure with this equipment, many other problems also come to knowledge. Vertigo, headache, lassitude, insomnia, difficulty in breathing, indigestion, irritability, debility, occasional epistaxis, chest pain, etc. symptoms indicate increased blood pressure.
To be protected from the reasons of blood pressure is itself the treatment of high blood pressure. Along with that, one should put in to practice the basic rules of health. Avoiding drinking water during meals, drinking plenty of water two hours after meal, chewing food for a long time, passing urine after meals and walking for at least 50 steps after meal, taking rest after having walk, walking in open air in morning and evening, drinking plenty of water added with lime juice, taking dinner before sunset, avoiding eating if there is no appetite, waking up before sunrise, keeping happy, avoiding over eating, etc. are the basic rules to maintain health.
Following exercises should be performed under Yoga therapy-
1. ‘Shuddhi-Kriya’, ‘Neti’.
2. Yoga exercises of neck and chest.
3. Aasan-Pranayam, ‘Pavanmuktasan’, ‘Vajrasan’, ‘Shashankasan’.
4. Pranayam- ‘Nadishodhan’ and ‘Ujjayi pranayam’
5. Karyotsarg- Twice a day (30 minutes everytime)
6. Preksha-Meditation- deep breathing preksha, and ‘Abhay Anupreksha’.
7. Light meals avoiding oil, ghee, non-vegetarian food, and spices.
**Questionnaire**
1. **Assay**
1. Highlight the major reasons and types of diseases.
2. Describe high blood pressure.
2. **Short questions**
1. Mention the treatment of cold-coryza
2. How can we protect ourselves from Physical weakness?
3. **Objective questions**
1. How much blood pressure is normal for a healthy and aged person?
2. “Alternative adverse condition of health is called disease”. Who said this?
**References-**
1. Prakritik Ayurvedigyan- Dr. Rakesh Jundal
2. Rogo ki sahi chikitsa- Nagendra Niraj and Manju Niraj
3. Arogya Prakash- Ramnarayan Sharma
4. Preksna Yoga for common Ailments- J.P.N. Mishra
CHAPTERS: 6 & 7 COMBINED –
TONSILLITIS, FEVER, BACKACHE, INDIGESTION, EYE DISEASES,
INSOMNIA, WEAK MEMORY, WEAKNESS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
AIMS –
(1) Acquiring knowledge of causes, symptoms and complications of some important diseases.
(2) Acquiring knowledge of Yoga therapy and Naturotherapy for the treatment of these diseases.
TOPICS –
(1) Tonsillitis
(2) Fever
(3) Backache
(4) Indigestion
(5) Eye diseases
(6) Insomnia
(7) Weak memory
(8) Weakness of nervous system
1. **Tonsillitis**
Tonsils are formed by the merging of lymph nodes embedded in the mucus membrane between oral cavity and pharynx. It is situated as a barrier between oral cavity and pharynx. At the nasopharyngeal end of pharynx there is one more tonsil which is called ‘Pharyngeal Tonsil’ or ‘Adenoid Tonsil’. At the joining point there are two more tonsils which are respectively known as ‘Palletile Tonsil’ and ‘Lingual Tonsil’. Palletile tonsil hangs downwards whereas lingual tonsil is attached with the base of tongue.
Once upon a time it was believed that tonsils have no role. But modern medicine says that it has a great role in protection from super infection by bacteria and viruses. From observations, it has come to notice that those children, in whom tonsils have been removed, have more chances of super infection. It appears that tonsils must be capturing the bacteria entering through oral route destroying them. These tonsils have profuse lymph in them which is rich in white cells. When microorganisms try to invade through breath or oral route, tonsils entrap them and white cells destroy them.
**Symptoms of Tonsillitis**
Because of accumulation of toxic material in body and due to super infection of microorganisms, tonsils get swollen. This causes throat pain, high grade fever, constipation, concentrated yellow urine, headache, body ache, etc. Sometimes there is hoarseness of voice also. Some times tonsillitis becomes difficult to differentiate from Scarlet fever and Diphtheria because of similarity in symptoms. In tonsillitis, redness and swelling are limited to tonsils. Soft pellet is not involved.
In Diphtheria, there is formation of a bluish layer over tonsils and soft pellet which is difficult to be removed. There is also bleeding, offensive smell due to infection, cough, discharge mixed with pus, etc. Tonsils are gradually enlarged.
In scarlet fever there is shining redness over throat and soft pellet. Tonsils are swollen and covered by discharge, vomiting during high fever. There is no involvement of soft pellet. Tongue is white coated. Sometimes Scarlet fever and Tonsillitis are associated.
According to the symptoms, Tonsillitis is classified into two groups – 1. Acute Tonsillitis, 2. Chronic Tonsillitis.
In case of a severe tonsillitis, all the parts of tonsils become red and are swollen. Also there are many pits on them. There forms a yellow coloured layer over them which are difficult to be removed. This is also called Follicular Tonsillitis.
When acute Tonsillitis is repeatedly suppressed with medicines, then it gets converted into Chronic Tonsillitis. In this there are symptoms of many other diseases like Nephritis, Neuritis, as well as symptoms of reduced immunity. In children there are running nose, swelling in nasal mucosa, otorrhoea, cold off and on, enlarged tonsils, poor development, uneasiness, difficulty in breathing while asleep, etc.
**Prevention and Treatment**
**Yoga-Meditation therapy**
**Aasan** – Suptavajrasan, Srvangasan, Matsyasan, Sinhasan.
**Pranayam** – Ujjayi, Bhramari, Mahapran Dhvani – for 5 minutes.
**Preksha** – Concentrating blue over Vishuddhi Kendra- form 10 minutes.
**Anupreksha** – Suggestion of healthy Tonsil – “My tonsil is getting better.” - 15 minutes.
**Naturotherapy** –
1. Hot fomentation over throat and neck twice in a day for 10-15 minutes. After that add lime in warm water and take gargles.
2. Hot ‘Epsom Salt Bath’ once in a week at evening time.
3. After that apply wet bandage of warm water for 1 – 2 hours.
4. Mix lime juice with honey and massage on tonsils over inner side with pressure. Do not worry if the tonsils bleed or discharge pus.
5. After that massage with fresh butter on neck and throat if possible.
6. The patient should sit before the sun keeping his mouth open at around 8 or 9 o’ clock with a blue glass in front of mouth so that the filtered sunlight directly impacts over tonsils for about 5-7 minutes. Drink water from a blue coloured bottle exposed in sunlight.
7. Eat simple and easily digestible food. Coconut water, fruits, fresh vegetables, curd etc. should be taken. Chilly, condiments, extra salt, oil, tea or coffee, non vegetarian food, etc. should be avoided.
**2. Fever**
Abnormally raised body temperature is called ‘Fever’. Normally our body temperature is $98.4^\circ$ Fahrenheit or $37.5^\circ$ Centigrade. Fever has deep relation with so many diseases. Fever should be considered with a view of some irregularity or some disease because its occurrence has not been established as an independent entity. When body temperature reaches $105^\circ$ F then it is considered dangerous and even fatal. This situation is known as hyperpyrexia. When temperature reaches $106^\circ$ - $107^\circ$ F then chance of death is highest. Fever starts as a low grade temperature and increases gradually. With this rise there are uneasiness, headache, body ache, etc. symptoms also intensify.
Modern medical science attributes bacteria and viruses to be the reason or fever. According to this science intensity and complications of fever depend upon the species of bacteria. Besides there, reasons for fever are tumour, operative procedure, vaccination, etc.
In modern medicine, the process of fever has been described as follows-
The Monocytes and other macrophages found in blood engulf the invading bacteria. During this process their cellular wall partially detaches resulting in production of a chemical called ‘Phagocytes Interleukin-1’. This chemical reaches hypothalamus in brain and stimulates neurons of praepict area to
create prostaglandins. Because of prostaglandins the thermostat of hypothalamus which regulates body temperature, gets reset and settles at higher temperature. Body temperature rises to accommodate this new setting resulting in fever.
According to naturopathy when the accumulated toxic material does not get outlet, it starts decaying. This process makes blood warm and toxic. This happens as a result of climate change, contagion, mental perversion, etc. These causative factors stimulate toxic material and the temperature of blood rises. This high temperature initiates destruction of toxic substances situated in body cells. If this process is accomplished within an expected time then the body becomes pure, free of toxins, and healthy. This natural reaction is named ‘Fever’.
**Symptoms**
High body temperature causes reduced appetite, increased thirst, weakness, and lassitude. Initially there is chilliness and shivering, headache and body ache. Then there is loss of sleep, nausea, white coated tongue, increased heart rate and pulse rate. Sweat, urine and breath become offensive. Because of raised temperature the voluntary and involuntary functions and metabolism become too much slow. That is the reason for the above mentioned troubles. According to Naturopathy, all these mechanisms are seemingly troublesome but are very much helpful and protective. For example, reduction in appetite indicates that the Vital Energy working for the purification of toxins and that is why digestive process has been paused. In this situation, a forceful attempt to give food to a patient clearly means giving him poison. Same way lassitude and desire to take rest means compelling the body to take rest. In fact, when energy production stops in body cells then no energy is available for voluntary functions of body and the body becomes tired. The toxic material tries to spread through the body. This causes stress on body tissues and skin giving rise to pain. When this toxic material involves head and brain, it gives rise to insomnia and headache. Sometimes fever comes with chills and shivering. This is because of the fact that whenever there is excessive accumulation of toxic materials in the body, this material hampers blood circulation in distal areas. Blood becomes toxic and its majority circulation is directed to liver and spleen where purification takes place up to some extent. This results in reduced blood supply in distal and surface area giving rise to shivering. After sometime when warm blood starts circulating in distal areas temperature starts rising. All these symptoms indicate that purification process inside the body is taking place rapidly in which digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system are providing their contribution in their ways.
**Differentiation of Fever-**
Fevers are of following types-
1. Common fever
2. Malaria (Occurs due to mosquito bite)
3. Typhoid (This occurs due to the infection of a particular bacteria)
4. Influenza (Occurs with coryza)
5. Dengue (This occurs due to Dengue Viruses)
6. Filariasis
7. Plague
**Treatment**
1. **Yoga, Meditation therapy**
- Aasan – Karyotsarg
- Pranayam – Svar Parivartan, Exercising Chandra Svar
- Preksha – Concentrating over Tejas Kendra for 20-30 minutes followed by concentrating over vishuddhi Kendra for 10 minutes.
- Anupreksha – Passing suggestion while in Karyotsarg – “My fever is being relieved”.
2. **Naturopathy**
1. Give enema of neem water as soon as fever starts.
2. Warm feet bath during shivering condition and wrapping wet linen during uneasiness.
3. Provide lime water to the patient in adequate amount.
4. Apply wet cold bandage or a towel soaked in cold water to keep head and abdomen cool.
5. During high fever wash head with cold water and give cold waist bath.
6. In case of a long lasting fever give neem water enema in morning and evening, and wrap linen soaked in neem water.
3. Diet therapy
1. Do not provide food to the patient.
2. Not giving any solid food and only lime water is beneficial.
3. Take 3 liters of water per day and at least five limes. After that take honey along with lime juice and lemon juice.
4. After the fever subsides and the patient starts feeling hunger, give fresh seasonal fruits and vegetable soup without spices. Watermelon, apple, or cucumber juice should be given. If the patient is adamant to take food, then give vegetable soup, orange juice, or other fresh juice. Carrot, spinach, tomato, etc. should be boiled and given in a juice form. Every food should be chewed adequately.
3. Low Back Pain
Pain in lower part of back troubles about 80 percent of people. There is no specific reason for this problem. It has been observed that systemic diseases like Metastatic Cancer, Disc Prolapse, and degenerative changes in vertebrae are the major reasons. But still if we try to find out the exact reason for backache, we rarely succeed; that is why we name the problem as ‘Strain’, ‘Sprain’, or ‘Lumbago’ and put indirect efforts to prevent it. Sometimes structural deformity of spines, vertebral column or other bones or deformities created following accidental injuries lead to backache. In Allopathic science they rule out following points in order to reach to the diagnosis:
1. Infection
2. Cancer
3. Beginning of gout
4. Ankylosing Spondylosis
Presence of any of these problems can lead to backache. Considering this as base, they decide the line of treatment.
Usually it is believed that rising up improperly and suddenly, improper postures, lead to dislocation of vertebrae. Prolapse Inter-vertebral Disc, tension in ligaments of vertebrae, sprain, fracture, destruction of supportive cartilages between two vertebrae, formation of osteophytes, Arthritis, Osteoporosis, accidental injury, age related degenerative changes, lack of regular exercise, deficiency of vitamin D or Calcium, etc. can lead to the problem.
Treatment of Backache
1. Yoga, Meditation therapy
1. Aasan – Spinal cord exercises, Uttan-Padasan, Makarasan, and Matsyasana.
2. Pranayam – Suryabhedi, Bhastrika while concentrating on site of pain for five minutes.
3. Preksha – Preksha of pain occurring in back
4. Anupreksha – Suggestion of healthy back – “My backache is relieving” - for 15 minutes.
2. Other necessary treatments – To get relief from backache following suggestions are beneficial.
1. Take rest on a hard bed with a thin mattress.
2. Keeps your back straight while sitting on chair.
3. While sitting and lying take care not to keep your chest inclined forwards and abdomen backwards.
4. When lifting a heavy object take care not to keep the object away from your body. This can damage vertebrae due to unnecessary weight bearing. It is better to kneel down to lift weight.
5. Avoid heavy pillow, high heel shoes, tight jeans etc.
6. Do not sit more than 45 minutes. Take a stroll after an interval so that tissues and muscles can relax.
7. Maintain a proper posture while doing house-hold works. Do not bend your waist improperly and keep it as straight as possible. Do not go to back even if there is a mild backache. In case of a minor back-ache, take hot or cold formentation, hot for 3 minutes and cold for 2 minutes for 5 times. Take a sponge bath with a towel soaked in warm water for a few days. 90% of the problem gets relieved by such experiments.
8. Mental stress can also be the reason for backache sometimes. Exercise Pranayam, Yoga, and Meditation to relieve stress.
**Preksha-Yoga therapy**
1. **Yoga processes** – 10 abdominal processes, processes of back
2. **Aasan** – Uttan-Padasan, Bhujangasan, Makarasan, Matsyasan.
3. **Pranayam** - Suryabhedi, Bhastrika while concentrating on site of pain for five minutes.
4. **Preksha** – Preksha of pain occurring at and around back – 10 minutes.
5. **Anupreksha** - Suggestion of healthy back “My backache is relieving”- for 15 minutes.
6. **Mudra** – Press thumb and ring finger together for 15 minutes.
**Special** – There is treatment to relieve backache permanently so that it does not reoccur in the future – Regular exercise and Yoga. With exercise and Yoga the tissues of spine and blood vessels become so much strong that they can withstand stress up to a greater extent. Shock absorbing capacity of discs is also increased. Exercises and Yoga are the protection shields for back. On getting tired, performing Yoga instead of taking rest not only relieves tiredness but also revives body tissues and organs. With these one should avoid oily food, tea, coffee, fried food, fast-food for more benefits.
4. **Indigestion (Constipation):** Constipation is the gift of modern life style. It is the result of fancy food, perverted food, suppressed thoughts, and obsession. All these things make intestines weak. One has to strain a lot to void stool, stool comes out with difficulty. This is called constipation.
**Main reasons of constipation** – It is primarily due to lack of fibers in diet. Bread, cake, chocolate, coffee, biscuits, meat, eggs, fish, sugar based products, unpolished rice, fast food, junk food, preserved food, fried food items, strong spices, condiments, excessive carbohydrates, proteins and saturated fatty acids, vegetable ghee, lack of vegetables in diet, inadequate water intake, weakness of intestinal wall muscles in old age, anaemia, habit of restraining stool for long, colitis or endometritis, weakness of bowels, irregularity in passing stool, diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, thyroid and pituitary diseases, morphine derivative drugs, antibiotics, habit formation to use purgatives, inadequate chewing of food, dehydration, using hard water, excessive eating, lack of digestive juices and enzymes, deformed intestines, smoking opium or other addictions, obstruction in large intestine, improper digestion of food, mental stress, anxiety, reduction of peristalsis in intestines due to wall muscle weakness, etc. many reasons can cause constipation.
**Constipation causing many diseases** – Impacted stool due to constipation can stimulate intestinal walls and may cause diarrhoea. Habitual constipation can cause Fissure in anus, or piles due to strain. Large intestine due to over loading by stool can become dilated. Intestines can become further weak. Females are more prone to this situation. In case of want of dietary changes and continuous constipation, the problem becomes chronic. Muscle stimulation can lead to sciatic pain, backache, neuritis, spermatic problems, etc.
Pathogenic organisms created due to constipation can strike proteins, fatty acids, electrolytes, and carbohydrates converting them into harmful chemicals by chemical reactions. This causes ‘Auto-toxication’. Amino acids can convert into carcinogenic ‘Biogenic Amines’. Proteins get changed into poisonous chemicals like Treptofin, Tryptomines, Histidine, Histamine, Tyrocine, and Tyromycin etc. These toxic chemicals can reach brain and other organs through liver via blood circulation and create physical illnesses, mental illnesses as well as muscular troubles, depression, anxiety, irritability etc.
**Treatment**
**Naturopathy** – Take hot fomentation for five minutes on empty stomach and apply clay bandage for half an hour. Massage back and buttocks. Add some salt and lime juice in to warm water and take as enema. Give cold waist bath, hot-cold waist bath, wet linen wrapping, abdomen linen wrapping etc. alternatively according to the patient’s situation. Continue this for 10-15 days. Take steam bath and warm feet bath once in a week.
Apply clay bandage over lower abdomen in afternoon after lunch. Give steam or hot-cold compress over lower abdomen and back or cold waist bath on alternate days. In case of a chronic constipation apply clay bandage at night.
Take a brisk walk in morning after taking a cold waist bath or exercise Yoga etc. Dr. Sarah Clamant – A scientist in the Eating Disorders Association, Britain has come to the conclusion after various experiments that use of purgative drugs in constipation harms mucus membrane of digestive system. Peristaltic movements of intestines become weak. Liver becomes weak. Malnutrition results; and constipation becomes persistent. Use of stimulator drugs can cause dehydration, and diseases of kidneys, heart, and intestines. Useful bacteria are also destroyed.
**Preksha-Yoga Therapy**
**Aasan** – Ten abdominal processes, Agnisar, Udarakarshan.
**Special experiments** – Ardha Shankh Prakshalan, Tadasan, Skandhasan, Tiryaq-bhujangasana, Shankhasan.
**Pranayam** – Deergha-Shwas, Anulom-Vilom for five minutes. Walking 100 steps while keeping left nostril closed.
**Preksha** – Concentrating over just bellow chin while pressing it-10 minutes
**Anupreksha** – Suggestions to large intestines “My large intestines are becoming active”. – 5 minutes.
**Diet Therapy** - Drink 3-4 glasses of water kept in a copper container. In case of a chronic constipation, drink 2 glasses of warm water with one lime. Keep dry amla in water overnight, crush it in morning and then filter, add two spoons of honey and 15 grams of ginger and then drink. Walk while distending and contracting abdominal muscles. Do not restrain the urge to pass stool; 25% cases are cured by this way. When there is a doubtful urge of passing stool, then one should certainly go for it. Strain a little while passing stool, contract and then relax the anal opening; with that contract and relax abdominal muscles. Indian sitting supports favours muscles to strain.
During initial 3 to 10 days take only boiled vegetables, fruits, lime water, and water. This purifies body and intestine become powerful and healthy. Gradually resume back to normal diet.
In your routine diet take 3-4 fresh fruits in morning and crushed dry amla. In breakfast take seasonal fruits like guava, apple, chickoo, banana, grapes, plum, carrot, tomato, anjeer, dates, sprouted pulses and milk. Do not eat sour and sweet fruits together. Every fruit can be taken with milk.
In lunch take chappati make from flour miked with spinach, carrot, and radish leaves; and with that green salad 230 grams prepared from boiled vegetables, spinach, radish leaves, tomato, cabbage: 150 grams of curd, garlic, sprouted pulses, and coconut chutney.
Before going to bed take one and half spoonful of powder prepared from methi, and amla in equal proportions with milk.
Take ‘Trifala Choornaa’ or isabgul husk with milk at night in case of a chronic constipation. Take 25 grams of ‘Amaltas’ and boil it in 200 ml of water and boil till it becomes half in quantity and then drink. ‘Harad’, ‘Amaltas’, ‘Isabgol’ etc. are medicines and not diet; so do not form habit.
Do not drink water while eating. Drink water 1 hour prior or after eating; drink water on empty stomach in morning. Drink three and a half liters of water per day. Lack of water makes stool dry and causes constipation.
Amla, banana, apple, isabgol etc. contain mucilase and cellulose which facilitate expulsion of stool. Hemicellulose Dextrin and other acids improve peristaltic movements of intestines and control cholesterol. Selenium alile sulfide in garlic, and lactobacilli found in curd and butter milk kill pathogenic bacteria.
Vitamins A, B, C, E, enzymes and minerals found in above described diet and fruits if received in adequate amount, relieve constipation caused due to lack of nutrition.
5. Eye diseases
Human eyes function like a mechanical photographic camera because just like a camera an eye contains lens, aperture, and retina working as photo film. Lens of an eye contains following parts-
1. Space between outer surface of cornia and atmosphere
2. Space between posterior surface of cornia and Aqueous Humour.
3. Outer side of Aqueous Humour and outer surface of lens.
4. Watery part between inner surface of lens and Vitreous Humour.
Just as a glass made lens can focus an image on a paper, the lens of an eye can create an image on retina. Here it is to be noted that the image formed on retina is very small compared to the object and is inverted but brain has an ability to correct so that we can see the object in its original form.
Formation of an image on retina takes place in following four stages-
1. Light rays from an object are impacted on lens.
2. Accommodation of lens to focus these rays according to the quality and intensity of light.
3. Accommodation of pupils.
4. Accommodation of eye completely.
Accommodation and shape of pupils depend up on three tissues connected to the iris – Ciliary muscles, Dilator muscles, and Constrictor muscles. These tissues are known as intrinsic muscles because they are situated inside the eye ball. Widening of eyes, constriction of pupils and eyelids together and accommodation depends on the tissues connected to the outer surface of eye balls known as extrinsic muscles.
Following diseases can occur to eyes because of external stimuli, malnutrition, imbalanced diet, and old age.
1. **Presbyopia** – As age progresses, the elasticity of lens reduces. Ultimately the lens which was formerly capable to contract and relax according to situations becomes stiff. This probably occurs due to the deformity of proteins that form the lens. In this condition the normal curvature of lens becomes somewhat distorted and accommodation is much reduced. From birth to young age the accommodation power of eyes in 14 diapters which reduces to 2-3 diapters by the age of 50-55 years. If it is not prevented
then it may be completely lost. In such a situation a person is able to see only at a particular distance and angle or else not at all.
**II. Hypermetropia** – In this problem a person can not see near objects clearly where as he can see distant objects clearly. Human eyes are considered ‘Emmetropic’ because they have ability to see both near and distant object according to the needs. When there is Presbyopia there is weakness of eye muscles and the eyes are incapable of focusing near objects because there is loss of accommodation power in iris, aperture and intrinsic muscles.
**III. Myopia** – In this problem a person can not see distant objects due to weakness of lens and eye muscles. Light rays coming from a distant object pass through lens and focus to make an image. But this image is created in front of retina and not on retina. So the object looks blurred.
**IV. Cataract** – Lysis of proteins which form the lens, or formation of a layer on lens surface makes the lens opaque and the vision becomes dim. When the light rays coming from an object pass through the lens, they lose their intensity and the image becomes dull instead of bright. Sometimes the image is so much blurred that the person can not see anything. Basically this is an age related problem but other factors like injury, radioactivity, poisonous gases, toxic drugs, etc. can also give rise to this problem.
**V. Glaucoma** – This is the major reason for blindness in aged people. Because of increased concentration of watery part of eyes (Aqueous Humour and Vitreous Humour) this problem is created. These substances are expelled time to time with blood circulation, but when they accumulate in eyes then they create pressure retina giving rise to degeneration of neurons attached to the retina causing blindness.
**VI. Night Blindness** – This problem is created due to deficiency of Vitamin A. When there is reduction in concentration of Vitamin-A in blood beyond normal limits, then there is reduction in ‘Rhods and Cones’ in retina which are responsible for the formation of image. This leads to inability to see in inadequate light. The person having this problem is able to see in day light.
**Major causes of eye diseases.**
The causes of eye problems can be listed as below.
1. Imbalanced diet (Lack of nutrition).
2. Lack of Vitamin-A in diet.
3. Serious head injury.
4. Consumption of intoxicating drugs.
5. Continuous exposure to intense light.
6. Continuously seeing tiny objects or reading tiny handwritings.
7. Continuous exposure to dust particles or smoke.
8. Reading in intense light.
9. Reading while in moving vehicle.
10. Reading in inadequate light or doing fine work in inadequate light.
11. Watching movies or television from very less distance.
12. Constipation
13. Fear, Anxiety, depression
14. Old age, change in lifestyle with age.
**Treatment of eye diseases**
1. **Yoga-Meditation therapy**
**Aasan** – Yoga exercises of neck and eyes, Sinhasan, Sarvangasana, Matsyasana.
**Pranayam** – Nadishodhan, Dirghashwas, Shitali – 15 minutes
Preksha – Concentrating green and violet colours on eyes.
Anupreksha – Suggestion of healthy eyes – “My eyes are getting better” – 15 minutes.
Special – Palming, focusing exercises i.e. gazing (gazing candle, soldier gazing, down and up gazing, visual span gazing), waist bath, ‘Mehan snan’, local steam fomentation etc. provide freedom from eye problems.
II. Diet control
In eye diseases, those food items should be consumed which are rich in Vitamin-A e.g. milk, butter, carrot, tomato, soya bean etc. Vitamin-B, C and D containing foods are also beneficial for eyes. Always take light and easily digestible vegetable foods. Avoid stimulatory and spicy food items.
6. Insomnia
Why do we sleep?
Sleeping and awaking occur in an order in our life which is called ‘Circadian Rhythm’. When our brain is awake, it is ready to receive all the suggestions and messages of the events of outer world and respond to them. It is noticeable here that brain is made of unit cells called ‘Neurons’. When these neurons get tired of their work then such a situation arises when only respiration and other necessary process are continued and rest of the physical activities are stopped. Eyes are closed and the awaken state of mind is temporarily lost; this is the situation which is known as ‘Sleep’. Once the neurons are revived, they again are activated and the brain awakens, physical processes start again, which is known as ‘Awaking state’. If the electrical activities of brain are recorded during waking state then it is observed that the major part of the brain known as ‘Cerebral Cortex’ is more active. It continuously sends out impulses to body parts. During sleep the rate of these impulses is minimal. In fact the activity of cerebral cortex is due to another part in brain known as ‘Reticular Formation’. This part regulates sleeping and awaking of brain. To do this function sends and receives impulses through sensory and motor neurons and makes the brain active accordingly. When the to and fro impulses are stopped, reticular formation becomes inactive and the person feels sleepy. During sleep the body tissues become relaxed and body parts becomes inactive. Reticular formation performs its function rhythmically and in order. As a result the cycle of sleep and rouse continue regularly and rhythmically. This has been given the name of biological clock by scientists.
Stages of sleep
The whole period of sleep can be divided into two parts-
(A) Non-REM sleep (Non Rapid Eye Movement sleep) – This is also called steady eye sleep. This part of sleep completes in four stages
1. **First stage** - This is the stage of change from awake to asleep. This lasts from one to seven minutes. In this stage the person is lying with closed eyes. Respiratory rate is continuous and pulse rate changes. EEG record shows more theta rays during this stage. The person is encircled by thoughts. If the person is questioned during this stage then he will reply that he is not sleeping.
2. **Second stage** - Real sleep starts from this stage. The person can not be roused by low voice. Eye balls start moving right and left. At this stage beta rays are increased in brain and the stage lasts from five to seven minutes.
3. **Third stage** - A deep sleep starts from this stage. As soon as one reaches this stage, the body becomes relaxed, body temperature and blood pressure falls. This stage starts 15 to 25 minutes after the beginning of sleep. There are more delta rays in brain and the stage lasts for 10 to 12 minutes.
4. **Fourth stage** – This is the stage of sound sleep. The body becomes steady and relaxed. Pulse rate, temperature and blood pressure remain constant. Delta rays are excessive and the stage lasts for 70 to 90 minutes.
(B) **REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep)** – This is also known as moving eyes sleep. After the end of non REM sleep, there is a stage of REM sleep for sure. In this stage eye ball rapidly moves right and left. Respiratory rate and pulse rage become uncontrolled and increase. Blood pressure falls and rises. The person comes out of sound sleep and passes to third and second stage of non REM sleep. This stage lasts from 10 to 40 minutes.
When we sleep the non-REM and REM sleep come alternatively in order. After about 1 hour and 40 minutes of non-REM sleep there is first sequence of REM sleep which lasts for 10 minutes. Another time when the turn of REM sleep comes then its duration becomes 15 to 20 minutes. During the sleep of 6 hours REM sleep comes at least for three times. But if the duration of sleep increases then the period of non-REM sleep reduces gradually and period of REM sleep increases. This especially if occurs repeatedly then it is not good for health.
**Reasons, symptoms and results of insomnia**
**Reasons and Symptoms** – With age the sequence of sleep changes. Due to this there are changes in the ratio of durations of non-REM and REM sleeps. But this change takes place in coordination and cooperation with biological clock, so it does not harm much but it may initiate an irregularity in third and fourth stage of non-REM sleep giving rise to inadequate sleep. It is observed that irregularity starts with late night sleeping and delay in rising up. If this situation is improved then the regular cycles of REM and non-REM sleeps can be reestablished. Besides these, stressful life, tea, coffee, depression, obsession, any physical problem, drug addiction, alcoholism, excessive smoking can affect sleep cycle. If these reasons are not rectified then they can give rise to sleeplessness, sleep disturbances, etc. This is called insomnia. In such a case the patient’s eyes are constantly red and swollen, heaviness over face, perspiration, tremulousness in extremities, and fatigue. Blood pressure can also rise.
Alcoholism and drug addiction are the direct and indirect reasons for insomnia. Some people under a false belief that alcohol induces good sleep, take alcohol before going to bed. But on the contrary alcohol disturbs the order of sleep cycle. As a result the duration of non-REM sleep goes on reducing where as the duration of REM sleep goes on increasing. Ultimately such a situation arises when there is no sleep even after many efforts. Sleep breaks off and on and dreams also come.
Excessive smoking can also give rise to insomnia. Sleep does not come, and if it at all comes then it comes too late. Sleep is not continuous. The duration of non-REM sleep reduces from 90 minutes to 20-25 minutes. This situation is also caused by consumption of tea and coffee. Neurons become inactive due to the effects of tea and coffee. They even skip their functions. And the person becomes victim of insomnia along with imbalanced physical and mental awaking.
Physical and mental stress is the gift of modern life style. This stress ultimately becomes the reason for damaged health. This starts with insomnia. A person under stress is never able to take adequate sleep.
Besides, illusions, respiratory problems like asthma, cough etc. can also lead to insomnia. Insomnia itself is such a diseases which can invite many other diseases including psychiatric diseases; like depression. A person having depression loses his self confidence. He is not able to concentrate on any work and his routine life is disturbed.
**Results**
An adult person needs daily sleep of six hours to maintain his health and keep him fresh. Because of insomnia the metabolism gets disturbed. To maintain a healthy physic the chemical and physical environments of body should be equal. This is called ‘Homoeostasis’. Homoeostasis is maintained due to
the equalized metabolic rate. Due to metabolic disturbances chemical imbalance is created which gives rise to disturbances in systemic functions. It also affects mechanical processes of body. There is reduction of energy in body, and body always remains tired. Immunity reduces and body becomes vulnerable to many diseases. With this, mental discomfort, discouragement etc. not only affects aptitude but also brings irritability and shot temperedness in the person’s nature making him a person of dislike.
**Yoga therapy of insomnia**
In case of insomnia instead of concentrating on medicines if we concentrate on changing our daily routine then there are hundred percent chances of success. Yoga therapy depends on relations of body and mind as a whole as well as their separate entities. Regarding this principle following line of treatment is adopted.
1. **Shat-Kriya** – ‘Jalneti’ and ‘Kunjal’ processes - once in a day, ‘Laghushanka Prakshalan’ in morning- once in a week.
2. **Yoga therapy** – Processes of head, neck, chest, waist, abdomen, extremities, as well as breathing exercises- each three times in morning.
3. **Surya Namaskar** – All the 12 items two times – in morning everyday.
4. **Mudra** - ‘Vipareet Karani Mudra’ three times.
5. **Pranayam** – Nadishodhan Pranayam for 5 minutes.
6. **Preksha-Meditation** – Breathing Preksha, and ‘Jyoti Kendra Preksha’. – for 10 minutes, once.
7. **Diet control** –
1. Eat only easily digestible foods.
2. Avoid fried food and spicy food.
3. Stop tea and coffee.
4. Vegetables without spices or with minimum amount of spices, fresh seasonal fruits, green salad should be taken with meals.
9. **Life style**
1. Try to be free from stress. Do not react on trivial matters.
2. Fix your time to sleep and awake. Avoid late night watching.
3. Keep your bedroom healthy, keep as much less luggage as possible. Do not paint the walls of your bedroom with intense and dark colours.
4. Avoid alcohol, smoking and drugs.
5. Do not take unnecessary medicines.
6. Do not sleep during day time. Rest can be taken in too much hot climate but do not sleep for long time.
7. Keep the temperature and ventilation of your bedroom according to the climate.
8. Wash your feet with cold water in summer and warm water in winter before going to bed.
9. Take meal one hour before going to bed. Taking cold milk before going to bed is beneficial.
10. A light massage over body with oil before going to bed is also beneficial.
11. If you want then you can play mild calm music at bed time.
7. **Nervous weakness**
Our century has been said the century of nervous diseases because there is hardly a single person amongst lacs who is free of nervous disease. In spite of lots of efforts in every branch of medicine the freedom from nervous diseases has not been possible. Psychologists also have been making efforts in their own ways with no expected success. Nervous system is the regulatory system of our body which regulates the mechanical and bio-chemical processes of our body. If it becomes weak then there is disturbance in
various physical processes. As a result the body becomes victim of various diseases. There is one more aspect also. Any person’s personality is the result of interrelation between his body and mind. Mind still has not been completely understood but one thing is for sure, all the functions of mind are through nervous system. Nervous weakness means brain, spinal cord and nerves have become weak and are not able to function properly. As the activation of mental functions occurs through these organs, it also becomes unable to function properly. As brain, spinal cord, and nerves work together there seems a unity of causative factors in their problems.
**Symptoms of nervous weakness –**
Nervous weakness is not presented with a single symptom but it brings about so many undesirable changes in various biological processes which represent the seriousness of the problem. Some of the symptoms are as follows-
1. Dislike for food and habituated constipation.
2. Chronic headache and fatigue.
3. Persistent unusual thoughts, discouragement, anger, uneasiness, sadness, fear, jealousy, and feeling of hatred.
4. Loss of will power and persistent illusions.
5. Irregular blood pressure and blood circulation.
6. Tremulousness in body off and on and fasciculation in body tissues.
7. Unnecessary negative changes in all the involuntary functions.
**Reasons of nervous weakness –**
1. Excessive consumption of non-vegetarian food.
2. Consumption of oil, sour food, condiments.
3. Drug addiction and other addictions.
4. Inability to pass stool properly in proper time.
5. Living so called modern life style.
6. Living under stress.
Because of above mentioned reasons there is formation of a toxic environment in body which adversely affects the nervous functions. This may destroy or reduce their ability. At this point there is obstruction in the process of controlling all the body systems giving rise to many diseases. Practically these reasons include excessive hard work, want of exercise, inadequate rest, inadequate sleep, working while ignoring health, fatigue of genital organs, improper sexual intercourse, residing in a suffocative and stinky atmosphere, and indulging in immoral actions.
**Therapy and treatment**
1. **Fasting and proper diet** - The first treatment is to make the body free of its toxic environment by fasting. The duration and type of fasting should be decided under surveillance of an expert. One should provide adequate rest to body and mind during the days of fasting; and should take enema everyday at bed time to make the bowels clean. Plain water or water added with lime juice should be taken in plenty.
The diet should be rich in phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, and iron. This revives nervous energy and the dead nervous cells become active. By mere change in diet the majority of problem is solved and the patient is able to regain his lost enthusiasm, confidence and will power.
2. **Exercise** – A light regular exercise helps in making nervous powerful. Daily walk in evening and morning and breathing fresh air in a very good and effective exercise.
3. **Naturotherapy** - Epsom salt bath, cold water fomentation over back, bandage over back, wet bandage over back, waist bath, ‘Mehan snan’, sun bath, etc. help in eliminating the disease from root.
4. **Preksha-Yoga therapy**
**Aasan** – Yoga procedures, Supta Vajrasan, Moolbandh in Vajrasan.
**Pranayam** – Sookshma Bhashrika with Moolbandh while concentrating on every organs, Nasamukh pranayam- 5 minutes.
**Preksha** – Preksha of whole body with Karyotsarg while concentrating on yellow.
**Anupreksha** – Suggestion of health of nervous system – 15 minutes.
**Tap** – Practicing ‘Maun’ (Abstinence from speech), avoiding noise.
8. **Memory weakness**
Memory basically is the result of abilities of nerves of various parts of brain especially cerebral cortex. All the messages brought to brain by nerves are processed in cerebral cortex. After that its reactions are formed. These reactions are then implemented. This is regulated by brain. In one way or another, these reactions are related to physical and mental health. Where the messages to implement these reactions are generated, they are also stored in memory part of brain. When these memories are recalled, they start some sort of agitation in brain which is reflected in body. Sometimes these effects are negative, and sometimes they are desirable also. When due to the weakness of memory these memories are not recalled, then the person has to face unfavourable situations in personal, social and family aspects.
**Solutions to remove memory weakness**
All the solutions explained to get rid of nervous weakness are also applied to remove memory weakness. Besides them, following line of treatment is beneficial.
**Aasan** – Yoga-Mudra, Sarvangasan, Matsyasan, Karyotsarg, Jalandhar Bandh.
**Pranayam** – Anulom-Vilom for 5 minutes.
**Preksha** – Concentrating yellow over Gyan Kendra for 10 minutes.
**Anupreksha** – Passing suggestion while concentrating over brain – “My memory power is developing”.
**Sample questions for study**
1. Describe reasons and symptoms of Tonsillitis.
2. Describe complications of insomnia.
3. How constipation is the generator of many diseases?
4. How nervous weakness is treated in Yoga therapy?
5. Describe major reasons for backache.
**References**
(i) Nature cure for many diseases – V. Modi
(ii) Preksha Yoga for common Ailments – J.P.N. Mishra
(iii) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J. Tortova & N.P. Anagnastokas
(iv) Human Physiology – Vandu, Sherman & Luciana
(v) Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatments – L.M. Tierney, S.J. Mephee & M.A. Papadakis
(vi) Rogo ki Sahi Chikitsa – Nagendra Niraj and Manju Niraj
(vii) Prakritik Ayurvedigyan – Rakesh Jindal
(viii) Amritpitak – Acharya Mahapragya
CHAPTER: 8
LIVER DISORDER, CERVICAL PAIN, HERNIA, SCIATICA, PILES
AIM –
After the study of this chapter students will be familiar with the theory of various physical diseases as well as their treatment with Naturopathy and Yoga therapy.
TOPICS –
1. Liver disorder
2. Cervical pain
3. Hernia
4. Sciatica
5. Piles
1. Liver Disorder
Liver is the main power house of our body. It is the major and the biggest gland of our body. It weighs about 275 grams in an average sized person. It is situated over right side of body just below diaphragm. The major function of Liver is synthesis of bile which is the specialty of its cells. This bile is sent to duodenum through bile duct which has an important role in digestion of food. When digestion is not going on then this bile gets stored in to another organ just below liver known as ‘Gall Bladder’, and is sent to duodenum when need arises. Besides this, liver plays an important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fatty acids. The majority of cleanliness of body is carried out by liver. Many of the liver cells have an important role in purifying blood as well as excreting toxic substances from body. All the functions of liver can be listed as follows-
1. Serving excretion of majority of toxic elements from body.
2. Formation of bile.
3. Converting excess of blood glucose in to glycogen and its storage, so that it can again be supplied to body when need arises.
4. Destruction of antigens.
When any of the liver functions is hampered, disease is produced. When there is obstruction in the first mentioned function, liver becomes enlarged. On obstruction of the second function there are chances of production of jaundice as well as digestive disturbances. When the third function is obstructed, diabetes occurs, and the obstruction of fourth function gives rise to production of serious systemic illnesses. Hepatitis and liver cancer are fatal illnesses.
Treatment
I. Naturopathy-
1. Fasting for two to three days and enema. After that wet clay bandage should be applied to lower abdomen until constipation is reduced followed by enema.
2. Drink water added with lime juice many times in a day. Juice fasting for 2-3 days followed by fruit fasting for one week.
3. Take plenty of fresh fruits, salads, boiled vegetables, curd, and honey and eat solid food in less amount.
4. Taking walk in fresh air every day at least for one hour.
5. Six doses of water kept in sunlight in a yellow bottle.
II. Preksha-Yoga therapy
1. Aasan – Pashchimottasan, Trikonasan, Shashankasan, Yoga-Mudra, Dakshinparshwashayan.
2. **Pranayam** – Sookshma-Bhastrika, Deerghashwas for 5 minutes.
3. **Preksha** – Concentrating yellow colour on liver for 10 minutes.
4. **Anupreksha** – Suggestion of health of liver – “My liver is getting healthier”- for 15 minutes
5. **Tap** – Avoid menda, and pulpy fruits.
2. **Cervical pain**
Pain in neck, shoulders, and hands with tingling and numbness, vertigo on moving neck backwards, neck pain on movements, pain on pressure on neck region, etc. are the symptoms of cervical pain. Pain can also be unilateral. Pain can also be mild and continuous, as well as sudden and sharp. There is increased sensitivity around the affected area. When pain becomes serious, there is stiffness of spines as well as weakness and wasting of associated muscles. When disease progresses, there are symptoms of paralysis because of pressure effect over cervical and lumbar roots. There is also loss of touch, pain and temperature sensations over the affected area. Besides these, there is pain over neck and back of head.
**Reasons** – Mainly it is due to the spinal swelling as well as infection. There is involvement of one or more spines. Besides this the irritation and stiffness of surrounding muscles and tissues also creates pain. This happens due to improper movements of neck and unnecessary pressure over neck. Sometimes this pain is also due to osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. Sometimes one of the cervical spine gets prolapsed and it over rides another one. This situation can be congenital as well as accidental.
**Treatment** - Cervical pain primarily occurs due to improper postures, sudden jerk to neck, intense cold, sitting over easy chair and bed improperly, sitting in one situation continuously, and long journey. The following therapy can be initiated.
I. **Naturotherapy**
1. The patient should take adequate rest.
2. One should use straight backed chair to sit and a thin mattress to sleep.
3. The patient should receive hot and cold fomentations according to the situation.
4. The patient should be given neem water enema, warm ‘Barthak snan’, hot feet bath, steam bath, wet linen wrapping, etc.
5. Add some Magnesium Sulfate and Epsom salt to water or take 50 grams of ginger in a cloth and crush it. Apply this as a fomentation to neck. Sponge with cold water after warm application.
II. **Preksha-Yoga therapy**
1. **Aasan** – Neck exercises, Bhujangasan, Shalabhasan, Pashchimottasan, Ushtrasan.
2. **Pranayam** – Exercising Suryabhedi and Deergha Rechan.
3. **Preksha** – Preksha of neck and neck pain for 10 minutes.
4. **Anupreksha** – Suggestion of healthy neck –“My neck is getting better”- 15 minutes.
5. **Tap** – Avoiding sugar and oily items.
3. **Hernia**
Some part of intestines comes out of abdominal wall to form a bulge which is known as ‘Hernia’. In simple words, when the skin around lower abdomen is bulged out then it is known as ‘Hernia’. Usually there are two types of hernias ‘Inguinal’ and ‘Femoral’. When bulge is formed around genitalia then it is ‘Femoral Hernia’. When this bulge is formed over lower abdomen then it is ‘Inguinal Hernia’.
Initially this bulge is due to internal or external pressure over intestines but when the bulge is formed repeatedly then such a situation arises when a part of intestine slips down in to this bag. All these situations are painful. If not treated in time then this bulge increases and also the associated pain. Inguinal hernia is more common in males. Some times a loop of intestine slips in to the inguinal canal and comes up to scrotum. In case of femoral hernia which is more common in females, the bulge extends up to the root of thigh.
Hernia basically happens due to the laxity and weakness of abdominal muscles. Human intestines are long and coiled. These coils are strongly held in to place by tissues. During childhood due to malnutrition, due to indigestion and constipation, and due to cough when there is pressure over these tissues, they break and the intestinal loops move from their place and pressurize abdominal wall. This forms a pouch inside the abdominal wall. Sudden or repeated weight lifting beyond capacity also poses risk of hernia.
There is one more type of hernia which is called ‘Hiatus Hernia’. Usually stomach is situated below diaphragm and there is a valve at the lower end of food pipe. This valve regulates forward movement of food bolus. Sometimes some part of stomach slips above the diaphragm in the form of a loop. This is called ‘Hiatus Hernia’. Because of formation of this loop the valve can not work properly and the forward propulsion of food becomes unregulated. This leads to reflux of gastric juices in to food pile giving rise to burning in chest and throat and sometimes falsely misleads us to believe it to be a heart attack. Because of hiatus hernia there may be difficulty in swallowing. Risk of hiatus hernia is more in aged women, smokers and obese people. It can increase due to weight lifting, cough and sneeze.
**Preksha-Yoga therapy of hernia-**
1. **Aasan** – Uttanpadasan, Sarvangasan, Vajrasan, Pashchimottasan
2. **Pranayam** – Anulom-Vilom without Kumbhak for 5 minutes
3. **Preksha** – Preksha of intestines for 10 minutes
4. **Anupreksha** – Suggestion of hernia to heal – “My intestine is resuming back to its position”- for 15 minutes
5. **Diet control** – Avoiding heavy and oily food.
4. **Sciatica**
The sciatic nerve emerges from lower end of spinal cord and passes to lower limbs. Any disturbance in this normal situation or pressure can initiate pain in both buttocks which radiates down to thighs and posterior aspect of lower limbs. Sometimes this pain is too much severe. This pain may be due to swelling in this nerve. This pain is called ‘Sciatica’. This is more common in males. It starts suddenly and with severely. It is more common between the ages of 30 to 50 years. Usually it occurs in one leg at a time and is associated with fever.
The reason for sciatica is mainly slip disc. But it may occur due to injury, tumour, diabetes and alcoholism.
1. **Naturopathy** - The patient should receive steam bath. This should be repeated 2-3 times in a week. Routine bath should be taken twice daily. When pain increases then warm water bath and when pain reduces then cold water bath should be taken. At bed time ‘Sahan Snan’ should be taken. In morning waist bath should be taken after sitting in sunlight for some time, occasionally Epsom salt bath should also be taken.
5. **Piles (Haemorrhoides)**: Unusual dilatation of veins situated in anal canal is called ‘Piles’. Because unusual dilatation of veins there is accumulation blood near anus and they hang down in the form of a polyp which at times are also visible externally.
Initially there is itching or burning around anal opening. Sometimes burning can also occur in external as well as internal veins. There are small polyps which can gradually grow and then rupture also. This is called bleeding piles. Piles without bleeding are called blind piles.
‘Piles’ is not a disease but a disease symptom. It is a disease of high society. Consumption of breads, menda, persevered food etc. causes constipation. When constipation is persisted then its decay and warmth increase in intestines. There is difficulty in passing stool. Because of that the mucus membrane of intestines becomes weak and there is accumulation of impure blood at the end of veins situated in anal
canal and formation of growth. This is the pile. The veins of anal canal are the lower ends of long veins on which the tissues of anal opening apply unusual pressure and hamper their blood circulation. This creates swelling of veins. Sometimes this happens in pregnant women because of the pressure of foetus in womb which is relieved automatically after delivery. When there is some problem in spinal cord, then of excessive stress created by impure matter can also produce this problem. These piles indicate that the body is filled with toxic material and also there is impaction of old stool. This clears that the reason for piles is deeper than reasons for constipation and constipation is just one of the reasons. Other reasons include liver disorders, abdominal problems and other blood diseases.
**Naturotherapy-**
To eliminate the problem of piles from its root, it is necessary to cure constipation. We have already discussed the treatment of constipation. Chronic piles heal only once all the problems of body are cured. Piles patients have very weak intestines. So initially such food should be provided which not only relieves constipation but also makes stool soft enough to be expelled without difficulty. Food should contain plenty of salads, juicy fruits, vegetable soup etc. so that there is no need to drink water. The extra benefit of such food is that it provides water in its pure form. If this diet is continued for a few days then disease creating situation is removed up to a great extent and if the problem is in its primary stage then it will be cured. If stool does not become soft even after continuation of this dietary regime then enema should be taken 2-3 times in a day; first with warm water and then with cold water. 8-10 drops of lime juice should be added to enema water. At bed time 1100 grams of water or 50 grams of coconut oil should be taken as enema with 25 grams of lime juice. This provides soothing to the intestinal membrane and softens stool. In evening fomentation should be given by keeping woolen pack to lower abdomen, thighs, and back. If there is still difficulty in passing stool then cold and warm waist bath should be taken. Sitting in warm water for 3 minutes followed by sitting in cold water for 1 minute should be continued. While sitting in warm water, feet should be dipped in warm water. After these baths, a cold bath should be taken and then body should be dried with a dry towel followed by rest.
Once stool becomes soft after above mentioned therapies following diet can be added.
Crushed wheat, spinach, other vegetables, ripe banana, apple, etc. fruits, milk, anjeer, coconut, etc.
**Preksha-Yoga therapy-**
1. **Aasan** – Sarvangasan, Jatavadan, Ashvani-Mudra, Moolbandh, Matsyasan.
2. **Pranayam** – Nadishodhan, Bhastrika for 15 minutes.
3. **Preksha** – Preksha of intestines for 10 minutes.
4. **Anupreksha** – Suggestion to large intestine – “My large intestine is becoming active” – for 15 minutes.
5. **Diet control** – Avoiding pulpy food, spices and oily food.
**References –**
(i) Human Physiology – Vandu, Sherman & Luciana
(ii) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J. Tortora & N.P. Anagnakostas
(iii) Roge ki sahi Chikitsa – Nagendra Niraj and Manju Niraj
(iv) Preksha Yoga for Common Ailments – J.P.N. Mishra
(v) Total Health – David Petus
(vi) Amrut Pitak – Acharya Mahapragya
(vii) Prakritik Ayurvedigyan – Rakesh Jindal
CHAPTER 9 AND 10 COMBINED:
CANCER, HEART DISEASE, ARTHRITIS, AIDS, EPILEPSY, DIABETES AND PEPTIC ULCER
AIM –
After the study of this chapter students will –
1. Acquire knowledge of fatal illnesses like cancer and AIDS with their causes, symptoms and treatment.
2. Be familiar with Naturotherapy and Yoga therapy of the most serious diseases.
TOPICS –
1. Cancer
2. Heart disease
3. Arthritis
4. AIDS
5. Epilepsy
6. Diabetes
7. Peptic Ulcer
1. Cancer
When the tissue cells of any particular organ start dividing and growing uncontrolled then it is called a ‘Tumour’. Some of the tumours are life threatening where as some of them are not much harmful. The fatal tumours are known as ‘Cancer’, and in medical term they are known as ‘Malignant Tumours’. It grows in three stages. When growth starts then it is known as ‘Primary tumour’. When this tumour grows further and spreads to other tissues then it is known as ‘Secondary tumour. After certain period this tumour ruptures and the malignant cells spread to whole body through blood circulation and the whole body becomes cancerous. This is the end stage of life.
Types of Cancers –
Cancer is technically called ‘Carcinome’. Cancer of glands is known as ‘Adenocarcinoma’. Cancer of connective tissues is known as ‘Osteogenic Sarcoma’, and cancer of blood in aged people is known as ‘Myeloma’. Cancer of white blood cells is known as ‘Leukemia’.
“Cancer is the gift of modern civilization” - Dr. Limning Stone
A striking fact regarding this disease is that up to 100 years back it was not this much prevalent, but today because of the facilities like X-ray, radium, and operative procedures it is increasing day by day instead of reducing.
Cancer stands at number two in fatality after heart disease. According to the statistics provided by the Cancer Society of America, one person out of three is the victim of cancer at the age of about 50 to 70. In India also, the number of cancer patients are increasing day by day. According to a presentation by Tata Cancer institute there will be one patient of cancer out of 10 persons in future. Cancer is one of the major challenges to medical science.
Possible reasons of cancer.
1. Food items having artificial colours.
2. Use of strong spices in food items to make them tasty.
3. Use of flavours in food items.
4. Excessively hot food.
5. Excessive eating.
6. Excessive consumption of non-vegetarian food.
7. Unnatural food and improper life style.
8. Drinking less water.
9. Consumption of tea, tobacco, alcohol etc.
10. Consumption of saccharine.
11. Preserved food.
12. coal-tar, charcoal, benzenes, paraffin, carbolic acid, aniline etc. substances when come in contact with skin or if enter body via oral route then they create metabolic disturbances giving rise to production of harmful toxins. These toxins are the root causes of cancer. Labours who clean chimneys, industry workers, those who work with tar while constructing road pitch, etc. are more prone to cancer.
13. Constipation.
14. Use of strong medicines in acute diseases.
15. Delayed healing of surgical injuries.
16. Use of plastic.
17. Use of contraceptive medicines.
Atmospheric pollution, stress, fear, anxiety, suppression of emotions, lack of exercise, etc. are also some of the reasons of cancer. Prolonged constipation can invite intestinal cancer. Besides this, lack of vegetables in diet causes deficiency of vitamins and minerals. Excessive use of cereals, excessive eating, excessive use of sugar and salt, etc. can also invite cancer. Use of chlorine in water can also cause the disease.
**Supportive diet in production of cancer**
According to global statistics non-vegetarian people are more vulnerable compared to vegetarian people because nitrogen containing food is more responsible to contaminate our body which facilitates cancer production.
**Main reason for cancer – ‘Irritation’**
If a particular part of body is irritated constantly then there may arise cancer. Usually neck of womb, lips, tongue, throat, stomach, and intestines is more vulnerable. In India, oral cancer in males and uterine cancer in females is more common.
**Symptoms** – In males, major sites of cancer are lips, throat, tongue, liver, and intestines. Tongue, throat and lungs are affected in those who smoke excessively. Oral ulcers do not heal easily. The patient becomes debilitated. There is pain around growth. In females mostly breast, cervix, stomach, and intestines are affected.
**Special signs of cancer** - Skin cancer is hard and takes form of a wound when ruptures. Internal cancer grows in many ways. Pain is the major symptom in both the cases.
1. Oral cancer is more easily diagnosed compared to others. Mouth does not fully open.
2. Repeated bleeding in women.
3. Difficulty in swallowing.
4. Change in urine and stool habits or constipation
5. Hoarseness of voice or cough.
6. Appearance of a growth over any part of body especially throat and breast.
7. Change in moles or warts (may suppurate and discharge pus).
**Treatment**
Fasting or juice fasting should be continued until the disease comes until control with use of enema once or twice a day according to the need. The affected part should be given sunbath daily followed by waist bath, steam bath twice in a month, bandage application over affected part, wet linen wrapping, wet bandage application over lower abdomen every night, steam application over affected part for 5-10 minutes
every 3 hours and warm clay bandage during rest of the time. If there is no pain or if there is bleeding from the affected part then linen soaked in chilled water should be applied.
**Other preventive measures-**
1. Relaxed and easy going life style.
2. Light exercises.
3. Walking for 3-5 kms.
4. Perform light Yoga and relaxation exercises.
5. Avoid constipation.
6. Avoid processed food.
7. Avoid foods that are prepared by direct contact with fire until the disease is controlled. Take foods that are rich in vitamins A, C, E, Beta carotene, selenium etc. viz. as follows-
8. Wheat or barley water.
9. Carrot juice.
10. Mixed vegetables’ juice, spinach etc. leafy vegetables’ juice.
11. Black currant juice or water melon juice.
12. Grape juice or apple juice.
13. Sprouted pulses, tulsi leaves, coconut water, lemon, salads, etc.
**II. Heart Disease**
**Heart and its function**
Heart is an important organ weighing around 350-400 grams and of the shape of a clenched fist situated on the left side of chest. The major function of heart is to pump blood in to arteries and supply oxygen, nutrition etc. to all the parts of body. Another function is to send blood to lungs for purification and fetch oxygenated blood back.
Heart is such a miraculous pump which circulates billions of liters of blood during life time (for about 70 to 80 years) without stopping for even a minute. Heart beats for 72 times in a minute and circulates about 5 liters of blood. Pulse is directly related to heart which also beats 72 times in a minute. Ayurvedic therapists diagnose disease through pulse.
Heart is divided into four chambers. Two chambers are situated over left and the remaining two over right. Both the left chambers are responsible for pure blood and the right ones are responsible for impure blood.
**What is a heart disease?**
A healthy heart is the foundation of healthy life because heart is directly connected to life and death. Heart disease is a psycho-physical illness. There has been a great deal of increment in heart patients during last 4-5 decades. Heart disease attacks surreptitiously with its companion diseases-high blood pressure, diabetes, gastritis, obesity, asthma, depression, insomnia etc.
According to the famous cardiologist Dr. Din Arnish of California, the major reason for heart disease is high Cholesterol. Because of increased fat in blood, blood vessels are hampered and gives rise to heart attack. If a person can reduce cholesterol level then the risk of heart disease is minimal.
Treatment of heart disease has been dependent on medicines for years. Ayurveda, Yunani, Homoeopathy, Allopathy all have got medicines that can reduce cholesterol and diminish blockage. But there has been increased prevalence of Angioplasty and By-pass surgery these days. Blood circulation in arteries is improved through these procedures.
By-pass surgery reestablishes blood circulation of blocked artery at once, but the old impurity remains in blood. So there are chances of recurrence of the same problem. Dr. Din has suggested Yoga to be a successful alternative for it.
**Symptoms of heart disease**: High blood pressure, headache, breathlessness on exertion, stress, irritability, and heaviness in chest.
**Causes of heart disease**
1. Improper life style
2. Lack of exercise
3. Excess of cholesterol
4. High blood pressure
5. Diabetes
6. Obesity
7. Irregularities in diet
8. Stress and anxiety
9. Sedentary life
10. Smoking and alcoholism
11. Occupational stress
12. Family problems, loneliness
13. Anger, fear
14. Feeling of insecurity
15. Negative thinking
16. Depression
17. Excessive work load
18. Imbalance between income and expenses
**Angina**: Because of exertion pain in heart just like pain in other muscles of body is called angina. This pain starts in heart and spreads to chest, neck, left arm, and sometimes jaw. The patient feels suffocation along with pain; and the pain subsides by 2-3 minutes. Sometimes muscular pain, gastric pain, and cervical pains are mistaken as anginal pain. If this pain is relieved by ‘Nitroglycerine (Sorbitrate)’ then it is surely anginal pain.
**Heart attack**: Due to blockage in one of the 3 major coronary arteries blood circulation is hampered. The part of the wall of heart which is supplied by these arteries, stops working and gives rise to heart attack. This can be compared with blockage of petrol pipe in car and obstruction in petrol supply.
**Procedures for investigating and treating heart attack**: Following procedures are currently prevalent in investigating heart diseases.
1. E.C.G (Electrocardiogram)
2. Echo
3. Treadmill Test (Stress Test)
4. Blood tests
5. Angiography
By these procedures the ability of heart and any obstruction or other problem can be diagnosed.
After this, various expensive medicines, angioplasty, and open heart surgery come in to play for the treatment of the disease. Even after going for such expensive measures it is not sure that the disease will be cured. Blockage can create again and the situation can become again as it was before.
**Preksha Yoga life style**: People of ancient India used to live a natural life style. Early to rise, aasans, pranayam, bathing with water of well, praying God, keeping mild nature, etc. But by the time all vanished.
Believe in ‘Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy wealthy and wise’. One should rise early from bed, perform yoga, pranayam, mudra. Go to walk, perform meditation and Karyotsarg. Try to finish your work in time. Try to solve your problems tactfully. If work load is more, then distribute the work. Develop understanding in your family. Give respect, gain respect. Stop thinking about past and future, live in today and try to make today a beautiful day.
Have faith in God. Keep a habit to go to religious places. Live a stress free and happy life.
**Heart disease and Preksha Meditation therapy**: (Absolutely possible to avoid by-pass surgery)
Whatever therapeutic system you adopt e.g. Ayurveda, Homoeopathy, Yunani, etc. if you do the wonderful experiment of Preksha Yoga under surveillance of your doctor then it can be surely said that you will not need angioplasty or by-pass provided if you do it with faith and dedication.
**Wonderful experiment**: This experiment can be divided into four parts-
1. Yoga therapy, Aasan, Pranayam, Mudra
2. Meditation and Karyotsarg
3. Preksha-Yoga lifestyle
4. Diet control (Cholesterol free diet)
5. Stress free life
**Diet control**: Diet and our health as well as heart disease go hand in hand. Aim is to establish an equilibrium between the amount of calories we intake and the amount of calories we spend. Usually we take more calories than what we spend. Excess of calorie adheres to arteries in the form of cholesterol and forms the reason for heart disease. So we should take more of green vegetable, salads, fruits, and vitamins and less cholesterol in our diet.
25 percent of total calorie requirement per day should be taken in breakfast, 35 percent in lunch, 15 percent in evening breakfast, and 25 percent in dinner. Dinner especially should be light. In marriages and other ceremonies and parties, take more of salads, juices, and plain chapattis. Do not take mutton, fish, ghee, butter, oily food, sweets etc. 200-300 ml of milk is necessary for friendly cholesterol (HDL-High Dilution Lipoprotein). If appetite is more then take salads, etc. Quit alcohol, smoking and tobacco if you are addicted to them.
**Stress control**: Stress is such a curse of modern age which has disrupted our life to a great extent. Science has gifted us numerous facilities and on the other hand it has punished us by providing a sedentary life.
Stress has got bad effects on our health and heart. Stress is the major reason of heart disease. If our needs increase than our facilities or if we do not find expected result then we feel stressed. Scientifically there is imbalance in secretion of Adrenaline and Nor-Adrenaline hormones.
High blood pressure, angina, heart attack, headache, insomnia, asthma, backache, depression, ulcer etc. are all the psycho-physical diseases resulting from stress.
The major reason for stress is ‘Overload’. Today we do not have enough time to earn our living. Disrupted schedule, lack of exercise, problematic life, etc. do not allow us to enjoy our life or even to smile.
Excessive work, lack of time, too many desires and requirements, newspapers, television, radio, etc are also major reasons for stress. But they are important in life. We have to deal with them tactfully and set equilibrium. For that we have to create balance in income and expense, health consciousness, family understanding, spirit of love and dedication, balance with society and praying to God.
We should discuss about each others’ problems and complains in our family; some what dedication and understanding are required. We should find out solutions for mutual problems. Generation gap problems are also to be dealt with patience. A polite speech also solves many of the problems.
Avoid negative thinking and put in to practice positive ness of thoughts. Develop human qualities. A simple and ideal life style should be adopted.
**Sapta Swarg Niyamavali:** Heart disease is surely the result of improper life style, lack of exercise, obesity, stress and excessive cholesterol. The information of following aspects will be helpful in getting freedom from heart disease.
1. Education of functions of heart and consciousness towards reasons for heart disease.
2. Consciousness towards obesity and high blood pressure and their reasons.
3. Knowledge of freedom from stress, consciousness towards reasons for stress, habit of humour for entertainment, polite speech, positive thinking, love, friendship, art of setting coordination between work and time.
4. Diet control, cholesterol-free diet, balanced calorie intake, abstinence from smoking and tobacco.
5. Consciousness towards common health, regulated schedule.
6. Aasan, Pranayam, Yoga, Mudra.
7. Information of meditation and Karyotsarg as well as performing them with faith.
**III Arthritis:** Pain in joint between bones and swelling in them is a common problem which directly affects a person’s schedule. Some people get along with the problem somehow but some have very painful life because of the disease. In India, one person out of six is suffering from any of the joint problems. This disease is called ‘Arthritis’ in medical term. Arthritis is actually a common name for many joint problems; it has got varieties in the form of ‘Rheumatoid arthritis’, ‘Osteoarthritis’, ‘Gout’ etc. In all these problems there is swelling and pain in joints. Not only that but also there are spasms in the surrounding tissues.
**Osteoarthritis:** This type of arthritis is found in majority of people suffering from the patients of arthritis. This situation arises due to age, wear and tear, and friction of joints. There is a layer of cartilage over joining surfaces of every bone which serves as a cushion during the movements of the joint. When there is tearing in these cartilages due to some reason then the heads of bones are swollen and the adjoining ligaments also swell up. The joint shape gets changed and it terribly pains during movements. This can occur in any of the joints, but is more common in those joints which are subject to weight bear e.g. knee joints, ankle joints, hip joints, and inter-vertebral joints. The problem can be divided into primary and secondary arthritis. Primary osteoarthritis arises without any known reason and is more common among women. It can be hereditary. Secondary osteoarthritis arises due to strain, sprain, unusual pressure or injury e.g. football players are more prone to develop joint swelling because they have to use their knee joints more and the joints are more subject to pressure. When the disease progresses, there is severe pain in joint as well as surrounding tissues on movement.
**Rheumatoid arthritis:** This problem develops gradually, but at times it may arise suddenly. The symptoms increase and then subside, and come again after certain period. Joints of extremities are more affected. If the disease persists for a certain period then it also affects connective tissues of body. This disease is bilateral i.e. when left wrist is involved then right wrist is also involved.
Many of the body joins are known as ‘Synovial joints’ because in these joints there is a synovial membrane between the joining surfaces of two bones containing a fluid called ‘Synovial fluid’. The disease starts with synovial joints. If the disease is not treated initially then the synovial swelling increases and synovial fluid goes on drying. With this there is formation of a coarse tissue known as ‘Pannus’ which destroys cartilage. The internal soft tissue gets converted into connective tissue and the joint function is stopped. Movements of joint are almost stopped. Slightest effort creates terrible pain. If finger joints are affected then they are deformed and it becomes difficult to work with them. Gradually the disease progresses to involve connective tissues of body and symptoms like fever, reduced appetite, weight loss, weakness, etc. are developed.
Rheumatoid arthritis can occur at any age but is more common between 25 to 40 years of age. According to scientists body’s immune system attacks synovial joints of the same body and destroy them gradually giving rise to the problem. Besides heredity, viral infection can also be the reason.
**Gout**: This arthritis occurs due to imbalanced chemical reactions inside the body. There is formation of uric acid in body as a result of metabolism which gets excreted via urination. If this uric acid synthesis increases due to some reason, then its blood level increases and forms Sodium Urate by reacting with Sodium in the body. This sodium urate gets accumulated in joints and creates swelling, stiffness and pain in the joints. If the disease is not treated in time then the joints get fused and stop functioning. This disease occurs usually after the age of 45 years. According to scientists it occurs due to stressful life, atmospheric pollution, and defective jeans.
**Ankylosing Spondylosis**: This is a different kind of joint problem. Initially there is pain in lower end of spinal cord and legs which gradually spreads to both buttocks and both shoulders. After a certain period, movements of back become restricted and create pain while sitting or standing. The patient can not keep his back straight and as a result he becomes stooped permanently.
**Treatment**
Besides surgery there are many simple ways which are effective. They are useful if taken under an expert’s surveillance. Some of them are as follows-
1. **Hot therapy** – This includes Karma-Snan, warm bandage, hot fomentation and paraffin wax smear which relieve pain and reduce swelling.
2. **Cold therapy** – The affected joint should be tied with a cotton bag filled with ice. Alternative use of hot and cold fomentations and hot and cold bandages relieve pain and swelling.
3. **Massage** – Massaging circularly with light pressure relieves pain and stiffness of joints.
4. **Electric stimulation** – A newly developed equipment known as ‘Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulator (TENS)’ is used to give mild current to joints for a few minutes to few hours. This creates relaxation of joint tissues and reduces their stiffness. Many equipments are available in the market for TENS therapy.
5. **Medical treatment** – For the treatment of arthritis there are many pain relieving medicines in Allopathy known as Non Steroid Anti-inflammatory Drugs. Ayurveda and Homoeopathy also have treatments for the disease.
6. **Surgery** – Under this, extra bone is cut and removed. Sometimes the complete joint is removed and is replaced with an artificial joint made of metal. Orthoplasty, Orthotomy, Ostiotomy, Synovectomy are some of the procedures which can relive the problem.
7. **Yoga therapy** – In Yoga therapy, following experiments are effective and useful for relief from the disease.
8. **Exercise of shoulders and neck** – Move neck left and then right, then forwards and backwards after that rotate it circularly. This should be repeated five times twice a day.
9. **Wrist exercise** – Clench fist and then pull it up and down, take support of some solid object and then move wrist up and down. Keep both palms together and move both wrists right and left.
10. **Exercise of heel and ankle** – Lie down on back and pull both feet up and down.
11. **Exercise of knees and elbows** – Sit on a chair and support both thighs with hands. Now bend your knees and then relax them. This should be repeated five times. Same way bend your forearms and touch your shoulders with fingers, now move your elbow up and down. This also should be repeated five times.
12. Aasan -
1. Exercise all the twelve stages of ‘Suryanamaskar’ for at least three times.
2. Exercise Pavanmuktasan, Shashankasan, Bhujangasan, and Dhanurasan for at least three times
13. Pranayam - Nadishodhan and Bhastrika.
14. Meditation – Performing Deergha shwas Preksha every day for 30 minutes. Sit in ‘Sukhasan’ after performing all the aasans and Yoga procedures, and then while concentrating on your breath take deep and slow breaths.
15. Diet control – 1. Do not instill any spices or condiments in Dals. Avoid oily and spice food.
2. Use seasonal fruits and vegetables in plenty.
AIDS
World Health Organization (WHO) says that the world has a new challenge to fight with a fatal disease ‘AIDS’. At present there is no treatment for it.
AIDS was first detected in 1980 in America. Today AIDS has taken a dangerous form in western countries; but India is also not intact. On testing 0.86 percent of people are found to be positive. If steps are not taken, then it will engulf millions of people in India. The number of AIDS patients is increasing day by day.
AIDS means – ‘Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome’ which occurs due to a virus called ‘HIV’ virus. This virus can remain latent in body. This is an atypical disease which destroys body’s immune mechanism. Because of reduced immunity, body becomes victim of various diseases and ultimately the patient dies. Initially when HIV virus attacks, it controls T-Lymphocytes white cells in such a way that instead of killing the virus, these white cells start promoting the growth of virus. Viral load goes on increasing and T-cells go on reducing and the disease becomes serious.
Symptoms of AIDS - Fever off and on which does not go off easily with treatment, perspiration at night, fatigue, watery diarrhoea, debility, weight loss, loss of appetite etc. Initial signs include swollen lymph nodes, ulcers in oral cavity and food pipe.
Reasons of AIDS – AIDS spreads from contact with blood or other secretions of an infected person. Mainly it spreads through sexual intercourse, from taking blood transfusion of an infected person, infected needles, infected instruments, through skin cuts and wounds, from a pregnant lady to her child. It does not spread through social contacts or routine homely contacts. Touch, kiss, embrace, changing clothes, eating in same utensil do not spread AIDS. Not it has been proved that homosexuality and extra marital relations are the major causes of spread of AIDS. A person coming in to contact with many women or men is more vulnerable compared to others. A woman having AIDS can spread the disease to about 20 men through sexual intercourse.
Special precautions – 1. Be cautious while taking blood transfusion as to whether the blood belongs to an AIDS person. If needed, take blood from a near friend or other reliable acquaintance. Before taking blood, be sure that a new disposable needle is used for the purpose.
2. Men and women should not be careless in making sexual relations. Do not perform the act with an unknown person.
3. Use things after applying antiseptic. The object should be known to you. (shaving blades, needles etc.)
Preventive measures – AIDS is such a disease which destroys immunity. No treatment has been invented that can cure it so far. Its prevention is its cure. A person near to nature is always healthy. The one
who takes balanced diet and lives with hygiene never falls ill. Stress, anxiety, addictions etc. reduce immunity, so stay away of such things.
**Epilepsy**
*Symptoms* – It comes in episodes. The patient predicts before the attack comes; but sometimes it comes suddenly. During attack the patient becomes unconscious, body parts start shivering, frothing comes out of mouth, eyes are turned upwards and urine or stool passes involuntarily. This situation lasts from a few seconds to a few minutes. After that, the patient gradually comes to consciousness, and then sleeps because of tiredness. During attack if a towel is thrust in his mouth then tongue bite can be prevented.
*Causes* – Unusual electric activities and impulse generation from neurons gives rise to rapid contractions in skeletal muscles. This leads to spasms in body which are involuntary and it is difficult to come out of the situation. The sufferer gets delusions of light, sound and smell. The impulses generated from neurons disturb many brain centers which makes the person unconscious.
*Major reasons for Epilepsy* – The reasons can be divided into symptomatic and idiopathic groups. Symptomatic group includes –
1. Metabolic disorder (reduced blood sugar, calcium deficiency, excessive uric acid, lack of oxygen etc.)
2. Infection
3. Toxicity (alcohol, drugs etc.)
4. Disorders of blood
5. Head injury, tumour.
In idiopathic group there is no specific reason for epilepsy.
*Naturotherapy* – Bromide etc. toxic medicines are used to make the sensory nerves of brain blunt and the disease is temporarily suppressed; but the disease is not eliminated. To eliminate the disease from its root fasting, juice fasting, and fruit fasting should be followed by addition of waist bath in morning, dry sponge bath, methan snan in evening, spinal bath, and application of clay bandage on lower abdomen. Epsom salt bath twice in a week is also necessary. Take body massage in sunlight using oil everyday, followed by wiping the body using a dry towel. After this a normal bath should be taken. Hot fomentation and cold fomentation should be applied to vertebral column for 10-20 minutes using a towel soaked in hot and cold water.
Eight doses of 50 grams of water kept in blue bottle in sunlight should be taken. In case of unconsciousness, this water should be sprinkled over face and a wet cloth should be kept on forehead.
**Preksha Yoga therapy**
*Aasan* – Pavam-muktasan, sarvangasan, shashankasan, sputa-vajrasan.
*Pranayam* – Sookshma Bhastrika with Moolbandh.
*Perksha* – Concentrating white colour on forehead.
*Amaypreksha* – Suggestion of health of brain
**Diabetes**
*Forewords* – Over left side of upper abdomen, just below stomach there is a gland called ‘Pancreas’ which is 15-23 cms. long, 5-8 cms. wide. On dissecting this gland a white coloured wide tube is visible which along with bile duct opens in duodenum. The secretions of pancreas are brought to this wide tube through various small tubes. This wide tube is known as ‘Pancreatic duct’ which forms pancreatic ampulla. The juice of the gland containing Trypsin (digests proteins), Amylase (digests undigested carbohydrates), Lipase (digests fat), and Renin (digests milk) along with bile enters duodenum. These are the excretions but the gland also has secretory function. The secretions do not come out but they directly mix with blood. German pathologist Paul Langerhans (1947-1988) invented island shaped structures in the gland. These
are known as Island of Langerhanns which contains 20% of alpha cells, 70% of beta cells and 5% of gamma cells. There are also some percentages of D-cells which are secretory. When beta cells are reduced or they become inactive then insulin production reduces. As a result sugar is not utilized in our body and the body can not derive energy and heat. Insulin converts excess glucose of liver and other tissues in to glycogen. As and when required, the stored glycogen is again converted in to glucose by the process of glycogenation by glycogen.
Carbohydrates are first digested in mouth by Ptyline and then by other enzymes in stomach. All kinds of carbohydrates are ultimately converted in to glucose and are utilized by body to create energy. Glucose reaches to all the tissues of body through blood and provides energy and nutrition to the tissues. Glucose catalyzes oxygenation in body cells as result energy is created. By the oxygenation of glucose in cells, water and carbohydrate are created which are then excreted by kidneys and lungs. Nervous tissues and cardiac tissues can not store glucose but they immediately use it, whereas liver and other tissues store it in the form of glycogen.
In adipose tissues, glucose is stored as fat with the help of insulin. This stored fat provides energy when there is emergency need. When glucose reaches liver, it gets converted in to acids with the help of special enzymes, these acids are known as ‘Triglycerides’. Triglycerides get stored in the form of fat over abdomen thighs, buttocks, and below skin. This is the reason why those who eat too much sweet, become fat.
In case of fasting, these fats are brought in to use. The metabolic cycle of glucose becomes reverse i.e. fat gets converted in to acids and blood ketone (acetone) level rises. Liver converts this ketone again in to glucose and supplies it to body tissues. This is the reason of weight reduction during fasting. If food is not provided in time then the level of blood ketones increases up to a level that it comes out through urine in the form of acetone. Presence of acetone in a pregnant woman’s urine indicates that all the body energy is working up on birth of child.
**What happens in Diabetes?**
Increased level of blood sugar is known as ‘Diabetes’. As the blood sugar rises, it starts coming out through urine. There are three major symptoms of this disease.
1. Excessive urination (Polyuria)
2. Excessive thirst (Polydipsia)
3. Excessive hunger (Polyphagia)
**Diabetes has been divided in to two categories**
**Type-I Diabetes** – This suddenly comes to knowledge and the reason is deficiency of insulin. If beta cells of pancreas are destroyed due to some reason or, if they produce less insulin, then this situation is created. This is also known as ‘Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus’ (IDDM). Also it can be known as ‘Juvenile onset Diabetes because it is usually detected in juvenile age group. If the patients of this disease receive insulin time to time then the disease can be controlled.
**Type-II Diabetes** – This is more common category and 90 percent patients of diabetes are of this problem. It is found after the age of 40 years especially those who are overweight. This is also known as ‘Maturity onset Diabetes Mellitus’. In the patients of this disease, increased blood sugar level can be controlled by diet control, exercise and Yoga. These patients do not have insulin deficiency but the process of sugar control by insulin becomes defective. These patients may not need insulin, and that is why it is also called ‘Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus’ (NIDDM).
In diabetic patients because of lack of insulin, conversion of glucose in to fatty acids and lipids becomes almost stopped, and body cells do not get enough energy. The whole metabolism becomes disturbed. By the experiments carried out in diabetic animals it was found that oxidation of fatty acids
increases in them producing excessive ketone bodies. This is the reason for increased level of ketone bodies in urine and blood of diabetic patients and a particular ‘Varnish’ like smell from their breath.
Because of reduced energy production from glucose, body uses stored body fats to produce energy, as a result production of ketone bodies increases, weigh reduces and because of increased sugar and ketone bodies in blood a serious condition called ‘Ketosis’ (Diabetic Ketoacidosis) arises. There is presence of Acetone-B, and Hydroxy-Butyric Acid in urine. There is increased level of carbon dioxide in blood giving rise to lack of oxygen, as a result the patient breaths heavily. Sometimes there is also unconsciousness or syncope. If oxygen is not supplied for long time then the patient may die.
Out of the food taken, 100% of carbohydrates, 58% of proteins, and 10% of fats get converted into glucose. 15% of total glucose remains in blood and 85% remains stored in tissues.
**Major reasons of Diabetes –**
1. **Hereditary** – Any of the parents, grand parents (paternal as well as maternal) if is a diabetic patient then there are chances of diabetes in their children.
2. **Occupation** – Sedentary work, clerk, professionals, teachers, officers etc. are more prone to get the problem.
3. Fatty diet.
4. Obesity
5. Stress
6. Smoking
**Treatment –**
**Naturotherapy –**
1. Take fresh water enema every morning after passing stool. After that apply wet clay bandage over lower abdomen for half an hour, or take a brisk walk in fresh air for 20 minutes. This will relieve constipation.
2. Take ‘Mehar Snan’ in evening. After that, take a short distance walk. This will improve vital energy.
3. Apply wet bandage over back overnight.
4. Take 50 grams of water kept in sunlight in orange coloured bottle, and mix it with 50 grams of water kept in blue coloured bottle. Drink it four times daily.
**Diet therapy –**
In morning, one lime, 200 ml. of water of ‘Methi’ should be taken. Sprouted methi should be consumed.
Perform Yoga exercises in morning after passing stool and then take walk. 15 leaves of lime tree, ‘Sadabahar chandani’ flower, 6 leaves of vicorosia, 10-12 leaves of ‘bili’ or 15-20 leaves of ‘tulsi’ should be crushed and then chewed. After that one glass of lassi should be taken by debilitated patients, or a glass of butter milk by obese ones.
After two and a half hours, half glass of ‘Karela’ juice should be taken followed by sprouted mung, moth, masoor, channa, mutter etc. crushed with onion, lime juice, coconut, spinach, grapes, etc. and added with curd should be taken. Along with that take 5 garlic. In breakfast one can take popcorns, groundnuts etc.
Three hour after breakfast take half glass of ‘Karela’ juice or tulsi, or white chandani, neem, ‘Tej-pat’ 50 grams each in dry powdered form and mix with methi, amla 100 grams each. This is ‘Sugar-Nil Choorma’. After taking 10 grams of this powder take 2-3 chapatis (each weighing approximately 25 grams) made of mixture of flours of wheat, bajra, jowar, rajma, kulthi, soyabean, udad, chowla mixed in equal proportion. With that, take boiled green vegetables 250 grams, salad 250 grams, curd 150 grams, and sprouted methi 15 grams.
**Noon** – Take one and a half teaspoonful of powder of seeds of ‘Jamun’ and one glass of butter milk.
Afternoon - one and a half teaspoonful of powder of seeds of ‘Jamun’ with one glass of butter milk, or take fresh fruits like orange, lime, tomato, pomegranate, etc. Do not initially take sweet fruits like anjeer, black currant, banana etc. Once the disease is controlled, these fruits can also be taken.
Evening – Green vegetables like spinach, tomato, cucumber, etc. should be taken as juice form.
Dinner – Take food as per in noon time. Sometimes sprouted pulses, fruits, vegetables, etc. can be taken as dishes.
Preksha Yoga therapy –
Shat processes – Neti and Kunjal
Aasan – 10 processes of breath and abdomen, Uttanpadasan, Suryanamaskar, Pavanmuktasan, Ardhamatsyendrasan, Bhujangasan, and Matsyasan.
Pranayam – Bhramari and Nadishodhan for five minutes.
Preksha – Preksha of pancreas for 10 minutes.
Anupreksha – Suggestion of health of pancreas – “My pancreas is becoming healthy”- for 15 minutes.
VIII. Peptic Ulcer
A wound on a mucous membrane or tissue layer forming a gap is called an ulcer. When this ulcer occurs in stomach mucosa because of the adverse effect of hydrochloric acid in stomach juice, it is called ‘Peptic Ulcer’. Peptic ulcer is sometimes even found in the lower end of food pipe but usually it occurs over curved lower end of stomach which is known as ‘Gastric Ulcer’. When the same thing happens with proximal part of duodenum then it is called ‘Duodenal Ulcer’. Most of the ulcers are found in duodenum.
Causes –
The common and major cause of formation of an ulcer is excessive secretion of gastric juice. In case of gastric ulcer which occurs in stomach wall, the reason is not the same but it is due to reduced mucous secretion in stomach wall. The mucous secretion protects stomach mucosa from hydrochloric acid, but when mucous is reduced, then gastric juice starts making a wound in stomach mucosa which gradually takes the form of an ulcer. The reasons for reduction of mucous or excess of gastric juice are – smoking, alcohol, anger, drugs, and medicines (Aspirin, NSAIDs etc.). Usually mucous secretion which protects stomach mucosa from gastric juice, also limits gastric juice secretion. When this mechanism gets disturbed, ulcer is resulted. After scientific results, evidences are found that bacteria named ‘Campylobacter Pylorides’ also causes gastric ulcer.
Symptoms and complications –
Initially there is pain and burning in upper abdomen. The pain is continuous and its intensity and location are constant. It gets relieved after taking meal or using antacids. In some cases there is no pain at all and it comes to the knowledge after it takes a serious form.
The complication of ulcer is bleeding from it. Blood comes through vomit and diarrhoea. This is an extremely dangerous and emergency situation. Somewhat less dangerous situation is its perforation and whatever the patient eats, leaks through the whole in to abdominal cavity. This gives rise to abdominal infection and peritonitis. Intestinal perforation leads to severe pain. If the ulcer is situated at the lower or upper end of duodenum then the food taken leaks on to liver and pancreas which leads to terrible pain.
Treatment –
An ulcer patient should stop eating spicy food and avoid such food items or drinks that can cause acidity. Alcohol should be stopped. Cold milk, butter, fresh fruits, and boiled vegetables should be taken. Among fruits banana, mango and water-melon are beneficial.
The patient should drink adequate water; take bath with cold water two times a day. Kati-snan twice a day for 15-20 minutes, cold bath over lower abdomen for half an hour, and wet clay bandage over lower abdomen on empty stomach should be taken. After this the patient should take a walk for sometime. If there is constipation then take enema. Light abdominal massage and deep breathing exercises are very much helpful. The patient should always remain happy and stress free. Ulcer is created gradually, so as it heals gradually too.
**Sample questions for study**
1. What is ‘Cancer’, how many types it has?
2. What should be the diet of a diabetic patient?
3. Why does an epileptic attack occur?
4. What are the reasons for AIDS?
5. Describe Arthritis.
6. What is the Preksha-Yoga therapy of a diabetic patient?
**References –**
1. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J. Tortova and N.P. Anagnostas
2. Total Health – David Pefers
3. Family Health – Francis Mackenzie
4. Preksha Yoga for common ailments – J.P.N. Mishra
5. Nature Cure for common diseases – V. Modi
6. Rogo ki Sahi Chikitsa – Nagendra Niraj and Manju Niraj
7. Madhumeha La Ilaj Nahi Hai – Nakendrakumar Niraj
8. Cancer – O.P. Jaggi
9. Understanding Cancer – T.N. Chapekar
10. Prakritik Ayurvedigyan – Rakesh Jindal
CHAPTER: 11 – ANAEMIA, ASTHMA
AIMS –
(1) Understanding symptoms and causes of Anaemia and Asthma.
(2) Understanding Naturopathy and Yoga therapy for these diseases.
Topics –
1. **Anaemia**: 1. Introduction 2. Types 3. Symptoms 4. Naturopathic and Yoga therapy
2. **Asthma**: 1. Introduction 2. Causes 3. Naturopathic and Yoga therapy
1. **Anaemia**: It is a condition in which the oxygen carrying capacity of human blood is drastically reduced, which is named ‘Anaemia’. Red Blood Cells contain an Iron containing Compound Pigment which is called ‘Haemoglobin’. During respiration, Haemoglobin inside the blood flowing through fine capillaries in the walls of lungs combines with oxygen and forms ‘Oxyhaemoglobin’. This oxygenated blood when circulates through the cells of our body, the oxihaeoglobin releases oxygen into these cells which is then required for the process of metabolism into these cells. Lack of Haemoglobin or deformity in the chemical structure of haemoglobin due to some reason leads to Anaemia. Basically anaemia is the symptom of some underlying pathology.
2. **Types**: Anaemia is classified on the basis of number of Red Blood Cells and amount and chemical structure of Haemoglobin
2.1 **Nutritional Anaemia**: Haemoglobin is the chief component of Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and Haemoglobin is synthesized by combination of Iron and ‘Haem’ protein. Protein and Iron are derived from the nutritious elements from food. If Iron, essential Amino Acids (which synthesise protein) and Vitamin B-12 are not assimilated adequately from food, their deficiency leads to lack of Haemoglobin and this deficiency is called Nutritional Anaemia.
2.2 **Pernicious Anaemia**: Due to deficiency of Intrinsic Factors if Red Blood Cells are not formed adequately in the bone marrow, it hampers assimilation of Vitamin B-12 in the intestines. Gastric juice and major part of Hydrochloric acid are formed in stomach. As a consequence assimilation of Iron and Vitamin B-12 is hampered and leads to anaemia. This situation is called Pernicious Anaemia.
2.3 **Haemorrhagic Anaemia**: In case of bleeding due to any reason when plenty of Red Blood Cells are lost with blood, it leads to deficiency of blood which is called ‘Haemorrhagic Anaemia’. This type of Anaemia is due to wounds, ulcers or profuse menstruation (Menorrhagia). In this situations if blood loss is excessive, then it is called Acute Anaemia which is at times fatal. But if the blood loss is gradual and long lasting then it is called Chronic Anaemia. One of its major symptoms is fatigueability.
2.4 **Haemolytic Anaemia**: Sometimes it so happens that Red Blood Cells wall get destructed before time and haemoglobin gets released into plasma, which ultimately leads to deficiency of blood. This situation is called Haemolytic Anaemia. Before the destruction of Red Blood Cells takes place, they get changed into odd shapes. This happens due to many reasons in which, synthesis of deformed Haemoglobin, presence of deformed enzymes in the formation of Red Blood Cells, splenic deformity are the chief reasons. Besides these, some parasites, toxic chemicals, antibodies can be other reasons for the same. This disease is more commonly found in infants. Thalassaemia is the well known example of this disease. In this disease, which is basically hereditary, due to deformed haemoglobin and deformity of Red Cell wall, such type of Red Cells are formed which get destructed soon after it’s formation and consequently leads to lack of blood.
2.5 **Aplastic Anaemia**: Bone marrow depletion or destruction leads to Aplastic Anaemia. In this situation, bone marrow which is basically found as an opaque thick substance, becomes dry and gets converted into a hard compound or becomes knotted. Usually this happens due to adverse effects of toxic chemicals, radioactive chemicals or drugs. It leads to drastic reduction in the formation of Red Blood Cells.
2.6 Sickle Cell Anaemia: In a person suffering from this type of anaemia, formation of bizarre Red Cells occurs. When Red Cells release oxygen into body cells out of their oxyhaemoglobin, the remaining deoxygenated haemo-globin gives rise to loss of normal shape of Red Cells. These Red Cells take form of a Sickle (>). Consequently haemoglobin breaks the Red Cell wall and finally it gets destructed itself. This process when occurs with large number of Red Cells, their depletion outnumbers their formation and finally leads to anaemia. As a result of this condition, body organs do not get adequate amount of blood and their functions become compromised. Besides there is also a risk of other diseases’ attacks. Organs start failing. Sometimes the Sickle shaped red cells get entangled in capillaries (Rouleaux formation) and hampers blood circulation. At times it even leads to complete obstruction and leads to failure of that particular organ.
3 Symptoms of Anaemia: Victims of anaemia present with pale, lusterless skin over lips and skin underneath eyelashes, breathlessness, puffiness over face and legs, yellowness of body skin. Besides, tiredness, reduced appetite, giddiness, severe headache on waking from sleep, palpitation, red and sore tongue, skin lesions over corners of mouth, sensitivity to heat and cold, pricking sensations over legs, mood changes, forgetfulness, occasionally syncope etc. are observed.
4. Naturopathy and Yoga therapy for Anaemia: Naturopathy: Anaemic patients should take rest while taking deep breaths in open air. Take dry sponge while sitting naked in early morning which should be followed by taking wet sponge with a towel dipped in cold water. Take massage in pleasant sunlight and bath. To enrich and activate body cells, a warm bath, steam bath, getting wrapped into a wet linen or sunbath should be followed by a cold rub and bath for 20 minutes. Get bowels cleaned up by taking enema daily for 10-15 days. In afternoon, take hot fomentation or steam over waist, back or abdomen and take cold ‘Kati snan’ or cold ‘Ridh snan’. To activate liver and spleen, take warm and cold fomentation one after another. To activate bone marrow, take hot and cold fomentations over chest and back. Regular cold water bath followed by dry sponge activates Red Cells and increases oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin. Hot and cold fomentation of abdomen or hot-cold waist bath (Kati snan) or wrapping increases gastric juice secretion inside stomach which ultimately aids iron absorption.
Yoga Therapy: Regarding ‘Prekshayog Chikitsa’ following experimentations are helpful.
1. Karyotsarg – 20 minutes in morning and evening
2. Meditation (Dhyan) – 20 minutes twice in a day at health centre.
3. Anupreksha – 20 minutes once
4. Yoga procedures – Chest and abdomen related, once in morning 5 times each
5. Aasan – JANUSHIRHASAN, ARDHAMATSYENDRASAN, VAJRASAN, YOGAMUDRA once a day 3 times each.
6. Diet control – An anaemic patient should receive plenty of protein, iron, amino acids, Vit. B-12 containing food. Minerals are chief components in our blood so a patient should take plenty of mineral containing food which rejuvenes blood. Among fruits and vegetables apple, banana, tomato, carrot, cucumber, black current, reddish, beet, spinach are beneficial. Besides, sprouted pulses, grams, wheat, soyabean, etc are also helpful. Protein containing foods such as butter milk, milk, curd, rice etc. are beneficial. Remember, sprouted pulses is a blessing for anaemic patients.
II Asthma
1. Introduction: Asthma is a disease of respiration about which it is said that “Finally it takes life”. Before proceeding to understand asthma, it is necessary to know about Respiratory System. Among the parts of Respiratory System Nose, Pharynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Lungs are the major ones. Passing through nose and nasopharynx, air enters pharynx. Thereafter crossing larynx and trachea it enters lungs through bronchi and bronchioles. Trachea gets bifurcated into two divisions which eventually get divided into small bronchi and finally bronchioles. Lungs have innumerable Alveoli. Each alveoli receives fresh air through bronchioles. The inner walls of alveoli contain blood capillaries in which blood
circulates with enormous pressure. This is the blood which is brought into the lungs for purification and contains more Carbon-Dioxide. Oxygen and Carbon-Dioxide get interchanged through the walls of alveoli. From the breathed air oxygen enters into the blood alveoli. Whereas Carbon-Dioxide from the deoxygenated blood present in capillaries enters into the alveoli and is breathed out with expiration. This way blood continues meeting its oxygen requirement and distributes this oxygen among blood cells which is utilized in energy production and metabolism. Whenever because of pollution or due to smoking dust particles or carbon particles, bacteria, viruses or other unwanted elements enter inside bronchi or bronchioles, a catalyst is produced inside the walls of these bronchioles. The mucus membrane (internal soft skin) of these bronchioles gets irritated and gives rise to cough reflex through which all these unwanted elements are coughed out. Secretion of mucus though the mucus cells does not let these elements enter the lungs. But whenever this hostile situation is crossed, the internal soft tissues get swollen, secretion of mucus is exaggerated which collects inside the bronchioles. The swollen wall becomes stiff and gets constricted. The internal wall due to swelling and constriction obstructs air and gives rise to difficulty in breathing. Thus, expiration is prolonged with heaviness over chest, cough and suffocation. This condition is called Asthma. Asthma mainly has three stages. In first stage, swelling in the walls of bronchi and bronchioles occur. In second stage, constriction in the bronchiolar wall occurs. In third stage, excessive mucus secretion from bronchi and bronchioles occur. Due to all these situations airway becomes narrow and airway obstruction occurs. Wheezing sound from chest becomes audible. The bronchiolar wall constriction and dilatation is involuntary because they are under direct control of neurotransmitter. These neurotransmitters are released by the synaptic end bulbs situated at nerve endings. Due to external stimulations, neurones of sympathetic part of autonomic nervous system release neurotransmitters which create bronchiolar wall constriction. This gives rise to an asthmatic attack.
2. Causes of Asthma
2.1 Hereditary: Offsprings of one generation having blood relation are having more probability of having asthma. However it is not necessary that all of them will have asthma. A generation or two or a few members of same generation may be free of the problem. But it is quite obvious for the oncoming generations or other contemporary members to have asthma.
2.2 Allergic Asthma: This category of patient comprise of 70 – 80 percent of total patients suffering from asthma. A large number of organisms and allergens enter into our nose through respiration. Many people’s immunity system is sensitive to these particles. Due to this, Hypersensitive T cells in our respiratory system starts creating antibodies. These antibodies when not needed, stick themselves with mast cells which are filled with a chemical called ‘Histamine’. During an allergen attack these antibodies are stimulated to destroy allergens which lead to rupture of mast cells and release of histamine. This histamine accumulates in bronchioles and causes bronchiolar constriction and spasm. Asthmatic attack is thus initiated. In allergic asthma running nose, redness of eyes, dyspnoea, fever, sneezing etc symptoms are noted. Pollens of flowers, epithelium of certain animals, perfumes, fumes, dust particles, rainy weather, suspending articles etc may cause allergic asthma. Many types of preserved food, drinks, some drugs, chemicals used in paints etc may also cause allergic asthma.
2.3 Infective Asthma: Throat infection or entrance of bacteria or viruses into our respiratory tract may cause an asthmatic attack. It is often seen that intestinal parasites can also lead to allergic asthma.
2.4 Chronic Asthmatic Bronchitis: Cough is due to many reasons but if it is prolonged then bronchioles related to cough reflex become weak, bronchiolar constriction and spasms start and ultimately takes form of asthma.
2.5 Cardiac Asthma: People who have a particular cardiac disease like Mitral Stenoses, Ventricular or Atrial Septal defect, Cardiomyopathy or High Blood Pressure have poorly functioning lungs and gradually develop asthma.
2.6 Asthma due to Tension and fatigue: Fear, exam, legal cases, sorrow, anger or severe anxiety may lead to asthma. In all these situations breathing becomes abnormal. Respiratory rate increases and becomes
shallow and rapid. All these adverse situations give rise to chemical imbalance and induce bronchiolar constriction and spasm. Thus asthma starts.
3. **Naturopathy and Yoga therapy in Asthma**
**Naturopathy:** An asthmatic patient should receive hot and cold fomentation one by one over back, chest, shoulders and abdomen. This should be followed by massage with hands and enema using a warm neem water. After this a hot feet bath and hot hand bath should be given simultaneously. If an asthmatic attack is severe then 2 spoonfuls of tea should be boiled in one liter of water till it is reduced to \( \frac{1}{4} \). This should be given as enema. In this liquid, a chemical called ‘Theophylline’ is present which causes bronchial wall dilatation. To remove toxic impurities in case of asthma sunbath, thermalium, complete tub bath, steam bath, and wrapping of warm wet linen should be done one by one. Sudden cold bath should be avoided. Warm bath should be taken. After taking bath, dry towel should be rubbed over body. Rub bath should be taken after hot treatment according to season. These hot treatments cause Febrile Reaction, bronchia dilate and the secretions collected in them are liquefied and brought out. Besides these, 3 minutes hot and 2 minutes cold fomentations over chest and back for five times followed by 15 minutes massage are beneficial. Keep chest and back wrapped for 2-3 hours.
**Yoga Therapy:**
1. Purification processes – ‘JALNETI’ and ‘KUNJAL’ according to requirements.
2. Yoga procedures – related to chest and respiration 5 times each daily and ‘SHANKH PRAKSHALAN’ once in 3 weeks.
3. Aasan— JAAANUSHIRASAN, ARDHAMATSYENDRASAN, PASHICHIMOTTASAN, BHUJANGASAN, MATSYASAN, HRADAYASTAMBHASAN and NAUKASAN once each in early morning.
4. Pranayam – ‘SOORYABHEDI, ANULOMBA-VLOMBA and UJJAYI Pranayam (without KUMBHAK)- 15 minutes in morning and 15 minutes in evening.
5. Karyotsarga – 20 minutes twice in a day.
6. Meditation (Prekshadhvyan) – ‘Deerghapreksha’ exercises 20 minutes in a day.
7. Anupreksha – Controlled breathing and balanced breathing 15 minutes in a day.
8. Diet control –
(1) Dinner should be light and should be taken before sunset.
(2) Deep breathing exercises should be performed as possible, During fasting lime water along with honey should be taken.
(3) Fried, roasted and rich food should be avoided.
(4) Carrot juice, spinach, sprouted wheat, hand crushed rice, orange, sapota (chikoo), apple and mango should be consumed in plenty.
(5) Control your diet. Do not over eat even if there is excessive hunger.
(6) Changes in lifestyle – Be conscious for seasonal changes. Do not go in dusty and polluted atmospheres and if must, use a face mask. Make timetable for your daily routines and follow it strictly.
**Sample questions for study**
1. Describe causes and symptoms of anaemia.
2. Describe types and reasons of asthma
3. What is aplastic anaemia?
4. How does allergic asthma develop?
5. Describe Naturopathic treatment of anaemia.
6. How asthma is treated with ‘Prekshayog’?
**References** – 1. Prakritik Ayurvedigan – Dr. Rakesh Jindal 2. Arogya Prakash-Vaidyaraj – Pt. Ramnarayan Sharma 3. Rogon ki sahi chikitsa – Dr. Nagendra Niraj & Dr. Manju Niraj. 4. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J.Tortora and M.P. Anagnastokas.
CHAPTER : 12 – ALCOHOLISM, SMOKING AND DRUG ADDICTION
AIMS
(1) Understanding different aspects of drug addictions.
(2) Discussing dangers of alcoholism.
(3) Introducing bad effects of smoking.
(4) Defining different types and bad effects of drugs.
(5) Acquiring knowledge of Preksha-Yog therapy for abstaining alcoholism, smoking and drug addictions.
TOPICS –
(1) Smoking habit.
(2) Alcoholism
(3) Getting rid of drug addictions.
1. Smoking Habit
Every cigarette pack and advertisements display a statutory warning that cigarette smoking is injurious to health. Smoking can lead to many diseases e.g. Emphysema, heart diseases, chronic cough etc. These days the most noticeable complication of smoking is lung cancer. This is a fatal and incurable disease. It is 20 times more common amongst smokers than non-smokers. Cancerous cells destruct non cancerous healthy tissues and ultimately body organs. In Emphysema there is pathological dilatation of alveoli. A number of bronchioles get obstructed together. Alveolar walls get thin and weak. Due to this the effective area of respiratory system is drastically reduced. This situation is irreversible. Ultimately lack of oxygen and excess of carbon-dioxide in body continues and may lead to death.
Now, smoking is considered responsible not only for cancer of lungs but also that of larynx, oral cavity, throat and food pipe. Besides it plays major role in cancer of urinary bladder, kidneys etc. Cigarette smoke injures hair cells inside the mucus membranes of bronchi and reduces their sensitivity. Thus these cells become incapable of bringing up the secretions and dust particles. If a smoker stops smoking then these hair cells again become normal gradually over a few months.
Time Journal, March 1985 published a report on this subject by an American Surgeon General C. Averete Coupe. In this report he says that – The most important health related problem of our generation is ‘Smoking’. It can be prevented but still it comprises of major cause of illness in our society.
In later discussions in this report, non-smokers have also been warned that they should avoid entering into rooms filled with cigarette smoke. Because, cancerous agents are more present the smoke coming out of a cigarette than the smoke inhaled by the smoker.
Getting rid or smoking habit is very difficult because of the fact that our body becomes dependent on the chemicals which are present in tobacco. Secondly, the person becomes attached to tobacco physically as well as spiritually. Whenever the habit is forcefully stopped, one has to face ‘Withdrawal Symptoms’. For example, when a single puff of cigarette smoke is inhaled, it supplies some amount of ‘Nicotin’ to our body and brain. Abrupt withdrawal of this supply gives rise to strong reaction from the body and brain. This does not mean that smoking should be continued. For a person to reach to this situation it takes long time habit. People think that smoking alleviates anxiety, uneasiness and stress but the reality is quite contrary. In twentieth century, adverse effects of smoking and tobacco have been discovered and discussed. Amongst different types of consumption of tobacco (e.g., Hukka, Pipe, Cigarette), smoking is found most dangerous.
Despite of presence of many toxic elements in tobacco, Nicotin, Tar and Carbon-Monoxide are most dangerous. Nicotin is a sensory depressant. It induces secretion of a chemical called ‘Adrenaline’ due to which there is a risk of high blood pressure and blockage of arteries of lower limbs. Tar continuously
stimulates bronchi and causes ‘Bronchitis’ and ‘Emphysema’ which give rise to inadequate oxygen supply to our body tissues. Tar imposes a risk of cancer of lungs or mouth to 8 out of 9 males or females.
Carbon-Monoxide releasing from tobacco gets absorbed in blood and combines with haemoglobin in the RBCs of our blood. This reduces oxygen supply to our body organs. Especially in pregnancy lack of oxygen may cause malformation of foetus. Carbon-Monoxide may also cause diseases of blood vessels.
Due to smoking, lung tissues are also injured due to the chemicals inside tobacco. These injuries occur in three stages – (1) Firstly, oxygen transfer is disturbed due to carbon-monoxide (2) Secondly, Bronchi are also hurt due to the heat of smoke. (3) Lastly, Acidic compounds and aldehydes found in tobacco smoke harms soft tissues of lungs. As above, body tissues can not get enough oxygen due to carbon-monoxide and cyanide. This also disturbs metabolism. Adverse effects include delusions, uneasiness, coma, lack of decision power, heart attack etc. Bronchial obstruction causes swelling of bronchial walls and elasticity of lungs is damaged. Lungs become collapsed. This causes severe dyspnoea and uneasiness. Acids and aldehydes in tobacco smoke causes unusual constriction of brotchi, collapse of lungs, damage to lungs and difficulty in breathing.
**Jarda-Smoking- Some of the naked facts**
In this world, different reasons have been responsible for human mortalities. In the former decades of this century, epidemics like small pox, plague, tuberculosis, malaria and pneumonia have been reasons for mortalities. During second and fifth decades, world wars had been reasons for massacre. From sixth decade till now, early deaths have been attributed to ‘Jarda’ and ‘smoking’. During last four decades, diseases caused by smoking and tobacco chewing have been responsible for pushing humans into the jaws of death. The biggest reasons for early death ‘Jarda’ and ‘Smoking’ have been compared to angels of death.
1. People dying from tobacco over a span of 15 years due to tobacco, are as much as people died during four years of first world war.
2. People dying due to diseases caused by tobacco over only one month are as much as those died during last decade due to AIDS.
3. In India, daily 3000 people die due to jarda and smoking. This means that they are 20 times more than those dying due to road accidents and 21 times more than those dying due to murders. The News related to those who die due to road accidents and murders are printed on front page in our Newspapers, whereas those who die due to the many folds bigger reason smoking are unnoticed. Inspite of criticizing, they give enticing advertisements and publicities of smoking and tobacco.
4. Many types of cancer causing elements which are called ‘Carcinogens’ are present in smoke of cigarette or biri. Nine out of ten people suffering from cancer of throat, mouth or lungs are addicted to jarda or smoking. Cancers of kidneys, bladder, pancreas, womb and other organs are also more common in smokers. In cases of cancers of mouth, throat and food pipe, alcohol accentuates the effect of smoking.
5. Risk of developing heart disease is 15 times more in smokers.
6. Ten out of nine patients of diseases like bronchitis and emphysema are the ones who are smokers.
7. 30% of smokers in India suffer from a disease called chronic bronchitis.
8. Risk of brain haemorrhage and paralysis is many folds higher in smokers.
9. Jarda and smoking increases risk of developing diabetes.
10. Smoking causes deformity of back bone.
11. Creases on the face of smokers increase in equal proportion to the frequency of their smoking.
12. If a person smokes 40 cigarettes than a person near to him even if a non-smoker, receives amount of smoke equivalent to 3 cigarettes.
13. For those who are facing stress and strain are more prone to heart attack if they smoke.
14. Jarda and smoking causes high blood pressure.
15. Taste of food reduces in a chain smoker
16. Smoking during pregnancy causes adverse effects for the foetus. If the foetus is a male than this possibility increases.
17. Smoke of cigarette or biri contains 5% of carbon-monoxide which in combination with haemoglobin of blood, forms a toxic substance called ‘carbodyhaemoglobin’. This compromises body immunity and causes an illness called ‘Polycythaemia’. It also affects functions of Central Nervous System. Smoking also reduces physical stamina. These people feel easy fatigue.
18. Smoking one cigarette reduces life span by 5 minutes. This means if a person smokes 12 cigarettes per day then he loses 1 hour of his life daily.
19. If a person smoking one pack of cigarette, instead of smoking starts saving the amount continuously in a bank for a period of 25 years, then he saves Rs. 3.5 lacs at the end. On the other hand besides spending for a cigarette pack he will have to spend Rs 500 – 1000 per month for his treatment.
1. Alcoholism
Even if we stop looking to logics and results for a moment and forget about morality and society, alcohol is very dangerous for human health. Among health related problems, alcoholism stands third after heart disease and cancer.
To understand the amount of dangerous effects of alcohol over body and mind, opinions of those who are related to medical field, scientists, psychologists, psychiatrists, surgeons are necessary. In this aspect, the preface of a national conference of Psychiatrists and Neurologists arranged in America is very important. They say - With the consensus taken in this conference it is proved that alcohol taken up in the body is poisonous to brain and nerves. It invites Schizophrenia, epilepsy, depression and other psychiatric illnesses.
In international congress of Physiology in Stranceburg Dr. Otto Schmeiderverg said that – “Alcohol is an anaesthetic like ether and chloroform. Its consumption reduces capacity of every nerve in body.”
In England a report of a mission formed for schizophrenia says that, “Alcohol is a chief substance in the list of causes of schizophrenia.”
It is written in the book ‘Alcohol and Alcoholism’ on its 14th page that, “Millions of dollars are spend behind excessive alcoholism. Human pains are priceless.”
Whisky, brandy etc. fermented products when enter stomach, rapidly spreads to all the parts of the body through liver, small intestines and blood vessels. Hardly any amount of alcohol reaches large intestines. In an empty stomach, spread of alcohol is very rapid. Its level reaches to highest within 10 to 30 minutes. Strong alcohol when comes in contact with stomach, it causes swelling of stomach wall and harms digestive organs. It is a liquid poison which harms liver, heart and kidneys. It also causes chronic gastritis and liver problems.
Alcohol’s direct stimulating effect is mainly on blood clotting power. Sometimes it leads to ulcers in abdomen. It’s daily consumption leads to swelling of digestive organs. Chronic alcoholics become victims of pulmonary hypertension, encephalopathy, dermatoses of skin and anaemia.
Scientific investigations prove that chronic alcoholism damages blood vessels of heart (Coronary Arteries). This gives rise to multiple problems. It also imposes indirect risk to kidneys. It reduces blood pH and also causes Magnesium deficiency.
Alcohol is also responsible for cancers. In those countries where alcohol is more consumed, spread of cancers is more.
Liver helps in removing metabolic end products from body. Over intoxication leads to accumulation of these toxic substances (metabolic end products) in body cells. Liver has to work more to remove these substances. This way, excessive alcoholism causes irreversible damage to liver and brain. This can lead to early death.
The question is, “If alcohol is that much dangerous then why people consume it?” The answer is that a layman thinks that alcohol will help him alleviating his anxieties and stress. Not only a sick person thinks so but every person working hard through out the day thinks so. But one should keep in mind that intoxication is neither energizer nor it alleviates anxiety. On the contrary following intoxication anxieties and stress increase and stamina reduces.
Regular consumption of alcohol invites many diseases into the body. Burning in eyes, vomiting sensation, reduction in appetite, perspiration, easy fatigueability and tremors in body start. The person starts drinking more alcohol to get rid of these symptoms. As a result, problems increase and the person get himself into a vicious cycle.
Famous British Surgeon Dr. Louder Brouten said that, “Alcohol gradually paralysis decision power. This starts with the first peg he takes.”
Dr. Quensel opines that, “Even a little quantity of alcohol brings major changes in the functions of urinary bladder, paralyses thinking, reduces in sensations and reduces decision powers”
**Consumption of alcohol and lifespan**
According to the Italian Professor Limbojo alcohol is one of the factors which reduces human life span. A 20 years old alcoholic will approximately live for 15 more years whereas a non alcoholic can live 44 more years.
Many of insurance companies have presented with alcohol and death related statistics. It is a fact that non alcoholics compared to alcoholics live for 50 more years. Connecticut Mutual’s Chief Jakob Greene says that, “I protest the common belief that beer is harmless”. If death toll of non alcoholics is 100 then occasional drinkers’ death toll is 122, controlled drinkers’ death toll is 142 and regular drinkers’ death toll is 212. Not only that, death rate is also high in those related to alcohol business.
In spite of these facts, consumption of alcohol is increasing day by day.
Wherever alcohol prohibition was there by law, has been withdrawn. Mass advertising campaigns carried out by alcohol publishers play major role behind this. This has created a psychological effect on people’s minds and has broken the feeling of immorality. Today alcoholism is considered a parameter of high profile life style in civilized people. Hospitality is considered insufficient without alcohol. People are compelled to drink alcohol in social festivals. Most of the people though not willing for consuming alcohol, agree because of fear of being humiliated among others. But many people drink voluntarily. They are not aware that consumption of alcohol is driving them to a mental disability and a dangerously bad addiction.
Advertising agencies invest millions of rupees in publishing that a little quantity of alcohol does not harm. But a big disaster starts smaller. Occasional consumption gradually becomes a habit. Drunkards of today had been occasional drinkers in the beginning. These people would have been under an impression
that they will drink alcohol occasionally and in small quantity. But gradually their body constitution changes in such a way that today they can’t keep themselves from drinking regularly.
Scientific observations support that alcohol is the reason for the majority of car accidents. 51% of traffic accidents are because of driving under alcohol intoxication. A driver after drinking alcohol is under berserk and his brain becomes incapable of maintaining coordination, decision power and reflex action.
It is the effect of alcohol that a person’s decision power becomes blunt and he is incapable of discriminating good and bad. Alcohol when enters in brain through blood circulation, takes control over brain’s self control and decision abilities. Thus the idea of limited consumption is deceitful. Limited consumption of alcohol initiates a never ending habit. With this view, drinking milder forms of alcohol is also habit forming. Therefore it is necessary to be cautious about this aspect.
According to medical science alcohol causes CNS (Central Nervous System) depression. It is used to bring about anaesthesia and sleep. As per non medical beliefs it is used to alleviate anxiety, induce sleep and for fun. Repeated use leads to rise in alcohol threshold and encourages direct physical and psychological dependence.
Excessive use of alcohol leads to CNS disturbances and complications e.g. improper coordination, reduction in decision power, short temperedness and mood changes in an otherwise nonviolent calm person. An intoxicated person loses orientations and is not aware of his own for others.
Adverse effects of alcohol depend upon the quantity of consumption, quality of alcohol, duration of consumption, tolerance, and whether it was consumed on empty stomach or after meals. That is why it’s bad effects vary from person to person. Still some of the scientific parameters are considered. If blood concentration of alcohol is minimum 2000 ml/liter then its adverse effects are inevitable. When it is 4000 ml/liter then it leads to unconsciousness and if it reaches 5000 ml/liter then death is sure. Blood level of alcohol gradually brings about unconsciousness before reaching to death. But excessive consumption at one time brings death because in such condition CNS stops its functions or during unconsciousness, due to aspiration of vomited substance breathing gets obstructed.
Toxic effects of alcohol continue for 8-10 hours even after stopping it. 95% of consumed alcohol gets converted into Acetyl Aldehyde and Coenzyme-A in liver. This process is very slow so the adverse effects continue for long. In case of a regular alcoholic, liver has to carry out this process repeatedly therefore liver cells gradually destruct.
Scientifically it is established that alcohol reacts with neurons. This process instead of taking place with ordinary receptors occurs directly. With this process, Chloride ion enters neurons with the help of GABA receptors. As a result neuronal functions are depleted and brain’s higher controls are affected. Benzodiazepines found in alcohol (Librium and Valium) react with GABA receptors and increase cellular threshold towards them. Due to these processes the victim becomes an addict. When he doesn’t get alcohol he starts resorting upon such medicines to meet his requirements.
**Abstinence with Preksha-Yog**
1. Yoga procedures – Procedures of abdomen and brain
2. Aasan – ARDHAMATSYENDRASAN, SHANSHAKASAN, YOGAMUDRA, KARYOTSARG.
3. Pranayaam – CHANDRABHEDI
4. Preksha - Concentrating upon blue on ‘Vishuddhi Kendra’
5. Anupreksha – Mulling over the consequences of addictions.
6. Diet control - Keeping away from rich food and non vegetarian food
Drug addictions.
Because of drug addiction, national security, health, culture and characters are jeopardized. Within a few years countries like India, America, Japan, China, England and Pakistan i.e. all the developed as well as third world countries have been in vices of drug business and are writhing to get rid of it. International Narcotic Drug Control Board of UN has warned that because of increasing consumption of drugs, some of the countries are under danger as far as their national security is concerned. Some powerful Mafia groups are being supported by various political parties and government officers of top levels. Not only this, board also says that the border security forces and police officers of various countries are under control of them. Mafia groups of drug dealers are so much powerful that they are capable of toppling government. Japan’s drug mafia ‘Yakuna’, Taiwan’s ‘Peg’ and China’s ‘Fourteen’ have been famous.
In America itself about more than 11 crores of people are victims of drugs. According to a report by ‘National Institute of Drug Abuse’ of America, about 30 to 40 percent of children have started drugs. During 1981-1983 about 1.4 billion dollars were spent for the protection from drug abuse. In America about 50 lacs of people use cocaine, 2 crores of people use marijuana and 50 lacs of people use heroine. Speculatively about 10 to 15 crores of people in India are addicted to bhang, ganja, charas, heroine and L.S.D etc. 50 to 60 percent of those who are addicted to biri, cigarette and tobacco are also addicted to drugs.
Even after so called control heroine, smack etc. drugs are liberally sold in schools, colleges, hostels and slum areas by drug mafia dealers. Poor people of cities who earn their daily wages with great difficulties spend the major percent of their income after drugs and deprive their children of their needs. During last few years, drug addiction has spread from universities to high schools and primary schools.
According to Ayurvedic world dictionary these narcotic agents produce anaesthesia, Unconsciousness, numbness and sensory loss. It produces a delusion of freedom from pains and problems.
Basic use of drugs is related to morphine and morphine derivatives. These drugs affect brain, nerves and tissues. Drugs in the form of morphine, heroine, maxin, cactus, bhang, ganja, charas, L.S.D., cocaine are the major ones which are relished by drug addicts. Opium group of drugs like cocaine, pethidine, barbiturates, psychosomatic and sedative drugs Calmpose, Larpose, Librium, Valium etc are also liberally used by drug addicts.
Sixteen drugs prepared from opium viz. Morphine, Heroine, Narcotin, Codinethimen, Pipevarine, Lordinine and Nasine are the major ones are used as medicines. According to Ayurveda Opium and Morphine are warm, strong, sedative, suppressant, intoxicating, coagulative and sterilizer. Bhang, ganja and charas contain an extremely intoxicating chemical ‘Cannabinol’. These drug also contain an intoxicating narcotic oil. Cannabinol is very much dangerous. Bhang is a stimulator, depressant, uterine contractions inducer, antidiuretic, aphrodisiac and appetizer. Ganja is an aphrodisiac. It causes redness of eyes, puffiness of face, amnesia, sleeplessness, delirium, headache and sometimes bradycardia(reduction in pulse rate).
Morphine is basically a purified opium. It’s ‘Thimen’ is a strong poison which affects back muscles and stimulates them. It’s use produces spasms in muscles and feeling of restless-ness. Narcotine and Pipevarine directly affect respiratory system. Respiration is stimulated and suffocation starts. It relaxes intestinal muscles and leads to constipation. Narcotine and Pipevarine together form Morphine. Codine and Narcotine together induce excessively poisonous and intoxicating action. 3 milligrams of Narcotine or 3 milligrams of Morphine together is equivalent to 60 milligrams of Morphine. Drug addicts usually take them as tablets or drink them after dissolving in water. Morphine is taken as injection form. Morphine is also available as a white powder, whereas Heroine is in solution form.
Adverse effects of drugs
Drugs adversely affect vagus nerve, sweat glands, kidneys, digestive system and smooth muscles. It reduces sensations for joy, sorrow, pains and also reduces immunity. Unconsciousness, headache, suffocation, severe perspiration, throat congestion and facial flushings, heat in ears and constipations etc symptoms are noted.
No drug is tasteful. On the contrary they are very much bitter. Initially it causes nausea and vomiting as if nature’s warning against it. But still we do not listen to these silent warnings given by nature. In every kind of intoxication, vertigo, heaviness of head, semiconsciousness cause relief from pains. Pulse rate becomes slow. Pupils of eye constrict. Face starts perspiring. Lips become bluish (cyanosis). On waking, appetite reduces, nausea and vomiting occur. During semiconsciousness in case of Morphine intoxication, sighing respiration and strong morphine smell in breath etc. symptoms are noted. Body becomes hypothermic like ice. If not given treatment in time, the person dies like.
Adverse effects of drug create many physical, psychiatric and muscular diseases. If taken by a pregnant woman, infant born with heart disease. These babies are called ‘Cocaine babies’. Due to drug addiction, physical and muscular resistance is reduced up to the extent that bacteria and viruses can easily infect body and cause illness. Drug addicts share syringes. As a result they suffer from the diseases like AIDS.
**Naturopathic Treatment of adverse effects of drugs**
To treat drug addiction, it is necessary to know the person’s complete history, family, social and atmospheric background. Digestive and Central Nervous Systems of the drug addict are specially victimized by the toxic effects. During treatment these systems should receive special attention along with other physical organs. Toxic and harmful elements are loaded in a drug addict’s body up to such an extent that his perspiration, urine and breath smell of drug. Efforts should be directed to clean up the affected systems and provide strength and health. Drug addicts’ intestinal peristalsis are disturbed. Initially they should be given warm and cold fomentation one after another over abdomen. After that a linen dipped in clay should be applied over abdomen. As a substitute one can also use a linen dipped in cold water. Back and abdomen should be massaged. Enema should be given using a lime added to $1\frac{1}{2}$ liters of boiled water, or neem leafs boiled in water. Once bowels are cleaned, buttermilk or wheat leaf water should be given as enema continuously for 10 days. Give 3 minutes of warm and 2 minutes of cold fomentations one by one according to the patient’s condition. Cold pack bath, warm-cold, waist bath, wet linen wrap, complete tub emerson bath, underwater massage, sponging with wet towel, smear of clay all over body, soft sunbath, and airbath are given one by one according to the patient’s vital status, age and intensity of symptoms. These procedures eliminate toxic substances from body through perspiration and urination. Immunity increases. Liver, heart, lungs kidney, skin and eyes are revitalized.
**Diet therapy**
The patient should gradually taper off cereal food and take fruits for 5 days, juices for 5 days and buttermilk for $1\frac{1}{2}$ months in diet. Soyabean whey is also beneficial. It contains ‘Lessithin’ which is an antidote for toxins. Among juices, orange, lemon, grapes, pomegranate, pineapples, watermelons, etc. juices reduce adverse effects of drugs. They revitalize body cells by removing toxins out of them. Among vegetable juices, carrot, spinach, tomato, pumpkin etc. juices are beneficial. ‘Carotin’ present in carrots and ‘Lycopin’ of tomatoes are caritinoid pigments which remove bad effects of drugs. These foods also remove desire to take drugs.
Usually, drug addicts’ diet should be arranged as follows.
Drink 3-4 glasses of water in morning soon after waking. This washes out poisonous substances out of body. After one hour, a glass of drink prepared from wheat immersed in water for 24 hours with one lime or 10 grams of Amla water mixed with 3 spoonfuls of honey. Rejuvenating drinks are rich with Dexitrons, Lactobacilli, Saccarines, Aspergillus, Amylases, Proteins and Carbohydrates which are energizers and also help to abstain from alcohol.
In breakfast take sprouted pulses and a glass of soyabean whey and vegetable juices. In lunch, take 2-3 chapattis prepared from coarse flour and spinach juice along with vegetables, salads, sprouted pulses and curd. In evening seasonal fruit juices should be taken.
Dinner should be same as lunch.
With these foods, drug addicts start improving. At bed time surely eat 8-10 dates, 3-4 bananas, 20-25 black currents, or any sweet fruit. Sweet fruits induce secretion of Serotonin in brain which reduces drug habit. What we find in drugs, is provided to us as Serotonin secretion. Drug addicts suffer from lack of Serotonin, Beta endorphin, Phenyl, Ethylamine, Dopamine, Acetylcholine etc. neurotransmitters. This deficiency is replenished by above described foods.
**Yoga Therapy**
Yoga therapy is important in making adverse effects of drugs weak and ineffective. Soon as a person is known to have taken drugs, he should be given salt added warm water to induce emesis. This should be done 3-4 times so that all the drug substance is vomited out. First salt water and then plain warm water should be used to induce emesis. Controlled drug addicts should have ‘Vastra Dhuti’, ‘Danda Dhuti’, ‘Jalneti’ and ‘Shankha Prakshalan’. Among simple Yoga procedures, PADAHASTASAN, JANU SHIRSHASAN, ARDHAMATSYANDRASAN, VAJRASAN, UTTANPADASAN, PAVANMUKTASAN, SHALABHASAN, YOGAMUDRA, SUPTAVAJRASAN, PADMASAN, GYANMUDRA, GOMUKHASAN, PAKSHI AASAN, SHAVASAN BHUJANGASAN, NAUKASAN, MATSYASAN, SARVANGASAN, HAL-ASAN, PASHCHIMOTTASAN and SWAKALP BHAVANA are especially important for improving intellectual, memory and digestive powers. Among Pranayams, Deep breathing, UJJAYI, SITKARI, SHITALI, BHRAMARI and ANULOMBA-VILOMBA should be performed according to the patient’s condition.
Concentrate on inhaled and exhaled breathings and exercise ‘ANAPAN SATI DHYAN’ 20 minutes in morning and evening. Breath neither lies in memories of past nor in dreams of future. It is not bound to vengeance or attraction, happiness or sorrow, selfishcy or sacrifice, jealousy or enticement. Breath is the truth of present. Concentration upon natural and spontaneous breath brings freedom from drugs. ‘Mangal Maitri KAAMNA’ is also an effective way for freedom from drugs. Morning and evening walk is also helpful.
Performing various experiments of ‘ASHTANG YOGA CHIKITSA’ and walking inducesecretion of Beta Endorphin, Dopamine etc from neurons along with other biochemical processes. Their increased level in blood gives incredible freshness, complete excitation and hilarious feeling of joy. Beta Endorphin which is induced by meditation, aasans, Naturotherapy and diets is as effective as Morphine in its pain relieving and hilarious actions. But this natural chemical is non habit forming and it does not have adverse effects like Morphine. This biochemical gives a feeling of calmness and power. With Yoga and Naturopathic treatment a shine of sacredness, maturity, performance, forgiveness, foresight, health and beauty begin to glitter in our life like the fascinating colors of a lovely fine dusk.
**Psychosocial therapy for drug addiction**
Every new born child is as lovely and sacred as God. If this child gets immersed into the mud of drug addiction in future then it’s a sign of perverted and paralyzed culture and it is a stigma to our society. It reflects fall of human society and not progress.
Many teenagers become victim of drug addiction in pursuance of curiosity, perplexities, failure, inability to accept challenges, hostility to real life situations, wish to do something new, proving themselves, stress, inferiority complex, insecurity, guilty feeling, depression, introvert mind and mental disturbances. Whereas some people start drugs after parties, while giving company to others in festivals or due sedentary life style just as a hobby. This beginning puts the end to their life making them drug addicts.
Do not be under impression that your kids are disciplined, wise and they do not take drugs. These kids when out of homes meet their colleagues and in the process of proving their beliefs in their groups or to satisfy their ego, are trapped in the racket of drug addiction. Out of ignorance to rub shoulders with the fast moving world, they get themselves lost. They start feeling that there is nothing in taking it just once and no one is going to see them doing it. This way, some of them even quit after taking drugs once or twice. But some of them become addicted to this level that they put in to stack their lives, Self respect and everything. These people later on suffer from inferiority complex and a feeling of indignity. They find these spirits in drugs. In efforts to become loved ones and respectful in eyes of their own and others, they fall up to the level that it becomes impossible afterwards to bring them up.
The first treatment of these drug addicts is to create self confidence in them. They start recognizing the depth of their own conscience. Children should be inspired to be self confident from the beginning so that they do not move out of track. They should be given profuse love so that they are compelled to think that they are our beloved ones, our intimates and close to us. Their requirements should be fulfilled in psychological ways.
Sometimes we are unable to differentiate people and their character and behavior. Swami Ramateerth has properly said that it is the sins and crimes of a person that should be hated and not the person itself. Basically no one is a criminal or rude. Scattering toys or clothes here and there is a childish and innocent misbehavior. Children should be made to notice these small things and not to be punished. Punishment creates an impression in their mind that they are bad and they start losing their self respect. Soon as a drug addict person’s self respect is reestablished, an incredible energy, confidence, will power and self control start appearing in them.
According to the Naturotherapy just like the Vital energy when takes an enormous form protects our body from disease producing organisms, soon as self respect and confidence rise, they protect our society from possibility of bad habits and drug addiction. The spirit of self respect gives freedom from attraction to drugs. An acceptance towards truth should be aroused in drug addicts. They should accept that drug addiction has spoiled their lives. It is wrong to blame others to prove their behavior or to attribute their drug addiction to others. Whatever problems they have created are due to themselves. They themselves are responsible. They are not the blamed ones or tortured by others but the fact is that they have become slaves of drugs, and are the willing victims of drugs. Soon as this is accepted by them, a rational thought of being free of drugs starts arising in their minds. A revolutionary change is observed in their thinking.
During the process of reestablishment of health, friendship with those who have already stopped taking drugs should be made. An intimacy should be created with them, keep in touch with them, play with them. Keep busy with works like creative art, writing, reading, painting, drawing, gardenary etc. Do not stay inactive. An inactive mind will start demanding for drugs. Activities create self confidence in mind and removes addiction.
Do not take resort to addictions in case of failures, unfaithfulness or indignity. Instead, take resort to those who are great resources of energy, happiness and love. Add your wishes to divine powers and find a new direction. In helpless moments pray God. One definitely gets help. Create faith, it will give a great deal of satisfaction. The Almighty God is universal and not away from us. He is bright and full of light. Whenever we call Him during helpless moments, the Light gets brightened and gives us a proper direction. Life becomes full of happiness, health and beauty. Expression of love gives freedom of addiction. When a person becomes addicted, instead of reprimanding, cursing and blaming him, it is necessary to treat him properly. Instead of giving him a lecture, he should be aroused with a true will power, devotion, honesty and decision. An addict should realize that he is being given enough time, love and support. Because he is broken from within. Love is the treatment. If he is taking drugs inspired from the feeling of aggressiveness and to punish his relatives and thereby punishing himself in the process, he should be realized that
whatever he is doing is wrong. Love does not mean being autonomous. A person and a person’s behavior both are different from each other. He should be realized that he is receiving enormous love but we are unhappy and anxious about his character. Always be conscious about teenagers’ wishes. Do not let his wishes flare beyond certain limits so that even his immodest behavior is stamped as his fame.
**Sample questions for study**
1. Describe adverse effects of alcoholism.
2. What is a drug (narcotic)? What are the types of drugs? Discuss the disastrous effects of drugs.
3. Which system of our body is the most affected by cigarette smoking? Describe harmful effects of smoking.
4. What are the reasons of ‘Emphysema’?
**References –**
(i) Human Physiology – Vander Sherman and Luciano
(ii) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J.Tortora and P.A.Anagnostokas.
(iii) Preksha Yoga for common Ailments – J.P.N.Mishra
(iv) Prakritik Ayurvigyan – Dr Rakesh Jindal.
(v) Rogo ki sahi Chikitsa – Dr Manju Niraj and Dr, Nagendra Niraj.
CHAPTER: 13
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY DEFFINITION, TERRITORIES AND IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
AIMS –
After studying this chapter students will –
1. Understand the functional relations between body and mind.
2. Acquire applicable knowledge of provinces of body and mind.
3. Evaluate the importance of study of Physiological Psychology and learn about its importance.
TOPICS –
1. Introduction.
2. Historical background.
3. Meaning and definitions of Physiological Psychology.
4. Faculties of study of Physiological Psychology.
5. Benefits of study of Physiological Psychology.
1. Introduction
Those who study Anatomy are studying structures and functions of various body organs. Their major interest revolves around problems related to different parts. How a living organism digests food, how energy is utilized in body, how body keeps active through blood circulation, how chemical reactions take place in the different organs of body, and how body tissues provide activity etc. are their territories. Whereas in Psychology they study various behaviours originating from different activities. Major study materials of study of Psychology include personality, inspiration, and learning. But there is a very thin line differentiation between these two subjects. Psychologists study physical functions in parts, e.g. structures and functions of different parts of an eye. Whereas Physiologists study all the functions of living organisms undividedly. This way the discrimination between Physiology and Psychology is just theoretical. A physiologist can record electronic activities of heart functions and effects of various enzymes in the process of digestion. Just like that a psychologist can evaluate study related activities, evaluate effects of physical activities on animals, study cerebral cortex, etc. All in all both Psychologist and Physiologist have a similar aim. Both take interest in functional study. A Physiologist studies organ structures and functions in order to understand body functions. Similarly a Psychologist studies body organs and functions in order to carry out study on human behaviour.
Body and mind are the inseparable parts of our body. With respect to study a person, study of these two components does not only lead us to completion but also proves helpful in evaluating a person’s actual condition. Usually mind does not have any structure. It is studies through behavior and activities. Thus the detailed study and analysis of Physiological Psychology seems important for health and personality development.
2.0 Hystorical Background
Prof. R.K.Ojha has mentioned in his book ‘Sharirik Manovigyan’ that Renne Deccorte (1649) meticulously presented physical evaluations of first. He scripted mechanical functions of nerves of animals but he could not discover anything related to psychological activities of humans. Muscular contractions related observations made by Jane Schwamerdom (1674) and researches related to degenerations of different areas of brain made by Thomas Willis (1707) have helped people to understand experimentations related to muscles. John Ennjer (1771) and George Procusca (1784) studied ‘Reflex action’ and functions of different areas of brain. These two presented definition of knowledge in a very proper and clear way.
Charles Bell (1811) clearly differentiated sensory and motor nerves. Parry Florence (1824) made researches on muscular actions.
Regarding mental shocks, Paul Broka (1861) showed that speech disturbances lead to stress in frontal area of brain which leads to mental shock. G. Fritsch and E. Hitgeing (1870) refused the theory of unanimity of brain and described behavior to be dependant upon muscular actions. With this, he also explained that due to voluntary movements, Motor Cortex may get harm. Due to these scientific inventions, muscular system study started taking big leaps of progress. Thereafter Wilhem Wunt (1874) wrote first book related to Physiological Psychology and established a laboratory to carry out experiments. Majority of Wunt’s work is related to Physiology and human therapy. Charles M. Sharington worked up on ‘Intricate relations of reinforcement and inhibition in reflexes’ and analysed them. Famous Physiological Psychologist of Russia Pavlov and W. Vonbactrev explained the process of learning on reflex theory and coordination of cortical functions.
This way study of mental activities and together with physiology started taking new shape gradually. In eighteenth century, physicists challenged Decarte’s analysis of brain-body. They were to say that muscular structures and actions of humans and animals have similarities, that are why on the basis of studies on animals, it can be said that mental and physical activities are not different from each other. A time also came when first theory of Psycho-Physical Parallelism presented by Gottfeid Libnitz (1765) became very much famous and it began to be accepted that mind and body are only partially free from each other. Thus both have got influence on each other’s but it can not be established that mental activities are having major influence.
With physiological analysis, the roots of this strange principle rapidly began to be removed by the changing streams of time and thoughts. Wunt and his disciples tried to bring changes in feelings and sensations. Oswald Coulpe should that integration of thoughts and effects of activities are completely senseless, which can be called only a non-psychological process. The gist of this sort of physiological study is that mental conditions and activities are dependant upon physical parts including brain. And this type of a organism can not be kept alive by routine activities of brain. After few days arrival of Physics in the field of Psychology deducted some problems of physiology. In the territory of Psycho-Physics, Psychologists made a successful effort in measuring the intensity of stimulation and sensation. From this study they come to a decision that intensity of sensation is directly proportional to stimulus, which certainly has a constant ratio. Gartov Falconer who developed the measurement system was sure that stimulus and action have also got proportionate relationship. Thus, Falconer’s work was considered important in the field of Psycho-Physics. It still can not be said that this principle was beyond criticisms.
Psycho-Physiology was initially related to muscular centre. But still there were examples of influence of physical actions on behaviour. No information could be found in the dictionary of muscular system till half of 20th century. Some of the examples of objects and processes which have influence on behaviour are oxygen deficiency, stress, concentration of internal secretions, vital deficiencies and toxic drugs etc. It can be studied today as to what kind of effects these things have on psychological and physical. The results can be put in to action with-out knowing muscular centers. Now Physiological Psychology is mainly related to these kind of instruments, whose effects could be seen but could not be defined in terms of its detail meanings. At the end it can be said that Psycho-Physiology is a combination of various resources and instruments e.g. Anatomy, Physiology, Clinical neurology, Psychology and Psychiatry. These are supposed to find out reasons for all problems and treat them.
Thus, it is clear from above discussion that Psycho-Physiology evolved before a century from Physiology because some of the physiologists were interested in studying functions of brain and for which they needed to study human behaviour and the aim is to study changes in behaviours arising from functional disturbances in various areas of brain. Eventually Physiological Psychology evolved. Works done by Weber Falconer, Helm Hodge were also included within this faculty. In 1874 Wunt’s book
‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’ was published in which, sensations, functions of brain and other faculties were included. Harthway writes about its historical development, “Physiological Psychology is not a different science but as per the name itself suggests, it is a link between two basic tangible sciences ‘Physiology’ and ‘Psychology’. In James Daver’s words, “Physiological Psychology and Psycho-Physiology are historically the objectives of experimental Psychology. Today, this subject is considered as the borderland between psychology and neurology.
3.0 Meaning and definitions of Psycho-Physiology
Psycho-Physiology is a science which studies psychological processes related to and physical organs. There are two main things which are found in this form, which make the definition of this science more complicated because of their different nature. These two things are – (A) Behaviour and (B) Psychological reactions related to various body parts. Every kind of arises from muscular activities. Even speech and transmission of thoughts is also dependant upon tissue activities. On other side study of inter relation of mental condition and physiological process have put forwards many problems before researchers. Today, the problem or brain-body interrelationship has become a subject of visualization of inner conscience, which has definitely created an impact upon discoveries being made in the field of Psychology. The word Psycho-Physiology is synonymous to Physiological Psychology, both have similar opinion. Thereby, it is easy and accepted to study it under the name of Physiological Psychology. Before giving definition, it is mandatory to learn the meaning of these two words. Physiology is a branch of Biology through which, structures and functions various organs of human body are studied. Through Psychology, human and animal is studied. Definition of Physiological Psychology gets embodied by the combination of the definition of these two sciences. Therefore if to define Psychology, let’s combine these two subjects (Physiology and Psychology) and see how human actions are related to its physiological and al system.
Chief specialties of Physiological Psychology
It has been explained that a science related to study of physical processes is ‘Physiology’ and the one dealing with behaviour is ‘Psychology’. Combining them with each other, Margon and Steller (1950) understood Physiology as a science of physical processes which concerned with the study of reactions of body organs and Psychology, a science of human behaviour in which it is studied as to how animals and humans establish adjustment with their atmosphere. With the combination of two sciences, these two erudite defined Physiological Psychology as this – “In Physiological Psychology, two subjects Physiology and Psychology put together and see how physiological processes are related to al adjustments. That according to Margon and Steller means that this al adjustment is studied through Physiological Psychology.
Wagnor and Johns presented physical definition in detail. According to them Physiological Psychology is a study of relationship between bodily processes and behaviours. That means according to Wagnor and Johns is that in Physiological Psychology relation between bodily processes and are studied but human is considered as a whole. That’s why it is necessary to study complete human.
With this concern the definition given by Freemen (1940) seems to be more appropriate. According to him, “Physiological Psychology is the study of relationship between integrated behaviour and the bodily processes of the intact organism”. Here some important things are that this science studies bodily processes of the intact organism and correlates them with higher centre of these behaviours i.e. nervous system. As the extreme level of which is called integrated behaviour depends only upon nerve centre. That is why this science does not study other systems e.g. Digestive System etc. Precisely, this definition can be taken in the form of Structure-functional relationship. Means this science also studies Anatomy and Physiology.
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Physiological Psychology is a science which establishes a relationship of mental activities and behaviour with physiological processes of various parts of body.”
Through Physiological Psychology, functions of Nervous Systems are studied which governs human, sensitivities and endocrine glands. Speaking, presenting thoughts are the types of only. With these many bodily processes are also involved such as, gestures of hands and facial expressions while speaking. This way every mental status and reactions are related with bodily processes. Studying many problems related to these is the aim of Physiological Psychology.
To conclude, it can be said that Physiological Psychology is a science in which such problems are studied which arise out of the relation between human and physiological processes.
4.0 Faculties of study of Physiological Psychology.
Physiological-Psychological problems are similar to those arising from combination and coordination of Physiology and Psychology. Through the study of problems, a complete knowledge in the faculty of Physiological Psychology is achieved. So under this topic, some of the important problems of Physiological Psychology are discussed.
It is a fact that those who study Psychology are less interested in Physiological Psychology and that is why their knowledge is limited. The knowledge of Physiological Psychology can not be said complete until Anatomy, Physiology, and Biochemistry are also studied.
Before studying Physiological Psychology, it is necessary that a brief knowledge of Anatomy and Physiology is also acquired as to how internal changes affect physiological processes and how response mechanism is important. In response mechanism, sense organs, nerves, nervous system and muscles and glands are studied.
4.1 Sensory functions: Under this section, functions and problems related to sensory organs are studied. With that it becomes necessary for a comparative study that how humans and animals discriminate various sensory stimuli and in what form they are experienced. With these studies the knowledge of facts of sensory centers is acquired. As to how sense organs function and what is their structure, which sensory nerves arise from these sensory organs and in which centre they end, how brain centers are influenced by changing conditions of internal senses. After this knowledge with experiments it should be observed that if the visual centre in an animal is destroyed than why it becomes unable to see and why is it not tangible from outside? Thus with the study of sensory functions it is understood how sensory functions are related to sensory centers and forms the source for the behaviour of an organism.
There are four components of distinctiveness of sensation – Intensity, Quality, Space, and Time. Let’s take an example to understand these specialties of stimulus. Light, sometimes is bright and sometimes dim. Radio sound is loud sometimes whereas very low sometimes. Just like that, sometimes pain in some part of body is sometimes intensely experienced and sometimes very mildly. This difference of sensation is called ‘Intensity of sensation’. Just like intensity stimuli have qualities also. Light can be blue, red, yellow, green etc. If a needle is pricked in any of the fingers, then sometimes it gives a sensation of pressure and sometimes pain. The difference of pressure and pain in a stimulus is called ‘Quality’. Every object has its own shape and situation which gives an estimate of its space. Lastly, stimulus’s time is considered i.e. up to what duration a stimulus was given.
It is mentioned above that every kind of sensation is experienced through sense organs. E.g. visualization through eyes, hearing through ears, taste through tongue, smell through nose and touch through skin. Thus it is necessary to study every sense organ in details.
Along with study of sense organs, study of nervous system, brain etc. is also a problem of Physiological Psychology. What are the causative factors behind a particular process, in what conditions the process becomes distinctive and how the internal conditions affect it are also studied in this problem.
4.2 Motor functions: Unlike sensory functions having been classified according to sense organs, it is difficult to classify motor functions according to effectors. There by classification of conduction and response of motor functions is also a difficult problem. Because response mechanism is closely related and very near to sensory and motor nerve centers, sensory and motor pathways and afferent and efferent neurons making it difficult to study their functions individually.
According to Anatomists and muscle experts in this problem, different functions are studied. For example Reflexes which is a completely autonomic function. There are other reflexes also which are partially autonomic and they have similarities in their types. For example, running, swimming, handshake etc. Reasons for emotional reactions and their relation with brain and other physical organs are studied in this problem. To acquire knowledge about reflex and common principles, motor functions are studied in which there are striated muscle centers and spinal cord tracts. Precisely, in this problem we have to study following things a. Neuromuscular relations. b. Spinal mechanism c. Motor centers of brain. d. The pyramidal motor system. e. The extra-pyramidal system. f. Other cortical motor system.
4.3 Physiology of emotion and motivation: In emotional situation, initially we see external changes. Usually there are changes in pulse rate and respiratory rate, flushes over skin, changes in blood pressure and stiffness in muscles. William James said about emotions that emotional situation arises from physiological changes. Regarding that, particular emotions have been studied in which James’s statement is proved up to some extent. Others have also made researches in this subject. Expressions like smile, cry which are the most common and complex expressions have also been researched. With these researches it is found that in these expressions also the activities of a particular type of muscle tissues is involved. This observation clarifies the criticism against James. From the extracts collected from various experiments it is found that emotion is the outward manifestation of muscular centre conditions. Volter B. Canon presented a new principle. He was to say that in case of an extreme emotion the induced physiological changes lead to mechanical action which the primary form of Energy mobilization is. Functions of hypothalamus and of other nerves have been explained under the title of related topics. Sensory expressions are important in developing al expressions. That is why sensations, its related problems, interests and inspirations are studied in this problem. Till now sensory problems have not been problems related to physiology. Till today, appetite, thirst, desire and other other incentives are studied as important matters of Physiological Psychology. With this type of study many behavioural processes are understood like particular chemical influence, desire, evidence of hormone generated in lower animals, various processes arising due to diminished level of blood sugar which affect muscle centre. This way in this problem we observe and study inspirational and sensory behaviour of humans as to up to what extent these processes are related to Anatomy and various Physiological processes.
4.4 Learning and memory: Changes occurring in muscle-centers in learning process have created many problems and doubts which have also been studied by Physiological Psychology. One of these doubts is related to a principle which says that learning process is related to development of group of muscles. Groups of muscles separate chemicals collected by other groups and this process occurs secretly. But no evidence could be found in favor or in against of this principle. There have been a lot of researches on impacts created by age, sex, ability to inspire, hormonal deficiencies, stress and muscle-centers. However their results have been turned out more complicated and have not led to a common or final conclusion. Besides one thing that whenever a resource which helps in developmental process, becomes an obstacle in chemical reactions of learning processes in brain which gives rise to weak memory.
4.5 Intelligence: Physiological study is limited mainly to imbalance of aggressive thoughts and behaviours arising from uncommon conditions of thoughts. Some sources create obstacle or sluggishness in development e.g. exposure to X-rays during some adverse conditions and lack of development of thyroid gland in childhood are proved to be hurdles in mental development. Drug addiction produces some mental symptoms, just like secretion of a chemical which induces tendency to kill by poisoning, craving for drugs all the time etc. Besides these there can be aggression of thoughts, debility etc. can also be there. In case of
mental trauma, intellectual defects are created. Some of which may take serious form e.g. missing words while speaking in case of a trivial mistake, restless due to that, drop in mental level or reduction capacity of judgment before work or lack of decision power. Some trivial but bitter offenses can also lead to some particular defects such as active behaviour changing into a complicated one. Physiology has made less progress in analyzing and finding out the reasons behind such things than expectations. So, more efforts are needed in this direction. Because of this reason it is necessary to learn intellectual fields with a physiological.
4.6 The basis of sleep and activity: The pleasant hours of sleep, rest and activity are the common qualities of higher animals, because of changes in some particular parts of brain, somnambulism (sleeplessness) arises due to which a person has to face a lot of difficulties. This suggests that recurrence of these lower centers can lead to steadiness of normal working condition. In this case even if the circumstances are favourable, in the situation of normal sleep, recurrences should be removed. Exhaustion is considered to be the reason for sleep. But its influence has not been studied so far. Reduction in sensory stimuli and a good habit of activity have been considered important reasons for sleep. Many physiological changes are helpful in normalizing functional levels of various endocrine glands. Their function is to create changes in the intracellular fluid of nerve cells, but still a complete knowledge about it is lacking. That is why in Physiological Psychology it is necessary to study problems like sleep, dependencies of various physiological activities etc.
5. Importance and benefits of study of Physiological Psychology
The field of study of Physiological Psychology is so much important that body and mind both can be combined and programmed with it. Physiological processes are classified into four parts viz. Cellular, Enzymatic, Organic, and Systemic. These levels have their own importance. Besides this, physiological activities can also be classified into cerebral and biochemical. Now, the situation is that disturbance in anyone among these can directly affect our behaviour and personality. Physiologically, brain and hormones control all these activities. In spite of the form of mind being vague, its impact and interference in biochemical reactions, mechanical actions and physiological actions is clearly visible. Thus, it can be said that if one wants to acquire knowledge about types of personalities, changes taking place in it, its development and its importance then one has to study processes and relations of body and mind. Study of Physiological Psychology is proved to be an imposing step in this direction. This is the major advantage of its study.
Questionnaire
I. Assays
1. Describe the principles of Physiological Psychology.
2. Which are the major faculties of study of Physiological Psychology?
II. Short questions.
1. Give two important definitions of Physiological Psychology.
2. Which is the purpose of Motor functions?
III. Objective questions – Answer in one sentence.
1. Give the name of an important person who defined Physiological Psychology.
2. Name the two branches of Biology which are mainly studied in Physiological Psychology.
References –
1. Adhunik Sharirik Manovigyan – Prof. R.K.Ojha
2. Physiological Psychology – C.T. Morgan and E.Steller
3. Physiological Psychological – G.L. Freeman
CHAPTER: 14 –
PHYSIOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL AND MOTIVATIONAL
AIMS: After studying this chapter the students will be –
(1). able to understand emotion.
(2). able to understand the process of motivation.
(3). able to understand the physiological changes taking place during the situation of emotion and motivation.
TOPICS –
1. Physiology of emotions.
2. Theory of Emotion.
3. Physiological and Muscular basis of emotional
4. Emotion and ‘Preksha Meditation’.
5. Motivational.
6. Basic genetic motivational conditions.
7. Motivation and Homeostasis.
8. Psychological Motives.
1.0 Physiology of motivational.
Emotion is a situation in which a person (or animal) gets excited very intensely. During this excited mental condition, the person’s (animal’s) behaviour and personality becomes dispersed and different part of the body function in a particular manner. It means, in case of emotion brain and various body parts are affected and they function in a particular way. Not only this, the person himself feels the excitation of his mental condition. Emotion is a motivated behaviour in which (in humans) a higher conscious comes into play and with that magnetic and repulsive behaviour is resulted, independent and ordered functions take place in the muscle centers. For example, in case of emotions of fear, anger, and joy a higher level motivation is set off and is expressed in magnetism (joy), repulsion (fear) and anger behaviour. Commonly, emotion can be defined in three forms –
1.1 Emotion as a conscious: According to different observers and scientists, as a response to materialize external events various awareness take place due to various conscious states. These conscious states are called emotions which are the reasons for different emotions since birth. This reveals that conscious events are necessary for emotional behaviours.
1.2 Emotion as a behaviour: Other erudite people consider emotion as one or another type of behaviour. According to them in different emotional situations, a person’s behaviour is also different. There are many types of behaviours in emotions like smile, laugh, shout, run due to fear, facial expressions during emotion etc. In animals waddling tail, snarl, breath etc. are seen which suggests that many other behaviours like these are included in expression of emotion. Besides this some autonomic behaviour are also reasons for emotions e.g. rush of blood during fear, changes in consciousness and blood pressure during syncope, reduction in gland secretions in case of emotion etc. are the examples of autonomic reactions of emotions. Aggressive behaviour, running due to fear, laughing etc. are the examples of some emotional reactions.
1.3 Emotion experience: Persons give literal definitions of emotional experiences like feeling of fear, calm, excitement etc. These experiences are so much complicated and mixed that it is difficult to understand them scientifically on bodily basis.
1.4 Emotion as a mental and physiological event: Modern Physiologists and Psychologists define emotion a mental and physiological event. According to them, emotional consciousness and emotional behaviour are as results of physiological and mental events. Emotional behaviour is controlled by
Autonomic Nervous System and endocrine glands. When a person feels emotion, his heart-rate increases, Blood pressure increases, abdominal discomfort starts, scalp hair, and body hair strut up. So, an essential and adequate situation for emotion is that an emotion stores some particular autonomic processes in brain centers. These stored processes control autonomic actions and behaviour. Now in this denotation we will note some definitions of emotion because in this chapter we will study emotion only as a mental and physiological event.
(i). According to some psychologists, “Emotion is a pattern that occur in the viscera and other bodily parts.”
(ii). According to other learned people, “Emotion is a cortical event which depends upon response patterns that have occurred elsewhere in the viscera, in the hypothalamus or in some combination of three.”
(iii). According to some people, “Emotion is a bodily pattern which is preceded either by psychological event or subsequent mental events.”
(iv). William James has said defining emotion, “Emotion is a mental event. It is the feeling of change occurring in the viscera and the skeletal muscles. Which changes have been initiated directly by perception of an appropriate stimulus.”
(v). According to Lange, “Emotion is a vasomotor disturbance.”
(vi). According to Canon and Ward, “Emotion is a mental event. It depends upon change in the hypothalamus which have been initiated by an appropriate stimulation.”
1.5 Why are we full of emotions? : A question arises that whether there is anyone who has had to suffer from emotions? The clear answer for this question is that no one. Emotion actually is the one of many physiological and mental processes. People of every age and class feel emotions. With these situations we can say that emotions are neither beneficial nor harmful for the body and mind. Emotional condition is the negative feedback of physiological balance. It arises only when there is difficulty somewhere in establishing adjustment with situations e.g. fear arises when the ability of ‘Flight or fight’ becomes weak.
In emotional situations, we are compatible to react in a special way instead of routine reactions occurring as a result of stimulus because these reactions are dependent upon contemporary situations. It is secondary that this reaction not being positive, is primarily a negative one. Physiological changes take place according to the severity and predisposition of emotions and depending upon them its results have been analyzed.
**Facets of Emotions**
**Dimensions of Emotion**
2.0 Theory of Emotion
The theory of emotions has been in vogue since ancient time. Its principles have been adequately discussed beginning from an ancient Unani observer to latest generation. Theories of emotion emphasized its bodily facet mainly. In other words, all theories have considered bodily facts to be of more important in expression of emotions. There are many modern theories of emotion are in vogue but all are different from each other in considering bodily facts to be the chief ones. Where Canon and Bard believe hypothalamus to be the major part of emotions, psychologists like James Lange are attributing ‘Peripheral factors’ as the reasons of emotions. In other words it can be said that due to emotions, physiological and mental changes start. But here, a question is that which one is of more importance. To conclude, many of the physiologists and psychologists came up with many theories of emotion which had bodily basis. Now, we will define some important modern theories of emotion.
Common sense theory:
According to this theory, commonly people believe that emotions initially affect mental processes and thereafter physiological changes start. Before the manifestation of emotional condition, mental changes start, then bodily changes start. Thus emotion is experienced before it is manifested but as this theory is not scientifically supported it is not an authenticated theory. On the contrary, it is the belief of various people which they themselves have decided on the basis of their experiences. As modern psychology has experimental form, it is impossible to accept the simple explanations of events.
2.2 James Lange’s Peripheral theory of emotion:
Amongst many theories of emotion, James Lange’s theory of emotion has been considered as an important one. Even today, its status and importance in psychology is not less. According to this theory, emotion is a conscious state which is the reason of emotional behaviour. He believed conscious state to be the reason for body reaction towards anger, fear, and joy. His theory tries to explain how emotional behaviour and emotional experience are related to body. The major motto of this theory was that emotional response occurs first and the emotional experience is the result of this emotional response.
This theory was established in around 1880 with the help of the American psychologists James and the physiologist of Denmark Lange. This theory was opposite to common sense theory. James published an article in a magazine in 1884 in which he tried to explain the relation between emotions and their manifestations. He was firm to believe that emotions arise mainly as a result of obstacles and intense reactions of body tissues. Lange published the similar kind of thinking independently in 1885. He proved on the basis of his studies that emotions are entirely due to physical changes. Combination of these two thinkings was named as James Lange’s theory.
Any excitation or event which we call as emotion, takes place. Because of that, muscular and endocrinal reactions occur on bodily basis. As a result, this reaction activates some mechanisms under the control of Nervous System, reaches the cortex, manifests emotional reactions visibly and offers conscious feeling to the emotion. The main point of this theory is where the emotional experience come from, from the stimulation of endocrinal glands, or from internal viscera.
According to Freemen, “This theory signifies that visceral processes create emotional consciousness and simply activates physiological processes and as a result of these changes we feel emotions. Precisely, the spirit of physiological changes is emotion.
Thus, after the study of this theory we come to the conclusion that out of manifestations of emotional condition, direct physical and behavioural changes are generated and their feelings come to surface. Therefore, the main reason for emotion is physical and al processes and not mental processes. James says that we fear because we run and get angry. We become sad because we fear; we get angry because we fear. For example, when we see a snake or a lion in a forest then first we respond emotionally and then we feel the emotion. After seeing a lion we run and do other bodily processes. During emotion, increment in blood pressure, changes in respiratory rate, digestive disturbances, pupillary changes are followed by feeling of fear from lion.
This way, according to Lange, emotion can not be thought of before physiological and behavioural changes. If these changes are excluded from emotions, then there will be only a delusion of emotion and not the actual emotion. At this point, James says, “Then we will aptly decide to run after seeing a bear, being beaten will be a privilege for us on being insulted, but actually we won’t be frightful nor will be angry.
This way fear, anger etc. emotions an not arise without physiological and psychological changes. Unless and until these changes take place, emotional feelings will not be there. So, according to James, “Origination of emotions is not out of processes of brain but out of visceral processes.”
According to the theory of James Lange emotion can be explained as follows.
2.3 Central theory by Canon and Ward.
Central theory of emotion was set up by Canon and Bard together. It is also called ‘Thalamic theory’. According to this theory, through the manifestation of emotional transmission emotional experience and changes in internal viscera occur independently and at a time. Stimulation in receptors reaches thalamus and via here it reaches cortex in one direction and effectors in other. We can see this. Stimulation reaching this way to cortex gives rise to feeling of physiological and behavioural processes. In producing these two processes independent from each other, thalamus plays a supportive role. Thus, this theory firmly believes that emotion is created by stimulation of hypothalamus. Intervisceral processes and experiments suggest that hypothalamus is playing an important part in expressions and feelings of emotions. Still it cannot be believed in-debatably to that this theory is a fact. Its major fault is its overstated simplicity. Secondly, it does not satisfactorily relate emotional experience and emotional behaviour.
That way, both the theories of emotion are in contradiction to each other. Where according to the theory of emotion, emotional reaction is followed by emotional feeling, central theory denotes emotional feeling being followed by emotional reaction.
2.4 Watson’s behaviouristic theory of emotion
Watson rejected consciousness in emotional behaviour. On the contrary, according to him, “Behaviour is due to manifestation of transmissions which occurs through senses and Nervous system.” For Watson fear, joy, anger, violence etc. are behaviours. In his work on emotions he felt in those or other emotional responses, which are hereditary, in which form they are manifested and by which transmitters they are controlled.
Watson established from his experiments that in children three hereditary emotional behaviours are present viz. fear, anger and desire, respectively pattern: X, Y, Z. According to him a complicated emotional behaviour is due to affection. According to education in fear and anger, natural processes are controlled by brain centers. Same thing happens in quarrel and violence as well as in passionate moments.
2.5 Autonomic response theory of emotion
Many learned people have considered autonomic responses to be related with emotions. Majority of these people have studied that the reactions of parasympathetic nervous system are essential for positive or pleasurable emotions whereas, reactions of sympathetic nervous system are essential for the emotions of fear and anger. Other learned people believe in other autonomic pattern through learning for each steady emotion. Some of the psychologists have an opinion that various autonomic patterns are hereditary. In other words, it can be said according to this theory that autonomic reactions themselves are emotions and they are always essential for emotions. Some of the authors believe that autonomic reactions are essential only initially but when learning process occurs, it becomes necessary for the reactions to occur in brain centre which normally controls autonomic nervous system.
2.6 Papaz Mc Lean theory of emotion
According to this theory, nervous system controls centers which regularize emotional behaviour and feelings. In the control of these emotional behaviours various centers and pathways are there viz. Septal area of the cortex, the cortical cingulated and entorninal areas, the hippocampus, and most of the amygdaloid nuclei. Papaz mentioned a circuit formed by these centers and pathways – the entorhinal cortex to the hippocampus, thence to the hippocampus, thence to the hypothalamus via the fornix, from here to the anterior thalamus and finally to the cingulated gyrus. However, majority of these structures are involved with the sense of smell but according to the studies of Papaz, they are also involved in emotional experience. Thereafter Papaz thoughts were reinforced by Mc Lean who also said that composition of emotional behaviour takes place in the hypothalamic part of diencephalons and edifices of brain.
3.0 Bodily and tissue basis of emotional behavior.
Now we will define some bodily basis of emotional behavior.
1. Endocrine glands
2. Autonomic nervous system.
3. Somatic and visceral system
4. Limbic system
5. Medulla
6. Mid-brain
7. Hypothalamus
8. Thalamus
9. Cerebral cortex
10. Hippocampus
11. Amygdala
Here we will only talk of important basis.
1.0 Endocrine glands: The main basis of emotional behavior in humans is considered endocrine glands. Because different types of endocrine glands affect emotional processes in different ways. It has been proved by experiments that thyroid function is disturbed in fear, anger etc. emotional situations which adversely affect health. On the contrary, in happiness and pleasure it is activated beneficially and imposes a good impact on health. Parathyroid gland calms down the emotional behaviour. Adrenal medulla secretes adrenalin hormone which like sympathetic actions affects emotions and emotional behaviour. In other words it can be said that this gland is closely related to emotions. Malfunctioning of these glands brings about a kind of sluggishness in a person’s behavior and the person’s emotional behaviour becomes imbalanced. This gland is active in almost all emotional conditions especially fear, anger and happiness. When during fear anger or happiness our body needs more energy, it mixes up adrenalin with the blood circulation due to which heart rate increases, tiredness is reduced, digestion stops, respiration and blood circulation become fast and thereby balance is maintained even in abnormal situation. Pituitary gland also supports emotional behaviour by maintaining control over other glands. If it does not stimulate adrenal gland then a person gets weakness, anger and irritability. Same way sexual glands also have an important effect on emotions. These express happiness and cheerfulness when two persons of opposite sex meet. So it is clear that, hormonal secretions of various glands are helpful in emotional behavior.
2. Autonomic nervous system: Both the parts of autonomic nervous system – Sympathetic and parasympathetic system play important role in emotional processes. When emotions arise in emergency situations, sympathetic system is affected. In the conditions of anger, fear it increases heart rate, blood pressure and blood circulation. Creates disturbances in digestive process and stimulates adrenalin gland. Thus it controls emergency processes occurring during emotional behavior. In emotional reactions, this system also maintains hormonal balance and enzymatic balance in digestion. The other part parasympathetic system controls secretory tissues and stimulated organs of the body. It reduces heart rate during emotion. It controls emotional behavior in a peaceful way. Thus autonomic nervous system plays major role in emotional behaviour.
3. Medulla: Medulla functions in controlling heart rate, hypertensive response, grinding of teeth etc. autonomic reactions in case of emotional behaviour. To control autonomic responses it has many afferent nerve centers which act on functions of many higher centers of brain especially hypothalamus. The afferent controls of medulla are helpful in homeostasis so that the internal condition is maintained. Besides this, visceral changes occurring due to emotional arousal in stress condition are made by medulla. With this process medulla can bring changes in internal conditions also.
4. **Mid-brain**: From midbrain to cortex and to local transmitter the inactive part of body brings about changes in emotional behavior. Local transmitter stimulates pathways traversing to the higher centers of a part of midbrain. Here behavior is adjusted whereas on other end it only obstructs pathways traversing to higher centers where behaviour is proper. For example, in midbrain transmitters stimulate pathways of pain sensation and initiates emotional behaviour. Among various parts of midbrain stimulation of central gray matter creates behaviours like anger, fear and running. Based on a study it has been known that midbrain regulates some safety emotional reactions.
5. **Hypothalamus**: Hypothalamus is considered main centre of emotions. Some psychologists and physiologists like Canon and Bard consider hypothalamus as a centre of emotions. This somatic aspect of emotion functions in three ways – firstly, though it impulses reach from receptors to cerebral cortex and generate emotional behaviour. Secondly, it brings cerebral cortical impulses. Thirdly, it is through hypothalamus that impulses are send to viscera and tissues. This way, regarding emotions, this higher centre of brain is very important. Hypothalamus compiles emotions of fear, anger, safety, honour etc. very meticulously. Anterior hypothalamus initiates fear and lateral and posterior hypothalamus initiate running. According to Canon and Bard all the emotional processes are generated in this part.
6. **Cerebral cortex**: In an emotional behaviour cerebral cortex has a very important and a particular part. In this direction, many psychologists after lots of experiments have cleared as to what importance cerebral cortex has in emotional behaviour.
**4.0 Emotion and Preksha meditation**
Nervous system and endocrine system are the two major systems of body which together, control and regulate all the bodily processes. Between these two systems there is such an extraordinary regularity of functions that scientists have named it “Neuro-endocrine system”. In emotional situations there are changes in the various body parts also which are regulated by this system. Nervous system increases bioelectric current in neurons and nerves as necessity arises and creates stimulation in related parts. Because of this metabolism rises many folds in our body. With this through hypothalamus, pituitary gland’s activity also increases. Then other endocrines secrete their hormones and thereby support to increase the metabolic rate. With the combine efforts of these two, emotions also mount.
In Preksha meditation in ‘Chaitanya Kendra preksha’ when we concentrate on energy sources of neuro-endocrine system, we acquire three advantages – First, bioelectric current in nerves and the magnetic field related to it become purified. It brings necessary refinement in quantity and quality of neurotransmitters and thereby their resultant effects are also purified. The second outcome is awakening of the centre of happiness which brings reduction in the rate of responses and spirits like unity, cooperation, wellbeing and kindness arise. The third effect of preksha meditation is augmentation of energy. Reason for excitation is unnecessary increment in metabolic rate and thereby wastage of energy. As a result of augmentation of energy, all the centers which act as antidotes are triggered and prevent unnecessary energy loss. This results in reduction in intensity and frequency of emotions.
Breathing Preksha and ‘Karyotsarg’ exercises also control energy centers of brain. By improvement in concentration and reduction in wavering of mind, frequency of emotions is controlled.
**5.0. Motivational behavior**
The word ‘motivation’ is so universal that learned people have used it for various meanings. According to the commonest and most practical definition it is the hereditary tendency of a person in which he becomes active for the achievement of a goal and is satisfied only on achieving the goal. Study of motivation means studying the motive energy of an organism due to which, some exclusive feelings provoke him to behave. Woodworth defines motive like this, “Motive is a condition of a person which induces him to do some particular work or to achieve some goals.” This way motivation is a tendency to work which is governed by instincts and finishes with achievement.” In other words, it can be said that
motivation generates a particular process in a person to achieve a particular target. The process which influences in a particular direction and continues until the target is achieved. To continue process till achievement of goal is the distinctiveness of motivation. Thus, the condition of a person in which these qualities are found is called motivation.
Energy sources of stimuli of a procedure are studied in motivation. The reactions leading these energy sources to a particular direction are also studied through motivation. This motivation energy and related physical processes arise together like, hunger and activity to get food are found together. For this condition the word ‘motive’ is used. Motivational energies are the inner circumstances of an organism through which the nerves of glands and tissues meet their requirements. With psychological attitude James Drever defines motivation like, “The word ‘motivation’ is used in regard with encouragement and intuition. It is the condition of energy system which encourages a person to behave and fulfill his requirements and pushes him to his target.”
Motive is defined according to needs. Hunger is a motive and food is the need. Thirst is a motive and water is need. This way to accomplish every motive need is there as a medium. Specially for physical motives there are biological needs.
5.1 Biological motive
Biological motives are related to internal needs. They are natural and inborn. Mc Duogel has considered them to be related to inborn instincts. These motives are necessary for safety of life and normal living. In our body some processes are autonomic like, digestion, circulatory process, etc. These are automatic processes and maintain physical balance. These processes are also called ‘Homeostasis’. Through homeostasis hormones of body maintain their ratio. When body does not get necessary elements then homoeostasis is affected. To reestablish the balance body is given food, water, air, etc. These are the things which are called biological needs. The related motives are described almost in the same way as needs. For more information of human motives it is useful to study motives in relation with important basic needs. A person struggles for the whole life to fulfill these needs and with the objective to achieve the goal he reaches old age. Caulman has divided these needs in four parts –
5.1.1 Visceral needs – Motives of hunger and thirst fall under this group. In these needs there are food, water, oxygen, excretion of stool-urine, and other things which are necessary for life.
5.1.2 Safety needs – All the things which are needed to prevent body from getting harm and injury are called safety needs.
5.1.3 Sexual needs – This includes sexual desire and sexual gratification.
5.1.4 Sensory and Motor needs – The needs falling under this group are related to the processes of physical growth and functions of sensory organs, glands and tissues. Diminution of sensory processes and activities in old age is due to its natural and internal needs. That is why one should keep busy under any kind of activity in old age.
6.0 Inborn basic motivational situations
In the study of psychosomaty of motivation firstly basic conditions of those body tissues are studied which provide energy for behaviour. According to Freemen external stimulations help this energy to stream. Major motivational is derived from the activities of these tissues and stimulates neuromuscular activities. Here various basic motivational conditions – hunger, thirst, desire etc. will be annotated which motivates complete animal behavior for accomplishment.
(i) Hunger – Hunger is a condition through which a person’s complete physical and mental balance is disturbed. Hunger is a physiological condition which immediately affects mental condition of an organism. This is the reason why a hungry person becomes violent and irritable. This mental condition is emotional also due to which physical capacity increases. This way the physical changes of hunger impose
their effects on mental processes. These mental processes give rise to emotions which again stimulates weak physiological processes. In the condition of hunger stomach activates in a particular way. Scientists invented a special equipment to measure these activities and carries out experiments. By the experiments they came to conclude that activities occurring in hunger situation continue for ten to twenty five minutes. By other experiments psychologists extracted many other inferences through which they studied effects of hunger in various aspects. In hunger condition there is a particular effect upon the chemical changes of blood. For example if food is not consumed then decrease in blood sugar level leads to feeling of hunger. If sugar is supplied through injection in blood then hunger is relieved. If there is decrease of fat, proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins in our body, then an excessive hunger is felt.
(ii) **Thirst** – Among the internal stimulations taking place due to lack of water, those related to thirst are very important. With lack of water in body there is increment in electrolytes of blood leading to increment in blood density. With increment in density of blood, salivation reduces. Especially in mucus layer over posterior part of throat, lack of water and want of salivary moisture creates dryness of receptors. In these receptors, sensory impulse reaches central nerve and makes the animal uneasy for the fulfillment of this requirement. This uneasiness is continued until the person’s thirst is quenched.
(iii) **Oxygen** – Third important need is oxygen. This need compels animals for circulatory and tissue functions. Deficiency of required amount of oxygen in lungs creates uneasiness and breathlessness. How emotions work in situations is still not known. But still in this situation two things can be defined – They work due to increment or decrease in trachea. Increase in respiratory rate is regulated by those centers in medulla oblongata which are sensitive to chemical changes. The speed of impulses for respiratory tissues is decided by changes occurring in acidic pH of blood and also this speed tends to accommodate average external air pressure. In higher altitudes alkanity of blood reduces. To compensate this situation respiration becomes deep and fast. Increase in respiration leads to increment in exhalation of oxygen. Increment in blood acidity increases blood circulation through neural stimulation and thus the target tissues get more oxygen. With the lack of oxygen particularly gray matter of brain is more affected. For this reason on higher altitudes mental processes are almost ceased.
(iv) **Pressure and tension conditions** – Strong stimuli which stimulate central nervous system are generated from continuous pressure in some of the viscerae of our body. Among these stimuli those arising from bladder and colon are the mains. When bladder gets distended with its contents, the tension created in its walls create impulses in the receptors which are present in the walls. This situation is maintained until the contents are emptied. Same way substances in colon create urge to pass stool because of the tension in the walls. In childhood these viscera are uncontrolled and the child is unaware of the atmosphere, but with training gradually he learns to get rid of these pressure situations. And until the proper atmosphere is not available he remains restless and his internal physical process remains unbalanced. Other tension situations are also noticeable here which stimulate nervous system for relief. Presence of gas in stomach or intestines or other painful condition makes a person restless until he becomes free of the situation.
(v) **Temperature** – To keep body temperature normal is also an important balancing mechanism. Normal body temperature is 98.4° F which is necessary for oxygen transfer as well as for metabolism. Temperature is maintained by heat transfer through skin which is called ‘Heat regulation’ mechanism. It includes both heat generation and heat loss. When atmospheric temperature exceeds body temperature then heat generation is reduced and heat loss is increased. Due to the changes in temperature of body or atmosphere heat regulation becomes imbalanced due to which, an animal becomes uneasy and restless. This continues till heat regulation is maintained in body.
(iv) **Sex** - While describing motive stimulation only those conditions have been annotated so far which are related to mucus tissues. These motives create imbalanced situations which are manifested outwardly in some form. Except sex urge all the other tissue related stimulations are expressed in
behaviour in various ways. This initiates a motive condition which is not expressed in the form of reestablishment reaction but is expressed in many other ways.
The centers regulation or controlling sex functions are found in medulla and brain. These centers store various stimuli and stay calm until the central excitatory state reaches a proper threshold. Ordinary stimuli received from various conditions can not stimulate these centers. When stimuli received from a particular object reach beyond a limit then they react with those stimuli which are received from various other objects. Sexual behaviour is affected by various hormonal agencies. Along with stimulating spinal, these sexual stimulators also control various processes and behaviours. These processes are irregular initially and regularized thereafter which finally lead stimulations of spinal cord to its critical point. In humans, these external stimuli are completely learned. Spread of homosexuality and masturbation proves that social effect is the main reason for unnatural sex.
7. **Motivation and Homeostasis**: To maintain physiological changes there are constant physiological and chemical changes inside a living organism. If these changes become rapid or sluggish then it leads to imbalanced and all the processes get affected. For example if level of oxygen or water is reduced beyond the normally required and adequate level then some particular processes become active to reestablish this imbalance. If these visceral processes fail to reestablish the balance then the whole neuromuscular system becomes active to reestablish the balance. This balancing mechanism is called homeostasis. This is also a unique balance condition in humans.
Another example is when level of salt is reduced in body then adrenal cortex fulfills this requirement through its salt reserve. But when salt reserve gets emptied then the whole neuromuscular system becomes active. Then the motive of his behavior is to achieve salt. Regarding salt balance there have been many experiments. In Richter’s experiments when adrenal glands were removed from mice, they preferred to drink salt added water instead of plain water. From other experiments it is found that animals prefer those food elements which they lack. In an another experiment it was found that Psychological motives. With an another experiment it was found that people working in High temperature zones drink three to six times more water compared to normal situations so that the amount of water that is lost through perspiration can be replenished. This way other essential elements in body - water, heat, calcium, oxygen, proteins, fat, carbohydrates, when reduce in our body than physical balance is disturbed. Thus it is clear that motivational behaviour is mainly homeostasis activated. Due to this reason the problem of motive can be divided into three parts - (i) those basic situations which disturb is a physiological balance or a steady condition. (ii) Those procedure or functions through which this balance is a re-established. (iii) Effect of complete or partial success on re-establishment.
8. **Psychological motives**: Just like biological motives control necessary energy for the growth of only, similarly psychological motors unnecessary for mental growth and balance. Where physical needs are the basics of human life at the same time every person has a mental condition. If they are not fulfilled then the person gradually becomes away from normal behaviour. Because of physical needs being fulfilled the body remains healthy but because of want of secession of mental needs, mental perversions are created. Psychologically it is necessary to fulfill mental needs. However both the types of motives are complementary to each other.
(i) **Love** - from the beginning of existence of humans till now this is such a requirement without which no one can be he normally including Children and olds. Among all the inborn activities of humans the most important and powerful is love. Each person from birth to death wants to love others and wants others to love him. Fried has considered love to be the instinct of life. He says that it is such a basic activity through which we take interest in creative activities. This is such a motive which inspires us to live. When this love comes slowly then person's mental condition becomes imbalanced. Gradually he becomes disappointed. He becomes intrigued by stress.
(ii) **Self-esteem** – while living in society humans wish that people evaluate him. He does everything for his self-respect. He believes that he is also important like those who govern the society. He compares his personality with social values and social parameters. For example, it tries to relate his financial condition, physical condition, and gains with the feeling of his self-esteem. Based on other feelings of this type he expects others to respect him. To maintain his respect, status, and pride he can do everything. He doesn't want to come in front of lower standard people and unsuccessful people. His aim of life is to always live with self-esteem.
(iii) **Social approval** – A child feels since birth that he should help people for his own safety. During the initial years of its life it depends upon its mother. Gradually this dependence extends to father and other family members. This feeling of dependence gradually takes form of social approval. Everyone wishes to get social approval and reward for whatever philanthropic activities he is doing. This way, he cannot proceed without social approval and support. At least in society he does not get respect. Those who accomplish their personal activities without caring for society, never succeed. Disregard to the society means self-rejection in future. It is another thing that the society does not boycott you directly. But indirectly it creates hurdles in your way. That is why you have to face lots of troubles in reaching your target.
(iv) **Adequacy and Competency** – It is a motive related to that ability of humans though which they maintain their adjustment and balance their behaviour in favourable or adverse situations. For example, if there is a sudden fire and it seems dangerous for your house then without getting panicked and maintaining patience how you tackle the situation depends upon your adequacy and competence. This way when a person is confident that he is able to conquer any difficult situation then he has this feeling that he is a competent person. With this feeling he thinks himself to be a competent, intelligent and valuable. This thought is a motive for life which leads you nearer to success.
(vi) **Security** – It is an important motive. A person, who has got a job, can accept low salary if there is a guarantee that his job is secured, means he won't be dismissed without any reason. But if he is paid double salary but there is no guarantee of job security, then he will constantly be under a feeling of insecurity. Security feeling is such a motive through which a person balances himself. Living in a society he wishes that he is completely secure in every level – financial, social, religious, and political. He does not wish anyone to create any kind of disturbance in his liberty. For the security of this liberty he makes social relationships, saves money, and wants to become a religious or political leader. This way for the security of every aspect he tries his best.
**Sample questions for study**
1. **Assays**
1. Define theories of emotion.
2. Describe inborn conditions of motivation.
2. **Short questions (Answer in 100 words)**
1. Enumerate properties and facets of emotions.
2. How motivation is related to homeostasis?
3. **Answer in single word**
1. What happens with heart rate during feeling of emotion?
2. How many names there are for autonomic nervous system?
3. In how many parts the problem of inspiration can be divided?
**References. –**
1. Physiological Psychology – F. Leuchel
2. Sharirik Manovigyan – Prof. R.K.Ojha
3. Preksha meditation: Theory and practice – Acharya Mahapragna
4. Preksha meditation: Muni Mahendrakumar
CHAPTER-15:
REGULATION OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM BY THROUGH MIND AND EFFECT OF PREKSHA MEDITATION
Aims - Through the study of this chapter students will -
(1) Understand the functions of autonomic nervous system.
(2) Understand the relation between mind and autonomic nervous system
(3) Learn to prove the relation between mind and nervous system through Preksha meditation.
Topics - the
(1) Structure and functions of autonomic nervous system.
1.1 Sympathetic part.
1.2 Parasympathetic part.
(2) Regulation of functions of autonomic nervous system through mind.
1. Structure and functions of autonomic nervous system
In our body there are nerves whose functions are not related to brain. These nerves directly arise from Central nervous system. Due to difference in functions it becomes a separate part. Nerves of this part neither send impulses to our brain nor they receipt any impulses from brain. Heart rate, functions of lungs, contractions in stomach, uterine functions, bladder functions, etc. are not regulated by will. These functions are automatic. The nerves controlling these functions have no connection with brain centres. The nerves regulating internal viscera have an independent group. In this system there are 'Ganglions' and fibres. The system works independently while staying in connection with central nervous system. That is why it is called autonomic nervous system.
Depending upon structure and functions it is divided into two parts - 1. Sympathetic 2. Parasympathetic
1.1 Sympathetic part: Sympathetic system is also called 'Thoraco-lumbar part', because of its fibres traverse from thoracic and lumbar parts of spinal cord. If chest and abdomen are opened then it seems that over both the sides of posterior aspect there are small white series of ganglia. These ganglia hang like chains. These series are called 'Sympathetic chains'. They are connected to each other through nerve fibres and from each ganglion a fibre reaches vertebra. These fibres are called 'Preganglionic fibres'. This way there is a series of 22 ganglia on left and right side over the lateral aspect of vertebrae. These are called 'Lateral Vertebral Ganglion'. From these ganglia a posterior ganglion fibre arises which along with blood vessels traverses to various parts of body. These ganglia and their fibres together are called 'Sympathetic system'.
A fibre arising from spinal cord passes from lateral horns of gray matter of spinal cord and comes out in the form of axonal fibres with anterior root. After that they separate from anterior root and pass to posterior ganglion. They appear white and shiny and are called 'White rami communicates'. Some of the fibers after coming out of ganglion go to vertebral nerves. They are gray in colour and are called 'Gray rami communicates'.
In fact, sympathetic system has a trunk of two ganglionic cords which comes from base of skull and passes through anterior aspect of vertebral column to end on opposite pu surface of pelvic bone as a single ganglion. Ganglions are in pairs viz.
Cervical region : Cervical ganglia
Thorax : Thoracic ganglia
Lumbar region : Lumbar ganglia
Sacral region : Sacral ganglia
Anterior of pelvis :
In above mentioned forms 22 pairs of ganglions are in a meticulous pattern, which are connected to central nervous system through spinal cord. Other sympathetic ganglions are connected to these two trunks and make sympathetic plexuses.
1. Cardiac Plexus: This lies near the base of heart and sends its branches to heart and lungs.
2. Coeliac Plexus: This stays over the posterior aspect of stomach and is spread in gastric cavity.
3. Hypogastric Plexus: It is spread in anterior of pelvic bone in pelvis
Function –
Sympathetic system controls and regulates many visceral processes. It has many functions. Joining with dermal nerve fibres it controls autonomic tissues of skin. Contractions of subcutaneous vessels are due to it so that heart, brain, and tissues get more blood, as a result blood pressure rises. It induces production of sweat in sweat glands. In abdomen its fibres join with splanchnic nerve and regulate intestinal peristalsis. It also induces production of glycogen in liver which then is converted in glucose. Digestive process and juices of digestion are also regulated by sympathetic impulses. Increase in heart rate is due to sympathetic activation. It also increases respiratory rate. Relaxation of bladder opening and wall contractions of bladder are induced by sympathetic system.
Secretion of adrenalin from suprarenal glands is due to the function of sympathetic system due to which body heat is regulated and controlled. Other nerve along with it control liver functions leading to increased blood sugar level. It also regulates fluid levels in blood vessels as well as in surrounding tissues. When fluid level is reduced in tissues then fluid comes out of blood in to tissues. When tissue fluid increases then fluid enters in to the blood vessels from tissues. When necessary, body is provided energy according to the needs. This energy is derived from this chemical (adrenalin) and sympathetic function. It is seen that when someone attacks us, we prepare ourselves for our defense. In such a condition, our body tissues become tense, blood circulation increases, face becomes red, nostrils dilate etc. This happens as a result of sympathetic activity.
1.2 Parasympathetic part
This system is also called ‘Cranio-sacral division’, because its ganglionic fibres are found in sacral part of vertebrae, brain and spinal cord. It has two parts – 1.Cranial 2.Sacral. The fibres of cranial outflow arise from special centers of midbrain, pons, and medulla. Fibres of sacral outflow arise from spinal cord at the level of third, fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae. Those fibres which arise from brain are not as separate nerve fibres but they arise with third, seventh and tenth cranial nerves.
These fibres end in a ganglion or plexus. But fibres of tenth cranial nerve or vagus nerve pass though up to long distance. Fibres coming from midbrain arise from the centre of optic nerve or third cranial nerve and end in iris. Through this nerve impulses reach to iris and lead to tissue contraction and finally relaxation or contraction of pupils of eyes. Same way neurons of pons are related to facial nerve centre. Ganglionic fibres arising from these pass through chordatympanic nerves of facial nerve and reach to ganglions near submental and submaxillary salivary glands and finally enter salivary glands. They increase secretion of saliva in salivary glands.
Vagus nerve is spread up to far in our body. They mainly have parasympathetic nerve fibres. Its preganglionic fibres arising from medulla pass along arteries and veins through neck and reach up to thorax where they spread in pulmonary plexus. From this they go to internal parts of respiratory system. This way we see that preganglionic fibres reach to heart through cardiac plexus. Then this nerve enters abdomen where its fibres spread to stomach, small intestines, large intestines, liver, gall bladder, bile ducts
and pylorus. Their plexuses stay inside the inner walls of these parts. Preganglionic fibres reach to plexus. Postganglionic fibres after entering internal walls of viscera get ended up and control visceral functions.
Sacral nerve controls splenic flexure of large intestine and pelvic viscera. This nerve comes from anterior roots of spinal cord at the level of second, third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. After arising from roots they combine to form pelvic nerve. Pelvic nerve supplies distal two third of large intestine and efferent fibres of bladder. Its fibres control contractions of bladder and anus.
**Functions:** As a result of stimulations of cranial outlet of parasympathetic system, pupils of eyes are contracted. Submendibular submental glands’ secretions are increased. It reduces heart rate and induces contractions of bronchioles. Secretions increase in stomach, intestines, and gall bladder. The stimulations of the fibers arising from sacrum induce contractions of rectum, bladder, and anus.
Due to this system, a chemical called ‘Acetylcholine’ is produced. It is responsible for the transmission of impulse from one place to another through the junctions of neurons and axons. Voluntary contractions of tissues are also due to this substance. Parasympathetic fibres passing to iris of eyes, salivary glands, stomach, intestines, bladder etc. produce this substance.
In both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems there are preganglionic and postganglionic fibres. Preganglionic and postganglionic fibres of parasympathetic system are parasympathetic. In sympathetic system, preganglionic fibres are parasympathetic and postganglionic fibers are sympathetic. In a part of the body where there are both type of fibres, the functions are opposite to each other.
Comparative description is as follows-
| Body parts | Sympathetic effect | Parasympathetic effect |
|-----------------------------|-------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Heart | increase in heart rate | decrease in heart rate |
| Gastro-intestinal track | reduction in peristalsis | increase in peristalsis |
| Eyes | dilatation of pupils | contraction of pupils |
| Digestive system | decrease in juices secretion | increase in juices secretion |
| Blood supply of abdomen | contractions | relaxations |
| Blood supply of tissues | relaxations | contractions |
2. **Regulation of functions of nervous system through mind**
All the important internal organs of our body are connected to sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of autonomic nervous system- this is obvious from anatomy. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are motor by functions that is why it carries impulse to these organs. Formerly it was believed that autonomic nervous system functions independently and there is no interference by brain or spinal cord. But experiments and inventions changed this belief. In spite of being independent their functions are under control of brain. Figure 2 illustrates how its complete function is controlled. Through the five senses when any kind of impulse or stimulation reaches brain then it is first analyzed in brain. After that a necessary motor reaction is produced. For the activation of this reaction if internal viscera are required then its impulse passes to sympathetic system from where it is send to all the internal viscera. As per the nature of sympathetic system, all these viscera are stimulated intensely. For example, fear related stimulation causes dilatation of pupils, increase in heart rate, increase in respiratory rate etc. This way what is decided by will (brain) is passed on to the important organs of body through autonomic nervous system. If as a result of stimulations such an impulse is generated in mind (brain) which is supposed to activate parasympathetic system then it will not activate sympathetic system. At this time sympathetic system remains inactive and normal situation in body organs will be maintained. Wherever sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres contact with each other in cells, a junction is created. A neurotransmitter is released in this gap which enters in that tissue cell. After entering the cell it regulates neurotransmission energy and starts working upon related activity and process. As a result of this the target organ functions.
Usually all the body organs function with an optimum velocity to continue physical processes according to necessity. Changes in this velocity occur only due to external stimuli which reach to these organs through autonomic system. One another important aspect is that any external stimuli or impulse do not reach to the target organs in the same form as they are received by the receptors but they reach as a reaction. Generation of a reaction is completely dependent on brain. Thus it is also proved that functions of autonomic nervous system are basically regulated by mind (brain).
**Question for study**
1. Write the structure of autonomic nervous system.
2. Describe function results of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
3. In which part Acetylcholine is produced?
4. How many nerves arise from spinal cord in parasympathetic division?
5. Describe three plexuses formed by sympathetic division.
**References**
(1) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J.Tortora and N.P. Anagnostokas.
(2) Sharir Kriya Vigyan – Kantipandey, Pramila Verma.
(3) Psychobiology of Mind Body Healing – E.L.Rossi
CHAPTER: 16 –
IMMUNITY AND IT’S AUGMENTATION BY PREKSHA MEDITATION
AIMS - after studying this chapter students will –
(1) Acquire knowledge about immune process.
(2) Be able to understand relations between mind and immunity.
(3) Be able to understand the process of increase in immunity through Preksha Meditation.
TOPICS –
(1) Introduction
(2) Process of immunity
2.1 Natural immunity
2.2 Acquired immunity
(3) Regulation of immunity through mind
(4) Augmentation of immunity through Preksha meditation
1. Introduction
Brain controls all the activities of body either physical or chemical. In this crosses the first function is to transmit external and internal impulses through sensory nerves to the brain. These sensory nerves and all these imposes are basically connected to five senses which are – ear, eye, nose, tongue, and skin. Through these senses when impulse reaches cerebrum of brain then forced it is analyzed there. In this function there is any important role of limbic system and hypothalamus of brain. Of analysis form of reaction is decided. Since for a reaction to be provided the form of action any system or organ of body can be of help that is why mainly three routes of reaction arise from brain. In first route reactions from cerebrum are processed by sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system. Neurotransmitters arising from sympathetic fibres immediately stimulate all the organs related to this system. As a result their activities increase. In the second route the impulse of reaction coming from cerebrum passes through hypothalamus and reaches to pituitary gland. This in its progress stimulates various endocrine glands to secrete hormones. This hormone then mixes up with blood circulation. In the third route of impulse transmission reaction is to activate immune mechanism. This way we see that for any change to take in our body, brain is responsible either directly or indirectly. It is not wrong to say that without activity, power, and interference of brain regulation of various physiological activities is not possible. These processes include autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system.
2. Immune mechanism
In human body one of the various systems gifted by nature is immune system. Actually it is not the individual system. But some particular tissues of circulatory system and lymphatic system together control immune mechanism. Even after so many scientific researches immune mechanism is still complicated. Function of immune mechanism is to protect body from those bacteria, viruses, organisms and toxic substances which create harm if enter our body. Immune mechanism is of two types
1. Natural (inborn)
2. Acquired
2.1 Natural immunity
In natural immunity which is also called general immunity, skin, other secretions of body, some enzymes are included. Besides, white cells of blood, lisozome, polypeptides, and some particular types of proteins are included. These all attack and destroy foreign substances in blood circulation. These destroyed substances are then excreted from body. In this mechanism white cells play the most important role. In an adult and healthy person there are about seven thousands of white cells per cubic millimeter of blood.
These white cells are of five types. Their percentage amount in blood is as follows – Neutrophils-40-70%, Eosinophils-0-4%, Basophils-0-2%. Monocytes-2-10% and Lymphocytes-20-45% In this natural immunity role or monocytes and neutrophils play the most important part in destroying foreign substances like bacteria, viruses, and toxic substances. Neutrophils are mature white cells which destroy foreign organisms in blood circulation whereas monocytes are immature white cells which get localized at the site of wound and multiply five fold in their number and take form of macrophages. These macrophages engulf and destroy bacteria trying to intrude in circulation thereafter these macrophages themselves get destroyed.
A human body continuously tries to maintain equilibrium. This process also includes protection from disease producing organisms called pathogens. In natural immune mechanism following ways of defense are found in our body.
I. Skin and mucus layers
II. Phagocytosis
III. Inflammation
IV. Fever
V. Antibacterial chemical substance
2.1.1 Skin and mucus layers
Skin and mucus layers are the first line of defense. Many kinds of mechanical and chemical processes by them are helpful in protecting body.
As a mechanical process skin forms a strong protective layer around body and thereby protects. It’s two layers called dermis and epidermis which are having an endothelium called keratin, form a tough barrier and organisms to enter the body. Besides this, due to continuous tear from a layer of skin called epidermis the organisms attached to it are automatically removed. These way organisms are prevented to enter the body.
Mucous layers are seen just below the skin with connective tissue. Through this a slimy substance called mucous is secreted due to which inner and outer layers of skin remain moist. Because of mucous many organisms and bacteria get entangled to it and thereby our body is protected. Pores found in our nostrils also secrete mucous due to which organisms, dust particles, and other polluted particles from the inspired air are filtered. For the same reason there are fine pores in the upper part of trachea. This way the inspired organisms and dust particles are prevented to enter the lungs. In our eyes there are tear glands. These glands secrete a watery substance called tears. This substance doesn’t only keep the eyes moist but also prevents dust particles and micro-organisms to enter the eyes and helps keeping the eyes clean. When a particle enters in the eye tear glands become active and start producing more amount of tear and thereby remove the particle. There is a difference between ratio of production and excretion of tears. The production season more compared to excretion. This way the process of removal of foreign particle is enhanced.
Among chemical reactions sebaceous glands found in our skin secretes an oily substance called sebum. This substance keeps the skin moist and oily. In this sustenance there is an unsaturated fatty acid which prevents micro-organisms to grow on the skin. Same way sweat glands found in the skin secrete sweat which helps in maintaining the body temperature as well as removing the micro-organisms. Sweat contains an enzyme called lysozome which helps in destroying the bacteria.
2.1.2 Phagocytosis
If after crossing the first line defense of skin any bacteria enters the body and reaches blood circulation then it is destroyed by the process of phagocytosis. In this process micro-organisms or other foreign substances are destroyed by the cells called phagocytes. The phagocytes are of two types –
1. Granulocytes 2. Macrophages
The white blood cells called neutrophils play an important and maximum role in phagocytosis. Whereas eosinophils play a limited role.
2.1.3 Inflammation
When body’s cells or injured due to intrusion of micro-organisms or other injury or due to chemical substance then the process of information starts. This is a defense mechanism which has four major symptoms are as follows.
1. Redness over injured area.
2. Pain
3. Heat
4. Swelling
Inflammation is a defense mechanism through which organisms, toxic substances, and foreign particles are removed from the injured area so that they cannot spread in body. Immediately after this process gradually the symptoms are relieved. At this site the damaged tissues are reformed.
2.1.4 Fever
The main reason for fever in body is super infection by bacteria or virus. In this condition body temperature abnormally increases, as a result growth of micro-organisms is stopped and processes of reestablishment start. This way we see that fever itself is not a disease but it is a sign of outward manifestation of internals illness and a process of activating immune mechanism.
2.1.5 Antibodies
Besides the above described mechanical and chemical systems our body also creates so many anti-bacterial elements which defense our body in various ways. Some of the main anti-bacterial chemical Substances are - 1. Interferon 2. Compliment 3. Propordin
(i) Interferon
The cells infected by a virus or bacteria produce a special type of protein which is called interferon. These are of three types - alpha, beta, and gamma. In humans they’re mainly produced by white blood cells called lymphocytes. These Special types of proteins come in contact with those cells which are not infected and stimulate them to produce antiviral protein. This prevents the growth of virus and infection is cured.
(ii) Compliment
This chemical substance is a combination of such 20 proteins picture found in a healthy blood. After intrusion of micro-organisms in body this Special protein combines with them and prevents their growth.
(iii) Propordin
Like complement this is also a complex of three proteins which combines with bacteria and prevents their growth.
Description disease protecting white blood cells
1. Total number of blood white cells 7000 per cubic mm of blood
2. Percentage of various types of white cells
Neutrophils-40-70%
Eosinophils-0-4%
Basophils-0-2%
Monocytes-2-10%
Lymphocytes-20-45%
2. In inborn immunity
a. Neutrophils and Monocytes – Destroy intruding bacteria and virus.
b. Neutrophils destroy bacteria and virus in blood circulation.
c. Monocytes engulf bacteria and virus after they enter into tissues through blood circulation.
**Acquired immunity**
Acquired immunity is a unique immunity system developed in our body which is useful in destroying harmful bacteria, virus, and toxic substances. This process is not developed in our body until those particular types of bacteria, virus, and toxic substances enter in the body. All these foreign substances are commonly known as antigens. In this special type of immunity to identify and destroy these antigens, two types of abilities are developed in the body: 1. Cellular immunity 2. Humoral immunity.
In cellular immunity amongst white blood cells, one develops as Lymphocyte T-cells. It is called T-Cell lymphocyte. When an antigen enters macrophages bring it in contact with T-Cells, and due to the result of it, T-Cells are indirectly stimulated, increase in size and divide to change into various types of T-Cells. As a result of this process, following types of T-Cells are produced.
1. Amplifier T-Cells - Increase efficacy of other T-Cells.
2. Memory T-Cells - Identify antigens.
3. Helper T-Cells - Facilitate antibody production.
4. Suppressor T-Cells - Prevent antibody production.
5. Killer T-Cells - Directly attack antigen and destroy them.
6. Allergy T-Cells - Develop allergy.
Generated and multiplied T-Cells are spread in blood circulation, search for the antigens and destroy them by directly combining.
Some lymphocytes convert into B-Cells. When these B-Cells come in contact with antigen, their multiplication starts. They also increase in size and divide to change into Plasma B-Cells and Memory B-Cells. Plasma B-Cells produce antibodies which combine with antigen and destroy them, whereas Memory B-Cells facilitate destruction of antigens in blood.
**3. Regulation of immunity through mind.**
One important fact in regulation of immunity through mind is that besides receiving direct impulses from the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system play an important role in the three routes of immunity system coming out of the brain. The main neurotransmitters coming out of the autonomic nervous system Acetylcholine, nor-epinephrine, encephollin etc connect with T-cells of the immune mechanism because they have got receptors for these hormones. By this contact, they boost up the capacity of T-Cells. The same way, endocrine hormones, in which ACTH, vasopressin, oxytocin, and adrenaline are the mains, stimulate defensive cells through their receptors. In immune mechanisms, antibodies are destroyed by T-cells or B-cells either after their multiplication or through antibodies. During this process, some particular secretions are found to be coming from these cells which are called immuno-transmitters. These immuno-transmitters send feedback messages to the hypothalamus of the autonomic nervous system so that the process continues till all the antigens and foreign bodies are completely destroyed. This way, it is clear that during the whole complex procedure from multiplication of T-cells and B-cells to destruction of antigens, the brain
**Figure**
has an influence through the hypothalamus, autonomic nervous system, and pituitary gland. Activity of the brain does not only influence acquired immunity but also controls it indirectly.
**4. Augmentation of immunity by Preksha meditation.**
In preksha meditation, the following procedure is effective in enhancing immunity.
As a result of repeated performances of Anupreksha, new thoughts if enhancements of immunity are generated in memory area of brain and these information reaches to neurotransmitters and immunotransmitters. Immunotransmitters are received by white cells due to which their capacity increases. This whole process can be explained as follows.
Anupreksha experiments
\[ \text{Generation of thoughts of immunity enhancement in brain} \]
**Command**
Access of neurotransmitters in blood circulation various nerves of nervous system
\[ \downarrow \]
Reception of messages by the receptors of white blood cells.
\[ \downarrow \]
Enhancement in the capacity of white blood cells
---
**Command**
Access of endocrinal hormones in from to blood.
\[ \downarrow \]
Stimulation of white blood cells on receiving them
\[ \downarrow \]
Secretion of immunotransmitters.
\[ \downarrow \]
Enhancement in immunity
---
Anupreksha exercises are of prime importance in Preksha meditation to enhance immunity. But besides that ‘Bhavkriya’, diet control and positive changes in life style are also helpful in enhancing immunity.
**Questions for study**
1. Describe the process of defense mechanism.
2. Describe acquired immunity.
3. Describe white blood cells.
4. How many types of T-cells there are?
5. What is an antigen?
**References**
(1) Sharir Kriya Vigyan – Kanti Pandey, Pramila Verma.
(2) Human Physiology – A.J.Vander, J.H.Sherman & D.C.Luciano.
(3) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – G.J.Tortora and N.P.Anagnastakos.
(4) Psychobiology and Mind Body Healing – E.L.Rossi.
CHAPTER-17:
THEORY OF NATUROPATHY, PRINCIPLE AND CATEGORIES
AIMS -
After the study of this chapter students will
(1). Acquire the knowledge of basic principles of Naturopathy.
(2). be acknowledged with the facets and categories of Naturopathy
(3) Acquire ability to put in to practice Naturopathy.
TOPICS -
(1). Introduction of Naturopathy.
(2). History of Naturopathy.
(3). Vision of Naturopathy.
(4). Facets of Naturopathy.
(5). Principles of Naturopathy.
(6). Categories of Naturopathy.
1.0 introduction of naturopathy
Naturopathy subjectively is the treatment of elements which literally means diagnosis and treatment of 'Tritap' ('Adhidaivik', 'Adhibhautik', and 'Adhyatmic') from through six elements. Physical ailments are also included in it. In other words it can be seen that in naturopathy with the help of six elements viz. sky, air, fire, water, and earth every kind of diseases are treated. Naturopathy is being known by many names and is put into practice in many ways. Among these some of the names are- 'Prakriti Chikitsa', 'Prakritik Chikitsa', 'Naisargik Chikisa', 'Prakritikopachar', 'Jal Chikitsa', 'Swabhavik Chikitsa', 'Nisargopachar', 'Kudarati Ilaj' etc. (Nature-cure, Naturopathy, Naturotherapy etc.). Subjectively no names amongst these are complete in relation with the usage of naturopathy. Possibly due to this reason some of the learned people recognised this science as the science of life or art of living. Naturopathy is not just a system of treatment of diseases but it is also an art of living a healthy, happy, and long life. Its speciality lies in the fact that the principles which are put into practice in maintaining health are also useful at the time when life becomes miserable. In both the situations rules are the same. By observing same rules and regulations a person can maintain his health and in the condition of not observing the rules suffers from diseases. By again taking resort to these rules he can reestablish his health.
2.0 history of naturopathy
The techniques and procedures of naturopathy are in vogue for many centuries. This system has been into practice since the time of Hippocrates, who was during 460-377 B.C., and who is considered the father of modern therapy. Hippocrates had said that nature is the greatest therapist. According to him a balanced and adequate diet is more important than medicines. The father of naturopathy was Vincent Pricenij we who had established a Naturopathic nursing home in Sicilian series of mountains before two centuries. He was an under educated but a literate person and he was gifted with an extraordinary intelligence. He had invented the health improving power of cold bath ('Sheet snan') based on his logic. Later on his Therapeutic Centre became the religious place of naturopathy. Whenever a new invention or a principle is presented a strong opposition arises. Same way Pricenij also had to face a strong opposition. His opponents called him uncivilized, undisciplined and a fool and insulted him. He was sued to court for an accusation of invention of wrong principle. But these tortures made him famous. He placed a stone before his dispensary which read 'YOU MUST BE PATIENT'. He used to say that only patience can make you free from diseases. On the basis of his experiences and logics he presented a principle that the only way of getting rid of chronic diseases is to enhance the body's own immunity. In this process body gradually rejects accumulated toxic agents and impacted faecal matter.
After Pricenij, Johns Skrath moved these principles ahead. Making progress in this work he gave new facets to Naturopathy on the basis of his experiences and logics. Like Pricenij, Skrath also had to face opposition. Coincidently, during the time of Scrath, one Mr. Duke of Vintsbourg got a deep non healing wound on his leg which did not heal in spite of great deal of treatments by many doctors. According to doctors the only way to treat was to cut off the leg. On Scrath’s recommendations he gave a chance to him. Miraculously the wound healed completely. Impresses, Duke gave lots of publicity to Scrath’s new system of medicine due to which Scrath’s Naturopathy not only was authenticated but also made the opponents permanently tight lipped. In the progress of Naturopathy contributions of Father Sebastian Nip, German Dr. Hanneric Lohmann, Kunhe, and Adolph Just are unforgettable. American therapist J.C. Jackson was the first to give new facets to Hydrotherapy. Dr. Russell T. Tral established Hygienic college of therapy in Florence in which only Naturopathy was being taught. Dr. J.H. Kellogg and Dr. Henry Lindnar excessively nurtured Naturopathy. Dr. Tilden described treatment of many diseases by means of changing behaviour. The book ‘Impaired Health’ describes his all procedures. Dr. Benedict Lust who was a disciple of Dr. Nip bestowed a system of treating diseases through diet control. Besides this, many therapists nurtured Naturopathy by their hard work and gave it new directions. Indian therapists’ contributions are also not less for today’s structure of Naturopathy which is before us.
**Vision of Naturopathy**
While living close to nature and observing laws of nature no one can be unhealthy. Why is it so that wild animals are healthy and attractive? Simple answer is that they are close to nature. They sleep on ground, drink water from natural sources, breathe pure open air, receive adequate sunlight, eat natural of food like fruits, leaves, grass etc. The result is that they are never unhealthy. Whenever there is any disturbance in their health than the nature itself becomes a therapist and cures them. By means of behavioural changes another. And on the contrary human are eager to take strongest medicine on becoming unhealthy even a little. This is because we neither care for the natural resources nor do we use them.
These medicines which are artificially made, mixing with blood as much act as toxic chemicals destroying body tissues and cells as they help in healing the disease.
The secret of Naturopathy is gifted by nature itself. The entire universe is made of elements found in free or combined forms. In terms of Chemistry there are 107 elements in total e.g. Sodium, Potassium, Iron, Calcium, Phosphorus, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen etc. According to scientists all the objects in this universe regardless in any form are made of combination of these elements. Stone, gas, water, animals, earth, plants, humans are created with the combination of these elements. Hydrogen and Oxygen when combined in a proper ratio in a proper atmosphere produce water, in a proper ratio if Sodium and Chlorine combine, they form salt. Carbon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen combining in a proper ratio give rise to formation of protein ‘Jeans’ are formed by D.N.A. and in the formation or D.N.A. again those proteins and other non-carbonic chemicals are used. Till these chemical compounds are in a balancing level, physical functions are appropriate. Due to some reason when this balance is disturbed then it creates disease. To treat this disease it is necessary to remove this chemical imbalance and that too in a natural way. This is the vision and principle of Naturopathy.
**Facets of Naturopathy**
It is said that prevention is better than cure. Prevention is connected to our habits and lifestyle. A person falls ill only when his immunity is diminished. In other words, force of life reduces or becomes week and defense ability is reduced. Force of life is a combination of physical ability, mental-physical power, vigour, and happiness. Amount and flow of force of life are the characteristics of health. Sick pale face, continuous pain in body, headache, dyspepsia, and constipation are the signs of low level of force of life. If we succeed in enhancing the vital force then we will definitely be safe. That is why it is necessary to regulate our natural processes and daily routine. These are called facets of naturopathy. For enhancement of vital force, following facets should be paid attention(1) Sleep (2) Sunlight (3) Air
(4) Water (5) Food (6) Lifestyle
**Sleep** - It is necessary to take an adequate sleep. Sleep does not relieve tiredness but also fulfills lack of vital energy. During sleep requirement of energy is minimum. But sleep is not sufficient in a person under a stressful condition. In such a case use of ‘Yogic nindra’ (Yoga sleep) is beneficial. The more the Infants and children sleep, the healthier they remain. A sleep of 6 to 8 hours a day is necessary for adults for a good health (physical as well as mental). The proverb “Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise” is applicable even today. But it is necessary to be relaxed before going to bed. Worry is harmful, allow it only while awake.
**Sunlight** – The first requirement after waking from sleep is the sunlight of the rising sun. Just like plants get parched without sunlight, to maintain a good health also sunlight is necessary. No other source of light can be a substitute. It is quite possible that a person devoid of sunlight will become a dead. Sun is the eternal source of energy for the entire universe. Receiving light from it, plants prepare food for us. All the biochemical processes in our body are dependent on sunlight. Thus, sunlight forms the second important basis of Naturopathy.
**Air** – One of the most important qualities of life is metabolism. Metabolic process can be divided into two parts. Compound elements received by food are broken down into their basic elements which is called catabolism. We eat various types of food but once it is assimilated in our body, it gets turned into flesh, bones, hormones, neurotransmitters, blood, tears etc. Besides metabolism, to carry out other organic, mechanical, and chemical processes also energy is required. For this air (Oxygen) is continuously required. So, in any condition we need pure air which contains adequate oxygen for our life and health. This it is considered the next step of Natural healing.
**Water** – “Water is life” this is a common truth. The reason behind is that 70 percent of our body comprises of water. It is nourishing as well as necessary for cleanliness. It is a required and indivisible component of hormones, juices and other secretions. Its balance should be maintained in our body otherwise great difficulties can be created for our life and health. That is why it is considered to be the important facet of Naturopathy.
**Life-style** – Everyone lives its own life but some of the people live healthily while others unhealthily. It has become an established fact that life-style creates a deep impact on health. Our food, drinks, behaviour, our dressing, etc. have a great influence on our health. Naturopathy has an innate relationship with health, in other words we can say that necessity of interference of therapy only becomes necessary when the rhythm of health is disturbed. That is why it can be said that life-style is also an important facet of Naturopathy.
**Ten pioneer principles of Naturopathy**
1. **All diseases are the same, reason is same, therapy also same**
Naturopathy is a vision. According to its principle all the diseases are basically the same, their reasons are also the same and therapy is also the same.
Just as a truth presents in different forms, gold is exhibited as different ornaments, same way Naturopathy also has this firm principle that only one foreign element in human body is reflected as many diseases and various names.
According to the above mentioned principle of Indian culture, human body is a single and sole unit. The whole human is single and in-separate. The whole world is one and in-separate. The whole universe is one and in-separate. The power of empire that unites the whole universe is single and in-separate and this
is the meaning of ‘Sarvakhalvidam Brahma’. This very principle of unity is the major principle of vision of Naturopathy. With an intangible vision and thinking the singularity of various diseases affecting humans starts appearing. All the diseases in spite of being many in number are basically the same. They differ only in their forms and categories. This fact can be cleared with an example –
There are four animals in a family. All of them are living unnatural life. Consume drugs and other intoxicating agents. Eat everything voraciously. Do not exercise. Do not utilize clean water, sunlight, fine air etc. nature’s gifts adequately. As a result their blood becomes toxic. Their body becomes saturated with toxic materials called ‘Foreign elements’ (‘Vijatiya dravya’). Finally all of the four animals have to become ill at any time so that nature can remove that foreign element in their bodies to make them healthy.
Depending up on condition, age, tendency etc all of them cannot suffer from same disease despite that the reason is the same. One of them can suffer from diarrhea, another can suffer from fever, and someone can have piles. All these diseases are different but basically have same background i.e. excretion of foreign elements from the body in different ways. Now what can be the duty of the patient and the therapist in the process of excretion? Only to facilitate and to aid this advantageous process. This can be done by fasting, water therapy (‘Jalopachar’), fomentations, clay bandage, massage, enema etc. These procedures open and activate outlets of excretions and thereby facilitate rejection of foreign elements. Thus we will see that all the diseases are actually the same, their reasons, diagnosis and treatment are also the same. In majority of cases it is seen that a person goes to a Naturopathist for the treatment of an ailment, but with treatment he also becomes free of various other minor diseases along with the chief ailment permanently. This is a striking example of the fact that all the diseases are the same and they are cured with only a single type of therapy because they have the same reason- accumulation of toxic materials in the body.
2. Micro-organisms not due to disease.
Through the above explanations after believing the toxic substances to be the reason of diseases, it becomes undoubted that micro-organisms are not due to diseases as the modern Allopath doctors not only believe it but it is their principle also.
The reality is that if we are habituated to consume proper food regularly then micro-organisms which are universally spread, cannot stay on in our body. But they get converted into innumerable healthy cells which our body is composed of. But if our food habits are irregular and unnatural then these universal particles will take the form of micro-organisms in our body and make us diseased.
It is a natural law that all the molecules of every object in the universe are continuously motile. Those objects whose molecules have same velocity have attraction with each other, and those having opposite velocity have repulsion with each other. So, according to this principle existence of micro-organisms is possible only in those bodies which already have the reason for disease i.e. foreign element, or those who are already diseased, or those who are liable to receive disease. But those bodies who have healthy nourishing elements which are opposite to micro-organisms, are impossible of being infected with those micro-organisms according to the law of nature. And if it is at all possible then because of the presence of immunity in these bodies, the toxic nature of micro-organisms will be destroyed and they themselves will be annihilated. In a healthy body, even all of the micro-organisms of the world together cannot create disease. But in the body which has impurities to nourish these organisms, they will always grow and create disease. This way we see that micro-organisms are not due to disease but the disease itself is due to micro-organisms.
3.0 Severe diseases are friends and not enemies.
One famous naturopathist said “You give me fever, I will give you health”. That means to cure a body containing toxic materials disease like intense fever is the only true solution. In body there is continuous production of toxic elements, which are excreted from our body through various outlets like
pores of skin, rectum, kidneys etc. If due to any reason these toxic substances can not be excreted out then they try to come out by producing illness. This condition is called disease. After understanding this fact it becomes clear how important production of disease is when need arises. In other words, diseases are not enemies but they are friends which provide health. For example suppose that nature wants to clear faecal material from abdomen. This can be done by inducing vomiting or diarrhoea. With this there may be excessive thirst. To clear impurities of brain they may be cold, cough, excessive thirst and running nose etc. What we know as a disease is in fact a therapy. On becoming ill we should try to look for our faults. We should think that by getting ill we're paying for the mistake we made and it is for our own benefit. Because if toxic materials would have continued to accumulate then the future would have been dangerous. Life would have been miserable, early death would have occurred. Thus there is no reason to fear from a disease; on the contrary it is wise to welcome a disease.
Now a question arises that if diseases are as the results of nature's efforts to purify our body then why do people die because of them? The answer is that in such cases either the force of life is diminished or there is an access of toxic materials in the body war the treatment taken is inadequate for harmful. In such cases nature fails its purification process and the patient dies.
The pleasure we get from sleep after getting tired, the pleasure that food offers when we are hungry, the peace we get on praying God during difficulties, the same amount of peace and pleasure one should get after getting rid of a disease. If the disease has not been suppressed then the patient should feel that his body is free of a burden and rejuvenated. If this feeling is not there then it means that there is some hurdle in the sanctity the nature wanted to offer through disease.
4.0 Nature itself cures
It is believed in naturopathy that life is controlled by a strange, surprising, and almighty power which staying in the back of every life takes care of birth, death, health, a disease etc. To this great power the naturopathists call as Life-force, 'Divine power'. This power when feels the need of creating a disease then it creates decease.
and the same power releases us from the decease and provides health. Therapy is a power which resides in us. Only it maintains health in us and protects us from diseases. God has said in Shree Geeta –
अहं वैश्वानरो मृत्यु प्रणिनां देहमाश्रितः।
प्राणापन समायुक्तः पचाम्यन्तं चतुर्विधम्॥
Means, "It is me in the body of all the animals taking the form of appetite, digest all the four types of foods." Thus all the processes and conditions of body are due to the presence of this central power. It does not remove only physical disabilities but also help to get rid of mental perversions.
We are astounded to think how nature has created human body with great deal of intelligence and efficiency. It makes us surprised as to what a great efficiency has been used in creation of organs and arrangement of fulfillment of all the needs of these organs. How surprising it is that God has arranged for every requirement ready to use in this little body itself. The vital force alleviates disease produced by the combination of these things and keeps functioning for reconstruction and improvements of body starting from birth to death. This power fails only when we ourselves out of ignorance create disturbances in it's way or interfere in it's functions.
5.0 Treatment of the whole body of the patient and not of the disease.
Other system of medicines have emphasized on treatment of diseases. But in Naturopathy the whole body of the patient is treated and is rejuvenated. Through this, all the signs of disease vanish. Those things which are named disease in other systems are called signs of disease in the terms of Naturopathy. The actual disease is the accumulated foreign substance or toxic element which when gets chance, tries to come out in the form of disease. That is why, it should not be the symptoms which should be treated, but
the disease itself should be treated. This is done in Naturopathy. On getting headache, it is not the headache which should be treated, but reasons for headache such as digestive disturbances or impurity of blood etc. should be treated which will cure the headache.
With Naturopathy, every disease can be cured but not every diseased person. Because cure of the diseased person depends on following five points –
(1) What is the amount of foreign matter (Toxic substances) in the diseased person’s body?
(2) Whether there is vital force in the person’s body which is essential for the treatment.
(3) Up to what extent the patient has taken or taking treatment? Is he loosing patience?
(4) Before starting treatment of Naturopathy was he given harmful medicines? Or was he operated?
(5) Does the patient have a faith on Naturopathy?
6.0 Disease diagnosis is much necessary.
As explained above Naturopathy does not treat disease, but it treats diseased person. In this situation there is no question of disease diagnosis. Uselessness of disease diagnosis is proved from the fact that, if nature wished to allow doctors to look through to the internal processes of the body of a diseased person, then instead of providing us with the opaque layer of skin and flesh, it would have provided us with transparent membrane around us so that the doctors can easily look through as to what disturbances there are inside the body and there by easily diagnose. This proves that nature does not wish us to make efforts behind diagnosis of diseases which is absolutely unnecessary for the treatment. For diagnostic purpose human intelligence has designed so many equipments which are incapable of exploring the secrets of nature, then how can we expect them to be of help in disease diagnosis. And this is the reason that those who try to diagnose are wrong in 90 percent of cases and rest of the 10 percent are true only coincidently or accidentally. Not it can easily be understood that how harmful the doctors of wrong therapies depending on wrong diagnosis are for human society. How big responsibilities they take on their shoulders and give harmful results which patients have to pay for.
This way it can be said that accumulation of foreign matter in the body is the disease. For diagnosis, a naturotherapist is only supposed to look for the part of the body where this toxic matter is located-in the front part, sides, back or spread in the whole body as in obese people. If this foreign matter is minor then it can be soon removed with naturotherapy, if it is in the sides then it is removed with somewhat difficulties as compared to the front and if it is in the back or spread all over the body then the problem is considered complicated. Besides this, diagnosis can also be made looking to the conditions of face, neck of the patient, skin tone and also by listening to the complaints of the patient. In every situation the aim is to find out as to where the toxic matter is accumulated in access. With keen observation not only a Naturotherapist can see the problem but also other can see it and think of it’s proper treatment. This say we see that in the diagnostic procedure in Naturopathy there is no chance for failure or making mistake.
There is one more difference between disease diagnosis of doctors and Naturotherapists. Doctors have been trying to acquire knowledge of diagnosis through dissection of dead bodies for ages. Whereas a Naturotherapist takes in to consideration processes occurring in living body and works his way within no time.
7.0 Treatments of chronic diseases take time.
One of the opponents of Dr.Lindlar told him while accusing on Naturopathy that Naturopathy takes too much time in curing patients, up to an extent that they are bored. But doctor said that absolutely not. With Naturotherapy, patient get well very soon and not only that it is the fastest therapy available in the world. But the problem is that we get most of the patients of chronic diseases who have got disappointed after taking treatments from everywhere.
In fact, patients disappointed from everywhere take their last resort to Naturopathy. At that time they are not only affected by the disease but also with harmful medicines. That’s why a Naturopathist doesn’t only have to treat the actual disease but also has to eliminate the toxins of those medicines which may take months or sometimes years. Besides, the meaning of this therapy is not only to eliminate disease but also to acquire a new life, become completely healthy and powerful. Thus it is not the sort of waving a magic wand. This may take a long time.
8.0 Suppressed diseases come to surface with Naturopathy.
Where with other treatments, diseases are suppresses, with Naturopathy, suppressed diseases effervesce and then permanently go away. To understand this golden principle of Naturopathy, we will have to first understand as to what do we mean by ‘Effervescence’ in Naturopathy.
‘Effervescence’ is called in Naturopathy as severe form of disease, recurrence of old chronic disease, healing crisis or curative crisis. The simple meaning is that an intense reaction of disease in the treatment of a chronic disease, or exaggerated manifestation of suppressed disease under the effect of acquired vital force before getting removed from the body. This effervescence remains for two to four days or maximum for one week, then calms down and goes away leaving the patient in a state of health. A striking feature of this effervescence is that the suppressed disease reappears in the reverse order of its appearance and then go away.
Under the command of nature there are two main forces working viz. Constructive and Destructive, the examples of which we see everywhere. In Naturopathy the constructive force comes into play to create curative crisis, make a patient free of disease, and make him healthy. The destructive force creates destructive disease crisis and causes death of the patient. The second situation arises when the accumulated foreign matter in a patient’s body doesn’t come out of the outlets of the body and as a result of that the patient dies. Death is resulted only when disease progresses beyond his body’s annihilating power.
As above mentioned, the examples of ‘Effervescence’ are not only found in relation to diseases but also can be seen everywhere around. Dr. Lindhac has linked revolutions to be a healthy condition for big empires, improvements to be for religion and strikes and revolts to be for business related.
Sometimes in summer on some day weather becomes too hot and humidity increases. This can be called as seasonal crisis because after it wind storm surely starts, there may occur a light or heavy rain following which the weather cools down.
After winter during fall season leaves start falling from all the trees and the trees become unclothed and exposed. This way nature creates curative crisis for them because a few weeks after this the trees again become green and covered with numerous newly grown leaves.
Just before passing stool or urine there is a feeling of urge with a little discomfort. What else it is then nature’s ‘Effervescence’? As soon after this one feels relaxed.
Menstruation in females, labour pain in females, pain of a suppurated boil, severe pain while removing a piercing thorn etc. are also some of the examples of nothing else but ‘Effervescence’.
All the critical diseases like cholera, fever, diarrhea, chicken pox etc. make efforts to eliminate toxic materials from our body through vital force. This can be called as intensive form of a disease or curative crisis.
This way we see that during treatment how important, beneficial, and essential it is for a disease to effervesce during which instead of panic we should be happy. It is not wise to induce effervescence quickly or to give it a severe form. In this situation hastening can harm. Nature should be allowed to complete it’s work gradually. Complicated effervescence have only been observed in those patients who had been taking harmful medicines before starting Naturopathy and to eliminate them Nature hurries.
Those who live a natural life and are free from medicines get less severe effervescence or no effervescence at all during therapy.
9.0 Treatment of mind, body, and soul together.
Healthy harmonious compatibility of body, mind, and soul means health. In naturopathy, health improvement of all these three is equally considered. This is the most important aspect of Naturopathy system. Naturopathists consider mental health of humans to be of more importance and superior than physical health, and spiritual health or spiritual power to be of supreme and maximum. Through a Naturopathist’s eye, physical health does not merely mean a disease-free body, but also he knows that the internal health is closely related to mind and soul.
Sukarat used to say that, “A human only physically strong is of no importance, a corpse is not a human, it is just a corpse, a body is just a body and nothing else.” But in a living human, mind and body have an integrated relation. Both should be considered one and one cannot be grown without another one. A man making his body strong while keeping his mind at its summit is on the way of bliss.
Natural lifestyle, natural food, and drink bring sanctity in our life and make us upfront. Controlling mind takes us to spirituality. If human race will accept and follow the vision of naturopathy then the earth will be free of cruelty, barbarism, and mirthlessness and the earth will become a heaven. Worship to God is the chief part of treatment of a diseased body, feeble soul, and a contaminated mind with Naturopathy, it is an unfailing system of therapy.
10. Use of irritating medicines in Naturopathy is out of question.
It is the principle of medicinal therapy that disease is an external element which attacks a body, so it should be defeated using the most powerful weapon. That’s why doctors, vaidyas administer toxic medicines like mercury, opium etc. and try to deal with diseases. But they never try to care about that a poison is after all a poison, whether its amount is large or small. It is always harmful and due to that the disease instead of shrinking, gets grave day by day. That is why in Naturopathy; use of such medicines is considered not only useless but also detrimental. Because, the principle of therapy in Naturopathy is exactly opposite to that of other therapies. In Naturopathy, disease is considered the internal matter and not external and it is removed with the use of exactly the same Natural mechanisms which produce disease when necessary. In other words, whatever measures we take to protect ourselves from diseases, on getting ill we use the same measures to eliminate the disease; comparable to a driver who drives a vehicle forwards as well as backwards with the use of the same power of steam. The energy which provides us the paramount health, the same energy also provides freedom from a disease. When a vehicle is moving backwards, the driver does not use any other external gadget to move it forwards. Same way when our body becomes ill, we do not need any external tool (medicine) to reestablish health, and neither there should be.
In the medicines of doctors there are no nutritional elements which are necessary for the body. And the reactions that take place in the body are not because of those medicines but are due to the body itself in which those lifeless medicines enter. Can a medicine act on a corpse? The question is not that what effects those medicines create. But the question is that how the body deals with the medicines taken. The body always tries to get rid of those external substances to make itself free of contamination. Naturopathists do not only consider these lifeless toxic medicines useless but also harmful.
When at the first instance we do not consume medicines especially some of the toxic medicines during health, then how come we consume them in a diseased condition and with what kind of hopes? The medicine which can harm a healthy person, then how is it possible that the same medicine will be beneficial during an illness?
As per mentioned under the principle 4, nature itself cures i.e. nature makes us free from a disease and not medicine. Medicine is not meant for making us free from a disease. Medicine is a stuff which is
brought in to work by nature for the purpose of repairing. It is so because; it is receivable by body and is used in elimination of foreign matter. This is the actual definition of a medicine and the medicine used by doctors is totally different from the definition of medicine. This way all the lively edible elements can be called medicine – air, water, fruits, vegetables and many non-toxic herbs which can be of use as edibles.
In Naturopathy these are the edibles and medicines as well. They are firstly edibles and then they are medicines.
This way wooden medicines fall under Naturopathy. Here the condition is that they should be fresh and non-irritant. If they are sole or of the same group then should not be mixed together more than two or three. In Naturopathy wooden medicinal therapy (‘Kasnth Aushadhopachar’) and diet therapy are the two names of same thing. Every substance may have parts which comprise human food, for body cells there are many fresh and effective medicines which are liberally used by Naturotherapists according to the patients’ tendency.
**Types of Naturopathy**
The principle of Naturopathy is resolute, unfailing, and unchangeable. Because the six elements which are considered valuable and helpful; will always be effective in the future. God, nature, and truth- all these three are anonymous and universal. Creation of human body with the use of air, water, fire, sky, and earth and presence of divine element in it is a truth too. So the system of therapy based on there six universal and real elements is also a truth, and is eternal. The best system of medicine is the one which has three qualities together – serenity, decontamination, and complementation. Naturopathy has got all these three qualities. With this therapy, the internal toxic matte which is the root of disease is eliminated and body is purified. This is the quality of decontamination. After that with painless procedures a patient becomes restful which is the quality of serenity. And with that patients are provided nourishing elements which is the quality of complementation.
Maharshi Suchrut has said that, ‘शरीर लाभ्व कर यदि कर्म वा पुनः तत्त्वधमितिक्रोऽ।’
Means, fasting removes reason of disease from the body i.e. toxic matter; the body becomes free, so fasting is the only treatment of all diseases.
Here the word ‘Fasting’ does not only mean literal. It also means all those therapeutic procedures which are carried out in Naturopathy for the treatment of disease viz. emesis (‘vaman’), purgation (‘virechan’), enema, steam bath, use of elements of water, use of elements of air, use of elements of fire, and use of elements of sky. According to Maharshi Charak –
चतुप्रकारण संशुद्धि, पिपासा, मारलातापी,
पाचनानुपवासश्च व्यायामशेवेतिलपनम्।।
Means ‘Fasting’ stands for following ten procedures for decontamination of body –
1) Emesis (‘Vaman Kriya’)
2) Purgation (‘Virechan Kriya’)
3) Enema
4) Steam bath
5) Various procedures of water element
6) Various procedures of air element.
7) Various procedures of fire elements
8) Various procedures of earth element.
9) Various procedures of sky element (fasting, sleep etc.)
10) Exercise.
All the above mentioned processes together are included in ‘Jal Chikitsa’, ‘Mitti Chikitsa’, ‘Vayu Chikitsa’, ‘Agni Chikitsa’, and ‘Akash Chikitsa’. These are discussed in detail in next chapter.
**Sample questions**
1. **Assays.**
1. Describe ten pioneer principles of Naturopathy.
2. Mention chief facets of Naturopathy.
2. **Short questions.**
1. Describe brief history of Naturopathy.
2. What is the basis of Naturopathy?
3. **Objective questions.**
1. Under what element does ‘Fasting’ fall in Naturopathy?
(a) Air (b) Earth (c) Sky (d) Importance
2. The best system of therapy is the one in which there are three qualities viz.-
(a) Complimentation, purgation, holding breath. (b) Respiration, sleep and serenity.
(b) Decontamination, complementation and serenity (d) Sound, sky and air.
**References –**
(1) Prakritik Ayurvedigyan – Dr. Rakesh Jindal (This book is the main basis of this chapter)
(2) Rogo ki sahi chikitsa – Dr. Nagendra Niraj and Manju Niraj
(3) Nature cine for common disease – V. Modi
CHAPTER: 18
SKY, AIR, FIRE, EARTH, AND WATER THERAPIES
AIMS –
(1) Acquire knowledge of various procedures of Naturotherapy.
(2) Achieving expertise in practicing procedures of Naturotherapy.
TOPICS –
(1) Sky element therapy.
(2) Air element therapy.
(3) Fire element therapy.
(4) Water element therapy.
(5) Earth element therapy.
1. Sky element therapy.
Sky is the most useful and the first element among the five elements. It is also called ‘Space’.
Just like God is formless but real, same way sky is also formless but real. God is everlasting. Same way sky is also everlasting – not even after the end of the world. Thus is the same case with sky. So it provides us a purity and clarity (Health). Angels are believed to be dwelling in skies which are undying. Using sky in adequately and properly, we can definitely become healthy and long living if not interminable.
Remember that in achieving formless element we never get a hard object. On the other hand hard objects can be achieved by energy. Same thing can also be applied to the formless sky because to achieve formless element, we need something formless. The power we find from God or sky is always precious and benevolent for the improvement of physical, mental, and spiritual health.
It is a fact that if sky would not have been constructed then we wouldn’t have existed. It is also the basis of remaining four elements. Internal energy and delightfulness is only possible due to the sky element.
Body’s creation: Body is composed of five elements, just like a poet has said –
पतन, पानी, पृथ्वी, प्रकाश और आकाश।
पचमूल के खेल से, बना जगत का पाण।।
Strange machine: Among all the creatures of nature, a human body is the strangest. A body is a small replica of universe.
‘यथा पिछे तथा ब्रह्मपिछे’
Sky is also the basis of universe. Fasting is a powerful tool to achieve it. By eating less food than our hunger we can attain happiness and peace by acquiring this precious element. We can compliment the deficiency of this element when ill by providing space to vital force from physical tasks through fasting. As a result of this we can get well ourselves. The functions of sky element are sorrow, desire, anger, affection, and fear. In our body the main locations of sky are – head, throat, heart, abdomen and waist. The sky located in brain is the part of air (‘Vayu’) and is the major site of soul. That is heart is a part of velocity and is the site of bile (‘Pitta’) and digests food. Sky located in abdomen is the part of water which facilitates elimination of excreta. The sky in waist area is the part of earth which is more of a steady and is the site of smell. We should not try to fill the sites of sky. If we control our diet then the body will enjoy
freedom. If we do fasting once in a week or a fortnight then this plus and minus are balanced. If full day fasting is not possible than giving off one or more times food intake will also be beneficial.
Achievement of sky element for the growth of our vital force and cure of disease can be done by celibacy and repression, nobleness, mental balance and discipline, rest and quietness, cheerfulness, entertainment and sound sleep besides fasting.
**Celibacy and repression**
In our religious books there are two groups of celibacy described. One is named ‘Upakurwan’ and another is ‘Naishthik’. When a disciple after studying one, two, or three Vedas, enters marriage life by order of his Guru, then it is called ‘Upakurwan’. When a disciple accepts celibacy for life time then it is called ‘Naishthik’.
**Repression-**
Celibacy and repression are closely related. Repression is the greatest ideal of human life. Observing restrictions in food intakes, drinks, thoughts, behaviour, and life-style, a man can remain healthy and happy physically as well as mentally. In the implementation of this rule there is no question of gratification of senses because, it is an art of life. Apparently it seems uninteresting and unacceptable to observe a restricted life but resultantly how much beneficial it is, is a matter of giving a thought, understand and experience. Subjectively repression is a natural duty of humans, from getting away of which, a human no longer can be a human.
Thus by control of mind implies control of speech as well as actions. Still our Maharshis have described different ways of controlling mind, speech, and actions in detail which are briefed as follows.
**Repression of Mind**
Mind control is very difficult. It is the basic reason of agility of mind. A man is in the hands of desires of humankind. He is governed by desires and plays in the hands of senses like speech, touch, attraction, anger, desire, fascination, arrogance etc. What is perplexing is that these desires neither can be fulfilled nor they are able to satisfy human desires. No one can ever be peaceful with them. These desires one after another victimize humans. Due to this a man is not in a position to think of his welfare. This happens due to the interchange between the master and the slave. We have allowed ruling our senses over our intellect. Humans require food, water, heard work etc. in their lives to fulfill basic requirements, but it is not wise to leave it on senses to decide which of the things they need in what amount, what frequently and at what time. It should be up to their intellect to take decisions. Training the intellect gradually makes it able to rule over senses.
Self-evaluation in solitude helps in mental cleanliness. Everyday before going to bed, thinking our good and bad acts is called self-consideration or self-evaluation. It is a quality of super-humans. It gradually alleviates mental agility. This is because we always try to conceal our bad qualities in front of others, but we can’t do the same with ourselves. So when we analyze our acts of the day, all of our hidden sins start coming in to consideration one by one. At that time we ourselves get terrified by looking to our bad qualities and determine not to repeat them again.
One other gadget of mind control is ‘Prayer’ which is lacking in current so called educated and civilized society. Every religion has mentioned to pray to god which is not fruitless. It facilitates mind control as well as sacredness of mind. About twenty minutes prayer every day is sufficient for mind control, and it works.
**Repression of speech**
Speech has got that power to deviate senses so, control of speech is very important for humans.
Making sarcastic comments to others, mocking, using bad words, expressing hatred, smirking, and making bad jokes, etc. are the signs of uncontrolled speech. Keeping away from these is called control of mind. Harsh words arouse conflicts and can break intimate relationship within no time. On contrary, a few words of love can turn enemies to friends. It has been said that –
“वचीकरण इक मन्त्र है तज़ दे वचन कठोर।”
Words have incredible power. ‘Word’ is the other name of ‘Mantras’ which accomplish impossible task. But not every word can be a mantra. Same say not mantras from every one’s tongue can have an influence. The man, who has got control, can only have that speech with incredible energy able to fascinate the listeners. People having control over speech have great influence on others; they can make others to do what they want.
The only way to control speech is quietness (‘Mounavalamban’). There is a great power in keeping mum. Peace is the other name of quietness from which all things in this world have been originated, and are going to mingle in the same at the end. In Vedas at which place peace is defined, it has been called ‘Shantam’ there. ‘Shantam’ is the basis of happiness. It is ‘Shantam’ which is called love, A, which is floating in our every breath. All the work done by nature is peaceful. A child grows in mother’s womb quietly; plants grow and get destroyed quietly. After confrontation with supreme power, an organisms becomes quiet. Nature is quiet; even the supreme power (‘Brahma’) itself is invisible and quiet, and this is the proof of eternal energy of quietness.
We should observe ‘Moun Vrat’ once in a week or a fortnight to control our speech. This day we should concentrate our mind and contemplate over God. We should think whether we have hurt anyone or got ourselves in to quarrel with someone during last few days, and repent on these deeds. Besides we should pray to God not to let us repeat the same acts in future.
**Repression of actions**
To understand good and bad actions and implements them is called control of actions. In this work we have to take resort to rationality. When there is any task before you and your intellect considers it to be a good one, then you should do it. If you have a wish to donate then do it, because afterwards you may lose the chance or may there be any obstacle in your way. Hold on your actions, and your actions are not going to leave you too. It is a pleasure in making good actions. The one, who is ‘Karmayogi’, can not be stopped from doing his actions (‘Karma’). An action without expectations (‘Nishkam Karma’) is the only escort in the way of life. One should do public welfare; not with expecting compensations, but with considering it to be a duty. Control of action is in making actions without expectations but this is not easy. Hypocrisy, ambitions, expectations etc. are enemies which try to put hurdles in the way of a ‘Karmayogi’ on every step. But with practice everything becomes possible. We should leave ourselves to while away with the stream of ‘Karma’. Not getting affected by ‘Karma’ is another gadget of control of actions. It is the body which makes actions, but mind should be intact. To remain bound with actions is called attachment (‘Bandhan’) which is different from control of actions.
**Discipline of mind and balance**
Everyone knows that mind has a great power. This power is also responsible for the health of humans. So, the outcome of a disease i.e. good or bad depends upon the mental condition of a person during disease. And why only disease, even death comes only after once a person is mentally ready to accept it. In other words, a person dies after he is mentally prepared for his death. This condition in mind is prepared automatically to get what is wished – death, disease, or health. This is the nature’s low. Mind is the centre of a secret energy which resides in brain. Mind is responsible for a man’s progress, regress, joy, sorrow etc.
Effects of evil thoughts are always reflected on our body at any point of time arousing mental or physical illnesses. Same way, effects of physical illnesses also impact adverse effects on mind.
**Use of mental power in the treatment of diseases**
Just as thought of disease creates actual illness in the body, same way positive spirits related to disease have got sufficient power to heal. Changes in thoughts start changes in health status. A man’s health depends on his high spirits in his mind about illness. When a treatment is less advantageous, then the reason may be lack of concentration of the patient or his unwillingness for the treatment. Such a patient no matter whether he goes for the best treatment, if he is not able to keep his mind free of stress, his disease will not be cured. A thought when is repeatedly considered, it takes form of a self-command which brings incredible changes in behaviour as well as in body. What a man thinks, that he becomes. This principle is also applicable in relation with health and diseases. So far as a man is pessimistic, every event of life makes him sadder. But when he becomes optimistic, every event turns to be of his own well-being. A change in flow of thoughts brings about changes in luck, health, and everything. On having will, all the mental powers are activated and change the situation. If will can change everything by faith, confidence and decision, then why can’t it remove diseases? It surely can. The all you need is just a strong faith and decision. If spirits are true and powerful then however slowly, it surely brings about changes in situations.
So, in morning and in evening a patient should willingly decide that his so and so disease will go away. While caressing hand on his own body, he should say with a true feeling, “I am healthy. There is no disease in me.” After a few days he will feel that he has become healthy and has got a new charm.
**Relaxation and immobility**
**What is relaxation?**
The simple meaning or relaxation is taking rest after work. Relief in tiredness, mental and physical peace after rest is called relaxation. Relaxation is not just physical. We can get relaxation only by getting both mental and physical relaxation. When we are at rest our body, especially brain is under constant stress. This happens due to the irresolute mind and this is not relaxation. See how relax a child is when asleep. How freely a child lies in bed with his body completely relaxed. This is the best way of relaxation. With practice we can we can have a habit of lying down relax. To stay relax is very important. In the Naturopathic term this is called Curative Relaxation which is one gadget of Sky therapy.
We need relaxation both during health and disease. Still we must know that relaxation and idleness are not the same. After working hard, regaining the lost energy through rest is called relaxation. But without working hard, taking rest increases inactiveness of mind and body and it is called idleness. Idleness makes mind and body inactive whereas relaxation provides energy and swiftness to mind and body. A lazy person is not willing to work whereas a relaxed person is always eager to do work. Such a person resumes back to work with a new energy.
**Fasting**
**What is fasting? Why fasting?**
The purpose of fasting is to provide rest to digestive organs. Basically, it is only during fasting that these organ can relax because normally we fill our stomach two to three times a day due to which our digestive organs have to constantly function.
In our Indian culture fasting has been given a lot of importance since ancient times. In our religious books fasting has been considered a tool for sacredness of mind and body. This ritual has been in vogue especially in Jainism and to a certain extent in Hinduism also.
Fasting is a natural condition. It is a natural need. Animals, birds, etc. every living organism needs fasting, and it is natural. A diseased animal is wiser than a diseased human which doesn’t even look at the
best of fodder when falls sick. This is because it understands that during sickness to eat something is poisonous and to keep fasting is a blessing and is the remedy for the disease. When we are sick, our hunger naturally vanishes and though being intellectual animals, we ignore the nature’s order and keep eating something and thereby suffer more. On becoming sick to keep away from toxic matter, fasting is a powerful weapon. During fasting, our vital force entirely works to eliminate the disease. Here we should understand one thing that fasting is not a process to create some new energy, but it facilitates elimination of toxic matter from our body which is responsible for the illness. This is the reason why because of fasting, our body becomes healthy and energetic. So this makes it clear that whoever is healthy does not need fasting. But if the healthy people occasionally do fasting then their health status will be maintained.
Many people mistakenly consider fasting as starving. As mentioned above that the toxic matter which is responsible for a disease, gets destroyed by the process of fasting. Besides, body starts using those elements which nature had stored in body as reserves so that they can be used when need arises. For example, a camel which is the animal of desert has to stay hungry for days; in this situation he fulfils his needs from the elements stored in its hump and fulfils need of water by an organ in its abdomen which stores water. On fasting, our weight is lost. In this situation our body receives its needs from the reserves of our body. At this time an actual appetite is felt. If fasting is still continued then our body gets its nutrition from those elements without which life is not possible. At this point death starts. From fasting death occurs only if it is continued beyond the point where body has eliminated all the toxic materials and essential tissues have destroyed. Till this point a man only loses weight, that’s all. But when body starts getting nutrition from essential tissues then only destruction of body starts and the person dies. This is the difference between fasting and starvation.
Medical expert Dr. Carrington has cleared this difference in a few words, “Fasting starts from last meal and ends at the beginning of appetite. And starvation starts from beginning of appetite and ends at death.”
Once someone asked Mahatma Gandhi, “Whenever you are in some trouble, why do you start fasting?” Mahatma Gandhi answered, “A devotee of nonviolence has got this only weapon. When a human intellect doesn’t work then he starts fasting. Fasting paves a way to worship. Means fasting is a spiritual thing which faces to God.”
It is true that fasting is the only way for sacredness of body, mind, and spirit but to get it’s thorough benefit one has to master this art. On having incomplete knowledge of science of fasting, on lack of proper guidance, on breaching the rules of fasting or on improper implementation many people have lost their lives. If fasting is done rationally according to it’ rules then it is proved to be of great advantage but on breaking the rules it may impact a great deal of harm to our body.
It is a groundless statement that only reduction in quantity of food serves the purpose. Eating less compared to the intensity of appetite does not fall under the rules of nature. It is proved from experiments that eating less do not have any benefit. On the contrary it may harm. In fasting, only initial two or three days are difficult, whereas eating less creates difficulties everyday. With experiences it is also seen that with eating less debility comes soon, whereas this is not the same case with fasting. Thus it is to be concluded that eating less is not a category of fasting.
**Categories of fasting**
**(1) Morning fasting –**
This is the most comfortable way of fasting. In this category only morning breakfast is to be given up. Meal is to be taken twice. In English it is called ‘No Breakfast System’.
**(2) Evening fasting**
This is called half fasting (‘Ardhopavas’). In this category only evening meal is to be stopped; and meal is to be taken once. Those who are suffering from chronic disease can have a great benefit from this category of fasting. In this kind of fasting, whatever meal is taken has to be digestible and natural.
(3) **Single meal fasting (Ekaharopavas)** –
Eating one kind of food once is called ‘Ekaharopavas’ e.g. if chapatti is taken in morning then vegetables are to be taken in evening, the next day morning a fruit and in evening milk etc. In case of minor ailments of body, this kind of fasting is helpful.
(4) **Juice fasting (Rasopavas)** –
In this type of fasting, no cereals or other solid food is taken. Only fruit juices or vegetable soups are taken. Even milk is not to be taken because milk also falls in solid foods category. During this type of fasting, simultaneous use of enema helps in cleaning the body.
(5) **Fruit fasting (‘Falopavas’)** –
Staying on fruits, fruit juices, and vegetable soups is called ‘Falopavas’. In this type of fasting also bowels should be cleaned by using enema. Sometimes consumption of only fruits leads to abdominal discomfort to some people. These people should do complete fasting for initial two or three days and then start ‘Falopavas’. Those fruits should be consumed which are easily digestible. If one is not comfortable with fruits then he should take vegetables. In any kind of fasting, indigestion should not be allowed. In case of bleeding piles ‘Falopavas’ for 21 days is so much helpful that piles just vanish.
(6) **Milk fasting (‘Dugdhopavas’)** –
It is also called ‘Dugdh-Kalp’. Staying on milk 4-5 times in a day for a few days is called ‘Dugdhopavas’. The milk which is consumed should be of a healthy cow.
(7) **Mathopavas** –
This is also called ‘Matha-Kalp’. In case of poor digestion, ‘Mathopavas’ should be done instead of ‘Dugdhopavas’. The matha (a milk product) should be free of ghee and less sour.
Prior to starting ‘Dugdhopavas’ or ‘Mathopavas’ if complete fasting is observed for 2-3 days then it is more beneficial. These fasting can be easily continued for $1\frac{1}{2}$ to 2 months. With these fastings not only diseases are cured but also they are advantageous for health improvement. Whenever abdominal heaviness is felt, enema should be used.
(8) **Compete fasting (‘Poornapavas’)** –
Voluntarily giving up all kinds of food except pure water is called complete fasting. In this kind of fasting many regulations have to be observed which are mentioned ahead.
(9) **Weekly fasting** –
Complete fasting once in a week is called weekly fasting (‘Saptahik Upavas’). This improves a normal health and chances of catching illness are reduced. Those who have clerical or other sedentary job should at least do this type of fasting. If along with fasting, enema is also taken once or twice then it is the best. This fasting reduces dislike for food. Headache, lassitude, and other physical and mental ailments are automatically cured.
(10) **Short fasting (‘Laghu Upavas’)** –
Complete fasting for three to seven days is called ‘Laghu upavas’.
(11) **Strict fasting (‘Kada Upavas’)** –
This fasting is for chronic stubborn diseases. In this kind of fasting, all the regulations of complete fasting have to be strictly observed.
(12) **Intermittent fasting (‘Toot Upavas’) –**
In this type, a complete fasting for 2 to 7 days is followed by natural meals for a few days and then again complete fasting for same period of time is to be followed. This is to be continued until disease is cured. This kind of fasting is used in difficult illnesses.
(13) **Long fasting (‘Deergha Upavas’) –**
In long fasting, complete fasting is to be observed for long period of time for which no time is stipulated from beginning. This may take from 21 days to 50-60 days. It is discontinued only after a natural hunger begins to feel or all the toxic elements from body are finished and essential tissues are threatened to get used. If this fasting is observed for physical purpose then it’s aim is elimination of accumulated toxic matter in the body; so once the purpose is solved, fasting is discontinued. This type of fasting should not be performed without acquiring complete knowledge of art of fasting. It better to continue this type of fasting under the observation of a fasting expert, otherwise it may lead to problems and create harm.
Those who are victims of chronic diseases should gradually make changes in their diet prior to beginning this type of fasting. For example, give up breakfast initially, then stop taking cereals for 2-3 days and continue with fruits, and then start complete fasting. This way, fasting period becomes comfortable.
2. **Air element therapy (‘Vayu Tatva Chikitsa’)**
**Air element (‘Vayu Tatva’)**
Air element is the second essential element among five. Water is life and air is the soul of animals. If we do not get air to breath for a minute then we become suffocated. If air is not available for a longer period then life ends. Thus it is a very essential element. We use a big amount of air continuously. A man breathes 14 to 16 times in a minute. In one breath we breathe 25-30 cubic inches of air and in a day we breathe 32 to 37 pounds of air. Process of breathing is related to more than a hundred tissues. Every day the air we breathe is seven times more than the food we eat or the water we drink. The air breathed by us hovers for more than 15 sq. feet in our lungs. Our lungs always sustain 60 cubic inches of air continuously and 25-33 cubic inches of air is breathed out.
The atmosphere in which we breathe is spread over 300 miles around the earth. This atmosphere is a mixture of many types of gases including a good amount of vapour of water. Besides it also contains four parts of Nitrogen and one part of Oxygen. These two gases are very much essential for our body. Carbon-Dioxide comprises one part per ten thousand. There are also some other gases generated from chemical reactions in very minute percentages. Dust particles are also spread in atmosphere.
The Nitrogen present in the air which is breathed is useless. It is breathed out as it is. Oxygen is not breathed out; it mixes with blood in lungs and blood gets oxygenated.
Plants survive on Carbon-Dioxide and they release oxygen. Due to this arrangement, carbon-dioxide does not get concentrated in air and oxygen does not lack as well.
Oxygen facilitates generation of light as well as heat. Body heat of animals is owed to oxygen. What is life? It is nothing but smoldering of body organs in combination with oxygen, just like a candle. Red cells of blood receive oxygen and convey to body cells, which is called oxidation. With this procedure heat is created, body temperature is maintained and life continues.
In air there is one more essential gas which is called ‘Ozone’. This element is found only in the atmosphere of jungles, mountains, and sea. Ozone is a very strong smelling gas. Patients of Tuberculosis are benefited in mountains due to this gas.
Purification of air can only be done by ‘Agnihotra’. This is why our ancestors had made it a ritual. Air has also been called life. In Ayurveda, one of the names of air is ‘Vishnu-Padamrut’.
**Air, equivalent to a hundred medicines**
**Air-bath (‘Pavan-snan’ or ‘Vayu sevan’)**
It is also called morning walk. This is a kind of bath due to which internal as well as external cleanliness of our body takes place. This bath is more useful when done naked.
If we understand that the way we breathe through our nose, our skin also breathes through fine pores on it then we can never deny the usefulness of air-bath. Just as we keep windows and ventilators of our home open for the cleanliness of our home; same way it is essential that air is allowed to enter through the windows of skin-pores in to the house of our body. On keeping our body covered with clothes, body becomes pale and pores of skin get wasted and some of them get closed too. As a result we suffer from constipation, diabetes, heart disease etc.
When a naked body comes in contact with pure atmosphere and takes air-bath then it feels as if it is savouring the entire pleasure of this world, silently communicating with the sky.
Those who do not exercise, for them morning walk is very much. With morning walk, 200 tissues from head to toes are naturally exercised. During walk our heart rate increases from 72 per minute to 82 per minute, respiratory rate also increases. More oxygen reaches our blood and blood is purified. With other exercises, heart gets more strain; that is why a morning walk is considered the best exercise.
In morning walk, noticeable thing is that it is advantageous only if done in pure atmosphere. Electric fans etc. do not serve the purpose because artificial breeze of air is harmful. Air coming from fan is whirling and fast which causes joint pains, headache etc.
In India, 5% deaths are due to lack of pure air. Every person inspires air from up to 21 inches away from his nostrils. This point should always be kept in mind.
Directions also matter in case of air. Air coming from east is dense, warm, ‘Raktapittadushak’ and unhealthy. Air from south is light, cool, beneficial for eyes, and ‘Raktapittanashak’. Air from west is sharp, absorbent, light, weakening, ‘Kaphashak’, and ‘Pittanashak’. Northern air is cold, soft, and light. Remember that before sunrise, air from any direction is free of every fault. That is why morning walk is preferred. Purification of air is done by rays of sun, water, trees, morning, and change of season. Damp air is better than a dusted air because a damp air contains three essential elements oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid gas in proper proportions.
For walking such a path should be preferred which is far from population, has arrays of green trees and farms along both the sides. And as if the rising waves of water reserves are ready to welcome the dusk. The one, who walks on this path, comes back with a new charm and a gleaming health.
Now the question arises as to how much we should walk, for which there is difficult to establish any rules. But yes, a normally healthy man should at least walk for 6-7 kilometers per day. A healthier person should walk 9-10 kilometers per day. To begin with, one should not walk up to much far distance. They should increase their speed as well as distance gradually. A speed of one kilometer per 10 minutes is enough. Weak and sick people should not walk more than half to one kilometer a day initially. But as strength begins to appear, they should increase this distance.
While walking, deep breathing exercise should be performed. One should walk seven steps during one breath, thereafter he should hold breath for four steps and then breathe out for seven steps. Initially one should be cautious in breathing exercise while walking. Deep breathing should not be exhausting. While breathing deep we receive vital energy which is necessary for reformation and growth of our body.
The process of walking also depends on the mental status of a person. So if we have to take maximum benefit of walking, then we should adjust our mental status properly. Walking should not be a duty, it should be an entertainment. While walking one should feel real pleasure. At this time there should not be any other feeling except pleasure. To enjoy more one should look at natural beauties like trees, reserves of water, etc. A walking person should think of beautiful things so that his muscles and tissues are relaxed. On doing this, all the tissues of body get revitalized and freedom from medicines is achieved.
There is a scientific reason behind emphasizing walking naked and on bare foot, which has been highlighted. In winter during excessive cold, walking while wearing a shirt and nicker is alright, but during other days, bare foot and naked walking is advantageous. This is because the direct contact of body with pure, cold, and healthy air is good for health. Impact of cold breezes of air on lower abdomen is the remedy for many diseases. It is said that –
“आरोग्य चापि परम व्यायामादुपजायते।”
Well known western Naturotherapist A. Joost’s main Indian disciple Mahatma Gandhi used to expose to open air with bare body through out his life.
Morning walk is more beneficial if one walks on green humid grass. This facility is available during the days of winter. Grass moistened with rain water is also equally beneficial. This relieves headache, throat pain, cold etc.
**What should be the diet of an air-bath taker?**
If a person who is enjoying regular air-bath with habits of balanced diet, regular life style, and adequate rest then it is the most ideal situation. Balanced diet means an easily digestible and nourishing meal. Fruits, curd, milk, vegetables, chapattis prepared from wheat flour etc. are nourishing foods. One should not consume many items at a time. There should be a certain period of time between two meals. Over eating should be avoided. Chilies, condiments, fried items are better avoided.
If after walking there is too much perspiration then it should be wiped off with a wet cloth, or take a bath. Taking bath removes additional heat of body and provides cold. But debilitated patients should not take bath immediately after walk.
Morning walkers should also pay attention to cleanliness of bowels for proper benefit. In morning, walking should be started only after passing stool; and after coming back for walk one should again go to pass stool if required. If necessary, enema should also be used.
**Resonance**
Besides external use of air, there is a fine use of air internally; knowing about which any person can get spiritual and material pleasure and health. Just like Pranayam, science of resonance is also a science of fine use of air through which we can protect ourselves from many diseases. Also we can remove those diseases on getting ill.
The science of resonance should be considered as a science of Yoga. This is of great use to human kind. Our every kind of behaviours, profit-loss, joy-sorrow, etc. all the mental and physical problems are surprisingly affected by the action of inspiration and expiration; with the help of which we can achieve happiness and remove sorrows.
As per natural rule, the perpetual process of inspiration and expiration does not occur equally in both the nostrils at the same time; but alternatively it occurs in both nostrils for a certain period. After a certain period, one of the nostril stops and another starts. When resonance also stops in one of the nostrils and begins in another one then it is called rise of resonance -‘Swarodaya’.
In each nostril resonance remains present for $2^{1/2}$ minutes, there after it rises in the other nostril and there also it remains present for $2^{1/2}$ minutes. This cycle continues day and night.
When resonance runs through left nostril then it is called ‘Chandraswar’ and when it runs through right nostril then it is called ‘Suryaswar’. When resonance runs in both the nostrils simultaneously then it is called ‘Sushumna’.
**Left resonance** – When left resonance is running, if a peaceful and steady work is done then it succeeds. Just like making friendship, enchanting, makeup, begin treatment, marriage, donation, making house, begin journey, buying, beginning study, etc.
**Right resonance** – When right resonance is running, hard, difficult and rude works should be done. Just like riding, tracking, exercise, bath, meal, etc.
**Sushumna** – When resonance is equal in both the nostrils then spiritual works should be done. Just like praying to God, Yoga, etc. The works which are to be done during left or right resonance, should not be performed during Sushumna, otherwise it gives adverse results.
How to know as to which resonance is running? This is very simple. Close one of the nostrils and then breathe fast two to three times. Then close the other nostril and do the same. In whichever nostrils it is easy to breathe through is open and the other one is closed.
**Voluntarily changing respiration** – There are three procedures for this.
(1) Press the nostril which is closed with your thumb and breathe through the open one. Then close the other nostril with your thumb and expire out the breathed air. Repeating these steps for sometimes will definitely change the flow of respiration.
(2) Lying down on the side of open nostril and then performing above exercise changes the flow of respiration very fast.
(3) Lying down on the side of open nostril for sometime changes respiratory flow.
These are all the procedures of changing left resonance to right and right resonance to left. Now below is the procedure of changing respiratory flow to ‘Sushumna’.
While keeping one nostril closed, breathe forcefully with the other nostril and then rapidly exhale it out through the closed nostril. Now, with the nostril thorough which you have exhaled, breathe force fully through it and exhale through the other. Repeating this procedure for 50 times will open both nostrils and respiratory flow will start in ‘Sushumna’.
Relation of resonance to five elements – Experts of resonance science believe that there is always presence of one of the five elements along with resonance. So long as respiration continues with one nostril, all the five elements (Sky, Air, Fire, Water, and Earth) rise one by one in order, stay there till their respective periods of time and then set down.
How to know which of the elements is present along with resonance? There are many methods but they are so much difficult that without practice a layman can not identify them.
**Just as** –
(1) Presence of element can be identified through the direction of breathe flowing through nostril whether up, down, diagonal or whirling.
(2) Each element has its own shape. Presence of element can be identified by looking at the shape created by exhaling on a clear mirror.
(4) Through the various ‘Chakras’ present in the body.
(5) Through the particular taste each element has.
(6) Through the order in which each element arise. Usually firstly air, then fire, then earth, then water and at last sky arise respectively till 8,12,20,16 and 4 minutes in order.
(7) Through the results of elements. The procedure of this is as follows-
Take a fine light peace of cotton and bring it in front of open nostril. Move it towards the nostril gradually. Stop at the point where it starts moving due to respiration. Now measure the distance between the peace of cotton and nostril; if this distance is 12 fingers then earth, if 16 fingers than fire, if 8 fingers than air, and if it is 20 fingers than sky element is present.
**Miracles of resonance and health improvements through it**
Truly it’s fame is amazing. It’s performers are very well acquainted with it’s miracles and they successfully use it for the health improvement of others as well as of themselves. For the benefit of readers here are some examples –
(1) In morning as soon as waking, whichever side’s nostril is open, view the same side’s palm. Think of God while caressing your face with the palm. There after whichever side’s nostril is open, put the same side’s foot on the ground first. On performing this procedure your day will be full of happiness and comfort.
(2) When an illness occurs, as soon as the symptoms are noticed close whichever nostril is open and keep it closed till the disease is cured. By this, health is achieved rapidly and difficulties are not happened to be tolerated longer.
(3) If tiredness is felt due to any reason then lie down on right side. This will open the ‘Chandra swar’ and tiredness will be removed immediately.
(4) If there is pain anywhere in the body due to muscular problem then whichever nostril is open, should be closed; pain will subside by 2-4 minutes.
(5) When there is an asthmatic attack then the nostril which is open should be closed and the other nostril should be opened. Intensity will be reduced by 10 to 15 minutes. Repetition of this procedure daily will reduced the sufferings within one month. The more frequently the procedure is repeated in a day, the faster the disease is cured.
(6) The one whose left nostril is open during daytime and right one during night time never gets any pain. The person is always happy. If resonance is practiced this way by 10 to 15 days then it starts automatically working that way.
(7) Meals should be taken when right nostril is open. Even after meals, right nostril should remain open for 10-12 minutes. This is the reason for lying down on left side after meals, so that right nostril remains open. On doing this, food digests rapidly and constipation does not occur.
**Pranayam**
Pranayam comprises of two words, ‘Pran’ and ‘Ayam’. ‘Pran’ means life or age, and ‘Ayam’ means span. Thus, the process through which age can be lengthened, life span can be increased is called ‘Pranayam’. In terms of Yoga, ‘Pranayam’ means controlling life. So before knowing anything about ‘Pranayam’, it is necessary to know about what is life (‘Pran’) in a body.
What is a life (‘Pran’)? It is a dynamic energy which is present everywhere in the universe, and the same energy is there in this body also. This is called life. It is through this life that our mind and all the senses function. It is the fine form of life.
**Three orders of every ‘Pranayam’**
1. Rechak: Exhaling breath. 2. Poorak: Inhaling breath. 3. Kumbhak: Holding breath.
Kumbhak is further divided into three categories.
1. Antah-Kumbhak: Holding breath in inspiration.
2. Bahya-Kumbhak: Holding breath in expiration.
3. Kaivalya-Kumbhak: Holding breath where it is.
**Ratio of Poorak, Kumbhak, and Rechak –**
It is 1:4:2. But for the beginners it is better to maintain 1:2:2.
**Advantages of Pranayam –**
Through Pranayam, every mental and physical distress goes away and the performer experiences a true pleasure. We can say that Pranayam prevents every disease from happening. So the performer’s body becomes full of grace. The body becomes healthy, symmetrical, and graceful. He will never suffer from old age. He can live a peaceful and happy life and achieve a voluntary death.
Through Pranayam, patients can always have benefits. In case of diseases like asthma and tuberculosis it is definitely very helpful.
**Apanayam**
Just as in Pranayam, health improvement is done by controlling respiration (‘Pran Vayu’), same way in Apanayam ‘Apan Vayu’ is controlled to achieve best of health.
From throat to heart, there is control of ‘Pran Vayu’ and from umbilicus to anus there is control of ‘ApanVayu’. Disturbances in ‘Apan Vayu’ can lead to many diseases; sometimes it even leads to serious consequences. At this time, the one who knows how to control ‘Apan Vayu’ can take benefits.
Stool, urine, flatus, etc. excreta of our body are removed with the help of Apan Vayu and thus cleanliness of body is maintained. When this Apan Vayu can not move in body in a proper way then it leads to accumulation of excreta in body and ultimately gives rise to disease. Constipation, headache, abdominal troubles, etc. occur due to Apan Vayu.
Process of purification of Apan Vayu is called Apanayam. Some of the processes are mentioned below; performing them can be of great help –
(1) Distend your abdomen how much you can, and then pull it inside. Try to approximate your umbilicus and back bone. This improves Apan Vayu as well as protects sperm. Now put your both hands on abdomen so that thumb remains on back and fingers remain forwards. Now again distend the abdomen and push it with your left hand towards right and with your right hand towards back. Now distend your abdomen from left to right. After this practice for a few days, abdomen will automatically move from left to right and from right to back and then again left. These rotations should be practiced for many days. After that try to move abdomen up and down and then down and up. By these performances, Apan Vayu is controlled and many abdominal diseases are removed.
(2) While standing, exhale your breath and then try to pull in both the sides of flank. To practice this exercise it is better to keep a table or other such object which can be held and lifted. Now lift this object with both hands and repeat the same procedure. This way, stool automatically comes out. Now without using table, put your both hands on knees and after exhaling, try to pull lower abdomen inside. When stool starts coming out then hold your breath whether in or out and then remove stool. With this procedure also, Apan Vayu is controlled and many abdominal complaints are removed.
(3) You must have seen dogs and cats stretching their bodies. Lie down in the same position; spread your arms straight forwards. Rest your chin or cheek to ground and separate your knees. Keep your back as
low as possible. Now try to push out abdominal gas and then pull it back again. This relieves abdominal pain, gaseous distention, and headache. In Apanayam only ‘Rechak’ and ‘Poorak’ should be performed and not ‘Kumbhak’. On completely relaxing abdomen, gas is released.
3. Fire therapy (‘Agni Chikitsa’)
Fire is the third useful and the major element among five. Air and Sky are the invisible elements Like The Almighty. Agni is considered God and is worshiped according to our sacred books. In the first mantra of ‘Rugveda’, Agni has been transcribed and worshiped as God. In the ‘Gayatri Mantra’ also which is the chief mantra, there is worship of founder of fire – Sun. Religious Hindus and Zoroastrians (Parsis) believe and worship sun as their God.
Sun does not only provide heat and light, but it also provides intelligence and long life.
“सत्वितान् सूर्युः सर्ववीतं सिवतानो रासतांदीर्धमागुः।
Means “Let the paramount light which is lighting the whole world give us intellect and long life.”
It is the fact that the more a person utilizes sun light, the more his intellect is developed. With the use of sunlight, there comes a magnetic power in our brain which makes a man intelligent. Our ancestor Rishi-Munis became intelligent with the worship of sun; and now it is a question of doubt whether an equivalent intelligent person will be born on this earth or not.
With the Fire element health and wealth are gained.
“सूर्योऽ नो दिवसपातु”
“अग्नि पाशिवेम्।”
Means “Let the Sun protect our days and fire protect our health and wealth.”
“नम: सूर्याय शांताम् सूरयोग विनाशिने।
अग्निप्रोगमस्माकालहिदेता नमस्तुते।”
Means, “We pray the Sun which provides peace and destroys all sicknesses. Oh Lord Sun, give us life, health, and prosperity. we honour you.”
No matter if people of other countries do not understand importance of sun, in India sun has been considered as the originator of every object. Through Indian view point, the major organ of Lord Sun is eye because sun is directly present and it can see every animal, whereas this is not the same case with other Gods.
It is mentioned in Yajurveda that - “चक्रोऽ सूर्यरजायत”- Means sun is the eye of God. But actually sun is the eye of everyone because it is because of sun light that we can use our eyes. Without sun light, we are almost blind.
This way there are many quotes in our Vedas about sun which proves that we Indians have always been believing in the importance of sun. We have been worshiping sun and fire since the time immemorial because there is no life without sun. Not only in India, but in Rome, Unan, and Misr also sun is considered God. In Japan there are many temples of sun. In South America also there is a big temple of sun.
‘Surya Namaskar’ which is the part of our worship, is also a good exercise. In this procedure, water is poured before sun with a spirit of reverence. This is a very useful and health improving procedure. Scientists have found that in morning there are more ultraviolet rays in sunlight which are helpful for health. Sun rays have many other frequencies than ultraviolet. There are many objects through which only ultraviolet rays of sunlight can pass. One of them is stream of water; means when we pour down water in morning before sun then sunlight passes through the beam of water and ultraviolet rays are impacted on
our body and provide benefit to us. This is why this procedure has been given a religious form by our ancestors.
Actually if we see, sun is the founder of the world. Because the root of every object in the world is formed out of the different types of combination of sun rays. It has been said that the sun leaves it’s sperm in to it’s seven colours and the moon leaves ova in it’s rays and that is how the world is created. Creation of every object in the world – metals like gold, silver, copper, zinc, iron and gems like - diamond, emerald, pearl etc. is owe to the sun rays of various colours. Every living organism’s life is dependant up on sun light. One German therapist has said that, “Water is necessary, air is more necessary, and sun light is the most necessary.”
Rests of the other four elements are satiated by fire. With this only in the world there is life, there are flowers, fruits ripe, medicines have their properties. It is through this element that clouds are formed out of sea water and they drench the land. With this only our food is digested and assimilated.
Joy, sorrow, sin, desire, anger, affection, love, fascination, etc. tendencies also originate from the combination of frequencies of sun light.
The erudite of sun sign can fuse or degenerate objects very easily, can construct or destruct. Conversion of iron into gold, awakening dead into life are all possible with this science. The learned people of this science are till date present in Himalaya and Tibet. Western countries have developed atom bombs and radiations based on this science only. But these inventions are negligible compared to the enormous energy of sun rays.
The limit or Veda or ‘Shabd Brahma’ is considered up to Solar system. After that starts what is called ‘Brahmalok’. Rise and fall of every other element depends up on sun and fire. Fire element itself is sun. ‘Omkar’ is also sun. Because of it’s constant unsteadiness it is also named ‘Ravi’. God’s glitter itself has created sun.
On absence of fire element body becomes lifeless. And on shortage of fire element body becomes victim of illnesses like lethargy, debility, anorexia, drowsiness, constipation, swellings, paralysis, gout, etc. Eyes, nails, tongue, urine, etc. become yellow or red. Taste of mouth becomes bitter. Temper becomes irritable, body becomes thin, and dryness of organs and increased thirst are experienced.
1. Animal body is colourful. Externally visible as well as internal organs are all different in colour. Frequencies of speech and thoughts are also colourful. The whole human body is a blend of colours.
2. Dependency of body growth up on sunlight, sun rays, and heat of sun is a scientifically established fact. If dependency of animal life and health is up on sun then treatment with colours of sunrays is undoubted. It is a natural law that the more natural a therapy is, the more effective it is.
**Treatment of diseases with sun light**
The anti-disease properties of sun light have been discussed. Here something about treatment through it will be discussed.
The sun light which can destroy the whole world within a moment, the sun light due to which prosperity, beauty, energy, and life are blossomed in every particle of the world, the sun light, golden rays of which fetch droplets of water from sea and give rise to sprinkles of rain to scatter it’s magic all over the earth, if it is said about this sun or it’s light that it can not do anything for life or it can not make animals free of diseases than how wrong and improper statement would it be! It is altogether a different matter that we do not know how to utilize the power of healing of this greatest source of energy for the treatment of diseases, but that does not mean that it does not have that healing power. We can not deny of the truth that when the sun can do many amazing things, it is not a big deal to cure the toughest ailments for it.
Thus, sun is the blessing of God for the treatment of diseases. Famous doctor Rickly has said that human is the animal of air and light. So in the air and light up on which our development and life are dependent, must be having curative powers also. For human welfare this doctor has mentioned light as the supreme. He says that.
“Water is good, but air is better and light is the best.”
Those who know geometry are well aware of the fact that the people of Bornio Andaman Island and Bankver Island are continuously exposed to sunlight, so they do not know what disease is and in physical strength there can barely be any human race in the world compatible to them. And on the contrary, other human races that do not get adequate sunlight have to suffer from skin problems as well as bone related, and blood related problems; because in a land which is deprive of sunlight there can not be grasses or trees, then how can humans remain healthy. For example, at many places in Alps range there is lack of sunlight, so people suffer from many diseases here. Some of them are even mentally retarded or disabled. These people if shift to a place where sunlight is available, their health improve. This proves the healing power of sunlight. There is a proverb also which says, “Let the sunlight in and keep doctors away”, which is very much appropriate.
Today there are many ways of treating diseases. But for this purpose, natural powers are the more useful among which as mentioned above, sunlight stands at the top.
In sunlight therapy there are many ways for utilizing sunlight, which should be performed after a proper understanding otherwise there can be harm instead of benefit.
**Sun bath (“Sapta Kiran Snan”)**
Sun is also called ‘Sapta Kiran’ or ‘Sapta Rashmi’. In myths the seven colours violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red have been compared with a seven faced horse. These seven colours combine to form white colour and these seven colours have the healing powers. These seven colours can be achieved through sun-bath.
Usually everyone enjoys sun-bath in the days of winter. But in case of a diseased condition, it helps only if taken in a scientific way.
During taking sun-bath, following points should be kept in mind –
(1) Head should be protected while taking sun-bath. For this, head should be kept under shadow or it should be wrapped with a wet linen or green leaves (Preferably a leaf of banana). Before going to sub-bath it is necessary to first wash face, neck, and head.
(2) Do not take sun-bath in a heavy sunlight. Early morning or evening time is better.
(3) Gradually step up the time of sun-bath. Do not take sub-bath for long at a time. It should not be taken for more than one hour because any food whatever helpful, if over eaten then it harms. The same thing is there with sub light. Sub-bath if taken up to a proper period of time, it is advantageous. Vital energy increases, bones become strong, vitamin D is received, and many diseases are cured. But if it is taken in excess, then skin burn occurs, appetite is reduced, and bones get excessive vitamin D unnecessarily. In a diseased condition, sun-bath should be started with 7 minutes in the days of winter and with 4 minutes in summer.
(4) During taking sun-bath, the period of time you want to take sun-bath should be divided in to four and then different areas of the body should be exposed to sunlight by lying on back, abdomen, left side and right side so that no part of body remains unexposed.
(5) If sun-bath is taken on naked body then it is the best. Or one can also wear undergarments. Ladies can take sun-bath wearing a thin petticoat or undergarments.
(6) In an open air where breeze of air is not too much is the ideal place for sun-bath.
(7) Sun-bath should be taken $1\frac{1}{2}$ to 2 hours after meal. Same way one should avoid taking meal immediately after sun-bath.
(8) After sun-bath, take a shower with cold water or sponge with wet linen and then take a stroll for some time.
(9) After taking sun-bath if you feel energetic and enthusiastic then consider it to be successful.
(10) Take sun-bath regularly everyday.
(11) In India 12:00 noon to 2:00 pm in winter and 8:00 am to 10:00 am and 3:00 pm to 5:00 pm in summer is the perfect time for sun-bath. Sun-bath should not be taken when there are chances of heat stroke.
(12) Those who have fever or heart trouble should not take sun-bath. In case of lung diseases, sun-bath can be taken when there is low grade fever; but according to the rule, sun-bath can not be taken during fever.
**Use of hot air, hot water, and hot earth for the treatment of diseases**
Use of fire element for the treatment of diseases can only be done through the remaining four elements – sky, air, water, and earth. Use of sun light through the sky element has been highlighted. Now we will think of it’s use through air, water, and earth.
In Naturopathy, hot water bags, hot bricks, hot earth etc. and steam, hot water, hot wet clay, wet linen etc. are used.
For therapy, use of water having more than 120 ° temperature should not be done. But our body can tolerate steam having 140 ° and hot air having 300 ° temperatures. In treatment, water having temperature according to following list can be used.
| Temperature | Range |
|-------------|-------------|
| Tepid | 82 ° to 92 °|
| Neutral | 91 ° to 94 °|
| Warm | 94 ° to 98 °|
| Hot | 98 ° to 104 °|
| Very Hot | 104 ° to 120 °|
For the treatment of diseases, use of fire element should be done with proper understanding just like use of other elements. Properly conducted procedures definitely give advantage and those done improperly may harm also. Initially there procedures should be mild and short according to the condition of the patient.
**4. Water element therapy**
**Water element**
In the destruction phase the whole world gets submerged in water. In creation phase it again rises from water. During the origination phase of the world from the conscious power of God, after creation of sky, air, and fire, sap is created. From this sap, finally water originates. This sap and water elements are the same in their pure form, but after getting mixed with other physical elements this sap becomes sweet, sour, bitter or salty.
Making things wet, giving shapes to clay, quench thirst, keeping living organisms alive, making thing soft, alleviating heat, providing cleanliness – are all the properties of water.
Removing delusion, unconsciousness, thirst, and sleep, providing energy to body, removing toxins of body, becoming the reason for the six types of juices (saps) are the usual functions of water. Coldness, simplicity, lightness, cleanliness, universality, permeability, and mobility are the natural properties of water.
Water is the fifth element for protection of life. It is as important for life as air is to breathe. In our body 70% part is water. In our eyes 98.7%, in heart 79.5%, in lungs 70%, in blood 80%, in bones 25% and in brain 90% is water.
The world had begun with water which is proved through scientific theory of evolution, mythological theory, etc. Thus our growth is dependant upon water; we can not live without water. Water is God, water is our care taker, and water is our guard. Atmosphere is actually a layer of vapour if the water part is omitted for a moment from air, and air is make water-free then there won’t be any life oh the earth. Everything dissolves in water; even glass and oil dissolve in pure hot water. At the temperature of 2000° every metal easily gets dissolved in water. If a red hot iron is dipped in water then water gets a particular medicinal property. At this point, Maharshi Sayanacharya’s assertion comes in to mind -
‘यदानिराये अवहत् प्रविष्यमयकृतादन धर्मधुतो नामासि।
तत्र त आहुः परम जनिन्ने समसविदानपरिपूजित तवमन्।’
Means, the fire which ignites water on entering it, even angels worship it, the fire which originates fever; oh fever you identify this fire and leave our body.
Water has a property to contain fire which helps in treatment of diseases. Water can turn in to vapour on getting hot and can coalesce into sky and then it again can become the reason for the life of all living organisms by falling back on earth in the form of rain. On getting too much cold it can become as hard as stone in the form of ice. It has a special property to extinguish fire that is why it is successfully used in fever. Clay can also extinguish fire and this is the reason why the combined use of water and clay in the form of clay water bandage works magically in situations of increased heat like fever, abscesses etc.
**External use of cold water**
Before we proceed with this topic, it is necessary to understand what effects cold water has on our body.
If a bucketful of water is poured suddenly on a person, then the person will internally feel a jerk and he will seem to have recoiled due to it. This situation is created because of constriction of blood vessels which supply blood to organs. With a jerk the person will feel cold because skin becomes cold due to water and constriction of blood vessels. But these symptoms are temporary and short lasting because immediately after once these symptoms start, it’s reaction also starts. Means, the amount of blood which was surged inside, comes back to the surface again. The constricted blood vessels again relax, blood circulation is reestablished, and perspiration starts through which toxins of body come out. This reactionary symptoms are more long lasting and stable. Use of cold water on body in the initial moments feels inconvenient, disturbing, and very cold. But later on it is heat producing, convenient and very much beneficial. Dr. Dilkash has written in his book ‘Prakritik Chikitsa’ that use of cold water in Naturopathy is done for the purpose of it’s reactionary and long lasting effect. It is to be remembered here that the more the temperature gradient between body and water, the more long lasting the reaction will be; so the effect will also be more steady.
**Short lasting use of cold water over body**
1. Increases body temperature.
2. Increases skin activities.
3. Increases blood pressure.
4. Stimulates blood vessels of body.
5. Increases and enforces activities of heart
6. Constricts body tissues.
7. Constricts peripheral capillaries temporarily. 8. Increases nutritional power
9. Reduces respiration.
**Long lasting use of cold water over body**
1. Reduces body temperature. 2. Reduces skin activities.
3. Reduces blood pressure. 4. Imposes soft effect on blood vessels.
5. Reduces heart activity. 6. Constricts peripheral capillaries.
7. Affects nutritional power very less. 8. Reduces respiration.
9. Constricts body tissues.
This way, we see that the effect of cold water over skin is not just limited to skin but it also affects internal tissues, blood vessels etc; because, the surface area of body is strangely connected to internal parts through blood vessels and nerves. This is the reason why digestive problems are cured by the external use of cold water. Routine bath with cold water increases appetite.
Use of too much cold water or ice over body is harmful. So, use of ice bag or ice water over a patient’s body is not safe. Too much cold for body is as harmful as toxic drugs. Use of too much cold water suppresses effervescence of disease. This instead of curing the disease makes it more deep rooted. Old people, debilitated patients, and children should never bath with too much cold water. This may endanger their lives.
How long cold water should be used is also an important question. The important point is that it is the best and most useful to take bath when body is warm. Just like, taking bath immediately after body gets warm following exercise. The reason is that the reaction due to cold water starts immediately due to warmth of the body. But if the body is tired then the reaction is slow and it harms instead of providing benefits. Thus, use of cold water should be avoided in case of excessive tiredness. If after exertion, tiredness is felt then it is better to take rest for a while before taking bath. And if due to some reason it is urgent to take bath then first warm water should be used which should be followed by a cold bath. Not only in case of tiredness but if due to any reason if skin is not warm then warm water should be used first, so that blood circulates more near skin. Due to this only reason in water therapy they first make feet warm before using cold water.
How long should cold water be used depends on age, vital energy, duration of disease, and climate. So the decision is taken accordingly. Usually cold water should be used till it is comfortable. On longer use it gives energy but later on laziness, sadness and discomfort are felt which is not good. In water therapy due to this only reason it has been disallowed to take a cold bath for long time. Reactionary power in old people, debilitated patients, and children gets reduced; so use of cold water for long time is not safe.
**5. Earth element therapy**
**Power and properties of earth (clay)**
Earth is considered easily available and negligible, but its powers are also equally great. Below are mentioned some properties of clay –
(1). To alleviate every kind of bad smell there is nothing as effective as clay in this world. This is the reason why people smear layers of clay in their houses. On applying clay on rotten substance, their stench disappears. Dirty hands are made clean by washing them with clay. Dead bodies are buried in earth so that they do not rot and stench. People dispose faecal material on earth but still the earth becomes clean and resumes back to its original form within a few hours.
(2). Earth has a power to prevent cold and heat. This is the reason why Yogis apply clay on their body which protects them from intense cold and heat.
(3). Earth has amazing power to purify water; because of this the water from wells, rivers etc. sources is always clear.
(4). Earth has got a great dissolving power. On applying a clay bandage, it induces suppuration in boils and abscesses and also heals wound.
(5). Earth has also got a strange ability to absorb poison. Smear of clay over the stings of snake, scorpion etc. works surprisingly. Critical boils like carbuncle are also healed with the use of clay which is the example of earth’s great absorbability.
(6). Earth has a power of containing water as well as all types of metals in it. Oceans, rivers are all there on the earth only.
(7). It is the earth which has power to allow growth of variety edible substances having various elements and juices.
(8). Earth can prevent force of water. So flood water is prevented by constructing dams.
(9). Earth can absorb heat and extinguishes fire. So wherever there is fire, clay is sprinkled to put out fire.
(10). Earth can also prevent force of air. This is why buildings do not fall in storms and remain safe.
(11). Earth can take different forms if added water. Utensils, buildings, sports goods etc. are the examples.
(12). It can float with the air. There are innumerable suspended particles of clay in the atmosphere.
(13). The whole world has been created from clay, same way earth can enclose everything at the end. It is said that-
“Dust thou art to dust shalt return.”
(14). Earth has a great power to heal because earth contains chemical mixture of every kind of elements of the world which is not there in any medicine.
**Clay therapy**
A wet cloth or a clay bandage both has got similar effect in treatment of disease. But with experiences it has been learnt that where there is inadequate benefit of a wet cloth, a clay bandage is effective there because the power of absorption of increased heat created by disease in body and absorption of toxins is possible only with the use of a clay bandage. This is the reason why various procedures of clay for almost all the diseases of body are not only possible but also very easy.
Clay is a very easily available medicine. It can not decay. It’s use in diseases is also very easy. Just filter it, add some water, and apply on the site of disease. Only that much to be done and it will show a very good and surprising effect i.e. cure the disease. Use of clay never harms and always gives benefits; whereas other medicines can harm. Many of the pains of body get almost disappeared with the use of clay which really surprise. Even chronic diseases are surely cured on using clay with patience. In the treatment of diseases, no expensive medicine is compatible to freely available clay.
Whether the disease is internal or external, clay can absorb it’s toxin and heat gradually and will remove the disease from body.
The successful use of clay in the treatment of disease is not the recent practical; it is in the vogue in India for ancient times. Many Vaidyas cure biggest wounds with clay bandage where modern doctors fail.
**Use of clay in diseases**
In disease treatments following six procedures are done –
(1). Hot bandage of clay. (2). Cold bandage of clay. (3). Bandage of hot clay.
(4). Dust-bath. (5). Mud-bath. (6). Balu-Bhakshan.
(1) **Hot bandage of clay and procedure to use it**: To make a bandage of clay the clay should be used which is available in the region provided the clay is clean and free of stones. ‘Balui’ clay is believed good and the clay of river shore is considered the better. For bandage, half of clay powder and half of sea salt mixture are considered the best. A raw brick after dipping in water, the water can be used for bandage. If one has to use clay of farm, then clay should be collected from about 1 foot underneath and take care that it does not contain any rotten material. To use bandage to apply on wounds, burned clay from a stove is considered very good. This is because the toxins in clay are burned due to fire. If clay is to be preserved then it should be dried in sunlight. Without drying in sunlight, clay can not be used for more than seven days after storage.
Pure dry clay should be crushed to make powder and then it should be filtered through a linen or sieve. Now while stirring it with a spoon or a stick, go on adding water so that the paste of clay is neither too thin nor too thick. Now spread this paste over a piece of linen cut in a shape of band which is slightly wider than the area where it is to be applied. Clay should be spread to make two finger or \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch thickness. Now put a peace of woolen cloth over it and then tie, attach, or sue with other cloth so that the bandage does not move. After putting this bandage on lower abdomen and tie with other long piece of cloth around waist. After this the patient should take rest. Clay bandage should be kept in position for 10 to 30 minutes or sometimes overnight. If there is itching at the area, then the bandage should be removed and the area should be wiped with a wet cloth and then the area should be massaged. This is called clay bandage. Use of woolen cloth prevents loss of heat so that the clay becomes warm due to body warmth and it’s moisture gets gradually evaporated. The effect of this bandage is not cold, but warm. With this bandage, internal organs of body receive hot fomentation.
If the bandage is to be applied on lower abdomen then it should be 2 hours after meal. After that if you have to then take meal after 2 hours. Sometimes the site where bandage was applied gets swollen and itching is felt. The reason behind is that clay brings the internal sufferings to the surface. So need not fear of these problems and the procedure should be continued. If problem is more, than the area should be given steam bath and than the procedure should be done.
The bandage once used should not be used again because it contains toxic substances.
This bandage is very much useful in all acute and chronic as well as simple and complicated diseases. Especially chronic constipation, indigestion, diarrhea and other abdominal diseases and in fever also it works magically. To remove excess heat of body created due to disease this bandage is even more advantageous than bath. This is because a clay bandage contains two enemies of heat – clay, and water. This clay bandage is excellent in removing pain and burning simultaneously.
In chronic diseases the clay bandage should be applied twice a day. In such illnesses, it is better to take abdominal bath after clay bandage. But if one has to take both enema and abdominal bath after clay bandage then it is better to take abdominal bath half an hour after enema.
Majority of diseases are due to abdominal troubles, so along with applying clay bandage at the site of problem if it is applied on lower abdomen also then abdomen becomes clean and the disease is rapidly cured. Many diseases are cured on applying bandage on lower abdomen only. If along with this therapy, fasting is also done or fruit juices, fruits and milk are consumed then it gives excellent results. If one takes resort to fasting then he should not forget to take enema during fasting period.
If the disease is not understood, or if the patient is not in a condition to describe his sufferings then apply clay bandage on the patient’s lower abdomen for half an our twice a day, and if necessary thrice a day; along with that give enema following each application or after one of the applications. This will certainly control the disease, and it is of no wonder that the disease will be completely removed from the patient. When clay bandage is applied, it isolates toxic substances from the body first, then washes them
off and then absorbs these toxic substances from the body to remove them. With this it heals heat and swelling of the affected part and provides coldness to the body.
Clay bandage can be applied on any diseased part, e.g. on throat in case of throat problems, on chest in case of chest diseases, on back in case of muscular problems, on joints in case of joint problems, and in case of spread of toxin in the whole body, clay should be smeared all over the body.
(2) **Cold bandage of clay**: When after applying clay bandage on affected part woolen cloth is not used, then it is called the cold bandage of clay, because in this case it works as a cold bandage. In case of snake bite, scorpion bite, etc. this bandage is used.
(3) **Hot clay bandage**: When clay is made hot after adding water, then it is called hot clay bandage. In case of wounds, sprains, etc. this bandage is used. In females in case of uterine troubles, this bandage is very much helpful but in case of doubt of possibility of abortion, it should not be used.
Just like hot bandage of clay, here also it is necessary to put a piece of woolen cloth.
(4) **Dust-bath**: About this topic, it has already been described under ‘Earth element’ before. This bath is very much helpful in skin diseases.
(5) **Mud-bath**: As per described under ‘Earth element Therapy’, clear and stone free clay is crushed and is added to water, thus formed mud is applied all over body or over some particular parts of body according to requirements; and this is called ‘Mud-Bath’ (‘Pank-Snan’). This has been admired by Dr. A. Joost and Dr. Felke. A sea-shore or a shore of other water resource where a clear mud appears after water reduces is the best place for mud-bath. Greasy clay is very much useful. Mud has a great power of putting off excess heat of disease and healing disease; because the radium element of mud when mixes up with water then it’s healing power increases.
For mud-bath, mud should be applied all over body and one should expose to sun light. When one smear gets dry, another smear should be applied. This should be continued from 15 to 60 minutes. After that once clay gets dry, a proper bath should be taken. In diseases like eczema, ring worms, leucoderma, etc. and in impurities of blood this bath is advantageous.
There is one more way to take mud-bath. A trench of the depth equivalent to a man’s height or up to chest is excavated and is filled up with mud. There after the patient is placed inside naked in a standing position. A patient with good vital strength is kept in this position for \( \frac{1}{2} \) to 1 hour and a weak patient is kept for 5 to 10 minutes. This procedure if continued for one month, it surely cures diseases like gout, skin diseases, backache, headache, abdominal pains, swellings, constipation etc. Snake poison can also be removed by this procedure.
**Sample questions for study**
1. Describe components of water therapy.
2. Describe benefits of earth therapy.
3. In Sky element therapy, which elements are used?
4. Describe main procedures of fire therapy.
5. In what forms steam-bath can be taken?
*(Courtesy – In the writing of this chapter the book ‘Prakritik Ayurvedigyan’ by Dr. Rakesh Jindal has formed the basis. Our special thanks to the editor and the writer of the book on Naturotherapy.)*
CHAPTER: 19 –
REGULAR LIFE STYLE AND ACCORDANCE WITH NATURAL POWERS
AIMS:
1. Discussing life style.
2. Acquiring general knowledge about natural powers.
3. Achieving competence to maintain balance between various situations of life style and changeable nature.
TOPICS
I. Preface -
II. Regular life style
1. Balance and controls in diet.
III. Accordance with natural powers
1. Controllable and uncontrollable urges.
1. Preface -
There are three important parts of life style –
1. **Diet** – Whatever we assimilate from food, we get energy through them to perform all the physical activities.
2. **Atmosphere** – Our actions towards our atmosphere with which we are in continuous contact, makes the second point of life style.
3. **Behaviour** - Our actions towards ourselves (i.e. towards our own body and our mind) as well as towards others – This forms the third important point of life style.
Usually when we talk of life style then it means as to what we eat, how we eat, when we eat, what, where and how much we speak, when we sleep and when we get up, how we conduct our personal, social and family responsibilities, how and how much balance we can maintain between our privileges and duties, etc. For a healthy personal life and with an aspect of a healthy social structure our view points and behaviour should be similar in the above mentioned points. According to Acharya Mahapragya, irregular and undisciplined life style is the reason for many health related and social problems. We have lost our cultural heritage in imitating the so called modernization; as a result we are facing many physical and mental illnesses as well as social perversions. It has been cleared in Ayurvedic principles that if we can regularize our life style and establish concordance with those natural powers due to which we have been created, then the path for freedom from all difficulties will be uncovered for us.
II. Regular life style
1. **Balance and controls in diet**
Diet is a very detailed topic. Whatever is consumed e.g. food, water, swallow etc. are called diet. Whatever our body receives in any form has effects on our body. In Ayurvedic viewpoint, these things change our ‘Tridosha’.
The diseases which were in vogue 50 years back are less seen now. There has been a large change. Those days, acquired diseases were more prevalent due to lack of health related knowledge. But now these diseases are more commonly found among economically backward class of people. Labour class of people residing in slum areas suffer from diseases like cholera, diarrhea, malaria, typhoid etc. No one is found to be suffering from ulcers, insomnia, diabetes, colitis, depression etc. among these people. Some of them are found to suffer from malnutrition due to poverty. Those families which have more children and fewer earners are deprived of proper nutrition; so their children suffer from deficiency of vitamins, protein, and minerals. In India, people of high economic group are not different from western people. A poor person’s malnutrition is totally different from that of a rich man residing in any part of the world. Rich people diseases are basically due to irregular meals, excessive alcohol, smoking habit, drugs habit etc. In western countries, there has been a drastic change in food habits of high society people. Technological development and industrialization are also responsible for this change. Eating hastily, eating readymade food, tin food, and some of the recipes of food are not acceptable in natural life style. These need immediate changes.
In Ayurveda, balanced diet does not mean tasteless food. Ayurved emphasizes on balance between time of meals, place of meals and amount and quality of meals according to one’s tendency. Remember, if meal is too tasty then it does not mean you should go on eating. This can give rise to pain in abdomen. If you have craving to eat more due to taste then try to convince yourself like this – “I just want to limit myself up to the pleasure of having tasty food. I don’t want myself to get into troubles like obesity, abdominal pain, and liver problems out of getting beyond this pleasure. So I should as much eat as it is necessary for my body.”
Some people calculate the amount of calories they are receiving from their diet. You are not a machine which needs oil, water, or petrol etc in a particular quantity. You should take as much food as it is necessary in accordance with internal and external environment. In humans there are cravings and feelings like taste, smell etc. and the process of taking meals is related to pleasure and social work. When you waste your energy for calculating amount of calories you are receiving then how can you enjoy your food? Whenever you feel satisfied while having meal, stop eating. Appetite sometimes can increase in spite overeating and can reduce on under eating. Some children have a disease of eating less that finally lose their appetite.
Initially these types of people eat less due to many reasons like a trivial illness, emotional reason, and monotonousness of food. Gradually their appetite reduces. Due to prominence of ‘Kaph’ in childhood appetite is suppressed. This way eating less is as dangerous as overeating. Some people start eating very less to reduce their weight. This perverts appetite. Whenever you want to increase or reduce your appetite then do it gradually. Concentrate on your obesity and habit of overeating simultaneously or else complexity will increase and it will be then difficult to come out of it. When people over eat in parties for about ten days then the problems start. This increases their appetite and weight. If they go on satisfying their appetite then they overeat. This means that we should keep control over our appetite and we should not allow such situations to rise which imbalances our diet and appetite and we start overeating or under eating.
Second meal should be avoided till the first meal is completely digested. If you eat again during digestive process then the first meal will get mixed with the food taken later on; this will imbalance all the ‘Doshas’. So besides quality of food, interval between two meals is also important. In Ayurveda it has been stated that we should keep in mind in relation with food that there are three parts of our abdomen. First part is for solid food, second part is for liquid, and the third part is for ‘Tridosha’. While eating it should be kept in mind that two third part of abdomen should be occupied and one third part of abdomen should be kept empty for ‘Tridosha’. Charak has said that food has two types – less, and excess. Less eaten meals give rise to reduction in energy, tone, and development and ‘Vayu’ moves upwards. This situation harms ageing, immunity, and energy; it ruins body, brain, intellect, and senses. Eating too much deletes ‘Vat’,
‘Pitta’, and ‘Kaf’ and they get distorted. Distorted ‘vat’ leads to abdominal pain, bodyache, syncope, vertigo, digestive disturbances, spasms, etc. problems. ‘Pitta’ leads to fever, delirium, diarrhea, Thirst, vertigo, etc. problems. ‘Kaf’ gives rise to indigestion, fever with chills, heaviness of body, etc.
It has been said about food taken in an inadequate quantity that the food which is heavy, tough, dry, disliking, giving rise to burning, dirty, distending abdomen, taken in wrong time, taken during mental excitations like lust, anger, lure, jealousy, sorrow, fear and aggression also creates the above mentioned problems.
The first importance of food should be to consume it in essential quantity with mixture of those edible elements which balance ‘Tridosha’. Common Ayurvedic books contain clear information about this. The second important quality of food is that it should be according to your basic Ayurvedic tendency e.g. those who have a ‘pitta’ tendency should avoid ‘pitta’ creating food. But they should take food which has a power to reduce ‘pitta’ so that balance is maintained.
The third important quality food should have is that it should be able to cure minor diseases in their primary stage by balance of ‘tridosha’ e.g. if your blood pressure falls due to hot climate then you should immediately take cold water in a good quantity, add something sweet to it and drink. Same way if you have pain in muscles due to excessive heat as it may happen due to decreased salt in our body, then take cold water with lime and salt and drink it. Take a glass of cold milk at bed time to remove acidity.
Now we will discuss about taking meals according to time and country location. Those who are residing over mountains will require different food from those who reside in deserts; because different locations have different qualities of ‘tridosha’. Those who do not consider these things get ill on change of place. Forest area is chiefly ‘vat’ in its tendency whereas sea shore has chiefly ‘kaf’ and ‘pitta’. Desert area is chiefly ‘vat-pitta’. Mountain area is chiefly ‘vat-kaf’ and swampy areas are chiefly ‘kaf’. You should cautiously understand your problem, analyze it in context with your location, and then change your diet accordingly to treat yourself.
When people travel from one country to other then they should change their dietary habits and pay special attention to it. For example if you travel from a cold country to a tropical country then you should reduce your food intake and increase quality of food. In the countries having hot weather, those food items should be avoided which can increase ‘pitta’. Liquids should be preferred and cold bath should be taken. Light meals, fewer amounts of fat, fruits, and salads, curd, milk and more amount of cold water should be taken.
There are so many aspects of meal. First aspect is meal according to age. In each age group (childhood, youth, old age) a particular ‘dosh’ is predominant so you should consume food according to your age group. Time, climate, season, etc. aspects should be considered.
2. Physical changes and addiction – Three subjects which ultimately give rise to diseases in higher economical groups should be given consideration. These are – diet, alcoholism and tobacco chewing. Excessive eating and alcoholism leads to obesity. Obesity later on creates big problems for health. In Ayurveda, eight defects have been mentioned in obese people – reduction of life span, sluggishness, impotency, weakness, unpleasant smell, excessive perspiration, excessive appetite, and abnormal thirst.
Charak has said that obesity is due to excessive eating, heavy, sweet, and cold foods, sleeping in daytime, remaining undisciplined, hereditary tendency, and lack of mental work. In obese people there is an excessive deposition of fat due to imbalance in metals.
Remember that if you have put on weight then you will have to endure this weight. Thin people also have same liver, heart, kidneys, and other organs as obese people have. But the difference is that in case of obese people the organs have to strain to provide nutrition to tissues and bear the excess weight. For example, suppose your initial weight was 70 kg, and now your weight is 85 kg. This is exactly like as if a
man of 70 kg is carrying a 15 kg suitcase with him all the time. Who will like to carry this much weight all the time? Obesity is even worse than this situation because the excess of weight is part of your body and you will have to provide nutrition to this part also.
People, who have proper weight, have properly covered bones. Skin is neither too loose nor it is hanging. Thighs, buttocks, and abdomen should not have excess fat. Some people have more fat deposition in some of the parts. To reduce over weight, Yoga should be performed, diet should be controlled, sleeping should be avoided during day time, and fat free food should be taken. To get freedom from obesity, a strict control over senses and a disciplined routine has to be observed. This needs a great courage. You must not bow down to temptations and must take simple food. You will have to be firm in your efforts, only then it is possible to lose weight. If you surrender in between then whatever weight you have lost, will increase again.
Charak has said that obesity is due to excess of ‘kaf’ and ‘pitta’. To reduce obesity those edible substances should be consumed which have less amount of ‘kaf’ and ‘pitta’. Hot, rough smears should be done. Obese person should not eat fatty and cold food. Night watching should be avoided and physical and mental exercises should be increased.
Quite opposite to obese people, there are some people who in spite of taking adequate food, are lean and thin. Excessive food can not increase their weight. To gain weight it is necessary for them that they do not take mental strain and do not get disturbed by business and responsibilities. These people should take food having cold tendency, ghee, massage, and take adequate sleep. Sleep, rest, comfortable bed, tension free mind, pleasure, curd, ghee, butter, sugar cane, rice, wheat, bangle gram, jaggory preparations, white dressing, diagnosis of deformed ‘tridosha’ in time, energizer substances etc. help in gaining weight and development.
Ayurveda and Naturopathy do not tell us to make our lives uninteresting, but they have mentioned the ways to increase our pleasure. But the craze to achieve this pleasure should not be so frantic that the person damages himself. A true happiness is never destructive in any form. If you are sure that what you call happiness is destructive then the definition of happiness needs revision. If you are smoking all the day and going on emptying alcohol bottles one after another and then if you say that it is giving you a great pleasure then be informed that it is not a real pleasure. You must have barely enjoyed cigarette, you just lit cigarette and went on taking puffs to turn it in to smoke. How can one taste 50 cigarettes a day? Same way, every day evening repeatedly pouring wine in to a glass, and drink it. How can this be of any pleasure? Some people enjoy rising and setting sun. If earth starts revolving with such a speed that sunset and sunrise are seen every ten minutes then is it possible for us to pay attention to sun? Suppose that a person is so eager to see sunset that he everyday goes to a particular place; then does not it sound that the person’s wish is just mechanical? To expect happiness up to such an extent is like becoming slave of the habit.
Alcoholism gives rise to peptic ulcers, colitis etc. Liver is destroyed and besides, many health-related problems can occur. Gradually it destroys memory, rationality, and intelligence. The list of diseases created by smoking is very big. This can give rise to diseases varying from a minor respiratory problem to asthma or lung cancer. Smoking in constricted or polluted areas is more dangerous than smoking in open and clear atmosphere. In metropolitan cities we inspire a good amount of polluted particles in our breath, which give rise to many diseases. It is said that residing in Mexico City is as good as smoking one packet of cigarette everyday. New Delhi is still worse. In this condition if you are residing in a metropolitan city and you are smoking cigarette also then surely you add one packet to whatever number of packets of cigarette you are smoking a day.
2. Redemption from smoking and alcohol is necessary
If you are smoking as well as taking alcohol (either daily or once a week) then reduce the amount of alcohol as well as smoking and use them while keeping in mind their adverse effects and quality. Take a
piece of paper and jot down a mark on it every time you smoke. This way, perhaps your hand will draw back while making marks; you will wince before smoking or drinking. This will break your mechanical repetition; possibly your conscious will arise and you may start giving priority to your life.
Never surrender to your habits. You are the master and you must have an ability to command yourself. A mentally sound person must have qualities like controlling his senses, self-control, and self-restriction. Remember that mind controls mind. For mental control, ‘Pranayam’ and ‘Anupreksha’ exercises are very much helpful. If you learn to control your mind and get rid of those addictions which are destructing your health, then you will become strong enough to deal with other problems of life in a better way.
Among the experiments of life science, experiments of freedom from addictions are very effective in getting freedom from smoking and alcoholism. Accepting them is very much advantageous.
Smoking and alcohol both increase ‘vat’ and ‘pitta’ in our body and contaminate ‘agni’. This may give rise to high blood pressure. Tobacco can give rise to muscular problems and also it can affect nervous system. This may also cause sluggishness in action and offensiveness of urine. These effects are exaggerated in those who have ‘pitta’ tendency.
In short, all these mean that we should live our lives with rules and regulations. Malnourishing food, smoking, alcoholism etc. should not be used excessively. Surrendering to habits and being mechanical gives rise to imbalance of body and invites many diseases.
3. Accordance with natural powers
Nothing is stable in nature. Everything is subject to change, and this variation reveals tomorrow. Sequence of changes from one situation to another is life. In our body, there is the same soul was there during our embryonic phase and childhood, and later on also when we become young and then old. In Ayurveda it is called ‘Jiv’ (soul) which never changes, never gets old and never dies.
Our external world is formed of physical elements. Our internal world is a divine element which never changes. To learn to establish synchronization between them is the part of life.
1. Controllable and uncontrollable urges – Natural urges have been divided into two categories – controllable and uncontrollable.
**Natural urge**
- **Uncontrollable urge**
- Urination, defaecation, sperm emission, flatus,
- Vomit, burp, yawn, sneeze, appetite, thirst, tears,
- Sleep, and heavy breath after exertion.
- **Controllable urge**
- Bad thoughts, actions, speech, temptation,
- Sorrow, fear, anger, arrogance, competition or jealousy, affection
**Uncontrollable urge**
If a person tries to suppress his uncontrollable urge then it will create harmful effects on his health. Some people suppress their urge due to busy schedule, recklessness, and laziness. In long meetings, people do not get up to release their urge due to fear as to what other people will think. If such urges happen to have to restrain for long time then it leads to dire consequences.
Pain in bladder or urethra, dysuria, headache, backache etc. problems arise out or restraining urinary urge repeatedly. To get rid of such problems the patient should sit in a tub filled with warm water and do massage.
On restraining sperm pain in penis, pain in testicles, bodyache, cardiac pain, dysuria etc. problems may occur. To treat these problems massage, bath, rice, milk etc. are useful.
On restraining flatus gaseous distension of abdomen, pain, tiredness, and other abdominal problems related to ‘vat’ can occur. To get rid of diseases, oil massage should be done.
On restraining vomit itching, black spots, anaemia, fever, nausea etc. problems can occur. Emesis, light food or fasting, exercise, purgation etc. can give relief.
On restraining sneeze, pain in neck muscles, headache, migraine, weakness in genitalia etc. problems occur. Neck massage, nasal drops, and use of ghee after meals relieve these problems.
On restraining burps hiccoughs, tremulousness, heaviness in chest etc. can occur. In this situation, treatment should be aimed to reduce ‘vat’.
On restraining thirst dryness of mouth and throat, difficulty in hearing, tiredness, depression, headache, chest pain, pressure disturbances can occur. In this situation, cold drink should be taken.
On restraining tears, burning in eyes, eye diseases, heart diseases, vertigo etc. can start. For this situation, a deep sleep and reassurance are helpful.
On restraining sleep yawning, bodyache, drowsiness, heaviness in eyes, uneasiness, forgetfulness etc. complaints occur. Sleep gives vital energy to body and mind. On taking inadequate sleep uneasiness and tiredness occur. To relieve these problems a good sleep and massage are required. Performing ‘Yoga Nindra’ is very much beneficial.
On restraining fast respiration after exercise tumour, heart disease, syncope etc. problems can occur. Rest and treatment of balancing ‘vat’ can relieve these problems.
**Controllable urge**
After taking information about uncontrollable urge and problems created by their negligence, we will now describe those urges which can be controlled and for the human welfare, they must be controlled. This is possible through control of mind over senses. According to Charak, “Any person, who wishes his well, should prevent his evil thoughts, language, and acts.” Temptations, sorrow, fear, anger, affection, immodesty, desire to seize other’s property, etc. should be forsaken by intelligent people. A speech which is impolite, untrue, and uncontrolled should be stopped. Emotions and wishes like debauchery, theft, violence, which is creating problems for other should be controlled. Intelligent people should avoid and be careful about excessive exercise, laugh, sexual intercourse, night watching etc. Any person, who crosses these boundaries, meets sudden death. Just like a lion dragging an elephant. Those people who become weak due to excessive sexual intercourse, overweight, excessive walking, and purgation, become victims of anger, fear, and tiredness. Children, old age people, and those who have ‘vat’ as chief component, suffer from hunger, thirst, and speaking aloud. These people should not perform physical exercise. The one, who wants himself healthy, should accept life style of healthy people.
From the above mentioned statement of Charak the difference between modern therapy and Ayurvedic treatment becomes clear. In modern therapy heart and brain are seen as different entities. If a person goes to a doctor with a complaint of headache, then the doctor treats him but the patient does not still feel relief. Then the patient is sent to Neurology. Here his treatment will be done in a point of view whether the patient had any head injury in the past which has now come to the surface in the form of headache, of there is any kind of infection. If here the doctor is not able to find out any reason then the patient is sent to a psychiatrist with a comment that there is no obvious physical reason of headache so
there must be psychiatric reason for it, so to be investigated accordingly. In Ayurveda, the situation is different. The person who has headache is considered in different aspects like his meals, digestion, threshold, breath, occupation, place of occupation, family situations, other relations, emotional behaviour, social situations, sexual relationship, stress level, etc. etc. In Ayurveda, head is not considered different from body. Head and body are complimentary to each other and are connected. Excessive anger can give rise to abdominal discomfort as well as headache. Same way, ‘vat’ related problems can increase in our body. Similarly, improper food or cold can give rise to imbalance in ‘vat’ which can create fear and uneasiness in a person.
Similarly, basic of Ayurveda is body’s harmony. But in Ayurveda, the word ‘Psychosomatic’ does not mean the same as it means in western countries. In western countries this word is used where the problem’s root is psychological, sentimental, or mental; and which has no relation in its formation, structure and chemical level. Ayurveda does not believe in body and mind working in different directions, but they are considered complimentary to each other. So it can not be thought that mind is absolutely healthy and body is suffering from various diseases. Both of them are affected by each other. Moreover, the fact is that mind and body are ultimately related to universal truth.
The reason for weak or strong constitution of persons, their intellectual dissimilarity, variation in achievements, etc. are due to their natural constitution. Basic tendency reflects our emotional reactions, and nature of ‘Tridosha’. We should control our senses through our intellect in such a way that they get into only those actions which are promising of a good future and a good health. Temptation and lure does not only mean to be having desire to seize other peoples’ things, but it also means to stock material things in a huge amount. In our age the number of enticed people is increasing day by day. Our modern culture which is technologically advanced is nourishing this urge by putting it in rivalry. This urge is considered to be the symbol of progress. This is the reason why there is a lack of satisfaction in humans. For more progress people have got themselves engaged beyond limit. They have to work excessively and they suffer from uneasiness of mind. All these lead to increment in ‘vat’ and ultimately give rise to ‘vat’ related diseases like – psychiatric problems, sleeplessness, stress, abdominal discomfort, or blood related problems.
When people go to meetings, establish contacts, and move to distant places for their important works, then they are compelled to restrain their urges. These urges can’t be restrained, so they invite diseases and reduce life span. Such a person in between his routine hustle-bustle needs to stop himself for a moment and ask himself, “Why am I doing this? Why am I doing these anti-life works?” What is the meaning of running behind progress and achievements when there is no life, or there is a very short time of life is left? Remember that the priority of life should be life itself. A man surrounded by temptations forgets that every person who rises falls one day. Our stay on this earth is not permanent but it is temporary. So instead of struggling behind big pleasures, it is wise to look for happiness in small things. The journey of life is not going to lead us very far, it is limited. A journey means getting pleasure out of natural beauty, and not only to reach the destination. If you will crazily start climbing the mountain fast to reach to the summit then even if you reach, you may feel tired or fall ill. So rush and engagement to work are not going to provide any benefit. So I advise you to spare time for those works also which you want to do for yourselves.
To brood over sorrows excessively is also harmful for health. Suffering of sorrows can take the form of a disease. Staying crowded by grieves can produce ulcers, colitis, cancers, all kinds of pains and other ‘vat’ related diseases. We should not see our problems magnified, but we should think that it is not only us who are unhappy. Such people are always preoccupied by self-pity. They give much importance to themselves and their problems. Excessive affection towards wealth, children, husband, wife, etc. gives profuse sadness. Harm to one of these provides grief.
First of all, be informed that pleasure is the condition of mind. It is there in our mind. Pleasure originates from satisfaction. There is nothing in life which is actually frightening; life is a series of events.
There is surely a positive aspect of every bad situation. This world is not going to end because of your grieves. Do not sink into the ocean of your sorrows. If you see even a faintest ray of hope then hold it and try to come in to light. Yoga, Ayurvedic therapy, and Naturopathy teach us that our joys and sorrows are the reasons of our luck and our rewards. The result of our former deeds is ‘Dev’. If you are sad and brooding over your sorrows then you are worsening the situation. With the help of ‘Dev’ you can improve your actions, and this is your present action which you have to perform. Remember that sadness is the part of life. With our actions we have to work up on it with such intelligence that we do not have to pay for our present sorrows in the future. We have to break this cycle of sorrows.
Remember, everyone has to pay for his deeds. We cannot help others beyond a limit, no matter if they are your sons, daughters or other relatives. Ascertain your limits and do not be sad for whichever is out of your control. Too much affection leads to sorrow. To protect us from it, we should think over the short-livingness of our body and relations. Everything goes on changing in this world. We should always try to be immaterial. Put in to practice courage, fearlessness, and straightforwardness. Feeling of fear is destructing. So try your best to face fears. If you are fearless yourselves then don’t set fear in to others’ minds. If you are a master, ruler or on other similar position then do not try to fear others. Be strong and trust your insight. Our insight and our soul is the reason for life and it can’t be destroyed. Whenever you feel fear, concentrate up on your insight.
Basically people speak lie either due to temptations (e.g. businessmen or companies to earn and to sell their items.) or out of fear. To speak truth courage and fearlessness have to be there. When a child breaks some valuable thing, then it becomes fearful. The child fears of parents’ fury because the child is little; and that’s why the child will speak untruth. Parents should reassure their children that they will be rewarded on speaking truth. Do not create fearful situations before children.
Always maintain a courage to speak truth, no matter if you have to face adverse situations because that. A liar is always anxious about his untruth becoming revealed. Feeling of fear harms respiratory tract, digestion, nerves, and heart. Whenever you feel fear, think about of those mountains which are resolutely standing among whisks of air. Think about the limitless sky, powerful sun. Arouse your internal powers and gather courage to speak truth.
Competition and jealousy are created by lack of satisfaction. We also want those things which others own. On failure to do so, we get disappointed and yearn to achieve wealth. Try to satisfy with whatever you have. Even in adverse situations, think of those people who are living in worst situations. Never think that you will be happy by getting into a situation in which others are happy. Imagine about a school teacher who is jealous of his neighbour who is a manager in a big company. This school teacher is able to see the manager’s wealth and not his tensions and engagements with his business. The school teacher’s leisure time during many free days, is much more valuable than wealth. To what benefit the wealth is which compels one to bear ill-health situations and then gradually lead him to those diseases which reduce his life span? Jealousy is a negative feeling; do not waste your time behind such thoughts. Speaking too much or speaking loudly is also detrimental to health. Do not speak louder than usual. Do not shout. Some people start shouting when they are hurt. This manifests imbalance of ‘vat’. Speak less, speak slowly. Use those words that do not hurt others. Remember, whenever we hurt others, it harms us.
“Anger is an amnesic”- this has been stated in ‘Bhagvat Geeta’. If you want to follow Ayurvedic life style to remain healthy and long living, and keep your memory healthy then avoid anger. Placate yourself with logic to keep away from destructive mentality, and find out proper solutions of problems. Some people get offended by trivial matters and create an idiotic situation.
**Accordance with age related changes:** According to Ayurveda the whole life span of a person can be divided into three – childhood, elderly, and old age (after 60). Up to the age of 16 ‘Dhatu’ are undeveloped, there is sexual indifference, body is delicate and fragile, and there is predominance of ‘kat’.
Up to the age of 30 ‘Dhatu’ are developing, mind is unstable. Elderly age (mature age) is known by its energy, gallantry, grasping power, memory power, understanding power. At this age ‘Dhatu’ are in their optimum limits of development, physical and mental powers are well developed, and there is predominance of ‘pitta’. This stage lasts up to the age of 60 years. After this, during old age there is gradual loss of energy, brilliance, gallantry, grasping power, capacity, memory, and power of understanding; at this stage there is predominance of ‘vat’.
Changes are there in every age. Every moment we grow up compared to past moment. Growth of a child passing through teen age to youth seems very nice. This change looks good and attractive till the age of 40 years. Then it does not look good. No one wants to become old. So at this age every one thinks as if the major part of his life has got over. That is why people consider their past specialties positive and the future negative. Many people start to over-project their past. They do not accept the present as better than past and become anxious about future. But the fact is that every phase of life has its own beauties. Do not think that it was the best period when your mother was taking your care. A child is helpless, weak, and dependent. No doubt a student life is very beautiful, but in that period too there are responsibilities, anxieties, and uncertainties of future. Besides, some of the students struggle due to financial lack and they can not even rest.
There is one more facet of increasing age- disease, deformity, unattractiveness, and dependency on others. Old age is not necessarily so much sad as people think. For all these problems, irresponsibility to health during youth is responsible. During old age we achieve according to our past deeds. Some people talk of investing in various insurance policies or other investment schemes, but they can not spare fifteen minutes per day for meditation and yoga. We should place our foundation of healthy old age during our youth. Our body and mind do not forget past experiences. During old age, old wounds come to surface and old disasters start creating problems. Smoking too much, consuming excessive alcohol, night watching, speaking loudly, losing temper, etc. bad habits do not manifest their effects immediately; but every action leaves its stain behind. Try to make your old age healthy, attractive, and brilliant through your efforts during youth and not to become a senile old man by becoming irresponsible and indifferent.
Do not try to stay young; try to move on to your next stage beautifully. Learn to keep cope with time, accept the reality of elapsed time. Do not fear of past. Accept every day in the form of an elegant and priceless gift. Gather every day as a flower. Try to solve every difficulty of life with such magnificence as if you are making a beautiful painting.
Old age does not mean diseases and deformities. By accepting a lifestyle according to our tendency and time we can avoid deformities. Food, lifestyle, exercise, etc. should be changed according to age. If we do not follow the pace of time and a proper lifestyle then ‘tridosha’ get imbalanced. If this imbalance continues for long then we become so much debilitated that we become victim of other diseases. In this situation, old age appears early, the person starts losing attractiveness, energy and beauty diminish. Our present actions and mental attitude both play an important role in maintaining youth power.
Men and women when reach around forty, become anxious on thought of old age. Graying of hair, reduction of vision, creases on skin over some parts, etc. warn them and they think that the process of degeneration has started.
Reaching old age is as natural as reaching youth from childhood. The fact is that we start stepping to old age from the moment we originate in mother’s womb. This means that the changes occurring in our body are leading us to a certain target. This target is demolition of this body, end of material body. In Ayurveda and Yogashastra, there are some procedures mentioned which can maintain the journey of our life beautiful, happy, and peaceful.
Menopause, graying of hair, gradual reduction in energy by time, reduction in libido, creases, and finally stepping towards death- these are all material changes which should have support and cooperation
of our thought-process. You should not think that these changes are harmful: there is no need to fear of them either. On the contrary you should be ready to accept the basic facts of life that there is nothing which is going to last forever- neither happiness nor sorrow, neither youth nor old age. We are all heading to a particular ending which is in fact not the end but an illusion of the end. Our father, grand father, and others who were there on this earth and now they are not there, but still life goes on. Seasons change, earth revolves, we see sunrises, sunsets, we see moon. Same way when we will pass away, everything will go on. There will always be some people to take our place. Our body merges to those very five elements from which it was created; and the substance of life i.e. soul takes up a new body which is called rebirth.
In this cyclical world it does not make sense to lament on material changes, destructions, death etc. Wisdom lays in that we except the enormity of these changes with pleasure and make efforts to so that we can be happy in our old age. During youth usually people do a lot of fun when the ‘Dhatu’ are in developmental phase. As soon as they reach the peak of development, a fall starts. This makes them shocked. To hide the signs of increasing age, they accept some artificial ways like- hair dye, skin treatment, and everything which makes them look young. To maintain the energy of youth for long, it is necessary to take steps during the falling stage of ‘Dhatu’. One can not think of digging a well on becoming thirty. Many women have to bear sufferings of menopause. Mental sufferings add to these physical sufferings. Sometimes the after-effects last longer. First, you should understand that cessation of menstruation is as natural as its beginning. It starts around the age of 13. Cessation of menstruation is the sign of end of your reproductive power and not the sign of end of your sexual life. Neither is it the sign of arrival of old age. This only means that you won’t menstruate from now on, and you won’t be able to recreate. To accept menopause with spontaneity, make yourself physically and mentally prepared from the beginning. Minor change in menstruation gives signal of arrival of menopause. In this condition, exercise yoga regularly, take food to reduce ‘vat’. These will help to create a platform for menopause. Besides these, meditation, Pranayam, health tonics etc. are helpful.
Eyes, ears, nose, skin etc are sensitive areas where effects of old age are seen. If these are not taken care of, then graying of hair or hair fall starts earlier. Vision reduces and skin becomes lusterless.
Deformation of ‘pitta’, speaking loudly or speaking too much, stressful life, excessive anxiety gives rise to creases on face. To remove creases of face, above mentioned yoga exercises should be performed. Take adequate food and sleep and take care of your skin. Protect your skin from ‘vat-dosha’. ‘Vat-dosha’ gives rise to dryness of skin and creases prematurely. Try to keep your skin moist and bright to protect it from creases. Massage oil over your skin and do every effort to take care of your skin.
**Questionnaire**
1. **Assays**
1. Describe accordance with natural powers.
2. What is the purpose of regular life-style? Clarify.
2. **Short questions**
1. Describe chief functions of food.
2. What are the effects of intoxication on body?
3. **Objective questions – answer in single sentence.**
1. What does food finally provide?
2. Which energy is wasted by anger?
**References-**
1. Dainik Jivan mein Ayurved – Vinod Verma.
2. Prakritik Ayurvigyan – Rakesh Jindal.
3. Rogon ki sahi Chikitsa – Nagendra Niraj and Manju Niraj.
CHAPTER-20: OTHER ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES
ACUPRESSURE, ACUPUNCTURE, MAGNET THERAPY: INTRODUCTION
AIMS
After studying this chapter students will be-
1. Able to acquire introductory knowledge of various alternative therapies.
2. Able to learn theoretical knowledge and practical applicability of Acupressure, Acupuncture, and Magnet therapy.
3. Able to achieve expertise in diagnosing diseases through alternative therapies.
TOPICS
(A) **Acupressure-**
1. History
2. Indian culture
3. Definition
4. Classification
5. Zonology
6. Reflexology
7. Abbreviations
8. Instructions
9. Advantages
(B) **Magnet therapy-**
1. History
2. Physical properties of a magnet
3. Types of magnet
4. Science of magnet
(C) **Acupuncture-**
1. Background
2. History
3. Similarity
4. Yin and Yang
5. Proper correspondence
6. Foot correspondence
7. Three point correspondence
8. Referral point correspondence
9. Secondary correspondence
10. Flank correspondence
(A) **Acupressure**
1. **History**
Human body is a machine. Everyone knows that in unfavourable situations the parts of a machine can stop working any time. Even if a single part stops working then it makes a difference in the machine’s function. Then scientists find reason for it and study that particular part and the reasons for its dysfunction. As far as a human body is concerned, this study is called therapeutic system. Man tried to research continuously to treat himself. It can surely be said that the fist system a man had used to treat himself was ‘Acupressure’; it is a different matter that the name of this system was given later on. Whenever you feel pain in any part of your body than what do you do? You press it first with your hand. Wherever the pain is—eyes, hands, head, or leg—we press it first with our hand. This has not been told us by anyone. We do the act of pressure spontaneously. Nature has taught us to press the site where there is pain. This is Acupressure. So this is the oldest therapeutic system in the world. Its systematic study was carried out in China, but still its origin is believed to be in India before 6000 years. In the great book of Ayurveda the reference of Acupressure is found; it was known as ‘Marma Chikitsa’.
People of China claim Acupressure and Acupuncture to be of their own science and refer it to be 5000 years old. In the ancient books of China, their references are found.
During the time of ‘Mouryas’ this science was accepted and promoted by ‘Bauddha Bhikshus’. American Acupressure therapist Dr. William Fitzgeland gave modern move to this science. In countries like China, America, Japan, and Korea, this therapy has been authorized and is being used in hospitals for treatment.
World Health Organization (WHO) is also considering Acupressure. In many countries of world, its teaching and therapeutic centers are being run. In our country also its popularity and importance will increase for sure.
2. Indian Culture
In our villages it is a tradition to tattoo. You must have seen tattoo marks over the faces of some village women; this is the evidence of Acupuncture. Ear piercing, nose piercing etc. are the examples of Acupuncture only. Our ancestor did not introduce the necessities of this procedure; they just insisted it to be necessary. Our past generations followed it under an impression that it is a religious process, but they did not study it.
If ornaments are studied, then surprising facts will come to know. Anklets, bracelets, waist band, ear rings, necklace etc. create some pressure on body to maintain health. When we will acquire knowledge of reflexes then the things will become clear. Where ears are pierced is the point of sleeplessness, memory, and paralysis. Where bangles are wore, is the point of prostate and bladder. Where anklets are wore, is the point for sciatic nerve and lymphnodes. Due to continuous pressure there points remain active and healthy and the negative and positive (Yin and Yang) energy of our body (Chi) flows harmoniously. As a result, body remains healthy. Even today in some villages, women feel proud to wear all ornaments and remain healthy too. On the contrary, women residing in cities are loosing interest in ornaments. As a result we all know that village women are healthier compared to delicate women residing in cities.
In Indian culture male outfit, clothing, rituals etc. have an important contribution in health point of view. Just like ‘Pagdi’, sacred thread (‘Janeu’), ear piercing, waist band, bracelet etc. ‘Pagdi’ gives protection from intense sunlight. Sacred thread protects from urinary diseases, bracelet is helpful in male diseases, and waist band prevents hernia.
3. Definition
The word Acupressure has been derived from Acupuncture. Acupuncture means treatment of diseases by making punctures over various points of body by needles. Now when diseases are treated by applying pressure to these points then it is called Acupressure.
‘Acupressure’ is the combination of two words ‘Acus’ and ‘pressure’. In Latin, ‘Acus’ means sharp object. So, ‘Acupressure’ means treating diseases by applying pressure over various parts with sharp objects.
4. Classification
For detail information, Acupressure has been classified.
5. Zonology
In this process, body is divided into 10 parts in length. It is called ‘Zone therapy’. Five parts are over left side and five parts are over right side. For every part of body we find a corresponding point over palms and soles related to the particular zone in which the body part is located.
Human body is also divided in four parts in width. To identify correspondence point hands and legs are also divided in four parts in relation with parts of body. First part is head area, second part is chest area, third part is digestive area, and the fourth one is sex & leg area.
6. Reflexology
Reflex points are on many areas. For therapy it is necessary to identify as to which part of body is diseased. The correspondence point for that area is applied pressure to treat the disease. In this, ‘Foot Reflexology’ is more convenient and more impressive. If other reflexologies are also used along with foot reflexology, then you will get more success.
The endings of blood vessels and nervous system are over hands and feet. The nerves related to various parts of body are present in hands and feet. By looking at the chart it becomes easy to know as to which part of body falls under which of the related areas over hands and legs.
6.1 Foot reflexology
Applying pressure over correspondence points over soles and dorsum of foot for treatment is called foot reflexology.
Foot Reflexology Hand Reflexology
Foot Acupressure is considered superior because of its influence over vital energy in the whole system and also it is a big correspondence area.
6.2 Hand Reflexology: Treatment of diseases by applying pressure over correspondence areas over hands is called Acupressure. If a patient’s feet are not in a good position or if there is some difficulty in applying pressure over feet, then hand acupressure should be given.
6.3 Ear Reflexology: The shape of ear is the same as the inverted shape of a child while it is in mother’s womb. Keeping in mind this shape, Acupressure points are identified.
Acupressure points on ears: Various points on ears correspond to body parts. Acupressure points of liver, gall bladder, and appendix are only on left ear, whereas Acupressure points of spleen and heart are over right ear.
1. Tonsil
2. Appendix
3. Heel
4. Knee joint
5. High blood pressure
6. Asthma
7. Hip
8. Sciatic nerve
9. Buttock
10. Urinary bladder
11. Urethra
12. Kidney
13. Large intestine
14. Rectum
15. Small intestine
16. Stomach
17. Trachea
18. Lung
19. Lung
20. High blood pressure
21. Internal ear
22. Eye
23. Fye
24.
25. Eye
26. Internal ear
27. Upper jaw
28. Lower jaw
29. Lung
30. Ovary
31. Asthma
32. Brain
33. Teeth
34. Liver
35. Spleen
36. Gall bladder
37. Neck
38. Shoulder joint
39. Shoulder
40. Abdomen
41. Elbow
42. Knee
43. Hip joint
7. Abbreviations
For compliance, following abbreviations are used in Acupressure.
| Term | Description |
|------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| G.P. | General point |
| K.U.B. | Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder |
| M.O. | Medulla Oblongata |
| X. Point | Sex point |
| C.N.S. | Central Nervous System |
| L. Point | Local point |
| 10+3+8+3 | Ten + Three + Eight + Three (10 points of thigh, 3 points of knee, 8 points of calves, and 3 points for trochanter.) |
| Relax | Relaxing by relaxation process |
| Solar | Diaphragm, Solar point |
| Head Area | Area of head |
| Chest Area | Area of chest |
| Stomach Area | Area of stomach |
| Sex Area | Reproduction area |
| Reflex Point | Correspondence area (Hand, feet, ear point) |
| Ex. Point | Extra point |
| T1 to T12 | Thoracic |
| S1 to S5 | Sacral |
| C1 to C7 | Cervical |
| L1 to L5 | Lumbar |
**8. Instructions for Acupressure treatment**
- Atmosphere should be clean, peaceful, and pleasant.
- Keep your patient in a proper condition during treatment.
- Patient and therapist both should be in a comfortable and relaxed situation during therapy.
- A therapist should be calm, devoted, service oriented, healthy and having a good character.
- With Acupressure observe nutritious diet and light exercise.
- Keep at least one hour’s gap between meals and treatment.
- Treatment can be taken twice a day eight hours apart.
- Create positive feelings about life in patient’s mind.
- Patient should be in a sitting or lying position during treatment.
- A therapist should keep his nails properly trimmed.
- Before therapy, make the patient relax then observe his face and feet.
- Serious patient should be given pressure over Meridian point and then Reflex point.
- Patient’s threshold, diseased part of body, and part to be given pressure should be considered before giving therapy. As much pressure should be applied as the patient can tolerate. Pressure should be pleasant and not painful.
- One point can be pressed from seven seconds to one minute. The whole therapy should continue from 20 to 30 minutes.
- Apply pressure one by one starting from fingers to heels. Watch for results after one week and according to the result, continue or stop treatment.
- After applying pressure, pressure should be withdrawn with a jerk so that blood circulation improves.
- Treatment should not be given at places where there are fractures, injury, or operation.
- During therapy, the patient should not cross his arms or legs.
In a patient suffering from multiple diseases, the more problematic disease should be treated first.
- Do not apply pressure on bones.
- Use proper equipment on proper place.
- A pregnant woman should not receive this therapy.
- Do not protest if a patient is taking treatment from other systems.
- If a patient is on some medication, then keep a gap of one hour between the medicine and Acupressure.
- Observe a gap of one hour between treatment and bath.
- If a point gets pink on pressure, then do not apply pressure over that point.
- Do not treat a patient if he is on empty stomach.
- Do not treat an intoxicated or tired patient.
- During treatment, there should not be any oily substance over either the patient’s body or the doctor’s (therapist’s) hands.
- Before starting treatment, patient should have passed urine and stool.
- Patient’s both legs should be washed and clean.
- Initially patient feels pain, but afterwards it will gradually reduce; this should also be reassured to the patient.
9. **Benefits of Acupressure**
1. Produces liveliness in skin.
2. Improves spread of essential elements in body and creates elasticity in muscle fibers.
3. Maintains immunity.
4. The whole body stays functioning and performs actively.
5. This therapy can be done at home.
6. It is a less expensive and non-medicated therapy.
7. It is free from side effects and easy to perform.
8. Safe and painless.
9. So much easy that even children can learn.
10. It can bring changes in temperament.
11. This therapy does not need much time and can be performed anywhere at anytime.
(B) **Magnet Therapy**
1. **History of Magnet Therapy**
In ancient times ‘Aryas’ used to call magnet as ‘Ashma’, ‘Ashm’, or ‘Siktavali’; and they were very well aware of its property to attract iron. Besides this they also believed that it has also got a power to heal many diseases. This is why it has been mentioned in ‘Atharwaveda’ in mantra 3 and 4 of part-1, section-1, Sukta-17 as to how blood circulation is improved using ‘Siktavali’ prepared from ‘Balu’.
In ‘Atharwaveda, again in mantra 2 and 3 in part-1, section-7, sukta-35 it is mentioned how diagnosis of women’s diseases is possible with a particular stone (‘Ashm’). In the oldest book on therapeutic system ‘Ayurveda’, the word ‘Lohakant’ has been used referring to a magnet.
In modern age, magnet was invented many years B.C. There are so many legends about it. About 2500 years ago a shepherd named ‘Magnez’ observed while moving over mount Inda that his baton which was having iron covered end got stickled to a stone, also his shoes having iron nails got stickled to that stone. This made it difficult for him to walk. That stone was known as ‘Load stone’ those days. After its attraction to iron was recognized by Magnez, the stone was named ‘Magnet’ behind his name. Another legend is that a long time ago in the area of Asia Miner in Magnezia, a dark coloured raw iron was
available, which was mainly containing iron and oxygen. Now, as the dark coloured iron was having a phenomenon to attract ordinary iron, it was named ‘Magnetize’ behind the name of that region.
800 years B.C. people of Unan were calling magnet as ‘Chakmak stone’. Great visualizers Arastu, Aflatoon, and Homer have mentioned this in their books. When boatmen of China came to know that this stone found in nature has also got power to indicate direction, they made a Compass after great efforts with the help of which they used to find out their way in oceans. That’s why they named it ‘Compass stone’ which then developed to earn fame in the history of magnet in the book of Phillips Oreoylos Parasales (1493-1541) - a Doctor, a stuntman, and a mystery man. He described one of the powers of magnet ‘Healing power’ for the first time. He wrote that magnet is especially effective in treating swellings, skin problems, intestinal diseases, and uterine diseases. Modern magnet therapists confirmed his every statement word to word.
Famous doctor of his own time Dr. William Gilbert (1540-1603), who was the doctor of Queen Elizabeth (First), was the first person to scientifically study magnetism and electricity. He was the first to describe that the earth is a huge magnet. To prove this he performed many experiments e.g. he buried an iron rod in earth having one end towards north and the other at south. Then he thumped hammer on it. As a result the rod achieved magnetism.
Many scientists researched on magnet after Dr. Gilbert, but the achievements of Dr. Michael Faraday are remarkable. His first achievement was that he proved that there is a magnetic field around electricity. He enriched magnetic science by submitting subjects like electro-magnetism, lines of force, energy created by revolution of a magnet etc. According to the records of invention, he made more than 16000 experiments on magnet. He is also considered to be the founder of Bio-magnetism and Chemistry of magnetism.
In India, Dr. Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar, and Dr. K.N. Mathur wrote first book on Chemistry of magnetism and Magnet therapy in 1935. For this work they were rewarded also.
Many successful experiments on Magnet therapy based on principles of Bio-magnetism are not only performed in America, Russia, and Japan but also in our country there are many doctors, scientists, Yogis and Naturotherapists involved.
2. Physical properties of Magnet.
Physicists found following physical properties in Magnet.
1. Magnet is a kind of sand stone.
2. A magnet has got a power to attract iron. If a magnet is less powerful and iron is heavy then magnet stickles to it. Vice versa if iron is light and magnet is powerful than it pulls iron.
3. If a magnet is suspended by a thread then its one end will face north and the other will face south. This situation can not be changed. This is why scientists named the one end facing to north as the North Pole (N) and the other one as the South Pole (S).
4. If two pieces of magnet are brought together then they will have either attraction to each other or repulsion to each other. When opposite poles face each other then they have attraction, and if similar poles face each other then they have repulsion.
5. No matter a magnet is broken in to however tiny pieces, its North Pole and South Pole can not be destroyed; means its one end becomes North Pole and the other becomes South Pole without fail.
6. If a magnet is attached with a piece of iron then that iron also possesses magnetic power; means the iron also becomes a magnet. If a few pins are attached with a magnet for a while and if you see after some time, the pin starts attracting other pins. This means that after coming in to contact with a magnet, the pins start possessing magnetic power.
7. The waves of North Pole are cool just like moon, and those coming out of South Pole are warm in character like sun. This is the reason why the North Pole shows reactionary result i.e. it is a germicidal and the South Pole becomes an energizer and exhibits its result by its actions. This means that the North Pole prevents decaying of wounds, and the South Pole relieves pain and swelling. To understand more, we can say that North Pole prevents growth of germs and bacteria and as a result it destroys pus found in boils and pustules and heals them. And the South Pole revitalizes tissues by improving blood circulation.
8. Magnetic waves can pass through glass, wood, plastic, aluminum, zinc, copper, gold, silver etc. except iron. This is the reason why if a magnet is placed on palm and pins are kept below palm then also the magnet can attract the pins and the pins get attached to palm. This proves that magnetic waves can also pass through human body.
9. According to scientists, the North Pole of a magnet contains Proton energy where as the South Pole contains Electron energy this is the reason why their attractions are in different directions.
10. Usually, the word ‘Magnet’ means the one which attracts. This is why we say that a person has magnetism so that whoever he comes in contacts with, the person follows him. But here by Magnet we mean the iron magnet, means a sand stone which attracts iron.
3. Types of Magnet
There are mainly two types of magnets-
1. Natural Magnet (Load Stone)
2. Artificial Magnet
Natural magnets are found in nature as sand stones which can be identified primarily by its power to attract iron. These magnets have a constant magnetism which can not be changed, so they can not be used tactfully in Magnet therapy. On the other hand artificial magnets are designed by humans and can be of different strengths and various shapes. In Magnet therapy we use these artificial magnets.
Artificial magnets can again be classified in to two types.
1. Permanent Magnet
2. Temporary Magnet (Electromagnet)
Permanent magnet ones created, its strength is always maintained. If preserved, they can go on for more than 100 years. An Electromagnet works only when electric current passes through it. Electromagnets cannot work without electricity. Electromagnets are used in Crain to load or unload luggage on ships, amplifiers, armatures, radios, bells, televisions etc.
Shapes and types of magnets used in Magnet Therapy
Permanent magnets are prepared from many metals. But the most commonly used metal is called ‘Alnico’. This metal is the mixture of Aluminum, Nickel, Iron, and Cobalt. Besides this, magnets are also prepared from Ferric and Barium Oxide which are called Ceramic, Ferrite, or Graphite magnet. Primarily we recognize all of these three magnets as Ceramic magnet.
For the routine use of magnet, different shaped magnets are prepared from above materials e.g. rod shaped magnet, split shaped solid magnets, ring shaped magnets, sickle shaped magnet, square magnets with a hole in it, ‘U’ shaped magnet, round magnets, etc.
The mainly used magnet in Magnet therapy is the split shaped magnet or sickle shaped magnet prepared from Alnico. There split shaped magnets are calibrated for their energy and shape and their assembling is done. This is divided in following five parts1. President Magnet
2. High Magnet
3. Medium Magnet
4. Low Magnet
5. Anti-pain Magnet
Every disease can be cured with the help of above five magnets. But for convenience, still low Powered magnets in the form of bands are prepared e.g.-
1. Magnetic Head Belt
2. Magnetic Throat Belt
3. Magnetic Belly Belt (Single)
4. Magnetic Belly Belt (Double)
5. Magnetic Belly Belt (Triple)
6. Magnetic B.P. Belt
7. Magnetic Knee Belt
8. Magnetic Knee cap
9. Magnetic Spondylosis Belt
10. Magnetic Lumbar Belt (Small, Medium, High)
11. Magnetic Eye Belt
12. Magnetic Tonsil Belt
13. Magnetic Ear Belt
14. Magnetic Necklace
15. Magnetic S. Belt
16. Magnetic Gilas
17. Electromagnet Vibrator
18. Health Band
19. Magnetic Height increasing Belt
20. Magnetic Spine Belt
21. Anti-pain Magnet
22. Magnetic Head Cap
4. Science of Magnet Therapy
A human body is made of millions of cells. These cells are continuously vibrating which creates ‘Automated vital energy’. This vital energy is disease curing and energizing. From the homogenous vibration of these cells, a uniform magnetic field is generated and the organism feels complete health and freshness. But when the waves of these cells get disturbed then the magnetic field also becomes disturbed; due to the effect of which, the related organ becomes swollen, painful, stiff, etc. All these symptoms are known as different names in different systems of medicine. But the divine nature has a spirit of providing good health to every human. So to treat any illness, our vital energy starts making efforts to remove the disease. In fact, every disease is an effort to remove toxins from body. Symptoms of an illness should be considered as natures warning, and not to be suppressed by medicines. The modern medicine has an attitude to quickly establish health which can in fact provide relief up to a certain period of time; but with that it damages our body structure. Instead of fighting with a disease, we should establish the basic reasons of that disease and treat accordingly. Where changes in diet, rest, fasting etc. procedures help in becoming quickly healthy, the use of a magnet will help in balancing the biological electricity.
Magnet therapy is a revolutionary gift to human kind. In this world, there are so many devoted people who are attempting to treat diseases with magnet. The basic truth is that every cell of a body is the unit made up of magnetic electricity. It has got its own magnetic field. In our back bone there is a nerve which is an ‘Electronic Generator’. The electric impulse generated in it is brought to the body parts through nerves. Our general health depends on this nerve centre. Magnet therapy is very useful in balancing central nervous system through which every part of body gets energy. Just like Naturotherapy, Magnet therapy also works on the root of a disease. In fact this is a non medicative treatment which is gifted to us by God. No adverse effects of this therapy have been observed; whereas its effects are useful in blood circulation in body.
Therapeutic properties of Magnet
1. On whichever part of body a magnet is placed, blood circulation increases in that part. As a result the foreign matter at that place gets dissolved and is excreted out through urine, stool, or perspiration.
2. On the part of body where a magnet is placed, energy flow becomes rapid in the nerves which are present there. As a result the stiffness and constriction of those nerves disappears.
3. According to experiences, the North Pole of a magnet is cool like the moon, and the South Pole is hot like the sun. So wherever there is injury, swelling, or other problem where heat is required, application of South Pole provides immediate relief. But if there is a wound, or bacterial growth, or any other problem where cold is required, application of North Pole heals the wound, destroys bacteria and provides cold.
4. In the vicinity of a diseased part, if North Pole and South Pole are placed to form a circuit, then it destroys every kind of pain and disease immediately. It is necessary how to make a circuit and what is the procedure to use a magnet.
5. When blood circulation increases in blood vessels of any part of body, then it is natural that circulation also increases in small capillaries which gets reduced in case of old age and diseases. When energy flow increases in nerves then it is natural that energy flow also increases in muscles, which also gets reduced in case of old age and diseases. As a result, inactive cells become active. Dead cells are removed through outlets and new cells are generated; and the patient gradually starts improving.
(c) Acupuncture
(i) Introduction
Tsuzok is a Korean word. Tsu-hand, Zok-leg Hand and leg both are sufficient to cure physical and mental illnesses of human. This principle has been proving for last 5000 years by many systems. Among these systems, Acupressure, Rakie, and many other systems are brought in to use to treat human illnesses. In Acupuncture, Ear Acupuncture, Korean Acupuncture, Chinese Acupuncture etc., many types of experiments have been performed time to time which are still in vogue. In Chinese Acupuncture, how Meridian Energy flows in our body was found before more than 5000 years; according to that treatment is given by pricking needles in hands, feet, and the whole body.
Human nature can also be understood on the basis of structure and varieties of nails and their colours. Diseases can also be identified as well. In Astrology, a man’s past, present, and future is known by observing lines and marks present in his palm. Various stones fixed with particular metals are wore in fingers and toes, and many diseases are treated thereby.
In short we can say that hands and feet are the important parts of human body, and through their correspondence points we can diagnose and treat every kind of physical and mental illnesses.
(ii) History
Tsuzok Acupuncture was invented by Korean Dr. Sir Park Je Vu. He was involved in this invention for past 30 years. Dr. Sir Park says that this invention was not done by him but it was established by God Himself for the benefit of human kind. He has taken the responsibility to spread this system all over the world for the welfare of human being.
In Tsuzok system the whole body has been outlined in the palms and heels. In this system many instruments like probe, needle, small magnets of the size of a button etc. are used. Besides, some particular points are applied pressure to treat diseases.
In Tsuzok Acupuncture, treatment is given by two methods. In first method, particular points of body are pressed by particular instruments, or using needles.
In an another method ‘Meridian system’ which is limited to middle finger and index finger, needles or small magnets are pressed over some particular points in a ‘Metaphysical’ manner. Both of these systems are perfect, but if both systems are simultaneously used as per requirement then we can achieve the best results.
(iii) Similarities
Time to time hands and feet are brought in to use in many types of systems. Acupressure, Chinese Acupuncture, Korean Acupuncture, etc. systems are very much popular and treatment is given in many ways through correspondence points. Ear Acupuncture is also a type of correspondence system. The shape of ear is similar as that of a pregnant woman’s inverted womb. Based on this, positions of organs are identified.
In all of these systems, correspondence points of hands and feet are not exactly similar to human body. But in Tsuzok Acupuncture, the correspondence points of hands and feet are exactly similar to human body.
A human body can be chiefly divided into 6 parts. First part is from head to neck, second part consists of the torso, third and fourth parts are the both upper limbs, fifth, and sixth parts are the both lower limbs. Head’s height is less than arms and legs, but it is heavier and stronger. Arms are less strong and small compared to legs. Thumb co-operates rest of the fingers and controls them.
In Tsuzok Acupuncture, thumb represents head and neck, middle and ring fingers represent legs, index and little fingers represent arms, and palm represents torso.
Thumb is divided into two parts- head and neck. Rests of the fingers are divided into three parts each which represent arms and legs. Arms have three parts- first is from fingers to wrist, second is from wrist to elbow, and the third part is from elbow to shoulder. Similarly, there are three parts of legs too- first part is from toes to ankle, second part is from ankle to knee and the third part is from knee to hip.
Correspondence areas of above and below diaphragm
Palm is divided into two parts. One part is above diaphragm line, and the other is below diaphragm line. In Tsuzok Acupuncture, diaphragm line is very important in correspondence treatment.
This way in Tsuzok Acupuncture, the whole human body has been corresponded in palms and soles.
Why is thumb leaned downwards?
For a complete similarity, thumb should be above palm towards wrist. But thumb is leaning one side about 140 degree. The reason for this is that thumb works in two ways; first, it indicates correspondence area, second, it helps fingers to function. Thus, in an attempt to change in similarity of correspondence area, it is leaning to one side. Appropriately, hand is one of the best creations of God.
(iv) Yin and Yang
Everything on the earth is depending on the principle of Yin and Yang. All mental and physical illnesses are based on Yin and Yang. No disease can be diagnosed or treated without knowledge of Yin and Yang. Those parts of body which are externally visible are called Yang and those which are hidden are called Yin. Skin colour of Yang parts is darker than that of Yin. Yang parts are stronger than Yin parts. Any disease starts from Yang parts. When Yin is energy deficient, Yang becomes energy excessive, and vice versa.
To understand Yin and Yang, the following chart is very important.
| Yin | Yang |
|--------------|--------------|
| Soft | Hard |
| Woman | Man |
| Continuous | Occasional but hard |
| Slow | Fast |
| Death | Birth |
Weakness Strength
Darkness Brightness
Large Small
Low and continuous fever High fever for a short time
Right side of males Left side of males
Left side of females Right side of females
Cold Hot
Always hot Sometimes hot
Chronic Acute
The 12 major organs of body are divided into Yin and Yang. Every Yin organ has a complimentary Yang organ viz. as follows-
| 1. Liver | - | Gall bladder |
|----------|---|--------------|
| 2. Heart | - | Small intestine |
| 3. Brain | - | Spinal cord |
| 4. Spleen | - | Stomach |
| 5. Lungs | - | Large intestine |
| 6. Kidneys | - | Urinary bladder |
**Main correspondence and secondary correspondence**
In main correspondence, body has been figured in palms and soles. In understanding Tsuzok Acupuncture main correspondence system plays an important part.
In main correspondence system treatment of every type of illness is possible. But in treating some chronic and obstinate diseases, Simultaneous use of Metaphysical methods gives better results. These are- ‘Biol Meridian system’, ‘Six system’, ‘Time Acupuncture’ etc.
**5. Way to find out the right correspondence**
First thing is to decide whether the correspondence will fall in Yin direction, or Yang. Thereafter, a proper area of a proper finger or a proper body part should be found out e.g. if there is pain in hand then main finger of hand, and if there is pain in leg then main toe of foot should be observed. Thereafter, on whichever point pain is more should be looked for and treatment should be given.
While applying pressure, patient’s facial expressions should be observed and as much pressure should be applied as the patient can tolerate. Children and old people should receive very mild pressure.
Sometimes in treating a single part, many painful points are found. In such cases, all points should be pressed or needles should be applied.
In Tsuzok Acupuncture, all the correspondence areas of the whole body are on palms and soles. Some of the organs in human body are either only on left side or only on right side. So the left sided body organs have their main correspondence over left side and secondary correspondence over right side; similarly, right sided body organs have their main correspondence over right side and secondary correspondence over left side.
If a human body is vertically divided into two halves, then main correspondence of right half of body is over half area of right upper or lower limbs and rest half area contains secondary correspondence for left half of body.
Same way, left half of body has its correspondence over half area of left upper or lower limb and rest half area has secondary correspondence for right half of body.
If diseases of left side are treated by working upon main correspondence of left arm along with secondary correspondence of right arm, then it gives better results.
6. Understanding Leg correspondence structure
It is sometimes difficult to find out leg correspondences, but if Yin and Yang are kept in mind while doing so then it becomes easy to find out.
If leg is seen from front then the internal part (hidden part) is Yin, and the outer part (visible part) is Yang. The line dividing Yin and Yang passes through the centers of ankle and knee.
Leg based treatment (Special Partial Correspondence System)
In Main Correspondence system, treatment is given by applying pressure to proper points after deciding Yin and Yang parts. But leg treatment can be done by another method which is very simple to understand. In this system main correspondence is considered one of the toes according to the shape of leg and this toe is applied pressure over correspondence points or needles are pierced. This is called Leg based treatment.
7. Three point correspondence system: It is observed while treating patients that besides applying pressure to correspondence points, if pressure is also applied to adjacent points just above and below the correspondence point then results are achieved faster. In this system, mainly three points are applied pressure; that is why it is called three point correspondence system. This system is more effective in treating joints of arms, leg, chest, and shoulder joints.
8. Referral point correspondence system: It is observed while treating patients that if there is pain in arms and legs and pressure is applied to the correspondence point on opposite side then result is faster e.g. if there is pain in left elbow and pressure is applied over correspondence point on knee of same side and elbow of opposite side, then pain is relieved fast.
9. How to search Secondary points: There is a simple way to find out secondary points for a main correspondence point. If right palm is placed below left palm, then where there are main correspondence points on left hand, there are secondary points just below them on right hand. The method of placing right palm below left palm is that the index finger of left hand should be below the little finger of right hand, middle finger should be below ring finger, and little finger should be above index finger. Besides, palms should be kept straight.
Skin and Anatomical correspondence points
Pain is often over or just below the skin and their correspondence points are according to that. But many times pain is quite deep to the skin. If the areas of pain over organs or bones are considered in accordance with correspondence points, then we can not properly find out pressure points. So it becomes impossible to treat without knowing these correspondence points. These points are mainly groins, uterus, ovaries, and armpit.
Correspondence points of lungs, liver, spleen etc. are close to each other and are merged. In such situations, many times we apply pressure over other points where we find pain instead of working upon the particular point we want to. In such cases, we do not find desirable results. To deal with conditions like this, we have to work upon secondary correspondence points besides main correspondence points.
10. Flank correspondence points
Flank is between armpit and pelvic bone. It lies on the meeting point of Yin and Yang. Flank is divided into two parts. 1. Above diaphragm 2. Below diaphragm
It is sometimes very inconvenient to understand the position of main correspondence on flank because flank is on both sides of diaphragm line in our body. Besides, to see the area above and below diaphragm we have to consider different diaphragm lines for each. That is why it is more convenient and easy to work upon secondary correspondence instead of main correspondence of flank. Its main and secondary correspondences are as follows.
**Teeth correspondence points**: Teeth are treated by two ways. In first method, pressure is applied on area of mouth in the Yin direction of thumb. In the other method, around the nail of thumb every tooth can be treated according to number of teeth.
**Insect correspondence treatment system**: Considering the requirements of modern age, everything is given a convenient miniature form. Same way, main correspondence system is outlined in fingers and toes in Tsuzok Acupuncture.
Insect correspondence system is shown in fingers and toes considering an ant’s body. The upper first part is head, second part is chest, and the third one is abdomen. Just like in a human body, arms arise from the upper outer part of chest and legs arise from lower part of lower abdomen, same way in insect system also arms are on both sides of second part and legs are on both sides of lower part. Those parts which are located over posterior aspect (back bone, kidneys) are shown over back of finger in insect correspondence system.
The process of application of pressure is same as it is in main correspondence.
**11. Mini correspondence treatment system**: In this system human body is outlined over the tips of fingers and toes like insect correspondence system. Just like in main correspondence system the human body is outlined in palm and palm is outlined on the tip of index finger, same way in mini correspondence system the whole human body is outlined over the tip of index finger.
In Mini correspondence system, if treatment is to be given according to the correspondence of leg then tip of middle finger is to be worked upon because it represents sole.
Before applying pressure to Mini correspondence points it is essential to find out proper pressure points because in this system, correspondence points are very small. Here also the method of pressure application is the same as in main correspondence points.
**12. Energy points**: In arms and legs there are 13 main energy points among which, 7 are over Yin part, and 6 are over Yang part. Pressurizing these points provides energy. Debilitated patients must be given pressure over these points, or moksa should be applied. On Yin part, pressure is applied from point 1 to point 7; and in Yang part, pressure is applied from point 1 to point 6. Application of pressure over this point gives heat to the body. Besides pressure, Moksa should also be applied over these points.
**Questionnaire**
1. **Assays**
1. Describe the principles of Acupuncture therapy.
2. Define main points of Magnet therapy.
2. **Short questions**
1. Write down the benefits of Acupressure.
2. What do you understand by Zonology?
3. **Objective questions**
1. Which ear contains the Acupressure point of spleen?
2. What is the meaning of J.P.?
**References**
1. Ji-Jo Acupressure - Garima Sanjay
2. Aapka Swasthya data Acupuncture – Anton Jayasurya
3. Practical Approach to Acupuncture – Dr. Prabha Borwankar
4. Acupressure Chikitsa – Dr. Sanjeev Kashyap
5. Chumbak Chikitsa – Dr. Hiralal Bansal & Dr. Raghunathsharan Bansal
6. Chumbak Chikitsa kyon aur kaise? – Dr. Omprakash Anand and Poonamrani
7. Chumbak Chikitsa ka saral Adhyayan – M. T. Santawani
JAIN VISHVA BHARATI INSTITUTE
(Deemed University)
Ladnun – 341306 (Rajasthan)
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE OF EDUCATION
Nanasya Sarmayaro
M.A./M.Sc.
YOGA AND SCIENCE OF LIVING
PAPER-VII : SCIENCE OF LIVING AND HEALTH
Expert Committee
1. **Prof. A.K. Malik**
Prof., Deptt. of Psychology
JNV University, Jodhpur
2. **Dr. Sadhna Danoria**
Head, Deptt. of Yoga
Baraktulla University, Bhopal (MP)
3. **Prof. Sangram Singh Nathawat**
Prof., Deptt. of Psychology
National University, Jaipur
4. **Prof. J.P.N. Mishra**
Head, Deptt. of SOL, PM & Yoga
JVBI, Ladnun
5. **Dr. B.P. Gaur**
Ex. Associate Prof.
Deptt. of SOL, PM & Yoga
JVBI, Ladnun
6. **Dr. Samani Malli Prajna**
Asst. Professor,
Deptt. of SOL, PM & Yoga
JVBI, Ladnun
7. **Dr. Sanjeev Gupta**
Asst. Professor,
Deptt. of SOL, PM & Yoga
JVBI, Ladnun
Writer
*Dr J.P.N. Mishra*
Copyright
Jain Vishva Bharati Institute, Ladnun
Edition: 2017
Printed Copies: 300
Publisher
Jain Vishva Bharati Institute, Ladnun
Printed at
M/s Nalanda Offsets, Jaipur
| S.No. | Particulars | Page No. |
|-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|
| 1. | Misconcept of Health Components of Health Physical & Mental Health | 1 -12 |
| 2. | Environment & Health | 13-25 |
| 3. | Health Education and Community | 26-33 |
| 4. | Biology and Health Improvement | 34-43 |
| 5. | Debility, Yayu Impurity, High Blood Pressure, Coryza, Acidity | 44-56 |
| 6. | Tonsilitis, Feaver, Backache, Indigestion, Eye Disease, Insomnia, Weak Memory, Weakness of Nervous System | 57-69 |
| 7. | Liver Disorder, Cervical Pain, Hernia, Sciaitca, Piles | 70-73 |
| 8. | Cancer, Heart Disease, Arthritis, AIDS, Epilepsy, Diabetes and Peptic Ulcer | 74-86 |
| 9. | Anaemia, Asthma | 87-90 |
| 10. | Alcoholism, Smoking and Drug Addiction Aims | 91-100 |
| 11. | Physiological Psychology Deffinition Territories and Important Functions | 101-106 |
| 12. | Phisiology of Emotional and Motivational | 107-117 |
| 13. | Regulation of Autonomic Nervous System by Through Mind and Effect of Preksha Meditation | 118-121 |
| 14. | Immunity and It’s Augmentation by Preksha Meditation | 122-126 |
| 15. | Theory of Naturopathy, Principle and Categories | 127-136 |
| 16. | Sky, Air, Fire, Earth, and Water Therapies | 137-157 |
| 17. | Regular Life Style and Accordance with Natural Powers | 158-167 |
| 18. | Other Alternative Therapies Acupressure, Acupuncture, Magnet | 168-180 | | 13c66f59-90fd-43bd-aca0-219cda95a04b | CC-MAIN-2025-08 | http://www.jvbi.ac.in/dde/pdf/menu/distance/SLM/MA-MSc-Yoga-SOL-E-Final-Paper-VII.pdf | 2025-02-07T09:09:13+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951469.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20250207065812-20250207095812-00168.warc.gz | 43,765,771 | 134,739 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.986987 | eng_Latn | 0.997984 | [
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UNIT 22 CASTE, CLASS AND POLITICS IN INDIA
Structure
22.0 Objectives
22.1 Introduction
22.2 What is Caste?
22.3 Main Features of Caste
22.4 Dynamic Relationship
22.5 Regional Variations
22.6 Caste and Class
22.7 Stratification within Caste
22.8 Pressure Group: Caste Association
22.9 Political Parties
22.10 Caste in Voting Behaviour
22.11 Let Us Sum Up
22.12 Some Useful Books
22.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
22.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to acquaint you with (a) nature and role of caste in Indian politics and (b) in the process how both caste and politics undergo changes. After going through this unit, you should be able to understand:
- To what extent and in what ways caste influences politics;
- Interrelationship between caste and politics; and
- How politics influences caste.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
Theoretically speaking caste and democratic political system stand for opposite value systems. Caste is hierarchical. Status of an individual in caste-oriented social system is determined by birth. It has religious sanction by various holy texts, reinforced by priests and rituals. Traditionally, upper castes enjoy certain privileges not only in religious sphere but also in economic, education and political spheres. Customary laws differentiate individual by birth and sex. That is, certain rules are harsh to women and Shudras and soft to males and Brahmins. On the other hand, democratic political system advocates freedom to an individual and equality of status. It stands for rule of Law. No one irrespective of status is above law. Indian democratic system under the Constitution stands for liberty, equality and fraternity among all citizens. It strives to build egalitarian social order.
However, politics notwithstanding the ideals in any society does not function in vacuum. It operates within social milieu. Therefore, it cannot be devoid of the prevailing social forces. At societal level, politics is related to struggle for and distribution of political power and resources. One of the important functions of politics is to govern society. This calls for resolving conflict among various interests. It identifies needs of society at a given point of time. Needs are prioritised: what is important and immediate to attain and what can wait. In order to meet the needs of society, nature of production system has to be decided – whether the factories, farms or mines are owned privately.
by individual for profit or they be owned and managed by community or state or combination of the both. For that rules are made and executed. In short who gets what, when and how in society is the central concern of politics. Though such decisions are taken by the state, people get involved in decision making process in democratic system. They elect their rulers. While electing their representatives people express their material and non-material needs, expectations and aspirations for today and tomorrow. Their expectations are for themselves and also for community - immediate primordial group, caste and larger society that include region, and country. People also build pressure on decision-makers through organised or unorganised struggles, personal contacts and many other ways. Political leaders cannot ignore social forces, as they themselves are part of them. It is imperative for the decision-makers in democratic system to seek and extend support of the constituents for obtaining and preserving their political power.
It however, does not mean that politics is just a proxy or a blueprint of societal forces. It sets goal and priorities. It has a vision for change, a better social order than the existing for the larger good. Politics introduces new values such as equality and freedom; institutions such as political parties and trade unions; government policies like abolition of zamindari system or untouchability undermines the traditional social order and value system. It shifts location of power in society from one group to another. Moreover competitive politics like elections encourage several individuals from a group to aspire for political positions. They compete among themselves so the caste members also get divided. In the process caste cohesiveness gets weaken; and new formation takes place. Thus, not only caste influences politics but the political system also influences caste and induces changes in it. There is no one way traffic. Both influence each other. It is to be seen: to what extent and in which way politics attain its objective of social transformation and to what extent it is influenced by prevailing social forces, particularly caste?
India became a Republic in 1950. For the first time in history all adult citizens of the country have gained the right to vote and elect their representatives for decision making bodies from village Panchayat to Lok Sabha. They also have the right to contest elections so as to become rulers. As a result, large number of social groups who were hitherto deprived of political power began to realise that they could compete with traditionally dominant power elite and also wield power so as to express their grievances, needs, priorities and aspirations. Thus they decide their destiny. Politics has become competitive and open. Moreover, the state has undertaken a number of social and economic programs, which have developed monetary and contractual relationship affecting traditional social ties and monopoly of privileges. And, judicial authority of caste panchayat has been replaced by state judiciary system.
22.2 WHAT IS CASTE?
Caste is an English translation of Indian word Jati. As Indians we all know what is Jati because we all have a tag of Jati by birth. This applies to non-Hindus also. But meaning of Jati is not the same among the Hindus and non-Hindus. Caste does not have religious sanction among the non-Hindus. It is a social stratum. Among the Hindus, it is believed that one’s Jati is due to one’s Karma (deeds) in previous birth. This is not so among the non-Hindus.
Meaning of Jati for oneself and for others is not always uniform and consistent among all. It varies from purpose to purpose for which the tag is used. Jati has a specific social meaning identifying one’s place in social order in village society where one interacts everyday with other members of the local community. For instance in a village in central Gujarat its inhabitant, say Mr. X identifies himself as Khant when he interacts with another villager of neighbouring locality who calls himself a Bareeya.
for inter-dining purpose. Mr. X would introduce himself as Kshatriya when he attends political party meeting at taluka or district place. He would call his caste as OBC (Other Backward Caste) when he visits government office to get loan or subsidy for government sponsored program or to get scholarship for his son. There is one meaning of Jati for matrimonial and kinship relationship, a different meaning for economic interaction and a third meaning for political purpose. One does not necessarily have the same meaning when one exercises vote for village panchayat than Lok sabha elections.
Thus it is difficult to give precise meaning of caste applicable in all situations. It is partly a subjective category. Social construct of caste by actors and observers varies from context to context.
22.3 MAIN FEATURES OF CASTE
Notwithstanding difficulties in arriving at precise definition of caste as a unit, there is a consensus among the scholars regarding general characteristics of caste system as a social order. Most sociological writings on caste conclude that homo hierarchicus is the central and substantive element of the caste system. The phrase is used by a French sociologist Louis Dumont to differentiate Hindu social system from other social systems – particularly that of the western society. Hierarchy is the central core of the caste social order. It includes hierarchy of status, values, customs and behaviour on the basis of purity and impurity, interpersonal relationship among individuals in terms of blood, food and occupation; and rituals divided into two orders: pure and impure. Certain occupations or type of food are considered as pure for certain castes and the same are impure therefore forbidden for other castes. It is obligatory for each Hindu to confine relationship and interaction within the restricted circle called Jati, as to maintain purity in marriage relationship; exchange of food and pursuing caste based occupation. There are four essential features of the caste system. They are: (1) hierarchy; (2) commensurity; (3) restrictions on marriage; and (4) hereditary occupation.
22.4 DYNAMIC RELATIONSHIP
No social system remains static. Social system changes from time to time with the changing social, economic and political circumstances. This is also true for the caste system. At the empirical level the caste hierarchy has never been static throughout history. Theoretically, all Jatis are hierarchically placed within a prescribed social status. Some Jatis enjoy high status and some occupy low status. Place of the Jati in the social order in the hierarchy is determined by its ritual status based on the observance of customs for interpersonal relationship. Some scholars believe this value system - acceptance of one’s station in the life is the result of previous birth - has consensus among all Hindus including the Untouchables. But it is not true. Though the upper castes try to maintain their higher status, the middle and lower castes have successfully tried to change their status. Having improved their economic condition, a dominant section of some of the low castes, including the groups, which were at one time treated as untouchables, imitated customs and norms of the upper castes residing in their vicinity. Sociologists call this process as sanskritisation. One also comes across instances of some castes or even individuals who have succeeded in improving their status even without adhering to the norms and rituals of the upper castes. Acquiring political authority facilitates not only power holder - ruler - but also his kin and relatives to enjoy higher social status in caste hierarchy. One can cite instances in history, which show that Shudras and ati-shudras having occupying position of power have acquired status of Kshatriyas even without following the path of sanskritisation.
The process of sanskritisation which was prominent among the lower castes at one point of time, particularly in the 19th and early 20th century, has been slowed down in the 'sixties and 'seventies'. Earlier many castes hesitated to be called 'backward' despite the poor economic condition of the members. They feared that they would not be able to improve their social status by identifying themselves as 'backward'. But this is no longer true now, as the State has provided certain benefits to the backward castes. These castes have realised that they could improve their status by improving their economic condition rather than observing rituals followed by the upper castes. Now there is competition among the castes to be called 'backward'. Even some of the Brahmin and Rajput Jatis have approached the Government to be classified as 'backward'. The Kolis of central Gujarat followed the rituals of the Rajputs and struggled for three decades to be acknowledged as Kshatriyas. In the past, they used to feel insulted if they were called Kolis. But now they have started calling themselves as Kolis so that they could get material benefits which is the surest way to improve social status. Social status based on the observance of the rituals has increasingly become redundant.
Traditionally caste members have been forbidden to accept cooked food from persons belonging to the Jatis that they considered lower than theirs. These rules have been weakened, particularly in public spheres in urban areas during the last five decades. In their bid to gain broad support base the political elites at district and state level do not hesitate to take food with the caste members belonging to lower strata.
Most of the Jatis are endogamous. A few follow hypergamy generally within the caste cluster. The earlier restrictions on marriage have become flexible. Marriage circles are expanding in some castes. With education and urbanisation, instances of inter-caste marriages among the upper and middle castes have somewhat increased though such cases are still exceptions.
### 22.5 REGIONAL VARIATIONS
Caste structure in terms of hierarchy and boundary for interaction between the social groups is more or less neat and identifiable at the village level. But it is not so at regional level. And to draw empirically based macro picture of castes at the national level is all the more difficult and hazardous. Caste structure has not developed uniformly in all regions of the sub-continent. Assam has developed a loose caste structure with less rigid hierarchy than that of Uttar Pradesh or Bihar. It is the same regarding observation of caste specific rules.
The number of castes also varies from region to region. Gujarat has a larger number of castes than West Bengal. Different historical experiences have contributed to shaping of the present day socio-political processes in different regions. Moreover, there is and had been uneven economic development in the country and also within the states. Some regions had zamindari and some had royatwari land tenure system. Generally, Rajputs in Rajasthan or Brahmins in Tamilnadu were enjoying dominance in the farmer and peasant castes like Marathas in Maharashtra and Patidars in Gujarat were dominant castes. All castes do not have uniform numerical strength and spread. Some have a larger number of members and some are very tiny. Some are scattered throughout the region and some are heavily concentrated in a few geographical pockets. Hence, the role and position of caste in relation to politics varies from time to time, area to area and caste to caste.
According to some scholars, caste system is essentially a class system. It was essentially so in the early formative years. The classes were: Rajanyas or the Kshatriyas, the aristocracy, the Brahmins, the priests, the Vaishyas, the people at large, mainly peasants and traders, and the Shudras, the service communities. There are various theories of the origin of the system. Some believe that the system was created by the Divine Power for maintaining harmony in society. Accordingly, one gets birth in a particular caste because of one's karma of the previous birth. Others believe that the system has been evolved in course of time with the development of economic surplus. It came into existence with economic divisions; or the invaders to subjugate the local tribal population created it.
A number of village studies of different parts of the country carried out in the post-independent period show a certain amount of overlap between twin hierarchies of caste and land. M.N. Srinivas observes, "The village community consisted of hierarchical groups, each with its own rights, duties and privileges. The caste at the top had power and privileges, which were denied to the lower castes. The lower castes were tenants, servants, landless labourers, debtors and clients of the higher castes." Data from two Tamilnadu villages collected by Sivkumar and Shivkumar in the late seventies show that 59 per cent of Mudaliyars (upper castes) and 4 per cent of Palli (untouchable castes) are rich peasants or landlord households. No Mudaliyar is engaged as an agricultural laborer, whereas 42 per cent of Palli households earn their livelihood as farm labourers. A study of six Rajasthan villages carried out by K.L. Sharma in the seventies offers a similar pattern. "Only 12.5 per cent of the lower class households belong to upper castes, 60 per cent of the higher class households belong to the upper castes, 24 per cent of the upper castes belong to the higher class, whereas among the intermediate and lower castes only 6.2 per cent and 1.3 per cent belong to high class respectively."
The Anthropological Survey of India in its Project on "People of India" has studied 4635 communities/castes. The study confirms that the highly placed castes are marked by "(i) a higher position in the regional socio-ritual hierarchy, (ii) better control over land and other resources, and (iii) non-commercial relations with other communities of inferior status.... (The low castes) are placed at the bottom due to their: (i) abject poverty caused by less possession of land and less control over economic resources (ii) socio-ritual degradation based on the notion of purity and pollution, and (iii) traditional engagement in occupations which are considered ritually unclean.
Aggregate data at regional and national level on caste and occupation/land holding give us a similar picture. Table 1 presents caste and occupation data collected by the National Sample Survey (NSS) collected in 1952, analysed by K.N. Raj. The data shows that there is a positive relationship between caste and occupational status. The small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers mainly belong to the low or backward castes and ex-untouchable (scheduled) castes. There is a marginal diversification of occupations among the members of low and the lowest castes in rural areas. However, one should not ignore that a small proportion of lower and scheduled caste households are rich peasants who hire labour and produce marketable surplus. According to the survey carried out by Centre for Social Studies, Surat in Gujarat, 10 per cent of the lower caste and 5 per cent of the scheduled caste households own more than 15 acres of land. The reverse is also true. According to the NSS data 1 per cent of the upper castes and 12 per cent of the middle castes are agricultural labourers. Moreover it may also be noted that there are a few upper castes in some parts of the country whose majority members do not belong to the upper class. Rajputs (upper caste) of Gujarat are a case in point. Their condition in terms of land ownership and other occupation is not significantly different than many OBCs.
Table 1: Occupational Distribution of Different Caste-Groups ++ Among Hindu Rural Households
(Millions)
| Occupation* | Upper castes | Middle castes | Lower castes | Scheduled castes | Total |
|----------------------|--------------|---------------|--------------|------------------|-------|
| Agriculture Farmer | 1.09 (24.38) | 0.93 | 1.69 (6.95) | 0.18 (1.54) | 3.80 (7.35) |
| Cultivator | 1.96 (43.91) | 6.52 (53.30) | 10.20 (41.79)| 3.19 (27.05) | 21.67 (41.35)|
| Share cropper | 0.17 (3.91) | 0.76 (6.18) | 1.51 (6.17) | 1.00 (8.50) | 3.44 (6.50) |
| Agri. Labour | 0.05 (1.09) | 1.46 (11.91) | 4.11 (16.85) | 4.27 (36.19) | 9.89 (18.70)|
| Forestry, Fishing & Livestock + | 0.02 (0.62) | 0.17 (1.39) | 0.81 (3.31) | 0.28 (2.38) | 1.28 (2.42) |
| **Total:** Agriculture | 8.29 (73.91) | 9.84 (80.35) | 18.32 (75.07)| 8.92 (75.66) | 40.37 (76.33)|
| Others@ | 1.17 (26.09) | 2.39 (19.65) | 6.09 (24.93) | 2.87 (24.34) | 12.52 (23.67)|
| **Total:** All | 2.26 (100.00)| 12.23 (100.00)| 24.41 (100.00)| 11.79 (100.00) | 52.89 (100.00)|
Notes: Figures in brackets represent percentage of All-India average in each case.
* The main farming occupations are classified into four groups:
a) Farmer – a tiller who cultivates his own land, mainly with hired labour; (b) Cultivator – one who cultivates land mainly owned by him and sometimes land taken on lease or sharecropping system, with the help of other household members and partly with hired labour; (c) Sharecropper – one who mainly takes up cultivation of others’ land on a sharecropping basis and cultivates without hired labour; and (d) Agricultural labourer – one who cultivates others’ land either for wages or for customary payment.
+ Includes wood cutters, plantation labour, gardeners, fishermen, animal breeders, cattle grazers and herdsmen.
@ Includes households in the rural sector engaged in administrative and professional services, teaching and medicine, manufacturing – specially of food products and textiles – trade and commerce, transport and communication, construction and sanitation, and mining.
++ According to the NSS, “The upper castes were defined as those who, according to custom, used the scared thread, the middle as those from whom the Brahmins take water by tradition and the lower as the other castes who were not scheduled.”
22.7 STRATIFICATION WITHIN CASTE
Industrialisation and penetration of market economy in rural areas have affected traditional occupation of several castes. In most of the castes some members have
given up their traditional occupation. As early as 1950, F.G. Bailey observed in a village situated in a relatively backward state like Orissa, "Not every person works at his traditional occupation. The distillers do not touch liquor. The Knod potters (?) do not know how to make pots. The fishermen do not fish. The warriors are cultivators. Everywhere there is a scope for practising a hereditary occupation not all members of caste engage in the work ". In the 1950s, Kathleen Gough also observed a similar pattern in Tamilnadu. She noted, "The caste community is no longer homogeneous in occupation and wealth, for caste is today a limiting rather than a determining factor in the choice of the occupation. Exactly half of Kumbarpettai's adult Brahmins are now employed in towns as Government servants, schoolteachers or restraint workers. Of the reminder, some own up to thirty acres of land, others as little as three. One runs a grocery store and one a vegetarian restaurant. Among the non-Brahmins, the fisherman, toddy-tapers, Marathas, Kallans, Koravas and Kuttadis have abandoned their traditional work ". Village studies carried out in the fifties and sixties from different parts of the country bear out the same trend. And, diversification of occupation in non-farm sector has increased within most of the castes with the spread of the green revolution.
But there are still several Jatis whose members have more or less similar economic condition. One can find such instances among several Scheduled Castes and numerically small other backward castes. Such castes have still less than 10 per cent rate of literacy and all the households depend on manual labour for their livelihood. On the other hand there are number of castes which are internally stratified. There are three types of economic differentiation within different castes: (1) A caste characterised by sharp polarisation; (2) A caste having a majority of members from upper strata; (3) A caste with a majority members belonging to poor strata. Rajputs and Thakurs of Rajasthan, UP and Gujarat fall in the first category. A few households own large estates and factories and a large number are agricultural labourers. Most of the households of the several upper castes such as Brahmins, Baniyas, Kayasthas are well off. On the other hand a large number of the Backward castes have overwhelming majority households who are small and marginal farmers, tenants and agriculture labourers. Economic stratification affects their cohesiveness on political issues. Dominant stratum projects its interests as the interests of the caste; and gives it priority while bargaining with the government.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the main features of caste?
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2) What is the relationship between caste and land ownership in rural India?
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3) Give example of one caste showing intra-stratification.
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4) What is the difference between social caste and political caste?
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22.8 PRESSURE GROUP: CASTE ASSOCIATIONS
Numerical strength of a group is important in a democratic polity. All the Jatis do not have equal numerical strength and spread in a geographical region - village, cluster of villages, taluka or district. A few are very large, some are small and some are minuscule. Some are concentrated in a village/taluka and some are scattered in four to five households in a village. Numerically large Jatis have an edge over others in political bargaining with the government and political parties. Jatis confined to endogamous character alone cannot muster a very large number at district levels and beyond for political activities. Some of the leaders of such Jatis form caste associations called Sabha or Sangam consisting of cluster of Jatis having similar social ranking in a region. A few caste associations are also consist of multi-castes having different social ranking in traditional order. They may be called caste “federation”.
It should be remembered that caste association is not the same as caste panchayat or council. Generally the office bearers of caste council enjoy hereditary position. This is not the case with association. Often the latter has written constitution specifying power and responsibilities of different office bearers. The former has judicial authority dealing with ritual and social aspects related to marriage, divorce and other family disputes of the members. Its decisions are binding to all caste members. Caste associations carry out economic, educational and political programmes. All caste mates are not members of the Sabhas. The decisions of the Sabha are not binding on all caste members. It is not so with caste panchayat. In that sense caste association is closer to voluntary organisation. Many caste associations though hold an objective “to promote and protect the interests and rights of the community,” do not necessarily directly involve in electoral politics. Some caste associations are active in electoral politics at one time or another. Rudolph and Rudolph call the participation of caste associations in politics as “the democratic incarnation of caste”. Kothari calls it “democratisation” of castes.
The history of caste associations goes back to the late 19th century, though their number has increased after Independence. They are found in all states. Let us take a few illustrations. As the Government decided in the early 1880s to debar Kulmis as Kulmis of Uttar pradesh from being recruited in the police service. The government servants belonging to Kurmis formed the “Sardar Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha” in 1884 to protest against the decision. Another example can be cited of Nadars of Tamilnadu. In order to enhance their economic development, the wealthy Shanars of Tamilnadu formed the Nadar Mahajan Sangam in 1895. In Gujarat, the Rajputs after independence
having lost political power as rulers and ownership of land under land reforms realized a need for a larger numerical support base, as they constituted only 4 per cent of the population. Some of the political aspirant Rajputs formed Gujarat Kshatriya Sabha. The caste organisation embraced various Jatis of Kolis who aspired Kshatriya status. Caste pride and sentiments were invoked through various ways among the Rajputs and the Kolis as the Kshatriyas brethren. Caste associations make representation to the government demanding educational facilities, land ownership and its distribution, government jobs etc. for their caste members. Some of them submit memoranda or organise public meetings demanding infrastructure facilities like irrigation, electricity, loan and subsidy for fertiliser for agriculture development.
22.9 POLITICAL PARTIES
Several castes join together and launch movements. Non-Brahmin movement in Tamilnadu and Maharashtra are the examples. Jyotirao Phule started Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 challenging Brahminical hegemony. In Tamilnadu several peasant castes such as Vellala, Gaunda and Padayachi, trading castes such as Chetri, artisan castes - Tachchan (Carpenter), Kollan (Blacksmith), and Tattan (Goldsmith), individually and jointly initiated non-Brahmin movement. The movement followed several caste associations such as Parayan Mahajan Sabha, Adi-Dravin Mahajan Sabha in the 1890's. In 1916 the Non-Brahmin manifesto was brought out highlighting dominance of the Brahmins in government services and injustice to non-Brahmins who constituted a vast majority. The formation of the Justice party followed in 1916. The party sent a delegation to England in 1919 to present the non-Brahmin case before the joint Parliament Committee which was responsible for preparing the Government of India Bill. DMK is its offshoot. Two factions Vanniyaakkula Kshatriya Sangam of the Nadars formed Tamilnadu Toilers' Party and Commonwealth Party and fought the 1952 elections. They then bargained with the Congress for positions in the state cabinet. Scheduled Caste Federation was formed in the forties by Dr. Ambedkar and the Republican Party formed in 1956 by Dalit leaders. They primarily remained the parties of and by the Dalits. Jharkhand Party formed by Adivasi leaders of Bihar, has primarily remained a party of Adivasis. Bahujan Samaj Party launched by Kanshiram is a party of Dalits aiming at forming alliance of Dalits, minorities and OBCs.
After Independence some caste associations were formed with political objectives to compete in elections. In Gujarat some of the leaders of the Kshatriya Sabha contemplated in the early fifties to form the party of the Kshatriyas. They soon realised that they could not muster enough support to contest elections only on the strength of the Kshatriyas. Similarly, political elite of the Kurmis, Yadavas and Koeris formed the Bihar State Backward caste Association in 1947 to contest elections. The plan did not take-off thanks to the resistance of the Congress leaders belonging to these castes.
Such caste associations are asserted with different leading political parties to see that their caste members get party tickets in elections. These parties initially resisted such pressures because of the counter pressure from the dominant castes that controlled the party. The latter accused the former as castiest or communal. But as the competition among the parties intensify and as the caste association successfully mobilised the members for political activities, all parties began to woo leading aspirants of the caste who could mobilise caste votes. Such political aspirants join different political parties. As they are primarily interested in gaining political positions for themselves rather than serving social or ritual interests of the caste, they either launch a new association or split the existing one. For them caste association is among several instruments to gain political power.
Some of the political parties identify with certain castes for nomination of the party candidates and mobilisation in elections. Bhaatiya Kranti Dal evolved an alliance of
four major peasant castes of UP in 1969 elections. The alliance was called AJGAR; that is, Ahirs, Jats, Guggars and Rajputs. In 1977 in Gujarat the Congress (I) formed KHAM alliance of Kshatriyas, Harijans, Adivasis and Muslims. Lok Dal was identified with Jats in Uttar pradesh in 1977 and 1980 parliamentary elections. Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh was identified with Backward castes in general and Yadavas in particular in 1997 state assembly elections. BJP is generally identified with upper castes and the Congress with the middle and backward castes. That reflected in their support base in the eighties in Gujarat and Maharashtra. In the nineties the BJP has followed the strategy of the Congress of accommodating the backward caste candidates in the elections and successfully getting support of their caste fellows.
There are three consequences of such interaction between caste associations and political parties. One, caste members particularly poor and marginalised who were hitherto remained untouched by the political processes got politicised and began to participate in electoral politics with an expectation that their interests would be served. Second, caste members get split among various political parties weakening hold of the caste. Third, numerically large castes get representation in decision-making bodies and strength of the traditionally dominant castes get weaken. This explains the rise of middle and backward caste representations in most of the state assemblies. Table 2 presents caste composition of MLAs in Gujarat Assembly from 1957 to 1990. The table shows that the strength of Brahmins and Vania has declined considerably over a period of time, whereas the Kolis and Rajputs together as the Kshatriyas increased their strength by double. In Uttar Pradesh proportion of the upper castes in the State Assembly has gone down from 42 per cent to 17 per cent between 1967 and 1995; whereas the members of the OBCs have increased from 24 per cent to 45 per cent during the same period.
Table 2: Caste Composition of the MLAs in Gujarat Assembly from 1957 to 1995
| Caste | First 57-62 | Second 62-67 | Third 67-72 | Fourth 72-75 | Fifth 75-80 | Sixth 80-85 | Seventh 86-90 | Eighth 91-95 |
|----------------|-------------|--------------|-------------|--------------|-------------|-------------|---------------|-------------|
| Brahmin | 18(16) | 25(18) | 20(14) | 179(12) | 14(8) | 20(10) | 14(8) | 10(6) |
| Vania | 19(17) | 16(12) | 21(15) | 17(12) | 26(14) | 13(10) | 13(7) | 7(4) |
| Patidar | 26(24) | 27(27) | 32(23) | 35(25) | 49(27) | 37(20) | 39(22) | 44(27) |
| Kshatriya (Rajput and Kolis) | 13(12) | 14(10) | 19(20) | 24(17) | 32(18) | 38(21) | 44(25) | 40(25) |
| Muslims | 4(4) | 9(7) | 3(3) | 3(2) | 5(2) | 11(6) | 7(4) | 3(2) |
| SCs | 10(9) | 11(8) | 11(8) | 1(8) | 14(8) | 13(7) | 13(7) | 14(9) |
| STs | 15(14) | 21(15) | 22(15) | 22(15) | 27(15) | 29(16) | 29(16) | 30(19) |
| OBCs | 5(5) | 3(2) | 3(2) | 9(7) | 14(8) | 16(9) | 18(10) | 14(9) |
| N.A. | 22 | 18 | 26 | 30 | 1 | - | 5 | 20 |
| Total | 132 | 154 | 154 | 168 | 182 | 182 | 182 | 182 |
Role of caste in elections has two dimensions. One is of the parties and candidates and the second is of the voters. The former seeks support of the voters projecting themselves as champions of particular social and economic interests, the latter while exercising their vote in favour of one party or candidate whether people vote on caste consideration. And if so, how exclusive is it?
As mentioned above different parties accommodate certain castes in distributing party tickets. While nominating candidates parties take into consideration caste of the aspirant candidate and numerical strength of different castes in a constituency. Caste leaders also mobilised their followers on caste lines so that they could show their strength. In the fifties wherever caste associations were able to maintain their unity and did not formally align with any one party they appealed to their members to vote for their caste fellows irrespective of their party affiliation. In Rajasthan Meenas were asked “Do not give your daughter or your vote to anyone but a Meena.” Similar slogan was used in Tamilnadu: “the Vanniya vote is not for anyone else”. But wherever caste association aligned with a particular party the caste leaders asked caste members to vote for that party. The Kshatriya leaders of Gujarat in 1952 elections asked Kshatriya voters that it was their Kshatriya dharma to vote for the Congress because it was “the great institution and working for the development of the country”. In the subsequent elections as the caste leaders split some Kshatriya leaders appealed, “It is our pledge that the Kshatriya of Gujarat vote for the Congress, and not for anyone else.” The others appealed that it was the dharma of the Kshatriyas to vote for the Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad (a regional party).
Though there is a trend among the caste members to vote for a particular party, there is never a complete en bloc caste voting. Some castes identify with a particular party as their party. It was expected that it would protect their interests. Jats in Western UP identified Lok Dal as their party just not only because the leaders of the party were the Jats, but also the party raised the issues concerning the peasants. But all the Jats did not vote for the party because there were some who were traditional supporters of the Congress, or they perceived their interests differently than other Jat peasants which the Jats predominantly are. In UP 51 per cent of the SC voters voted for the BSP in the 1998 state assembly elections. 18 per cent voted for the BJP. The vast majority of the BSP SC voters belonged to poor strata and of the BJP from the middle class. While analysing the election data, Pushpendra observes, “Occupationally, the BSP’s voters are mainly unskilled workers, agricultural and allied workers, artisans, and small and marginal farmers. Persons engaged in business and white collar jobs constitute only 2.6 and 1.6 per cent of the BSP voters (in UP).”
In the National Election Survey of the 1972 carried out by Center for the Study of Developing Societies a question was asked, “What was your considerations for voting this candidate/party/symbol?” For a very insignificant number of respondents (less than 1 per cent) candidate’s caste was the main consideration. Some of the respondents might have voted for persons who happened to belong to their caste. But it was not caste voting. They voted for the candidate not because he/she was of their caste irrespective of his party and ability. They voted for him/her because he/she was the candidate of the party to which the respondent felt closer for variety of reasons including the feeling that the party would “protect his/her” interests or the party had done good work for the people like him/her. Or, they were in touch with the candidate who might have helped them or they feel that he would help them when they need. Their primary consideration is their perception of their interests. In a given alternative parties/candidates they consider as to who would serve their interests better than others. If the candidate happens to be of their own caste and his/her party is the party, which they identify as theirs, they vote for him/her. If they feel that the candidate
belongs to that party which is either not able to serve their interests or hostile or insignificant in electorate politics, they do not vote for that candidate even if he belongs to their caste. That is the reason why several caste leaders lose the elections in the constituency predominantly because of their caste members at one time or another when they change the party or their party loses popularity. Therefore there is no one-to-one relationship between candidate’s caste and that of the voter’s caste.
**Check Your Progress Exercise 2**
**Note:** i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the difference between caste panchayat and caste sabha?
2) Explain “democratic incarnation of caste”.
3) How does caste influence voting behaviour?
4) Give names of three parties, which are closer to particular caste.
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**22.11 LET US SUM UP**
Politics does not function in vacuum. It operates in society in which it is influenced by social forces. Politics influences social forces and changes them. If political institutions and political leaders make conscious effort in intervening in social forces they can influence and bring changes in social order and relationship to a considerable extent. Democratic politics in India has been influenced by caste but it also changed the traditional caste system and its values. While participating in electoral processes at different levels structure and functions of caste have changed. Its traditional aspect of
purity and impurity has been considerably weakened. Caste has provided institutional mechanism to the poor and traditionally deprived groups for political participation. Caste has been politicised to pursue economic and social rather than ritual concern of the members. In that sense it is a democratic incarnation of caste. But this process has reached an impasse and caught into vicious circle. Political leaders use caste consciousness for mobilisation but do not pursue vigorously, economic and social problems that the majority members of the caste face. Caste framework has its own limitations. It is divisive and hierarchical. This is a challenge before the caste-oriented politics.
22.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS
Beteille, Andre, *Essays in Comparative Perspective*, Chapter 4, Delhi, Oxford university Press, 1992,
Centre For Social Studies, *Caste, Caste Conflict and Reservation*, Chapters 1,2 and 8, Delhi, Ajanta Publication, 1985
Kothari, Rajni, *Caste and Politics in India*, Hyderabad, Orient Longman 1970.
Rudolph L.I. and Rudolph S.H. *The Modernity of Tradition*, Delhi, Longman, 1961.
Shah, Ghanshyam, *Caste in Indian Politics*, Delhi, Permanent Black 2000.
22.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) These are four, i.e., (1) hierarchy, (2) commensurity, (3) restriction on marriage, and, (4) hereditary occupation.
2) There is a positive relationship between caste and land. The main trend about this relationship shows that the low or the backward castes and the ex-untouchables belong to the agricultural labourers, small and marginal farmers, and the high and intermediate castes belong to the rich and middle peasants. However, there are instances where the high castes belong to the poor agricultural classes, and the low castes to the rich and middle peasants.
3) One example of intra-caste stratification is that of the Rajputs and Thakurs of Rajasthan, UP and Gujarat. Majority of them belong to the upper strata, some own land and a large number of them are agricultural labourers.
4) The social caste denotes the operation of the caste at the social level – its role is confined to the social and cultural spheres. When caste becomes the symbol of mobilisation either in elections or for any other political purpose it becomes a political caste.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) All members of a caste are members of the caste sabha; its leadership is hereditary; it has judicial authority dealing with rituals and other social aspects like marriage, divorce and other disputes in the family. Not all members of a caste on the other hand are members of the caste associations; its leadership is not hereditary: its decisions are not binding on all members of the caste; these have economic, educational and political programmes.
2) The participation of the caste associations in politics is termed as “the democratic incarnation of caste” by Rudolph and Rudolph.
3) The influence of caste in the voting behaviour can be visible in two ways – by allotment of tickets to the candidates, and by casting of the votes by the voters on the caste lines. Generally voters of a caste vote for a party or the candidate on the consideration of caste. But there is never a complete en block voting.
4) i) The Congress (I) in Gujarat was identified with the KHAM – an alliance of Khatriyas, Harijans, Adivasis and Muslims,
ii) The Bharatiya Kranti Dal in UP was identified with the AJGAR – an alliance of Ahirs, Jats, Gujars and Rajputs; and,
iii) Bahujan Samaj Party is identified with the dalits. | 9c044a5f-6031-4ecc-9590-7ef5faa5cd40 | CC-MAIN-2025-08 | https://www.kharagpurcollege.ac.in/studyMaterial/235058Pol.-Sc-2nd-sem1-paper-4-23-04-2020.pdf | 2025-02-09T02:02:38+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951584.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20250209003139-20250209033139-00439.warc.gz | 784,644,861 | 9,632 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996044 | eng_Latn | 0.998092 | [
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The Habitat for Humanity project aims to compare the performance of two types of cement by constructing two small family houses on a study site: one with conventional cement and the other with LC³.
The comparison will focus on CO₂ emissions, mechanical properties in both fresh and solid states, and durability.
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CALAVERITAS, A LIVING LINK WITH THE PAST
While pausing to rest his team of oxen, William Workman of Angels Camp, in the fall of 1850, discovered gold in a tributary of O'Neil Creek and almost overnight the mining camp of Upper Calaveritas was born.
Workman's strike was not the first gold discovery in central Calaveras County, or for that matter, on O'Neil Creek.
When American gold seekers arrived in the spring of 1848 in what was to become Calaveras County, they found Mexican miners already panning gold on San Andreas Creek.
By early 1850 miners were sluicing rich pay dirt around a wild, rip-roaring tent settlement which became known as Lower Calaveritas, that had sprung up along the Yuba River.
Today, Fricot City complex might easily be mistaken for some small, exclusive college campus.
FRICOT, cont. from pg. 29
It was during that period, as he became a leader in the mining business and affairs of the area, that Jules Fricot acquired the nickname of the "Emperor."
The Chavanne brothers, involved in other enterprises, soon left the mill partnership, but Fricot continued to operate the mill until 1864 or 1865 when he bought from a Frenchman named Lemarque, the Eureka Mine which proved to be the beginning of the famed Idaho-Maryland ledge.
On December 11, 1865, at age 48, Jules Fricot married Elizabeth Jane Jenkins, of Grass Valley. From that marriage two children, one of them Desire' Fricot, the builder of Calaveras County's famed Fricot City complex, would be born.
Desire' Fricot was born in Paris on April 4, 1868, while his parents were visiting France. And, since both parents were American citizens, the infant's birth was immediately recorded at the U.S. Consulate in Paris.
Desire's sister, Marie, was born some two years later. Both children received the majority of their educations in France. Desire's schooling was at the Lycee Louis LeGrand, in France, and later he studied mining engineering at the Sorbonne.
During that period his father's old friend and former mining partner, Andre Chavanne, who had become successful in quartz mining operations around Grass Valley, became involved in the late 1870's in a mine at Sheep Ranch, in Calaveras County.
The mine, which he called the Chavanne, was an extension of the famous Sheep Ranch Mine, and with him to Calaveras County came Jules Fricot and his family.
When not attending school in France, young Fricot lived with his parents in Sheep Ranch and prowled the hills of Calaveras County.
In the early eighties Chavanne sold his mining interest in Sheep Ranch to Haggin, Tevis and Hearst, owners of the Sheep Ranch Mine, and he and Jules Fricot returned to the Grass Valley area.
Jules Fricot died in Paris, France, at age 72, on August 27, 1889.
His son, upon completing his education in France, returned to the U.S., and in 1893, at age 24, entered into a partnership in the Independence Mine, in Grass Valley, with Andre Chavanne. This relationship continued until Chavanne's death in 1897.
But despite his financial and other interests, both domestic and abroad, (he spoke five languages; English, French, German, Spanish and Italian) Desire' Fricot never lost his fascination with Calaveras County which he had acquired as a youth at Sheep Ranch.
As a result of his attachment to the Calaveras area, Fricot took title during the 1890's to eight patented mining claims comprising several hundred acres along the crest of towering, San Antone Ridge.
These claims, the Philadelphia, New Orleans, Oswego, Albany, Rochester, Governor Davis, Columbus and XXth Century, along with the Idaho, Mountain Girl and Grace Darling, to which he later was to acquire patent, made up the bulk of the 1,090 acres that was to become Fricot City.
On Nov. 10, 1898, Desire' Fricot married Lillian Eichelroth, daughter of pioneer Doctor William Eichelroth, of Sonora. Judge Gottschalk, in whose San Andreas home the young couple originally had met, united them in marriage.
Dawn of the new century found Fricot and his bride living in the palatial home he had built in 1897 on his land on San Antone Ridge.
Fricot's sister, Marie, now Mrs. George A. Berton, was enjoying the metropolitan life of San Francisco, but Desire' seemed always happiest in his rural
Please see FRICOT, pg. 37
THE FRICOT MANSION — Desire' Fricot selected this pen and ink drawing for his personal note paper.
A SOUTHERN LADY RETURNS TO THE MOTHER LODGE
By Marie Kettler Conway
AT GRAVESIDE — The epitaph should have read: "MARIE AGOSTINI KETTLER: NATIVE DAUGHTER OF THE GOLDEN WEST — She loved California and cheated at cards."
I had to smile to myself because memories of a grandmother I had never met, surfaced with warm and humorous anecdotes.
Grandmother became a reality to me about seven years ago when a gentle prodding inside sent me in the direction of Northern California to study acting and dig at some family roots.
She was born in 1876 in Old Gulch outside of San Andreas, a rustic mining town in California's Mother Lode.
The Old Gulch settlement is no longer there except for a remnant, a fireplace, or an artifact that remains of the French-Corsican immigrants who set up housekeeping and where their first generation of Californians was born.
Marie, a raven haired beauty, was one of four sisters and a brother whom I speculate moved from Old Gulch to San Andreas. Grandmother always claimed San Andreas as her home and it was possibly there that she met and married Judge Charles Kettler from Alabama who was living in Angels Camp and practicing law with another attorney named Hawley.
Evidently Grandfather had followed the call of the West and the romance it promised. For him it was Marie, and it was perhaps his ability to play the piano coupled with his Southern gentleman's charm that wooed her away from the place she loved so well.
They left California and moved south, to his Alabama and another small town, Luverne, where six children eventually were born to them; the youngest was my father.
Dad adored his mother, even when she reprimanded him for raising his voice to his young wife, my mother. Because of her siding, an unspoken bond grew between the two women as did Mother's affection for her.
The lady had so many endearing qualities that even her one flaw, her one diabolical San Andreas fault worked in her favor. She cheated at cards.
Teamed against my parents, Grandmother and Mother's brother Sam cheated like Mississippi gamblers. There were cards under the table and up their sleeves. They always came up with the aces and Dad never suspected foul play.
True to the Wild West in her blood, Marie Agostini never gave it away. Neither did my mother.
Grandmother loved music and on one occasion, wearing one of her expensive hats, went to hear Paderewski. Hats and music were her weaknesses and had she not been a small town lady, one might have found her basking in San Francisco society, its operas, symphonies and theater.
When Grandfather died, Grandmother was left with debts which had resulted from his speculation in Florida land grants, a venture in which he lost most of his fortune.
Grandmother spent many years as a school teacher repaying the debts and probably teaching Alabama school children the correct Western pronunciation of such words as Colorado or Nevada.
Dad remembers that one of her favorite expressions was that she wouldn't give a "copper" when two cents of his unsolicited opinion was interjected. And those precious coppers were what she was saving to return to her beloved Northern California.
"And how she wanted to go back," Mother recalls; but while visiting my parents in Tennessee, unexpectedly, she died in my Dad's arms. Dad still gets misty when he retells the story, the long train ride back to Alabama on Thanksgiving Day. The lady from San Andreas didn't make it home to California.
Yet, I suspect the Hand of Destiny corrects the oversights...in a way. Marie Agostini did return.
It was the autumn of 1985 that the author of this story, her namesake and a would-be third generation Californian, took her memory and portion of her dream back to San Andreas.
Please see SOUTHERN LADY, pg. 32
CALAVERITAS, cont. from pg. 29
up on O'Neil Creek about a mile downstream from where Upper Calaveritas later would be located. Further west, near the confluence of O'Neil and Willow Creeks, where Highway 49 now crosses O'Neil, was Yaqui Camp, reputedly even tougher than Lower Calaveritas: "the hangout of cut-throats and thieves."
But the heyday of these camps was brief, and while Upper Calaveritas prospered, Lower Calaveritas and Yaqui Camp joined the ranks of the Mother Lode's ghost camps. Today, hardly a trace of them remains.
By 1853 Calaveritas was a well established community with a business area along its main street that included at least one livery stable, several stores, two butcher shops, town hall, restaurants, saloons and fandango houses.
Like Lower Calaveritas, Upper Calaveritas during its early years had a heavy Mexican population, and a considerable number of Chinese lived along the creek at the west end of town.
The first permanent structure in Upper Calaveritas was said to be an adobe building built by Mexicans, which served as a trading post. Many years later it was owned by John Bacigalupi and it still was standing in 1937.
Another early merchant was John Sharp who constructed a store building and operated it until after most of the town was destroyed by fire. Sharp then sold the business to Luigi Costa. Costa earlier had operated a store on the south side of O'Neil Creek where the John Bacigalupi home later was built.
Although by 1858 most of the area along O'Neil Creek had been worked out, new discoveries had been made on higher ground. Miners were engaged in working these high channels and Calaveritas still was a booming settlement and trade center.
Saloons, fandango halls and gambling joints operated round-the-clock and the infamous bandit, Joaquin Murietta before his death at the hands of California Rangers, was said to have often frequented the Upper Calaveritas pleasure palaces.
And, it was allegedly a gambling dispute that on Aug. 3, 1858, triggered the disaster from which Upper Calaveritas never fully recovered. At 2 a.m. that morning a gambler named Shelton who had become angered during a card game, reportedly torched a vacant building beside the gambling establishment where he had lost his dust.
A total of 51 buildings — virtually everything on the north side of O'Neil Creek, was leveled by the flames, at a loss in excess of $35,000, said the Calaveras Independent of Aug. 8, 1858.
A list of the owners of the destroyed buildings and
the amount of their losses included: Sharp & Co., $4,300; George Schultz & Co., $3,500; Morris Murphy, $4,500; L. Hornstein, $2,500; Don Miguel Arseva & Co., $3,000; Giobatto-Julio, $2,500; Giobatto-Rombada, $2,500; Orrego & Co., $1,100; F.M. Shirley, $1,000; J.B. Bartlett, $1,000; A. Hopper, $500; N.T. Norcross, $600; Ramon, $200; Zuniga, $800; J.E. Friese, $150.
Other losses included Paris & Co., $600; A. Freidberger, $150; G.W. Davis, $320; James Bennett, $800; Romeres, $200; Comeres & Co., $600; Phil Hudgkins, $100; Welson, $500; Bordelli, $250; Jos. Lopez, $350; A. Hinery & Co., $300; Donna Manuela, $350; Sam'l Dawden, $500 and S.C. Bacon, $350.
The only buildings on the north side which were not reduced to ashes, said the Independent, was the fire-proof building of Mons. Comeres and the John Sharp Store he later sold to Luigi Costa.
Although the gambler named Shelton was blamed for setting the fire, there was no information as to whether he was ever formally charged with arson or brought to trial for the alleged crime.
Mining continued in the area, but the burned out section of the settlement was never rebuilt, and from that day, Calaveritas ceased to be a major trade center.
Luigi Costa purchased Sharp's store about 1860 and operated it until 1905.
The Old Costa store and the Costa home, now the property of his granddaughter, Louise Greenlaw, stand almost in the shadow of the 80-foot-high wooden trestle that until not too many years ago, carried huge, rumbling trucks that hauled limestone from Calaveras Cement Company's Quarry Four to its cement plant, south of San Andreas.
The gracious old home in which Mrs. Greenlaw now lives, originally was built on San Antone Ridge, east of Fricot City.
Luigi Costa, around 1890, tore the house down, numbering each board, and rebuilt it on the foundations of the Costa home which had earlier been destroyed by fire.
During the 1880's and into the 1890's, miners still were sluicing and hydraulicing on the hillsides around Calaveritas with water supplied through the Ide-Terwilliger Ditch. These miners included Henry P. Angel, founder of Angels Camp, and his partner, Henry O'Dell, who were working a piece of old gravel channel near Burnham's on the South side of San Antone Ridge. The pit in which they mined can still be seen on the hillside below the present Buck Garrett home.
The Calaveritas Hill Hydraulic Mine, located on the north side of San Antone Ridge, overlooking Calaveritas, also was operating. This diggings, originally called the Baldwin Mine, operated until 1914 when the California Debris Commission ordered it closed because its operators would not repair its broken tailing dam. The mine, which is on the old Fort Mountain Channel, reopened in 1936, but shut down again prior to the start of World War II.
The families which in 1900 were living in Calaveritas included the Bacigalupis whose home was on the south side of O'Neil Creek and the Costas, Cademartoris, Trenques and Luigi DeMartinis who lived on the North side.
A half mile upstream, on the north side of the creek was the Drury Ranch with its orchard and alfalfa field. The site of the ranch now is covered by waste from the cement company's Quarry Four.
The old adobe fandango hall where Joaquin Murietta and his gang once reveled — which still was standing at mid-century — now is gone, victim of the elements and of time.
Across the creek in a cemetery identified only by scattered rose bushes long ago gone wild, forgotten gold seekers lie in unmarked graves. On a hill on the north side of the creek is another forgotten graveyard where Mexican miners are buried.
But over the years Calaveritas has changed little. It remains one of the Mother Lode communities that time seems to have passed by — that still has about it
Please see CALAVERITAS, pg. 34
CALAVERITAS, cont. from pg. 33
the feel of California’s gold country.
Presently, eight families including Louise Greenlaw and her brother Fred Cuneo, grandchildren of Luigi Costa, live in their old Calaveritas townsite.
They expect that change will continue to come slowly to Calaveritas, and that is the way they like it.
fine collection of wagons, carriages and other horse-drawn rolling stock.
Until recent years when failing health curtailed his activities, he was an active member of the Angels Gun Club, Angels Boosters Club and a director of the Calaveras County Fair and other organizations.
DESIRÉ FRICOT WANTED THEM TO TELL IT STRAIGHT
Desire’ Fricot loved Calaveras County and its people and treasured it as a place to live, but he was quick to quash any belief that the county had played a role in the amassing of the Fricot fortune.
Fricot believed in telling it like it was.
His predilection for truth and accuracy was demonstrated in his response to a February, 1917, story in the Calaveras Prospect which erroneously attributed Jules Fricot’s wealth to mining operations at Sheep Ranch during the 1870’s.
The article went on to state that Jules Fricot while in Calaveras County, had lived on San Antone Ridge.
In a correction published the following week on demand of Desire’ Fricot, the Prospect quoted Fricot as stating: “My father never came to Calaveras until 1879. He never resided on San Antone Ridge but at Sheep Ranch; and above all things he never made a nickel in Calaveras.
This county has cost my father and myself considerable money without ever bringing anything in return. This fact I would like you to publish in your next issue.”
JAMES VALENTE
1905-1987
Former Angels Camp mayor, city councilman and longtime historical society member James Valente passed away Jan. 19, at age 82, in his home in that city.
He had served as an elected member of the Angels Camp City Council for 40 years prior to his retirement in 1972, and tragically, his death came just one week before he would have seen his city celebrate the 75th anniversary of its incorporation. He served as mayor from 1968 to 1972.
A native of Murphys, “Jimmy” as he was known to his myriad friends, spent 37 years in the banking business in Angels Camp and his interest in the history and well-being of that city and of Calaveras County was unfailing.
Valente was among the Angels Camp city councilmen who helped initiate and promote the campaign to establish the Angels Camp Museum and preserve its
Chavanne Mine, on south end of Sheep Ranch Ledge. It became part of the Sheep Ranch Mine.
THE WHEELS OF JUSTICE
WERE KEPT WELL OILED IN
1854 MURPHYS COUTROOM
(From the unpublished manuscript of Frances Bishop)
(History of the Murphys and Angels Union Water Co.)
(All Rights Reserved)
The Union Water Company, forerunner of today's Union Public Utility District, was established in 1851 and by 1853 was delivering water to Murphys and extending service toward Vallecito and Angels Camp.
Water was carried to the Angels area by the company's North Ditch which followed approximately the same route as today's Utica Ditch. However, in late 1853 or early 1854 Mark Torrey & Co., a mining enterprise, constructed a dam across Angels Creek to divert water into a ditch of its own, upstream from the Union Ditch Company's North Ditch diversion.
As a result, the dispute went to court in 1854 to establish who held prior claim to the water rights and to determine if the Union Water Company had broken the Torrey & Co. dam.
The subsequent court proceedings herein vividly described, are taken verbatim from the diary of Capt. Leonard Withington Noyes, a member of the jury.
(Diary made available, courtesy of Duncan Phillips Museum, Salem, Mass. Spelling and wordage is exactly as contained in diary.)
"The suit commenced before Judge Alexander Putney, Justice of the Peace at Murphys Camp. The court was held in a big tent, say 70 by 160 feet, kept by Bob Patterson, in which he had a Bar of Choice Liquors, a billiard Table — two Monte Tables and a Rolet Table — all of them in full blast.
The Union Water Company had 3 lawyers as had the Torrey Company. The U.W. Water Co. had A.P. Dudley, Coruthers and...... and the Torrey Co. had William Olliver, Walter Abels and.......
The court was held in the south end of the tent, right in front of the Bar where sat Judge Putney, who reportedly weighed at least 350 pounds, his left hand to the Bar.
Along the south end and against the side of the tent was a bench for the 12 jurors in front of the Judge's left hand. At his back and close to him was the Billiard Table, extending to the end of the Bar, at the north end of the tent were two Monte Tables, and between the Billiard Table and the front of the Tent was the Rolet Table.
The lawyers occupied the side of the Table on which the Judge sat, and at the highest to the door, leaving the end of the Table next to the Bar empty, so that customers could get up to the Bar to drink.
The first thing in order was the selection of a Jury of 12 honest miners no others would do who the Law allowed $5.00 per day for their service, and they had to pay a man $8.00 to work in their place in the claim, making $3.00 per day out of pocket.
Of course the Jury must be kept good natured — so
Please see JUSTICE, pg. 36
Union Water Company flume at what is now Red Apple, on Highway 4, as it appeared in 1862 when this drawing was made by artist-historian Edward A. Vischer. The flume and ditch, started in 1851, was delivering water to Murphys area by 1853.
one party to the suit suggested that it not be right that the Miners should serve at $5.00 and pay $8.00 per day — and proposed that they be allowed $8.00 each. The other party not wishing to have a March stolen on them in that way, raised them to $12.00 they saw him and went $3.00 better, finerly they settled on $16.00 Per Day for each Juror, and they selected 12 to try the case. I was one of the number. 2--Chs. DeWolfe 3--Frank Knapp 4--Capt. Steward 5--J F McLellan 6--W H Barnes 7--Dan Bell 8-- Frank Anderson 9--F McDonald 10..... 11...... 12.....
The jury selected an adjournment was had for the purpose allowing the Court to get his wind and a drink. As soon as the adjournment was had the plaintiffs invited all the Jurors up to drink — then to take cigars, as soon as the Plaintiff had got them all right, Defendant not wishing to be beat in jenerosity also asked all the Jurors up to Drink and take cigars — the Judge and Lawyers likewise. Finerly the examination of witnesses began for the first day every one was attentive. The next day it began to be tegeious. Jim Pearson was Constable, would loose his dinner any time, to play Billiards... he kept up one continual game all the time the Case was going on. Every few moments Judge Putneys Head would be in the way of Jims Queu, when he would call out, Move your head Judge so I can make this lick. Shortly a witness was wanted, Judge Putney would say Mr. Pearson call Mr. So and So. Jim would say hold on a minute Judge until I play this string out. The court would wait to accommodate him.
Shortly, an objection to something would be raised and some Law Point discussed, when by way of convincing the Judge Al Dudley would take out his purse, slap it down on the Table and say by God ill bet you $50.00 so and so is law. Bill Olliver wold cover the amount, the Judge would slowly open his big eyes, half laughing and look at the 12 Jurors, would say Gentlemen the Jury look dry — suppose we adjourn for a few moments — as soon as said, one of the Lawyers would snatch Judge Putney by the arm Walk him up and down the street and a few Moments, then take the Judge up to the bar and Treat him.
The Judge immediately shaking him, allows himself to be buzzed by another Lawyer, until the whole six had Buzzed and Treated Judge Putney. Mean time the Jury are not neglected for the same old game of Treating them first by Plaintiff then Defendant was always attended to by the proper persons both to drinks & cigars as soon as the Court was called to order a box of Cigars would be passed around among the Jury and they would all be smoking, filling the place so one could hardly see for smoke, usually each Lawyer had a Glass of Liquor sitting on the table by him all the time, add this to a hundred Miners and Gamblers around the Gambling tables cursing their luck and a maney more passing in and out the door, dragging big spurs after them like stern wheel steamboats all having on old ragged cloaths, Broad rimed hats & knifes slung to them cursing and talking loud — as many as can stand in front of the bar two deep, 5 or 6 Barkeepers waiting upon them and you have some idea of what kind of place this was to hold a Court.
Then the Jury some of them half tight were getting tired, and leaning forward their elbows on their knees with their Sit downs projecting past their bench shoving the cloth partition back, and tempting the Boys outside to stick pins through the tent into their unmentionable causing old Cap Stewart to land head foremost on the Table right opposite the Judge with a yell of distress Jesus Christ, scratching his behind and uttering cuss words in open Court without getting one word of sensure from the Judge who joined in laugh with the rest. Stewart managed to keep his keg pretty full all the time he got tired and sleepy and every time he leaned forward so as to round the cloth of the tent out, the Boys on the out side would raise him with a pin.
Charley DeWolfe would mew like a cat keeping Stewart hunting that kitten when not too loggy. All went well to make this a very interesting case, especially to us who were getting $16.00 Per day — and all the luxuries thrown in — the Case lasted about a week costing them an enormous Sum, finerly the Case went to the Jury who were taken to Sperry's first hotel (then unfinished) to deliberate. After being left to ourselves, some one proposed that each put a P or a D on a piece of paper and drop them in a hat to see how we stood, those putting in a P gave Verdict for the Plaintiff, those D, for Defendant. It fell my lot to take those papers from the Hat and open them. Almost the first paper I got had a X on it. I held it up and asked here is a cross what does that mean? Dan Bell spoke up — saying that is Myne, I go with the rest. It so happened all the others were one way, so there was no dispute about Dans X, the fact was Dan Bell was from Pike, he could set and Play the Arkansor Traveler on a fiddle when he was asleep, but he did not know a letter in the Alphabet, neither did he know the meaning of Plaintiff or defendant, somehow he was a standing Juror on every Case.
After Rendering our decision all hands went on a
spree — Judge — Lawyers — Constable — Plaintif & Defendants all but a few were on their High Horses that night."
Despite his vivid description of the trial, Leonard W. Noyes, however, neglected to mention the actual outcome of the trial.
The case apparently was won by Mark Torrey & Co., as the records show that not long after, the Union Ditch Company acquired the Montezuma or Torrey Ditch which had been the cause of the litigation.
FRICOT, cont. from pg. 30
Calaveras surroundings. And, although he and his wife traveled widely throughout their lives, they always returned to San Antone Ridge.
With his financial interests ranging from his Calaveras County holdings to mining operations on the Consumnes River and management of his San Francisco business properties, Desire' led a busy life.
Philanthropist, humanitarian, conservationist, friend of youth, and above all, a believer in the future of the Mother Lode, Fricot also never forgot France, where he had been educated and his father had been born.
He was grief stricken when in 1914, war swept across Europe, engulfing France in bloody strife.
As a patriot and personal friend of French statesman and war minister Georges Clemenceau, Fricot went to France during the war and ultimately contributed an estimated one-fourth of his income to help victims of the conflict.
During 1916 he toured France, visiting hospitals and serving as interpreter for Dr. W.C. Chidester, noted Army surgeon. He also spent a vast amount of money and months of long, hard work promoting sales of Liberty Bonds to help finance the war.
It was in 1916 while meeting in San Francisco with French military representatives, that Fricot learned his Calaveras County home had caught fire from a defective flue and burned to the ground.
One result of the fire was that on May 31, of that year Fricot purchased the 16-mile long Ide-Terwilliger Ditch to bring water from San Antone Creek and ensure his property an adequate future water supply.
The war ended and Desire' and Lillian Fricot built an even larger and more imposing mansion on San Antone Ridge to replace their burned dwelling.
Also, as an aftermath of his efforts on behalf of the Allies during World War I, France bestowed upon Desire' Fricot in 1935, its highest award — Knight of the French Legion of Honor. He also had been earlier decorated by the Serbian Government with its coveted Cross of St. Sava.
Meanwhile, the new Fricot mansion and its surrounding complex which was fast acquiring the title "Fricot City," had become a center of social and cultural activities for Calaveras County.
Throughout his life Desire' Fricot was noted for his help to others and one of his major interests was promotion of the Boy Scouts of America.
Sprawling Fricot City soon was to become the Mecca for Scout groups from throughout Central California.
For the visiting scout troops Fricot built a swimming pool, a large scout hut and other buildings in which they could conduct their activities. He became known as one of the "Fathers of Scouting" in the Calaveras-San Joaquin area and at the time of his death was President Emeritus of the San Joaquin-Calaveras Council and Chairman of the Calaveras District.
Involved as he was in the scouting movement, Fricot was equally interested in conservation.
His leadership in the 1920's and 30's helped save the Calaveras Big Trees North Grove and place it in the California State Park System.
Fricot traveled and worked tirelessly to influence state legislators and park officials to protect the Big Trees. His efforts were finally rewarded when on July 4, 1931 during a special ceremony there, the North Grove of the Calaveras Big Trees was declared a state park.
On Oct. 27, 1935, Fricot and his associates were honored when a bronze plaque recognizing their effort in saving the Big Trees was placed on a granite boulder there. And, in 1940, shortly before his death, a new recreation hall in the North Grove was dedicated in the name of Desire' Fricot.
Among Fricot's outstanding contributions to Calaveras County was his gift in 1937 of the historic stone building on North Main Street, in San Andreas, which has served as a County Library for more than 40 years.
Fricot purchased the American Hotel building which had been constructed in 1852, remodeled it and gave it to the county to serve as a combination library and
Please see FRICOT, pg. 38
FRICOT, cont. from pg. 37
museum. The museum has since been moved up the street to the old Calaveras County Courthouse, but the beautiful old stone structure still is the main county library. For a time after he made the presentation during those financially hard pressed depression years, Fricot provided both the librarian's and the library janitor's salaries.
A man of foresight, Desire' Fricot was among the first to recognize the need for the "counties of origin" to preserve their water rights.
He also was a member of the Calaveras County Chamber of Commerce, Angels Boosters and the San Andreas Progressive Club. He was president of the Chamber of Commerce at the time of his death and also was a patron member of the California Historical Society.
Desire' Fricot died at age 72 on Dec. 6, 1940, in his beloved home on San Antone Ridge.
His funeral in San Andreas, one of the largest in Calaveras County history, brought out honor guards of Boy Scouts.
Lillian Eichelroth Fricot passed away at Fricot City in August, 1942.
The total value of the Fricot estate is unknown, but in March, 1942, the Fricot department store building at Fifth and Market Street — standing on the land for which Jules Fricot had paid $30,000 in 1870, sold for $1,875,000.
Desire' and Lillian Fricot were childless, but Raymonde Rooney, one of Mrs. Fricot's three nieces, had lived with them at Fricot City for many years. Fricot and his wife, in their wills, divided their wealth between Miss Rooney, who received three-fourths of the estate and Fricot's sister, Mrs. George Berton, who received the remaining one-fourth.
Fricot had always wanted his property on San Antone Ridge in one way or another to benefit youth, and Miss Rooney, who after the death of the Fricots moved to San Francisco, carried out her uncle's wishes.
In February, 1944, Miss Rooney leased the 1,090 acres on San Antone Ridge to the California Youth Authority for use as a home for youngsters 14 years and younger who had become wards of the court. Fricot Ranch School For Boys opened on July 7, 1944, when a group of 20 boys arrived from Los Angeles County.
The State purchased the property in January, 1946, for $65,000.
In addition to the leasing of Fricot City to the state, Miss Rooney also in 1944 donated 550 volumes of French literature and history from Desire' Fricot's personal library to Mills College. The books, all printed in French, were considered a major windfall by college officials.
And, although she had not attended Mills College, Miss Rooney who died in 1969, willed her entire estate, estimated at $2 million, to the college.
For 28 years Fricot Ranch served as a youth authority installation, providing schooling and guidance for a population of up to 200 youths whose age limits eventually were increased to 18 years.
Over the years millions were expended to build Fricot into one of the state's best youth operations.
However, county and state policy changes in the handling of juveniles during the 1960's and early 1970's resulted in population declines in state youth authority institutions.
Because of its remote location and relatively small
population — something less than 200 youngsters — per capita cost of operating the Fricot School, said cost conscious youth authority officials, was the highest of their ten installations.
As a result, when budget cutbacks were ordered, Fricot Ranch School For Boys was closed on June 30, 1972.
Two years later the State sold Fricot Ranch to private investors for $1,200,000.
Since then the history of Fricot City has been one of financial instability and only transient occupancy.
Efforts to utilize it as a convalescent home, church school and retreat and an off-campus classroom facility for the Oakland school system, all have failed.
Its most successful operation in recent years was as a training academy for the California Conservation Corps, but that organization too, chose to leave Fricot before the close of 1986.
Today, owned by Amos and Royce Starr, of Sacramento, the sprawling complex atop San Antone Ridge might at first glance be mistaken for some small, select college campus.
But now, empty and unused except for a few dwellings rented to individuals, this once vibrant empire created by Desire' Fricot appears at best to be facing an uncertain future.
**NEW MEMBERS**
We welcome these new members to the society:
Mariana Bacoccini, Altaville, Ca.
Jess & Gladys Lee, San Andreas
Thomas F. Osborne, Murphys
Fred Stanley, Copperopolis
George Stanley, Copperopolis
Koenigsberg/Eckman, West Point
Arlene Westenrider, Angels Camp
Dale & Cheryl Briski, San Andreas
Zora Foster, Murphys
Mr. & Mrs. H.H. Hewlett, Altaville
Mr. & Mrs. Daniel D. Miller, Altaville
Carroll & Dorothy Ogren, Stockton, Ca.
Robert E. Schmauder, Altaville
Walt & Dorise Harper, Deer Park, Wa.
Mr. & Mrs. Stan E. Grunder, San Andreas
Mr. & Mrs. Paul P. Matson, Jackson, Ca.
Willa M. Holter, Linden
Ed Stritzel, Lodi, Ca.
R. Wm. Moran, Jamestown, Ca.
Mr. & Mrs. Greg Amaral, Willowbrook, Ill.
Col. (Ret.) & Mrs. R.E. Van Ness, Valley Springs
**DESIRE' FRICOT WAS KIND TO SHEEP RANCH INDIANS**
Desire' Fricot had a soft spot in his heart for Calaveras County's Native Americans, particularly those living in the Sheep Ranch area.
He first met the Mi-Wuk Indian people when as a boy, he came to Sheep Ranch with his parents.
Later, when he returned and built the Fricot mansion on San Antone Ridge, he continued to befriend the Sheep Ranch Indians. He made no attempt to interfere with or change their life style, but he often helped them and made a practice of paying for their funerals.
Limpy, "Rose Davis," reportedly the oldest Indian woman in Calaveras County when she died in 1930, was a special friend of Desire' Fricot, whom she called "Pico."
Limpy was old enough to remember the Gold Rush and the arrival of the first miners in Calaveras County. Often, she walked all the way from Sheep Ranch to Fricot City to sit on a small rug in the shade near the mansion and tell Desire' Fricot about the old days.
One day she decided she wanted the rug at home. She simply rolled it up and walked away with it, stating, "Pico will buy me another one," and, sure enough he did.
When Limpy died, Fricot paid for her funeral.
Her son, 80-year-old Jeff Davis, died on Dec. 6, 1940 — the same day that Desire' Fricot died.
The Fricot family paid for a full chief's funeral for Jeff Davis.
**MOKE HILL HISTORY GROUP SEEKING NEW MEMBERS**
The Mokelumne Hill History Society is welcoming new members.
Dues are $5.00 per year and the Society meets at 2 p.m. on the second Thursday of each month at Main and Center Streets in Mokelumne Hill.
The Society's Cook Book and Poetry Book now are on sale, as are other items of historical interest.
**IN MEMORIAM**
Howard L. Joses, Mountain Ranch, Feb. 10, 1987
Calaveras County Historical Society
30 Main Street • P.O. Box 721
San Andreas, California 95249
Officers and Directors:
President ........................................... Lorrayne Kennedy, San Andreas
Vice president ..................................... Don Cuneo, San Andreas
Treasurer ........................................... Ruth Matson, San Andreas
Recording Secretary ......................... Carmenne Poore, San Andreas
Membership-Financial Sec’y .................. Lillian Filippini,
San Andreas
Directors ............................................ Richard Barger, Murphys
Fred Cuneo, Calaveritas
Rosemary Faulker, Rail Road Flat
George Beaman, San Andreas
Staff
Executive Office Director........................ W.P. Fuller, Jr.
Office.................................................. JoAnn N. Gardiner
Archives ........................................... Ella M. Hiatt
Editor, Las Calaveras .......................... George W. Hoeper
Las Calaveras is published quarterly by the Calaveras County Historical Society. Individual memberships ($6.00 a year). Family ($8.00) and Junior Memberships ($2.00) include subscriptions to Las Calaveras. Non-members may obtain copies of Las Calaveras from the secretary. The original historical material in this bulletin is not copyrighted and anyone is invited to use it. Mention of the source will be appreciated.
The Calaveras County Historical Society, a non-profit corporation, meets on the fourth Thursday of each month at the Grange Hall in San Andreas — except for dinner meetings which are held each quarter at different places in the county.
The Society’s office is open on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 8:30 to 5:00. The telephone number is (209) 754-1058. Visitors are welcome.
FRICOT NUGGET PRESERVED FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS
Jules Fricot was a mining man and an admirer of fine specimens of gold.
Today, because of his awareness of its unique beauty and through the generosity of the Fricot family, one of the most beautiful specimens of arborescent (sponge) gold ever mined in California has been preserved and is on public display.
The 12-pound piece, known as the “Fricot Nugget,” was found during the 1880’s — the exact year is not known — at the Grit Mine near the Spanish Dry Diggings, in El Dorado County.
Jules Fricot is not believed to have had a part in the actual mining of the nugget but instead is thought to have purchased it while he and his family were residing at Sheep Ranch where he was involved in mining with Andre Chavanne.
The nugget remained in possession of Jules Fricot and his heirs until after the death of his son, Desire’ Fricot, in 1940.
The Sacramento Bee, in an article concerning the Fricot Nugget following Desire’ Fricot’s death, stated that twice, prior to 1917, the Fricot family refused offers in excess of $10,000 from the Russian government for purchase of the unique gold specimen.
On Aug. 18, 1943, Marie E. E. Berton, daughter of Jules Fricot, in memory of her father donated the famed nugget to the California Academy of Science, in San Francisco, where it presently is on public display.
Over the years during handling, however, small pieces have broken from the fragile nugget, and today it weighs exactly six grams more than 12 pounds.
Three pieces which broke from the nugget weigh 325, 203 and 4.50 grams each. They too are on display with the main specimen.
And, in order to preserve it, the nugget has been reinforced with a gold band and several unobtrusive wires.
SCHOOL ALBUMS AVAILABLE
For those who have not yet obtained them, a few copies of the Historical Society’s limited edition Album of the Pioneer Schools of Calaveras County still are available.
The 160-page albums may be obtained at the Historical Society Office, 30 N. Main St., San Andreas, or by writing to the Calaveras County Historical Society, P.O. Box 721, San Andreas, Ca. 95249.
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Part - I
Underline the most suitable answer.
01. Which of the following plants is a non-flowering plant?
(1) Idda (2) Jak (3) Salvinia (4) Katarolu
02. The group of plants in which root system is adapted for vegetative propagation is,
(1) Banyan, Kirala, Betel (2) Jak, Bread fruit, Curry leaves
(3) Pandanus, Sweet Potatoes, Mimosa (4) Bread Fruit, Slime Apple, Curry Leaves
03. Which part of the flower becomes the fruit after pollination?
(1) Ovary (2) Ovule (3) Stigma (4) Pollens
04. Select the answer which contains only monocotyledonous plants.
(1) Paddy, Chick Pea (Kadala), Green Grams (2) Coconut, Maize, Paddy
(3) Peanut, Paddy, Coconut (4) Jak, Coconut, Bread Fruit
05. The positive (+) terminal of a simple voltaic cell is,
(1) Copper plate (2) Carbon rod (3) Zinc plate (4) Lead plate
06. The substance that dissolves well in water is,
(1) Glucose, Blue powder, Condis (2) Sugar, Salt, Wax
(3) Salt, Naphthalene balls, Baking soda (4) Baking soda, Vinegar, Condis
07. This is not a plant with a weak stem.
(1) Pepper (2) Betel (3) guava (4) Winged beans
08. The animal which does not use water as its respiratory medium is,
(1) "Kelavalla" (2) Thilapiya (3) "Diyabariya" (4) Shark
09. The colour of pH papers present in the laboratory is,
(1) Blue (2) Red (3) Yellow (4) Orange
10. What property of water is the reason for using water to control heating the vehicle engine excessively?
(1) Solvent property (2) Coolent property
(3) Lubricant property (4) All the above properties
11. The energy transformation taken place when a winding clock operates is,
(1) Electric energy $\leftrightarrow$ Kinetic energy \hspace{2cm} (2) Kinetic energy $\leftrightarrow$ Potential energy
(3) Potential energy $\leftrightarrow$ Kinetic energy \hspace{2cm} (4) Chemical energy $\leftrightarrow$ Electric energy
12. A balloon was fixed into the mouth of the bottle and bottle was immersed in hot water. The main reason for inflating the balloon is,
(1) expanding the bottle
(2) expanding water
(3) expanding air
(4) all of the above
13. Select the correct diagram which shows an object placed in front of a plane mirror and its image.
14. The instrument which produces its sound by vibrating strings is,
(1) flute \hspace{2cm} (2) horaneva \hspace{2cm} (3) sitar \hspace{2cm} (4) tabla
15. The most suitable mirror for a dentist to observe teeth is,
(1) Concave mirror \hspace{2cm} (2) Convex mirror \hspace{2cm} (3) Plane mirror \hspace{2cm} (4) All of the above
16. The energy possessed by a nut in a tree is,
(1) potential energy \hspace{2cm} (2) kinetic energy \hspace{2cm} (3) chemical energy \hspace{2cm} (4) thermal energy
17. This diagram shows a set-up used to demonstrate formation of umbra. Select the incorrect statement regarding it from the given statements.
(1) Umbra is formed due to not travelling light through the ball.
(2) Umbra is not cleared when the ball and the torch are very closer.
(3) Penumbra is formed when the torch is taken away from the ball.
(4) Penumbra disappears when the torch is taken away from the ball.
18. Which part of the compound microscope, controls the amount of light reaches to the specimen?
(1) Eyepiece (2) Stage (3) Objective Lens (4) Diaphragm
19. A lighted candle is placed in front of a plane mirror.
The features of the image formed by it are,
(1) Upright, real, equal to the size of the object.
(2) Inverted, virtual, equal to the size of the object.
(3) Upright, virtual, equal to the size of the object.
(4) Upright, virtual, smaller than the object.
20. The gas which avoids entering harmful radiations from the sun to the earth is,
(1) nitrogen (2) oxygen (3) ozone (4) carbondioxide
Part - II
- Question no 01 is compulsory. Select any four questions from the other six questions and answer for 05 questions.
01. (A) The list below shows several species of plants and animals identified by a group of students in a field trip.
Coconut, Mango, Banana, Baenduru, Rampe,
Mimosa, Cycas, Grasshopper, Rat snake,
Butterfly, Squirrel, Earthworm
(i) Name the main two methods that the plants in the above list can be classified.
(ii) Write an example each for the plants which show characteristics shown below from the list.
(a) Stilt roots
(b) Root nodules
(c) Underground stem
(iii) What is the main difference between the root systems of coconut and mango plants?
(B)
(i) Name the two main groups that the animals present in the list belong.
(ii) What is the characteristic you used to separate them for the above two groups.
(C) There are instances of obtaining advantages for animals due to blending their body colour with the environmental colour.
(i) What is the scientific word used for introducing this adaptation?
(ii) Write one advantage obtained by animals from it.
(iii) Classify the plants coconut, mango, banyan, mimosa, cycas using a dichotomous key.
02. (A) This diagram shows how a drinking straw rubbed with a polythene membrane is placed on a drawing pin which is kept on an inverted glass in a study of static electric charges.
(i) a. What can be observed when a similar drinking straw is taken closer to the above drinking straw?
b. What can be observed when the polythene membrane used for rubbing is taken closer to the above drinking straw?
(ii) Write the reasons for the above observations in the instances (a) and (b).
(iii) What is the advantage of balancing the drinking straw on the glass with the help of a drawing pin?
(B)
(i) Write the type of static charges obtained by each material when a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth.
(ii) Write an event related to static electric charges that takes place in day to day life.
(iii) Write one instance of using static electric charges.
(iv) What is the instrument that stores static electric charges?
03. These diagrams show several sources of electricity.
(i) Name the sources of electricity shown as A, B and C.
(ii) Write separately the methods of producing electricity by them.
(iii) What is the principle used to produce electricity by B?
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Capt. John C. Harick was born on Marcy 24, 1786, in Georgia. He was married to Katherine "Katie" Myers (b. March 18, 1792) on April 23, 1809, in Washington County, Georgia, and lived in Milledgeville, Ga.
John Hamrick was a military man. When the Creek and Seminole war broke out in Alabama, he raised a company of volunteers and joined Gen. Andrew Jackson. They defeated the Indians at Horshoe Bend and Emucfaw. They drove the few remaining Indians into Florida, then marched overland to New Orleans, where they fought the Battle of New Orleans in January, 1815. They defeated the British, killing the British Gen. Packenhan and two thousand men. Then they marched to Tennessee, cutting the road as they went. This road became known as the "Jackson Trail".
Capt. Hamrick then went back to Milledgeville, Georgia, to join his family. He was at that time the father of Thomas age 5, Martha age 3, and lst. John, age 1. They lived in Milledgeville until 1820 when he took his family and slaves and migrated to Alabama (Monroe County). Capt. Hamrick (they spelled the name Hambrick until after they came to Mississippi in 1836) father died before he was five, his first step-father died before he was nine and his second step-father by the time he was twelve.
The Hamricks settled in river bottom land in Alabama, which was great for growing cotton, but an unhealthy place to live. They lived there 16 years. Capt. Hamrick accumulated quite a lot of money. He sold out in Alabama and came to Lauderdale County, Miss. in 1836, where he lived until he died on September 1, 1856. He left a will which was probated in Lauderdale County.
We need to know exactly where John C. Hamrick lived and where he was buried.
Children:
I. THOMAS JEFFERSON HAMRICK
Born: February 10, 1810, Milledgeville. Died: Oct. 30, 1881
Married: (1) Sinia Brown, Nov. 23, 1834, Monroe Co., Ala. She believed to be dau. of John H. and Sarah Brown, and sis. of Arthur, John, Randolph and William, who all migrated from Monroe Co. to Lauderdale Co. (2) Sabena Phillips "Sibby"
Moved with his father to Alabama when he was about 10 years old, where he grew up, probably in Monroe County. He and Sinia had been married over a year when his father moved to Lauderdale County, Mississippi to buy some of the Choctaw Indian lands from the Government in 1836. Their oldest child, Elmira, was born in Mississippi soon after their arrival.
Tom and Sinia had four sons and four daughters before Sinia died with or soon after the birth of their sixth child, James Hamrick, who was born in 1845. Thomas was married again in the winter of 1846 to a girl named Sabrina Phillips who was called Sibby. He and his second wife had six more children.
Thomas, the oldest of John C. Hamrick, lived in Pine Springs until his father died in 1856. He then bought a place on the west side of (now) Okatibbee Lake near the Hamrick Cemetery. He moved there in 1857 where he owned 640 acres. He had inherited about fifteen slaves from his father and may have had a few of his own since he was then about 47 years old and had been in the county for 20 years. He had a large house used for travelers which was called "The Wayside Inn". He lived there until he died in 1881 at age 71 2/3, having lived there 24 years.
Children: (next page)
Sept. 26, 1857
Joseph Collins, Adm. of John Trussell, dec'd
Sold: T. J. Hamrick W2SW - Sec 25-8-14
330 ACRES SE4 NE4 - Sec 26
Highest Bidder - $1117.50
Sept. 11, 1846
St. vs. Thomas Hamrick
Charge: Assault & Battery
With for defendant; Samuel Alford
Acquitted.
1. **ALMIRA HAMRICK**
Born: Feb. 14, 1836 (1830-1910) Died:
Married: Joseph L. Houston, son of Gen Sam Houston on Tennessee & Texas.
One day when Elmira was only 15 years old a nice looking man rode up on the most beautiful horse anyone could imagine. It probably was a Tenn. Walking Horse and it had a gorgeous hand-tooled Mexican saddle and bridle on it. The bridle was covered with silver medallions the size of quarters. He said he was looking for descendants of John C. Hamrick and that his name was Joseph L. Houston, and he had ridden all the way from Texas.
It is not known if he stayed in the Hamrick home or not, but he probably did, at first, anyway. This man with the gorgeous horse, married Elmira before her 16th birthday! It was a surprise to everyone but them. Someone had helped Elmira "visit away from home" so that the marriage could take place. They made their home near Collinsville where they had 19 children! (Included 2 sets of twins) The name of one has been lost.
Children:
A. Columbus Houston 1852-____, (Died in teens?)
B. Margaret F. "Maggie" Houston 1854-1940, m. (1) Williamson (2) James R. Snowden in 1887. He was son of James W. and Martha Snowden, who was 2nd son of early settler to Lauderdale Co., James Snowden of SC. James R. and Maggie are both bur. Collinsville Meth Ch. cem. Had 10 kids.
C. John Oliver Houston 1856-18__, m. (1) Ida Jones, cal 1880-82, who had 3 children before she died. He then m. (2) Mary Florence Jones, Ida's sister around 1889-90. The Jones sisters were daughters of Rev. Aaron and Eliz. (Terry) Jones of Ga., who had come to Pine Springs in 1850's.
John and his 2nd wife had a little daughter and were living in Pine Springs (old Jones home) when John was killed by a black man with an ax. The neighbors (Klansmen?) took the negro to "The hanging Tree" in Pine Springs and hung him. This is believed to have happened around 1892. John was buried at the old Poplar Springs Church Cemetery in Pine Springs. (No headstone.) Mary Florence then m. Joe Wells.
Children: (Three from 1st wife, One from second.)
a. William "Willie" Houston
b. Sidney Houston
c. Gracie Houston m. ____ Wells, son of Joe Wells, her step-father.
d. Mable Houston m. Welba (Wellborn?) Ford, lived at Batesville, Ms.
-D. Sinai/Siniue Houston (Twin) 1858-____, m. ____ Hudson
-E. Sabrina "Sibby" Houston (Twin) 1858-1942, m. John Wesley Gibson. (1854-1924)
Children:
a. Cam Gibson
b. Walter Gibson
c. Samuel Gibson
d. Fred Gibson
e. Tommy Gibson
f. Velma Gibson
-F. Willis Houston 1861(?) (Died young.)
G. Josephine Houston 1863-1864, ____
H. Mollie Houston 1864-1864, Infant.
I. Thomas Jefferson Houston 1865-____, m. Susie Collins. (It is possible that this was Susie Collins, b. 1871, who was oldest dau. of James Madison Collins of Pine Springs who became Meridian Policeman. Collins Family, qv).
This Houston, a M.D., lived in Meridian and was called "Dr. Tom".
Children:
a. Wilburn Collins Houston (I)
b. Mark Houston
c. Carmen Houston.
J. MARY ARDELLA HOUSTON 1867-1950, m. Tully Ethridge, bro. of "Mack" (1866-1949)
Children:
a. Ethel Ethridge
b. Sims Ethridge
c. Luke Ethridge
d. Bee Ethridge (Twin)
e. Bert Ethridge (Twin)
f. Inell Ethridge
K. JOSEPH LUTHER HOUSTON, JR. 1869-1957, m. Minnie Wellborn, Dec. 24, 1889.
She was youngest dau. of Dr. David Mercer and Esther Pamela (Powell)
Wellborn who had come to Lauderdale Co. from Early Co., Ga. in 1871.
They lived on their farm in Collinsville, Both Bur. Collinsville and H. Church.
Children:
a. Cecil M. Houston 1891-197_, m. Tom Covington, had 8 sons. Taught school at Pine Springs in early 1900's.
b. Gambretta 1893-1893, Infant.
c. Jesse 1896-197_, m. (1) Irene Ishee (2) Ardell Moore
d. Allie 1897-___, m. Tom McDonald.
e. Ila May 1899-1984, m. Elton T. Clark.
f. Joe Benjamin 19__-19__, m. Earline Ishee
g. Alton Houston 19__-19__, m. Mrs. Winnie Mae Tucker
h. Oleta Houston 1912-1960, m. Omar Herrington
L. IDA HOUSTON 1872-1957, m. William Lee Walker (1848-1946) Both Bur. Collinsville and H. Church.
Children:
a. Marks Walker
b. Eulas Walker
c. Ray Walker
d. Madge Walker
e. Ellis Walker
f. W.L. Walker, Jr.
g. Others-
M. LILLIE BELLE HOUSTON 1874-1957, m. Walter Raymondo (1871-1937)
Children:
a. Blannie Walker
b. X.L. Walker
c. Stanton Walker
d. Legette Walker
e. Clyde Walker
f. Inez Walker
g. G.W. Walker
N. ANNIE HOUSTON 1875-1886, d. about 11 yrs old.
O. PAUL HOUSTON (Twin) 1877, Did not marry. d. 1957
P. CLAUDE HOUSTON (Twin) 1877-____, did not marry.
2. JOHN B. HAMRICK
Born: March 12, 1837, Laud. Co. Died: Oct 16, 1897, Bur Hamrick Cem, Collinsville
Married: Mary Elizabeth Harwell, March 11, 1858
Children:
A. SARAH ELIZABETH HAMRICK 186_, m Charles Clinton "Charley" Carpenter, Jan. 24, 1883, son of Rice Benjamin and Mary Ann (Rodgers) of Pine Springs.
Children: (All bur. Hamrick Cem, Collinsville.)
a. John Rice "Ricy" Carpenter 1885-1963, m. Lillie Anderson.
b. Thomas Irvin Carpenter 1886-1925, m. Elizabeth Adeline Anderson
c. Ada Lula Carpenter 1883-1963, died at 11 months.
B. SAPHRONIA "FRONIE" HAMRICK m. _____ Pruitt, no children.
Reared Willie Mae, her sister's child.
C. KATHERINE "KATE" HAMRICK /864-1930/ m. Augie Clark (THOS. OGGIE CLARK (1861-1949)
Children:
a. Marvin Clark /893-1898/
b. Elton Clark
c. William Clark
d. Earline Clark
D. NETTIE HAMRICK 1867-1903, m. George Washington Weatherford, 1892. He was son of William Gustavus "Dock" and Rose Ann (Kittrell) Weatherford. George and his father operated a sawmill and Gen. Store at Pine Springs.
Nettie had one baby when she died in 1903. George then married her sister, Maggie. They had children, but we do not know their names. The Weatherfords moved to Illinois where it is said they have many descendants.
E. AVA HAMRICK m. Hillard Gibson
F. ELLA HAMRICK m. Thomas Gibson
Children:
a. Ruby Gibson d. Heber Gibson
b. Kline Gibson e. Norman Gibson
c. Joe Alton Gibson f. Melba Gibson
G. TOM HAMRICK m. Carrie Clark, sis. of "Sugie" who m. Tom's sis, Kate. He was the only son. Had no children.
H. MAGGIE HAMRICK m. G. W. Weatherford, her sister Nettie's widower. (See #D)
I. ANNIE HAMRICK 1878-1944 m. Robert "Bob" Moore, 1906, Laud. Co.
Children: (2 sons)
a. Melville Moore m. Vera Moore
b. Malcolm Moore m. Mary Lucille Jolly.
J. JOHNNIE HAMRICK m. James "Jim" Tucker. Had one child when Johnnie died. Her sister, Saphronia, raised Johnnie's little girl.
Children:
a. Winnie Mae Tucker.
K. MATTIE HAMRICK m. Rhodes Gibson
Children:
a. Edward Gibson b. Taze Gibson
3. MARGARET HAMRICK m. Wells
Born: Aug. 28, 1839, Laud. Co. Died: 1887, Collinsville.
Married: Jacob Wells 1858, Feb. 19, Laud. Co.
Jacob was killed in the Civil War in a skirmish at Iuka, Mississippi, leaving Margaret with three little children. She went back to live with her father and step-mother and never married again. She died at age 52 while living with her only surviving child (Mittie).
Children:
A. MARY ELLIS WELLS (called Ellis) 1860-1879, m. James W. Moore. She died the day following the birth of her first and only child. Her mother and her younger sister moved in with the young father to take care of Ellis' little baby, Mary Ellis.
Children: 1904, m. Tom Johnson Nov. 29, 1899
a. Mary Ellis Moore 1879- (Called Daisy) (1861-1931)
B. MITTIE WELLS 1861-1947(?), m. Joseph McCullough "Mack" Ethridge June 3, 1886. Mittie taught school until she married at age 25. Mack bought and sold houses, operated a store at various times, built roads by contract once, taught school a few terms but didn't like it. He was a county supervisor at the time the courthouse was built; his name on cornerstone of present building. Was confined to wheel chair five years at age 69 following a stroke. Mittie lived to be 96½ years old.
Children:
C. MARGARET ELIZABETH "BETTY" WELLS 1859-1888, m. Thomas Gibson (b1857). @ 26 - Died of Typhoid Fever. No children. Bur. Hamrick Cem, Collinsville.
4. THOMAS HAMRICK
Born: 1842
Died: Was killed in Civil War.
5. JOSEPH HAMRICK
Born: 1843
Died: Was killed in Civil War.
6. JAMES MADISON HAMRICK
Born: March 24, 1845, Miss.
Died: Oct. 23, 1929, bur. Pleasant Ridge Cem.
Married: Clementine Williamson (b1852) on Oct. 26, 1872. She was dau of Allen Monroe and Mary K. (Poole) Williamson. Was listed in 1870 and 1880 L.C. census.
Children:
A. Minnie Alma Hamrick 1871-1937, m. John Wesley Beeman (1864-1933) son of James Ivy Beeman.
B. Joseph Thomas Hamrick 1873-1907, m. Sarah "Sallie" Frances Hand, 1896.
She was dau of Hilliard Winfield and Rebecca Jane (Vance) Hand. Had 3 sons.
Thomas was a Dr., practiced in Meridian, called "Dr. Tom".
Died @ 34 with Pneumonia.
C. John "Ollie" Hamrick 1876-1900, Died @ 24 with Typhoid Fever.
D. Benjamin F. Hamrick 1877-1900, Died @ 23 with Typhoid Fever.
E. Clementine T. Hamrick 1880-1900, Died @ 20 with Typhoid Fever.
F. Rev. William Lee Hamrick 1886-1965, m. Mittie May Strange (1880-1964).
Sister of Gill and Ernest Strange. A Methodist minister, Wm. L. Hamrick wrote a book, *The Mississippi Conference of the Methodist Protestant Church, 1929-1939*, pub. 1957. From pg. 64: "The writer's father, James Madison Hamrick and four uncles were soldiers in the Confederate Army. Three of his uncles fell on bloody battlefields of Shiloh, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness. His father and his mother (a 10 yr. old girl at the time of Sherman's 'scorched earth' march through Mississippi) often retold their stories of the destruction, sorrow, and poverty."
7. MARY ALE(?) HAMRICK
Born: 1848, Miss.
Died:
May have died young.
8. MARY C. HAMRICK
Born: 1850
Died:
Married: Rev. ___Rayner
9. VIRGIL S. HAMRICK
Born: 1852, Miss.
Died:
Married: (?)
Was a policeman in Hattiesburg, Miss. OWNED LAND IN SECS. 25, 35, 36 OF T-8, R-18E in 1892.
10. ALICE HAMRICK
Born: 1855, Miss.
Died:
Married: _____Black
11. NELLIE HAMRICK
Born:
Died:
Married: (?)
12. BURWELL HAMRICK
Born:
Died:
Married: (?)
II. **MARtha HAMRICK**
(See Brown fam. # 2.)
(He /son John H. & Sarah Brown, came to co. 1836.
Born: Dec. 11, 1811, Georgia
Died:
Married: William Brown (b1807, Ga) on Dec. 25, 1828 in Alabama (Probably Monroe Co.)
Came to Lauderdale Co. with her husband around 1834-35, some of first settlers to arrive. Bought land for her father, John C. Hamrick, who came in the fall of 1836. William & Martha sold her father his land in Sections 23 & 24 of T-7, Range 15E (between Pine Springs and Meridian just east of King Road) in 1836 and bought land near present-day Pine Forest Academy (Seventh Day Adventists) near Chunky, in western part of Lauderdale County.
William died of dysentery in 1853, at age 46, leaving Martha with ten children, most of whom were minors. The Brown estate was valued at $9000 when William died.
Martha reared her children alone and did not marry again.
Children: (For more info, see Brown fam. # 2.)
1. JOHN H. BROWN (II) 1831-196_, m. Louisa ______ (b1834Ms)
Was in Co.H, 1st Miss.Calvary in Civil War.
2. SARAH JANE BROWN 1832Al-____, m. John Warren ca1849, Ms.
3. CATHERINE BROWN 1834Al-____, m. John Deer between 1851-1855.
4. WILLIAM LAFFAYETTE BROWN 1836Ms-1889, m. Sarah Ann Dollar, 1853, Laud. Co, Ms.
5. MARIA G. BROWN 1839-1880, m. John A. Vaughn.
6. ALMIRA BROWN 1842-____, was 11 when her father died.
7. EMMALINE BROWN 1843-____, was 10 when her father died.
8. MARGARET BROWN 1847-____, was 6 when her father died.
9. FRANCES BROWN 1850-____, was 3 when her father died.
10. DOROTHY BROWN 1853-____, was born the year her father died.
III. **JOHN HAMRICK**
Born: Nov. 5, 1813, Georgia
Died: Apr. 26, 1822
Brought to Monroe Co, Ala. when he was two, died when he was 8½ yrs old.
IV. **JAMES HAMRICK**
Born: March 19, 1817, Alabama.
Died: (Isney, Ala.?)
Married:
Was listed in 1840 Lauderdale Co, Miss. census with wife and two dau. under five. Lived in Isney, Alabama.
Children: (Has descendants in Mobile and Meridian.)
1. James K., Jr. 1848
2. Amanda F. 1846
V. **ELMIRA HAMRICK**
Born: April 13, 1819, Alabama
Died: Jan. 5, 1847,
Married: Lawson Gunn, who was likely the son of John Gunn (wife, Margaret?) who came to Lauderdale County in 1835 and bought land in Section 2, Township 5, Range 18E, NE of Whynot near state line.
Elmira died three days following the birth of her only in January, 1847. The following August Lawson Gunn showed up in Pine Springs where he bought SW¼ of NE quarter of Sec. 16 from Julius Alford. (Leased). In 1848 Lawson bought another 40 (NE¼ of SE quarter) in same section from William and Mary Wootan (McWootan?). That same year Lawson and Susan Jane Gunn sold the 80 acres (2-40's) in Pine Springs to Lee Perry (1848). Had he married again? It is not known where he went after he left Pine Springs.
When Capt. John C. Hamrick wrote his will in 1855 he left Elmira's daughter a slave girl, Chaney, and $300 to be given her when she married.
Lawson Gunn enlisted in the CSA for the Civil War in Choctaw Co, Ala. in 1862, so perhaps he moved back to Alabama. He was living in Spinks, Ms. in 1901.
Children:
1. Catherine E. Gunn b.Jan. 2, 1847-____ m. (?)
VI. **EMMALINE HAMRICK**
Born: Nov. 9, 1822, Monroe Co., Ala. Died: (After 1880)
Married: Willis Hamrick, Jan. 15, 1842, Lauderdale Co. He was her cousin, the son of Capt. John C. Hamrick's brother, James Hamrick, who had settled in Clark Co., Mississippi.
Willis and Emmaline reared their family in Clark Co., were listed there 1880 cen.
Children:
1. Frances Hamrick 1842-
2. James Hamrick 1844-
3. Katherine Hamrick 1845-
4. Elizabeth Hamrick 1846-
5. Martha Hamrick 1848-
6. Mary Hamrick 1855- m. Moore. Mary and daughters lived with her pa in 1880.
Children: A. Nettie Moore 1874-
B. Willie Ann Moore 1876
7. T.J. (Thomas Jefferson??) Hamrick 1857-
8. Susan Hamrick 1860-
9. Emeline Hamrick 1863-
10. Willis Hamrick, Jr. 1865-
11. Charles Hamrick 1867-
VII. **KATHERINE HAMARICK**
Born: June 28, 1825, Monroe Co., Ala. Died:
Married: _______ Hamrick, possibly a brother of Willis (above).
Some think that Katherine died after she had been married about two years.
VIII. **JOHN MYERS HAMRICK**
Born: July 30, 1827, Monroe Co., Ala. Died:
Married: _______
Was 2nd son of John C. Hamrick to be named John. (The first John died at 8½ yrs.)
Had descendants who settled in western Alabama and near Waynesboro, Wayne Co., Ms.
Children: (Unknown.)
IX. **BURREL J. HAMRICK** *(Burrel in Family; Burwell on other Records)*
Born: Aug. 28, 1833, Monroe Co., Ala. Died:
Married: Amanda Dear, November 20, 1851. She was grand-daughter of James Hamrick of Clark Co., Ms, the dau of Rachel Hamrick Dear of Clark County.
Descendants lived around Hickory in Newton Co., Miss.
Children: (Names unknown. Two descendants were merchants in Houston, Texas.)
Thomas Jefferson Hamrick b. 1810 - d. 1881
We begin our story with "Grandpa" Hamrick - the one who started the cemetery between Collinsville and Lake Okatibbee. He came here with a new wife and his father, mother, brothers and sisters, in time for his first child to be born in Lauderdale County on February 14, 1836.
"Grandpa" Hamrick was the oldest child of nine listed in his parents family Bible. His name was Thomas Jefferson and he was born on February 10, 1810, in Georgia. His tombstone reads February 14th, but since his first child, Elmira, was born on February 14th, they probably celebrated together and descendants who bought the stone thought February 14th was correct.
"Grandpa" Hamrick was enumerated next door to his father, John C. Hamrick, in 1850, and this was probably on the "Bozeman Place" on Pine Springs Road.
After John C. died on September 1, 1856, at age 71½, Grandpa Hamrick (T.J.) bought a place across the road from Mitt and Rod Hitt's house near the Hamrick Cemetery. This was a large house used for travelers and called "Wayside Inn". They moved there in 1857 and he owned 640 acres at that location. He had inherited about fifteen slaves from his father and may have had a few of his own since he was about 47 years old and had been in Lauderdale County for 20 years. He died on October 30, 1881, at age 71-2/3, having lived at this last place 24 years.
Grandpa Hamrick (Thomas Jefferson) who was born in Georgia, moved with his family to Alabama when he was about 10 years old. He first married Cinia/Sinia Brown in Monroe County, Alabama, on November 23, 1834. The name is spelled HAMBRICK on the Monroe County records.
Thomas Jefferson Hamrick was 25 when he married the first time and Sinia was _____. They had 6 children: Elmira b. February 14, 1836; John B. b. March 12, 1837; Margaret b. August 28, 1839; Thomas b. ca. 1842; Joseph b. ca. 1843; and James (Jim) b. March 24, 1845.
"Sinie" must have died when James (Jim) was born or when he was small as Grandpa Hamrick (T.J.) married his second wife during the "winter of 1846". This could have been in January or February of 1846 - Jim could have been as young as 10 months when he married again. This time he married Sabrina "Sibby" Phillips b. ca. 1817 in Maringo County, Alabama. She must have been 29 or 30 years old at that time. To this union was born 6 children: Mary b. ca. 1848 and who must have died before the 1860 census; Mary C., called Molly, b. ca. 1850; Virgil b. ca. 1852; Alice b. ca. 1855; Nellie and Burwell. The last two were born after the census, but my mother never heard of them and thinks they must have died young. The 3 children who grew up here all married and moved away and have no descendants with whom we are familiar. We'll just study the six children by the first wife, but we must give the second wife full credit for bringing up the first set. The children could have been no older than one, three, four, six, eight and ten when "Sibby" took on the task of being their mother and then giving birth to six of her own.
Of the first six children of Grandpa Hamrick, Elmira was the oldest and the first to marry. She also lived to be the oldest (86) and to bear the most children (17).
One day when Elmira was only 15 years old a nice looking man rode up on the most beautiful horse anyone could imagine. It probably was a Tennessee Walking Horse and it had a gorgeous (yes, gorgeous!) saddle and bridle on it. The bridle was covered with silver decorations the size of quarters. It must have looked like ones we see in the Rose Bowl Parade on New Year's Day! He said he was looking for descendants of John C. Hamrick and that his name was Joseph L. Houston, and he had ridden all the way from Texas.
I do not know if he stayed with Grandpa Hamrick or not but he probably stayed there at first. My grandmother, Mittie Ethridge, who lived with Grandpa Hamrick (T.J.) from the time she was 1½ till he died when she was 20, told us this. Anyway, this man with the gorgeous horse, married Elmira before her 16th birthday! It was a surprise to everyone but them and I was told that someone helped her "visit away from home" so that the marriage could take place.
Although the brothers and sisters of Elmira were born at two year intervals, it was almost seven years before the next two got brave enough to marry: Margaret, 18½ married on February 18, 1858, and John (between Elmira and Margaret) married in less than a month on March 11, 1858. He was 21 years old and married Mary Elizabeth Harwell. Margaret married Jacob Wells, who lived nearby.
Thomas and Joseph, the next children in line, lost their lives in the Civil War, unmarried. James "Jim", the youngest of the 1st set, married on October 26, 1886, at age 23. His wife was Clementine Williamson and called "Aunt Tiny". All the "Hamricks" by Grandpa's first wife come through this son.
Now we'll list the children of Grandpa's four children who could marry and have a family:
I. **ELMIRA** - on the 1900 census indicated that she had given birth to 17 live children. We can only name 16.
1. Columbus b. 1852 (or early 1853) was on 1870 census as 17 years old (died in teens?)
2. Margaret (Maggie) b. 1854, married a Williamson and then a Snowden. Grandmother of Lamar, Margaret, James Martin, Norman, Bernice, Charlotte Snowden and others.
3. John Oliver b. 1856 married Ida Jones
4. Sinai/Sinie b. December 20, 1858 married a Hudson.
5. Sabrina/Sibby b. December 20, 1858 married John Wesley Gibson. Mother of Cam, Walter, Sam, Fred, Tommy, and Velma - Grandmother of Cameron, Walterine, Francis, Edzel G., Lloyd Freeman and others.
6. Willis b. ca. 1861
7. Josephine b. ca. 1863 d. 1864
8. Mollie b. ca. 1864 d. 1864
9. Thomas Jefferson b. 1865 married Susie Collins was "Dr. Tom" of Meridian. He had 2 boys and 1 girl: Wilburn Collins Houston I, Mark and Carmen.
10. Mary Ardella b. 1867 Married Tully Ethridge, brother to my grandfather "Mack" Ethridge who married Mittie Wells. Mittie was the daughter of Margaret who was a sister to Elmira. "Aunt Della" was mother of Ethel, Sims, Luke, Bee & Bert (twins) and Inell.
11. Joseph Luther, Jr. b. September 2, 1869 married Minnie Wellborn on Dec. 24, 1889 and they were parents of Cecil (f), Jesse, Allie, Ila, Joe B., Alton and Oleta. They are grandparents of Dan, Fay, Aaron, Max, Joyce, Gayle, etc., and great grandparents of Chantel and Tori in our church.
12. Ida b. 1872 married William Lee Walker and some of their children are Marks, Eulus, Ray, Madge, Ellis, and W. L. Jr.
13. Lillie Bell b. 1873 married Walter Walker - brother to Will Walker above. Their children are Blannie, X. L., Stanton, Legette, Clyde, Inez, and G. W.
14. Annie b. 1875 died 1886 (about 11 years old)
Twins
15. Paul b. 1877 -- unmarried
16. Claude b. 1877 - unmarried
II. JOHN, who could hand down the Hamrick name was the father of at least eleven children but only one son. This son, Tom, named for Grandpa Hamrick, never had a child to live.
1. Elizabeth married a Carpenter and had 3 children, Ada, John and Irvin. Her husband died young and she and the children went back to live with her parents. Ada is mother of Ardele, Robbye Rea, Irvadean, Sadye, Christine, Myra and Charles Moore.
2. Saphronia, "Aunt Fronie", married a Prewitt - no children, but she reared Winnie Mae (her sister's child).
3. Katherine "Kate" married Augie Clark. They were parents of Marvin, Elton, William and Earline.
4. Nettie married Weatherford.
5. Ava married Hillard Gibson (½ brother to my Grandfather Ethridge).
6. Ella married Thomas Gibson (½ brother to my Grandfather Ethridge and the widower of my Grandmother's sister, Bettie, who died at age 26). Aunt Ella was the mother of Ruby, Kline, Joe Alton, Heber, Norman and Melba.
7. Tom (only son) married Carrie Clark sister of "Augie" who married Tom's sister Katherine #3 above. They had no children.
8. Maggie married a Weatherford. She married sister Nettie's widower and became the step-mother of Nettie's infant.
9. Annie married Bob Moore, had 2 boys- Melville who married Vera Moore and Malcolm who married Mary Lucille Jolly. They are grandparents of Barry and Carolyn, and Great grandparents of Monica, Ashley and Scott.
10. Johnnie married Jim Tucker and had Winnie Mae. When her mother died Aunt Fronie took her.
11. Mattie married Rhodes Gibson. Their children are Edward and Taze.
III. Margaret married Jacob Wells and had Mary Ellis, Mittie (my grandmother), and Bettie. Jacob (26) was killed in the Civil War (Skirmish at Iuka, MS), and left Margaret at 23 with 3 little girls - ages 5 weeks, 19 months, and 3 years+2 months. She went back to live with her father and step-mother and never married again. She died at age $52\frac{1}{2}$ while living with her only surviving child (my grandmother).
1. Mary Ellis (Called Ellis) married at age $18\frac{1}{2}$ on February 3, 1878, to James W. Moore age $33\frac{1}{2}$. Twenty-two months later on Dec. 3, 1879, a daughter was born to them and named for her mother, "Mary Ellis", who died the next day. This child was called "Daisy". Margaret (the mother-in-law), and Mittie, age 19; (sister-in-law), lived with James W. Moore to take care of the new baby. Margaret's other child, Bettie, married 7 weeks later so all four left Grandpa Hamrick's place. He would only live 22 more months.
2. Mittie taught school - sometimes 2 terms a year because most schools only lasted four months. Also, parents were real anxious to locate a teacher who would live nearby and teach their children. Mittie vowed not to marry young and not to marry unless her husband promised to be good to her mother. She was married at 25 on June 3, 1886 ($6\frac{1}{2}$ years after her younger sister, Bettie, was married), to Joseph McCullough Ethridge, $24\frac{1}{2}$ years old. Mittie lived to be $96\frac{1}{2}$ years old. She often said she wished she could have given some of her years to her two sisters who died at ages 20 and 26.
Grandpa Mack bought and sold houses, had a store at several different times, built roads by contract at one time, taught school a few terms but didn't like it, and was supervisor at the time the courthouse was built. His name is on the cornerstone of the present building. He died at age 69 after being confined to a wheel chair for five years following a stroke.
Captain John C. Hamrick b. March 24, 1786 - d. Sept. 1, 1856 (age 70½)
(This is the father of our Thomas Jefferson Hamrick)
Captain John C. Hamrick was born on March 24, 1786, in Georgia. He was married to Katherine "Katie" Myers (b. March 18, 1790 or 92), on April 23, 1809, in Washington County, Georgia, and lived in Milledgeville, Ga. To this union was born four sons and four daughters:
1. Thomas Jefferson married Sinia Brown in Monroe County, Alabama, on Nov. 23, 1834, and lived in Lauderdale County, MS. from 1836 (just before 1st child was born), until he died on October 30, 1881 (71½ years old).
2. Martha born Dec. 11, 1811, married William (Bill) Brown and lived out from Wanita. She married on Dec. 25, 1828 (age 17) in Alabama. Richard S. Lackey, who edited the Mississippi Genealogical Exchange in Forest, MS. descended through Martha. Richard died suddenly on January 16, 1983, at age 42 in Washington, D.C. Mac and I heard him speak in October, 1982, at Meridian Public Library. Rose Houston went to one of his workshops in Texas and discovered he descends through Martha. He was a professional genealogist, and had written the books, How to Search and Citing Your Sources.
3. John b. Nov. 5, 1813 - d. April 26, 1822 (8½ years old)
4. James b. March 19, 1817 lived in Isney, Alabama. His descendants are in Mobile and Meridian.
5. Elmira b. April 13, 1819, married Lawson Gunn whose descendants settled near Meridian. In the late John C. Hamrick Bible, it is stated that Catherine E. Gunn was born the 2nd of January, 1847. Beneath that entry reads, "The deceased mother of the above departed this life the 5th of January, 1847." If so, Elmira Hamrick Gunn died at age 27 years and 8½ months. Unless she married late, this would not have been her only child.
6. Emmaline b. Nov. 9, 1822, married Willie Hamrick (son of James Hamrick of Clark County and her first cousin). They settled near Enterprise. John C.'s widow, Katherine Myers, must have lived with Emmaline during some of her more than 20 years of widowhood as S. A. Kidd in Clark County tried to assist Emmaline in obtaining bounty land (160 acres) due her mother.
7. Katherine b. June 28, 1825, married a Hamrick (I think one of James' sons also.) Grandmother Ethridge wrote that she died after about 2 years of marriage. This may be so, (probably is) but I wonder if she confused her with Elmira who died.
8. John Myers b. July 30, 1827 (Yes, here is another son named John. First one died 5 years before this one was born.) His descendants settled near Waynesboro in Wayne County, Ms. and the western part of Alabama.
9. Berril (in Bible), Burwell, Burell, Burrell, etc., b. August 28, 1833 after a 5 year skip. Named for John C.'s baby brother who was an infant when his father died and then he lost 2 stepfathers before being taken by oldest brother Joseph in Georgia. Every Hamrick had a Burwell. His descendants are around Hickory (Newton County), MS. Two were merchants in Houston, Texas. Burwell Hamrick was married to Amanda Dear on Nov. 20, 1851. He was 18 years old. She was the daughter of Rachel (Hamrick) Dear who was the daughter of James Hamrick of Clark County, MS. (John C.'s youngest son married brother James' granddaughter.)
John C. Hamrick was a military man. When the Creek and Seminole war broke out in Alabama, he raised a company of volunteers and joined General Andrew Jackson. They defeated the Indians at Horseshoe Bend and Emucfaw. They drove the few remaining ones into Florida, then marched over land to New Orleans, where they fought the Battle of New Orleans in January, 1815. They defeated the British, killing General Packenhan and two thousand men. Then they marched to Tennessee cutting the road as they went. The road became known as the "Jackson Trail."
Captain Hamrick then went back to Milledgeville, Georgia, to join his family. He was at that time the father of Thomas (ours) age 5, Martha age 3, and 1st John age 1. They lived in Milledgeville until 1820 when he took his family and slaves and migrated to Alabama. (My grandmother, Mittie Wells Ethridge, wrote this in a notebook and she said "He inherited a large number of slaves". All this history was told to her by her Grandpa Hamrick about his father who was Mittie's great-grandfather.) His slaves were probably bought by his hard earned money as his father died before he was five, his first step-father before he was nine and his second step-father by the time he was twelve.
To continue, they settled in river bottom land which proved to be unhealthy and then they moved to Mississippi. According to the figures, they lived in Alabama 16 years and came to Lauderdale County, MS. in 1836, where he lived until he died on September 1, 1856 (20 years in Mississippi).
We need to know exactly where he lived and where he was buried.
Grandmother Ethridge also wrote that John C. Hamrick's wife, Katherine Myers, was the aunt of General Wade Hampton of Civil War fame. Was he her sister's son?
Names of Grandpa Hamrick's First Six Children
Grandpa Hamrick and his first wife, Sinia Brown Hamrick, named their first child Elmira for Grandpa's sister who married Lawson Gunn and in the family Bible it reads, "Catherine E. Gunn was born the second of January, 1847." An entry below states, "The deceased mother of the above departed this life the fifth of January, 1847". That would have been Elmira.
Grandpa Hamrick named his second child John for his father and probably for his brother three years younger than himself who died at age $8\frac{1}{2}$. (5 years after this John died John C. and Katherine Hamrick had another son whom they also named John).
The third child was named Margaret. Maybe Grandma Sinia had a loved one by that name.
They named the fourth child Thomas (Tom) for Grandpa, Thomas Jefferson Hamrick.
The fifth child was named Joseph for John C.'s oldest brother. The five brothers were orphaned at an early age and Joseph was instrumental in getting the boys together after they were "bound out" to different families to work.
They named their sixth child James for another one of John C.'s brothers and one of Thomas Jefferson's brothers. James "Jim" must have been born in 1845 as he was five years old on the 1850 census. Grandma Sinia must have died in childbirth or soon after as Grandpa Hamrick married again in the "winter of 1846". James was 1; Joseph 3; Thomas 4; Margaret 6; John 8; and Elmira 10 when he remarried.
The second wife, Sabrina (Sibby), must have been good to take on the motherhood of six children, all under 11 years of age.
Grandpa was 25 when he married the first time; he was 36 the second time and his second wife was 29.
Wedding Record of Thomas Hambrick and Cinai Brown,
Married Nov. 23, 1834, Monroe County, Alabama.
Recorded on page 12, Wedding Book A, Monroe Co.
Capt. John Brown (I think, no proof yet) had a sister, Dinia b: Cir 1817, that married Thomas Hambrick. (Thomas, son of John & Catherine Hambrick)
Dinia is the mother to our Elmer Hambrick married Joseph Luther Houston Sr.
Dinia was mother to first 6 or so children, died, if I remember sometimes in 1840's. The mystery is where did she die. Can't find any trace in MS. Maybe AL ???
See William Laf. Brown Sr. Died in Miss. He married again.
Petition of those! Hr! Humrick Esq: of John Humrick Esq:
and fulfilling the wishes of their said testator and that his said last will and testament may in all things be executed according to the best of the extent and meaning thereof are willing to accept and undertake the affairs & business proper to them, in consideration when of your petitioners from that the said James McBrine and Robert McIlwain subscribing hereby as witnesses they be sworn to be & appear before the Court
Then and there to testify in the matter of said will as it may please your honor to direct
And that Probate or Wills &c. may be thereupon granted at the same time upon order for them and your petitioners further praying That it may please your honor to grant them letters of testamentary of said last will and testament on their taking the oath prescribed by statute and entering into bond in such sum as your honor may direct for their security
Whereas your petitioners are the said James McBrine and Robert McIlwain whom they believe without sufficient in the premises and that your honor will approve
And approving to value and appraise the goods & chattels and personal estate of said testator and make such other orders as to your honor may seem meet and proper in the premises and your petitioners as in duty bound will ever pray it
Sworn to & subscribed before J. H Humrick
the 15th day of September 1806
J. H Humrick
Justice of the Peace
JOHN HAMRICK
Born: 1787, Georgia
Died: 1856, Lauderdale Co, Will recorded on pages 354 and 355, Probate Court Records,
Married: Catherine ______, (b 1794, Ala or SC?) Book F
Bought 200 acres land for $2500 from William & Martha Brown (his dau) on Dec. 7, 1836,
Lauderdale Co, in Sections 23 and 24, Township 7, Range 15E.
Children: (Not in Order)
Next Thomas J. Hamrick 1814-? (1st wife may have been Sinia Brown of Monroe Co.
Wed. Lic. issued Nov. 1834)
James Hamrick
Children: James Jr.
Amanda T.
John W. Hamrick, Jr.
Oldest Martha Hamrick Brown 1812 Ga-____, m. William M. Brown, Sr.
Children: 10 children
Burwell J. Hamrick 1834 Al.
m. Elizabeth T. Barrett, 1853, Lauderdale Co.
Emaline Hamrick
Minor in 1856
Alma Hamrick 1845 Ms?? (Amanda listed, 5 yrs, 1850 census)
Minor in 1856
Hamrick Gunn
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DELHI LAW REVIEW
(Students' Edition)
VOL.II – (2005-2006)
ISSN 0973 – 00IX
FACULTY OF LAW
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
DELHI LAW REVIEW
(Students' Edition)
VOL.II – (2005-2006)
ISSN 0973 – 001X
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Nomita Aggarwal
Head and Dean
Faculty of Law
University of Delhi
Editor
Prof. S. K. Verma
Student Editors
Deepali Liberhan
Madan Mohan
Meera Kaura
Neha Goyal
Priyanka Mehta
Mode of Citation : II DLR (S) (2005)
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This volume of Delhi Law Review Students’ Edition is dedicated to Late Mr. Rajiv Pandey, a Final year student of Campus Law Centre, who left us untimely on February 10, 2006.
| Title | Author(s) | Page |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------|------|
| Cross Border Insolvency: Growth of Indian Trade Calls for a Solution | Rajiv Pandey, Ratika Ganju | 1 |
| Mediation in Penal Law | Manu Aggarwal, Meera Kaurav | 15 |
| Compulsory Jurisdiction under the UN Law of the Sea Convention: A Comment in Light of the Southern Bluefin Tuna and Mox Plant Cases | Deepali Liberhan, Farrah Ahmed | 34 |
| ‘Sunlight is the Best Disinfectant’: A Review of the Right to Information Act, 2005 | Shruti Rajagopalan | 46 |
| Anomalies and Reform in the Law Relating to the Tort of Defamation in the United Kingdom | Sushila Rao | 73 |
| Jurisdiction to Regulate Borderless Borders | Neha Nanchahal | 90 |
| Right to Privacy: An Indian vis-à-vis Other Legal Systems Perspective | Anurag Goel, Neeti Sachdeva | 107 |
| Euthanasia, Suicide and Theology | Sumantra Sinha | 119 |
| Evaluating the Development and Structure of Constitution of Pakistan | Syed Ali Raza | 128 |
| A Jurisprudential Affirmation of Judicial Activism | Anirudh Rastogi | 140 |
| Space Far and Beyond: Outer Space and Intellectual Property Right | Ekta Sarin, Amit Bhagat | 145 |
| Child Sex Tourism: An Overview of the Domestic and International Response | Sridevi Panikkar | 157 |
| Curative Petition: The Last Resort | Divyakant Lahoti | 172 |
| National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005: Vision or Illusion | Nishi Kant Thakur | 180 |
| Rights of the Child | Komal Raina | 190 |
**List of Abbreviations**
"Communication is the essence of every society. Unless its members can communicate with one another, a society cannot exist as a social community... We talk, we listen, we read and we write for much of the time we are awake."
G.C. Thornton, *Legislative Drafting*, 3, 1970, Butterworths.
The Delhi Law Review provides an opportunity to the law students to articulate their opinion and concerns on societal and legal issues and enables them to engage their minds on evolving legislative and judicial trends.
The struggles and endeavours to put together a journal of this kind has been both exciting and challenging. While the initial enthusiasm has brought us a number of contributions from our students, the challenge has been to verify the qualitative dimensions of the articles and align them with the focus of this journal. The thematic structuring has been such as to put a collection of articles on legal issues of contemporary relevance and reflect the emerging trend in judicial discourse pertaining to those issues.
There are certain articles debating the contradictions of law and morality, while others examine interesting concepts like law and theology, judicial activism and the concept of rights. Also included are articles that are purely an amalgam of information and intellect, as well as articles that provide a comparative and international focus to certain issues. While we have included articles from many reputed Indian law colleges and institutes, a fact that deserves special mention is the inclusion of an article from the Pakistan College of Law in Lahore.
As members of the editorial team we honestly felt that each article, was an academic accomplishment by itself, backed in thorough research and sound legal analysis and it was a highly gratifying experience for those of us working on it. We hope that such endeavours will have a profound impact on the development of law in India and the hard work put in by the authors in their research and analysis will be taken into account by
members of the legal fraternity in considering issues on which the authors have crafted suggestions and clarifications.
As a guideline for prospective authors, we would like to mention that they should ideally start researching early in the session so as to ensure well-researched papers. The system of citation to be followed should be according to the Harvard Blue Book. We have made certain modifications in the standard citation format and the prospective authors can follow the modified format by referring to the present edition.
Lastly, we would like to thank Prof. Nomita Aggarwal, Head and Dean, Faculty of Law for her constant support and encouragement, and Prof. S.K. Verma and Dr. Gitanjali Nain for guiding us through this endeavour.
Students’ Editorial Team
CROSS BORDER INSOLVENCY: GROWTH OF INDIAN TRADE CALLS FOR A SOLUTION
Rajiv Pandey*
Ritika Ganju**
I. INTRODUCTION
The dynamic and rapidly growing global economy has led to rich and widespread international trade. Further, this expansion in international trade has brought with it increasing possibilities of cross border insolvency proceedings. This is mainly attributable to growth of multinational businesses throughout the world with the onset of twentieth century. In its simplest form, Cross Border Insolvency may involve an insolvency proceeding in one country, with creditors located in at least one additional country. In the most complex case, it may involve subsidiaries, assets, operations and creditors in dozens of nations.
One of the most noteworthy features of international insolvency law is the lack of legal structures, either formal or informal to deal with an insolvency that transgresses national borders. The expansion and growth of international trade has made aspects, such as the choice of law and conflicts that may arise in circumstances of such diverse municipal laws, an important consideration in the context of the global economy. Companies may be connected to more than one jurisdiction, either by foreign creditors that may press claims, or by having assets or branches in more than one country, which in turn would result in decrees that may be passed in different legal jurisdictions resulting in further complexities in enforcement and recognition.
The issue of cross border insolvency poses a serious challenge to India. There are inadequate provisions in the Indian common law regime to enable the Indian courts to recognize and enforce the rights and claims of foreign creditors and the judgments passed by the courts in foreign jurisdictions. Above all, there is absolutely no provision in the existing Insolvency Legislation or in any other enactments to deal with cross border insolvency cases. In the light of the above prevailing circumstances, it has been often strongly suggested that India should adopt the United Nations Commission on Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency which would be an ideal solution.
II. THE MODEL LAW
According to UNCITRAL, a legal body within the United Nations system in the field of international trade, national Insolvency laws were for the most part either lagging behind or ill-equipped to deal with the cases of cross border Insolvency. The
* LL.B, Final Year, Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
** LL.B, Final Year, Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
problem has always been that each country has its own way of dealing with the issue of cross border insolvency and the various national Insolvency laws and practices are simply too diverse. Some countries have signed treaties with each other but there has never been a uniform approach to resolve cross border insolvency issues. This led to a fear that this uncertainty would ultimately hamper cross border investment.
Recognizing the need for certainty and clarity on these issues, UNCITRAL adopted the text of the Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency on May 30, 1997. This Model Law and its Guide to Enactment were drafted by the UNCITRAL Working Group on Insolvency Laws. The Model Law was approved by resolution of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly on December 15, 1997.
During the time of the preparatory work, the project got experts’ advice from International Association of Insolvency Practitioners (INSOL) and consultative assistance from Committee J (Insolvency) of the Section on Business Law of the International Bar Association (IBA).
The Model Law respects the differences among national procedural laws and does not attempt a substantive unification of Insolvency law. It offers solutions that help in several modest, yet significant ways. These include — foreign assistance for an insolvency proceeding taking place in the enacting State; foreign representative’s access to courts of the enacting State; recognition of foreign proceedings; cross-border cooperation; and coordination of concurrent proceedings\(^1\).
There has been a positive international response towards the concept of a uniform legal framework, pertaining to cross border insolvency proceedings. But unfortunately, so far, only few countries have actually adopted it. Nevertheless, drafting of the Model Law has not gone in vain, as many countries have in their own way taken some concrete step to adopt the Model Law and will adopt it, sooner or later. International Organizations, including, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and Asian Development Bank have welcomed this Model Law and recommended it in their various publications.
The Model Law has now been adopted by Eritrea, Japan, Mexico, Poland, Romania, South Africa, the United States, British Virgin Islands (overseas territory of the United Kingdom), and within Serbia and Montenegro. Countries actively considering adoption of the legislation include Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.
III. THE SCOPE OF APPLICATION OF THE MODEL LAW
The Model Law addresses specific issues set out in the body of its text. These issues are the rights of foreign creditors, the rights and duties of foreign representatives, recognition of foreign proceedings, coordination of proceedings and cooperation between authorities in different states. It applies only where there is an incident of cross border insolvency and assistance is sought in the enacting states by a foreign court or a foreign representative in connection with a foreign proceeding. This implies that a proceeding would have been opened somewhere else and the insolvent in those proceedings has assets or legal interests in the enacting state. The Model Law also applies where insolvency proceedings have been opened in the enacting state and the authorities in the enacting state require the assistance of a foreign court or foreign authorities. Another instance where the Model Law would be applicable is a case where insolvency proceedings concerning the same debtor are taking place in the enacting state and in the foreign state at the same time.
Lastly, the Model Law would apply where creditors and other interested persons from a foreign state are interested in requesting the commencement of, or are eager to participate in Insolvency proceedings taking place in the enacting state.
However, the Model Law has been drafted with special care towards banks and insurance companies, which have been excluded from its application. This is to provide flexibility to the enacting states, as far as the above entities may be subject to separate or special Insolvency rules in respective countries\(^2\).
It is of significant importance to note that the Model Law does not address issues relating to choice of applicable law, but provides for foreign assistance in an insolvency proceeding taking place in the enacting State. Various Articles have been incorporated in the Model Law that provide for direct access to the foreign representatives to the courts of the enacting State.
A key purpose of the Model Law is to establish the principle of recognition of foreign proceedings. For recognition the Model Law requires certain connections:
**A. Recognition of Foreign Proceedings**
The Model Law sees recognition as the key to cooperation and makes an important procedural step with subsequent effects and entitlements for the foreign representative.\(^3\)
One of the Model Law’s primal intentions is to save costs of administration. Article 15 establishes that a certificate from a foreign court or a certified copy of the judgment or any evidence of the domestic court opinions is the only document needed for the application for recognition. The domestic court is free to make sure that the documents are genuine and that the certificates are convincing proof of any statement contained in them.\(^4\) Recognition is therefore, if not confronted by any interested party, made into an uncomplicated process relying almost entirely on the construction of the documents.
---
\(^1\) See *United Nations adopts UNCITRAL Model Law*, available at http://www.uncitral.org.
\(^2\) UNCITRAL Model Law, 1997, art. 1(2).
\(^3\) Id. arts. 15-17, 19.
\(^4\) Id. art. 16.
According to Article 17, the Model Law calls for recognition of a proceeding at the earliest opening after a request is made. The proceedings are divided into two categories: main and non-main proceedings. A proceeding is defined as main if it has been commenced in the State where the debtor has the centre of its main interests.\(^5\) The Model Law further presumes that a company’s place of incorporation is the centre of its main interests, unless proof of the contrary is presented. Non-main proceedings are proceedings in a foreign country, based on the presumption that the debtor has at least an establishment in that country, or a domestic proceeding in the enacted State, if the debtor has assets within the State. Recognition of foreign main proceedings is subject to whichever limitations that would be relevant under national law. This means that it does not affect the opening of local proceedings concerning the same debtor, or the beginning of proceedings that are essential to preserve a claim against the debtor.\(^6\)
The effect of recognition is also to give the foreign representative standing\(^7\) to commence prevention actions (against creditors), although where the recognition is linked to non proceedings, standing is narrowed to cover merely assets related to those proceedings.\(^8\) According to Article 24 similar standing is given to the foreign representative to intervene in any proceeding in which the debtor is party. The purpose of Article 24 is set out in the Guide (paragraph 168) and is to avoid the refusal of standing to the foreign representative to intervene in proceedings simply because the procedural legislation does not consider the foreign representative with those having such standing. It is significant that the article only covers procedural standing, which means that all other conditions of the domestic jurisdiction (concerning intervening) remain intact.
It is important to be aware of the fact that a conflict could arise between the recognition procedure stated in the Model Law and international obligations of the enacting State.
Quite a few states are signatory to bilateral or multilateral treaties on mutual recognition and legalization of documents.\(^9\) If a conflict occurs, a treaty prevails over the Model Law.\(^10\)
To sum up, recognition of foreign proceedings are important mainly to control the debtor’s assets and equalize the relationship between foreign and domestic creditors.
---
\(^5\) *Id.* art. 2.
\(^6\) *Id.* art. 20 ¶¶ 2-4.
\(^7\) Referring to paragraph 166 of the Guide to Enactment, standing is an “active procedural legitimating”, “active legitimating” or legitimating, to initiate actions to avoid or otherwise render ineffective legal acts detrimental to creditors.
\(^8\) *Model Law*, *supra* note 2, art. 23.
\(^9\) Convention on Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Documents, 1961, (adopted under the sponsorship of the Hague Conference on Private International Law which administers procedures for the legalization of document initiated by parting states); or Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, 1958.
\(^10\) *Model Law*, *supra* note 2, art. 3.
---
**B. Cooperation and Coordination Between Foreign Courts**
One of the most progressive parts of the Model Law, Chapter IV, strives to achieve cooperation between courts and representatives. For states in which the legal basis for cross border insolvency is an international agreement, such as bilateral or multilateral treaty, based on the principle of reciprocity, Chapter IV of the Model Law can serve as a model for the extension of such international cooperation agreements.\(^11\) The importance of flexible and discrete cooperation between courts was highlighted at the second UNCITRAL-INSOL Multinational Judicial Colloquium on Cross-Border Insolvency\(^12\). It was declared that communication between courts could be especially useful for clarifying conflicting information, keeping track of foreign proceedings, obtaining explanations of foreign law, and developing insolvency plans and solutions agreeable to parties in both jurisdictions. The lack of that kind of guidance in the laws had also been discussed at a prior Colloquium.\(^13\)
The Model Law empowers the national courts to communicate directly with foreign courts and representatives and they are required to cooperate to the maximum extent possible with foreign courts or foreign representatives.\(^14\) The capacity to communicate directly between courts is intended to avoid the use of time-consuming procedures normally in use, such as letters of request (rogatory).\(^15\) Cooperation may arise out of several different conditions set out in a non-complete list in the Model Law, which gives the States an opportunity to list others. The forms of cooperation provided by the Model Law include appointing a person or body at the direction of the court, communication of information about the debtor’s assets, and coordinating control of the debtor’s assets or proceedings involving the debtor.\(^16\) The list is especially made for being helpful in the States with limited cross-border juridical cooperation.\(^17\)
**C. Coordination of Concurrent Proceedings**
Another method for certified efficient administration of Insolvency proceedings is through the coordination of several concurrent proceedings. The court shall then seek cooperation and coordination under Articles 25, 26 and 27. The enacting State is under the Model Law free to commence or continue Insolvency proceedings. Where foreign main-proceedings are recognized, domestic proceedings can be opened although
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\(^{11}\) See Guide ¶ 176.
\(^{12}\) See Report on UNCITRAL-INSOL Judicial Colloquium on Cross-Border Insolvency, Vienna, May 1995, A/CN.9/413.
\(^{13}\) See Report on UNCITRAL-INSOL Colloquium on Cross-Border Insolvency, New York, May 1994, A/CN.9/398.
\(^{14}\) *Model Law*, *supra* note 2, art. 26 ¶¶ 1-2.
\(^{15}\) See Guide to Enactment of UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency ¶ 179.
\(^{16}\) *Model Law*, *supra* note 2, art. 27.
\(^{17}\) Guide, *supra* note 15 ¶ 181
the effect will be limited to assets present within the jurisdiction as well as those related to that jurisdiction.\textsuperscript{18} This stand is according to the Guide, and has already taken in a number of States. In some States, though the jurisdiction to commence depends on more than mere presence of assets. Here the debtor must be engaged in an economic activity in the State, referred to as ‘establishment’.\textsuperscript{19} Therefore a restriction limited to the cases where the debtor has an establishment in the enacting State, is allowed within the policy of the Model Law.
The domestic proceedings visualized in Article 28 would generally be limited to the assets located in the State. But there are exceptions. Sometimes a significant administration of the local proceeding may have to contain specific assets abroad, particularly when there is no foreign proceeding needed or available in the State where the assets are located. Even so, the effects of a local proceeding of assets located abroad are restricted. The restrictions are noted by the text “to the extent necessary to implement cooperation and coordination” under Articles 25, 26, 27, and that, those foreign assets must be subject to administration in the enacting State “under the law of the enacting State”.\textsuperscript{20}
In Article 29 the Model law deals with coordination between a local proceeding and a foreign proceeding concerning the same debtor. In the Guide (paragraph 188) an underlying principle in Article 29 is recognized, that an initiation of a local proceeding does not prevent or terminate the recognition of a foreign proceeding. The principle is said to be essential for the enacting States to be able to provide relief in favour of the foreign proceeding. Relief granted where recognition of foreign proceedings is made, whether it is main or non-main and where domestic proceedings are already taking place, it must be consistent with the proceeding in the enacting State. Furthermore, relief already granted to foreign proceedings will be reviewed to ensure that it’s not inconsistent with the needs of domestic proceedings.\textsuperscript{21}
The Model law also facilitates coordination between two or more foreign proceedings (in more than one foreign State) concerning the same debtor and foreign representative that seek recognition or relief in the enacting State. Differing from Article 29 (which gives superiority to the local proceeding), Article 30 gives preference to the foreign main proceeding if one exists. The domestic court is required to ensure consistency and coordination.\textsuperscript{22}
It is now interesting to see as to why and how India should adopt the Model Law and derive benefit out of it.
\textsuperscript{18} Model Law, \textit{supra} note 2, art. 28 in conjunction with art. 29.
\textsuperscript{19} Guide, \textit{supra} note 15 ¶ 185.
\textsuperscript{20} Guide, \textit{supra} note 15 ¶ 187.
\textsuperscript{21} Model Law, \textit{supra} note 2, art. 29.
\textsuperscript{22} Model Law, \textit{supra} note 2, art. 30.
IV. SHOULD INDIA ADOPT THE UNCITRAL MODEL LAW ON CROSS BORDER INSOLVENCY?
Despite the apparent widespread praise for the Model Law, one might ask as to what are the concrete benefits for India by its enactment. It might be argued that enacting the Model Law does more to assist foreign administrations than it does to assist domestic ones. However, the above argument is quite misleading and imports a high degree of responsibility on those who claim to prove the same. The advantage for India on adoption of UNCITRAL Model Law can be anticipated well by looking at its growing trade aspects and arena, a leadership role played by it in Asia, lack of any existing law pertaining to international Insolvency and the difficulties posed by the existent approaches. Much of the justification for the adoption of UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency, especially in the Post-1991 era, can be found by undertaking a detailed study of the above stated reasons. In other words, it would not be incorrect to state that adoption of UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency in India has become inevitable with the onset of liberalisation, globalisation and privatisation.
A. Current Position — No Existing Law on Cross Border Insolvency
The uncertainty that arises in cross border insolvencies is widely seen as a barrier to trade and free flow of trans-national investment. India presents a much poorer picture in this area compared to many other countries. The existing laws provide no legal foundation to resolve a matter pertaining to international Insolvency. In India, the bankruptcy procedures are still governed by an age-old statute that has worn out with the passage of time. The Provincial Insolvency Act, 1920, an eighty-six-year old piece of legislation seems to be totally incapable to deal with the issue of Cross Border Insolvency, a concept that is a decade and a half old. The Act was last amended in 1978. Hence, it has been more than twenty five years since any change was brought in this statute. Thus, the shortcomings of the statute are evident on its face.
The Law Commission of India took up the revision of these laws of Insolvency on a reference made to it by the Government. In the year 1964, Commission proposed a comprehensive Insolvency legislation for the whole of India. But it appears that the Government did not accept this Report called the ‘64th Report on Insolvency Laws’.
As far as the Companies Act, 1956 is concerned, the foreign companies are dealt as unregistered and covered under the heading of unregistered companies. However, it suffers from a shortcoming due to absence of any provision dealing with foreign proceedings, foreign representatives and foreign judgments in India.
In the year 1999, the Government of India set up a High Level Committee headed by Justice V.B. Balakrishna Eradi,\textsuperscript{23} a superannuated Judge of Supreme Court of India for remodelling the existing laws relating to Insolvency and winding up of companies and bringing them in tune with the international practices in this field. One of the main recommendations of this Committee was that Part VII of the Companies Act, 1956 should incorporate a new substantive provision to adopt the UNCITRAL Model Law and the Model Law itself may be incorporated as a Schedule to the Companies Act, 1956, which shall apply to all cases of cross-border insolvency.
Following some of the important recommendations of the Eradi Committee, the Companies (Second Amendment) Act, 2002 was passed. But, unfortunately, this Amendment has ignored to provide any framework for cross border insolvency with recognition of foreign proceedings. Hence, the current position being that if a foreign company is taken into liquidation outside India, its Indian business will be treated as a separate matter and will not be automatically affected, unless an application is filed before an Insolvency court for winding up its branches in India. This problem can, however be, resolved through the machinery of coordination and cooperation between foreign courts provided by the UNCITRAL Model Law.
Thus, the adoption of UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency will enable India to meet the demands of globalisation of economy and to deal with international Insolvency. This will radically change the orientation of Indian law and make it suitable for dealing with the challenges arising from globalisation and increasing integration of Indian economy with the world economy.
\textit{B. Difficulties Posed by the Existing Approach}
There has been a debate world over for many years on the issue that, whether Insolvency has universal application or whether its application is limited to the place of adjudication. These competing theories are known as the “universality” and “territorial” theories of Insolvency laws respectively.
According to territoriality approach, effects of Insolvency proceedings do not extend further than the territory where the Insolvency proceeding is opened.\textsuperscript{24} The basis for this approach is a principle of sovereignty according to which a judgment of a court in one country has no effect in second country unless there is consent from the second country.\textsuperscript{25} The problem with this approach is that it favours local creditors to the detriment of foreign creditors. Another problem it creates is that since a proceeding from the first country has no effect in the second country, there will have to be, multiple proceeding undertaken in each country where the debtor possesses assets. It may also make difficult to rescue companies that have assets in more than one country because assets that could otherwise be sold in one country to help the company as a whole may not be easily accessible.
Under the universality approach, developed in some cases into the unity approach, Insolvency proceedings commenced in one country have universal effect and assets can be administered in a single Insolvency proceeding, wherever they are located. An Insolvency proceeding commenced in one country will have full effect in the other country.
India follows the territorial approach which is quiet evident from the way the relevant sections dealing with the foreign judgments under Code for Civil Procedure, 1908\textsuperscript{26} are phrased. India has strictly adhered to the Doctrine of Reciprocating Territories\textsuperscript{27}, which acts as a major stumbling block in harmonization of effective international Insolvency proceedings.
Looking at the need for international co-operation on the issue of international Insolvency, it is indispensable for India to abandon the territorial approach. This is must for India to be at par with other countries, which are actively contributing to bring reforms to the current disorganised international Insolvency procedures.
The Model Law reflects a universal approach to Cross-Border Insolvency. It is based on the principle that the domestic courts of each home country should endeavour to cooperate with the courts of other countries in Cross-Border Insolvency cases. It is generally accepted that adoption of such an approach is more likely to successfully address the problems of Cross-Border Insolvencies than a territorial approach.
A key feature of the Model Law is that it is not based upon a principle of reciprocity between States. There is no condition or requirement that a foreign representative wishing to access facilities under the Model Law must have been appointed, or foreign proceedings commenced, under the law of a State, which has itself enacted the Model Law. The underlying assumption is that some countries will, in enacting the Model Law without any precondition of reciprocity, set an example for others and, in this way, raise levels of international awareness and cooperation.
Thus if the Model Law is adopted by India, there will necessarily be a degree of shift in the domestic law of India towards what might be described as a more
\textsuperscript{23} The Committee was constituted on October 22, 1999. It submitted its report to the Hon’ble Prime Minister on August 31, 2000.
\textsuperscript{24} Japan is one of the countries which favoured this approach prior to its adoption of the Model law. The Netherlands still favours this approach.
\textsuperscript{25} RAY AUGUST, INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS LAW, TEXT, CASES AND READINGS, 184 (4\textsuperscript{th} ed. 2003, Pearson).
\textsuperscript{26} Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, 88, 13, 14.
\textsuperscript{27} Section 44 A of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 deals with the enforcement by Indian Courts of decrees passed by Courts in “Reciprocating Territories”. A reciprocating territory is a country or territory outside India, which the Government of India has, from time to time, by notification in the Official Gazette declared to be a reciprocating territory. A decree, however, does not include an arbitration award since enforcement of foreign awards is dealt with separately under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
universalist approach. This universal approach is acknowledged to provide greater security to foreign creditors; resulting in more incentives for foreign firms to invest and the same benefits shall accrue to India as well.
C. Harmonization of Trade
With the advent of liberalisation, and changing trade patterns, it has become indispensable for India to join the race along with its leading trading partners to seek uniformity in international Insolvency laws. Current Insolvency laws are thoroughly incompetent to deal with the challenges posed by the international markets. This position jeopardizes international trade, and makes it difficult for both debtors and creditors to safeguard their interest.
An insight of the trading activities, currently being pursued by India, is a must to appreciate the bright incentives to adopt the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency. This is so, as it is important to analyze and note that the legal framework set up in the leading trade partners of India, in resolving Cross Border Insolvency issues is more or less parallel to the UNCITRAL Model Law. Some of these trading partners and the endeavours taken by them for meeting new challenges of trans-national insolvencies are:
1. European Union. — The European Union is the major trade partner of India having a share of 21% in its total Export and share of 16% in its total Imports\(^{28}\). The European Union has a regulation (significantly, not a convention, which has been the favoured form of agreement for almost the entire forty year history of the search for EC Cross Border bankruptcy accord). This regulation\(^{29}\) was enacted on May 29, 2002 and came into force on May 31, 2002. It has the powerful centralizing forces of direct effect in the member states and interpretive power and authority of the European Court of Justice. This regulation should not be seen as a reply to UNCITRAL Model Law, 1997 on Cross Border Insolvency. The scope of regulation is limited to its fourteen member states out of which Denmark is kept out. This regulation aims at proper functioning of internal market (inter EU), which requires that Cross Border Insolvency proceeding should operate efficiently and effectively.
This regulation is confined to provisions governing jurisdiction for opening Insolvency proceedings and judgments, which are delivered directly on the basis of the Insolvency proceedings and are closely connected with such proceedings and are closely connected with such proceedings. It contains provisions regarding the recognition of those judgments and the applicable law, which also satisfy that principle. This regulation however like U.N. Model law does not cover Insolvency proceedings concerning insurance undertakings, credit institutions and investment undertakings.
Despite the difficulties, uncertainties and shortcomings in the regulation, it does seem overall to be far better than the present situation. No one can doubt that EC’s regulation on Insolvency proceedings makes a profound attempt to meet the challenge of cross border insolvency. Practitioners and judges in the U.K. have the opportunity to make the regulation work in harmony with domestic laws by a liberal and imaginative interpretation forsaking any parochial concerns. In particular, the English jurisdiction is held in high esteem throughout the E.U. and could well set a lead in interpretation and application of the regulation.
2. United States of America. — United States of America has a share of 17.7% in India’s total Exports and 6% in India’s total Imports\(^{30}\). On April 20, 2005, recognizing the increasing globalization of business enterprises and the need for cooperation between domestic and foreign jurisdictions with respect to Cross-Border Insolvency cases, the United States enacted the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act 2005, which adds to the U.S. Bankruptcy Code a new Chapter 15 that closely follows the Model Law. Chapter 15 came into effect from October 17, 2005. As stated by Congress:
The provisions of Chapter 15 are intended to provide greater legal certainty for trade and investment as well as to provide for the fair and efficient administration of cross-border insolvencies, which protects the interests of creditors and other interested parties, including the debtor. In addition, it serves to protect and maximize the value of the debtor’s assets.\(^{31}\)
Before the enactment of Chapter 15, the Bankruptcy Code contained only one relatively short provision concerning the conduct of Cross-Border Insolvencies. Chapter 15 provides a new and very technical framework for the governance of Cross-Border Insolvencies. For the most part, Chapter 15 enhances the opportunities for foreign creditors and debtors to avail themselves of the unique and powerful remedies provided in the US Bankruptcy Code.
3. Australia. — Australia forms a share of 3.41% in India’s total Imports.\(^{32}\) Australia follows an approach like other common law countries where it enacts legislation specifically dealing with recognition of foreign Insolvency proceedings. The legislation allows courts in the home jurisdiction to recognize certain foreign Insolvency proceedings, and provide assistance to foreign courts conducting such proceedings.
Notwithstanding the existence of some provisions in Australia’s corporate and personal Insolvency laws to tackle Cross Border Insolvency matters, they are quite
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\(^{28}\) April-November 2003-04 to 2004-05 (US $ million), Source: CMIE.
\(^{29}\) Council Regulation (EC), No. 1346/2000.
\(^{30}\) April-November 2003-04 to 2004-05 (US $ million), Source: CMIE.
\(^{31}\) Report of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives to Accompany, ¶ 256, 109th Congress, 1st Session, 109-31, Part I, at 20.
\(^{32}\) April-November, 2003-04 to 2004-05 (US $ million), Source: CMIE.
skeletal. The provisions have been criticized because they contain elements of both the territorial and the universal approach. Further, Australia is not a party to any conventions to deal with its Cross Border Insolvency issues.
The Australian Government has made serious proposals to adopt UNCITRAL Model Law to confront the ever-increasing Insolvency problems posed since the onset of globalization of trade. Among other reasons and incentives for Australia to adopt the Model Law, its enthusiastic participation in developing uniform law to deal with Cross Border Insolvency has been said to be the driving force for it to adopt The Model Law.
4. Japan. — Japan is an important Asian trade partner of India having a share of 3% in its total Imports\(^{33}\). In Japan, the Law on recognition and assistance of a foreign Insolvency proceeding (hereinafter ‘the law’)\(^{34}\) was adopted in November 2000 and came into effect on April 1, 2001.
While the law deals with the issues addressed in Model Law, it differs in many respects from the Model Law, and in some cases addresses issues that are not even dealt within the Model Law. A large number of provisions of the Model Law have been left out and others, like the ones on coordination of multiple proceedings have been completely ignored in favour of a different approach.\(^{35}\)
One of the major differences between the law and the Model Law is that it is only the foreign representative who has a right to apply for recognition of foreign proceeding. The debtor also has the same right\(^{36}\), and the court can order both the applicants to appoint a representative when necessary.
Thus, though Japan has adopted the Model Law; but has done so with numerous modifications. This however, is still better than the status quo, in terms of which Insolvency proceedings commenced in other countries were not recognized in Japan\(^{37}\).
Hence, ‘Harmonization of Trade’ — is an attempt to present the line of approaches followed by the major trading partners of India. It throws light on the need to adopt the uniform international Insolvency law as a step in the Indian economic reform, which will enable India and its trading partners to fully utilize the enormous potential for mutual trade and economic cooperation on a level playing field.
Apart from the India’s trading partners who have adopted UNCITRAL Model Law or are in the process of adopting it, India possesses a great potential to play the leadership role for the rest to pursue them to adopt the same.
\(^{33}\) Id.
\(^{34}\) Copy of English translation of the law, available at http://www.iliglobal.org/country/japan.html#legislation.
\(^{35}\) See Commentary on §§ 16, 17 of Japan’s Law.
\(^{36}\) See Japanese Law on Recognition and Assistance of a Foreign Insolvency Proceeding § 3.
\(^{37}\) The old Insolvency Act, 1922 specifically provided that foreign Insolvency proceedings will not be recognized and will have no effect on assets in Japan.
D. Wait and See Approach
The major benefits, in terms of equality of treatment for Indian creditors, ease of recovering assets from foreign jurisdictions and more efficient treatment of international insolvencies involving Indian businesses will come only if other jurisdictions also enact the Model Law. The Model Law does not rely on reciprocity for effectiveness. However, many jurisdictions may adopt a ‘wait and see’ approach, and not proceed to enact the Law until critical masses of jurisdictions have done so.
Since 1997, only a handful of nations have enacted the Model Law. A number of other nations have made positive statements at government level about incorporating the Model Law into their legal systems, including the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Malaysia.
In 1995 UNCITRAL agreed to establish a Working Group to develop model legislation relating to Cross Border Insolvency. Working Group, which was composed of all States members of UNCITRAL, held the present session at Vienna from 7 to 18 October 1996. The session was attended by representatives of the following States members of the Working Group: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Chile, China, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, India, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Italy, Japan, Nigeria, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, Spain, Sudan, Thailand, Uganda, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America.
India also participated in Multinational UNCITRAL – INSOL Colloquium, March 22-23, 1995, Toronto, Canada. Former Justice D.P.Wadhwa and Chairman of INSOL India who shared his valuable views on the need for judicial co-operation and access and recognition represented it.
Lastly, India has a well established and active Member Association of INSOL International, a worldwide federation of national association of lawyers and accountants who specialize in Insolvency. All Members of INSOL India are Members of INSOL International. INSOL works with many international organizations including the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund and with ancillary groups on number of international Insolvency related projects.
Given India’s active involvement in developing the Model Law and its position in the international Insolvency community, other jurisdictions will be monitoring progress of India’s consideration of the Model Law’s implementation. If India were not to proceed with enactment in the near to medium term, this is likely to have a direct influence on the position of other countries, particularly in the Asia.
V. CONCLUSION
The globalisation of trade and commerce has produced international pressure on nations to enact laws and provide institutions that can deal with a variety of Cross Border Insolvency issues.
In the absence of specific legislation for dealing with Cross-Border Insolvency, courts in India are yet to be prepared for the ever-increasing international insolvency issues. The mix of legal approaches, as exhibited and discussed above, frequently results in inadequate and inharmonious consequences, which in the end hamper the rescue of financially troubled businesses. This uncoordinated international and local approach is not conducive to a fair and efficient administration of cross-border insolvencies, and ultimately impedes the execution of a process that maintains the maximum value of the assets in India and abroad. By contrast, coordinated administration of cross-border insolvency cases is in the best interest of creditors and debtors, providing greater predictability and consistency of process. Factors that contribute to the stability of commercial relations inevitably help to improve foreign investment and trade for the adopting state.
India, being one of the fastest growing economies of the world, has many bright prospects to enhance and enrich its growth in a drastic manner. Judicial involvement and devotion in regulating its economic aspects, is nothing but a natural corollary to its economic development. UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross Border Insolvency has the potential to confer an opportunity on India to equip its judiciary to regulate one such economic aspect — Cross Border Insolvency by empowering its courts to extend coordination to foreign courts and accrue benefits out of the reciprocating coordination.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Delay in Disposal of Criminal Cases
The fundamental principle behind justifying the existence of any judicial system is to ensure dispensation of justice at the earliest opportunity. It may not be a hyperbole to state that trials in our country are ordinarily not speedy. As a consequence of delays at different stages, the Indian prisons are overflowing with prisoners languishing for justice. There is a sharp decline in the percentage of completed trials from 1961 to 2004. The following Table shows disposal of criminal cases under the Indian Penal Code, 1860 (IPC) by Courts, excluding withdrawn/compoundable cases:
| S. No. | Year | Total No. of Cases for Trial (Including Pending Cases) | No. of Cases Tried | Percentage of Trial Completed |
|--------|------|-----------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------------------|
| 1. | 1961 | 8,00,784 | 2,42,592 | 30.3 |
| 2. | 1971 | 9,43,394 | 3,01,869 | 32.0 |
| 3. | 1981 | 21,11,791 | 5,05,412 | 23.9 |
| 4. | 1991 | 39,64,610 | 6,67,340 | 16.8 |
| 5. | 2001 | 62,21,034 | 9,31,892 | 15.0 |
| 6. | 2002 | 64,64,748 | 9,81,393 | 15.2 |
| 7. | 2003 | 65,77,778 | 9,59,567 | 14.6 |
| 8. | 2004 | 67,68,713 | 9,57,311 | 14.1 |
It implies that since the percentage of completed trials in 2004 is 14.1, therefore 85.9% are still pending, i.e. 58, 14,324 approximately are pending out of 67, 68,713 cases. This is the position of cases with respect to offences under Indian Penal Code, 1860. There are numerous cases pending under Special laws.
Such a heaving system of courts fails to provide speedy trial, which has been recognized as an implied Fundamental Right under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. An inordinately delayed justice is no justice at all. Justice Krishna Iyer has recommended that improving efficiency of the Criminal Justice System be incorporated in a Five Year Plan. The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) has finally noted the decaying
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* LL.B., Final Year, Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
** LL.B., Final Year, Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
¹ Chapter 4, National Records Crime Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Crimes in India, 2004.
² Hussainan Khanoot v. Home Secretary, Bihar, AIR 1979 SC 1360.
³ V.R. KRISHNA IYER, OUR COURTS ON TRIAL (1987).
picture of justice and observed that "[t]here is an urgent need to bring about judicial reforms with a view to speeding up the process of delivery of justice." It is amply clear that the available judicial resources are not sufficient to achieve this goal.
**B. Alternate Dispute Resolution**
Where the demand on judicial resources continues to outstrip the supply, efforts to increase the use of alternative dispute resolution techniques are necessary. The philosophy of Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR) is well-stated by Abraham Lincoln—"discourage litigation, persuade your neighbour to compromise whenever you can". Alternate Dispute Resolution is a very important and stimulating theme of contemporary relevance. A dispute is a 'lis inter partes'. It is a dispute between two or more parties, where a right is asserted by one or more parties against the specified persons and those persons deny that right or claim either totally or partially. Litigation through courts and tribunals serves to adjudicate upon a dispute. On the other hand, alternate dispute resolution serves to resolve a dispute. Litigation leads to a win loss situation in the adversarial system where each party will be competing to get the decision in their favour. Associated with this win loss situation is the mind-set of the litigants who continue to be adversaries. It is expensive in terms of time and money. Thus, litigation does not always lead to a satisfactory result. Alternative Dispute Resolution systems enable the change in mental approach of the parties. The ADR methods are—Negotiation, Mediation, Conciliation, Mini Trial and hybrid forms of these methods like Conciliation-cum-Arbitration, mediation settlements being converted to compromise decree etc. If ADR method is successful, it brings about a satisfactory solution to the dispute and the parties will not only be satisfied, the ill will that would have existed between them would also end. ADR methods not only address the dispute but also the emotions underlying a dispute. Since ADR method is participatory, there is a scope for parties to participate in the solution finding process. Thus, they honour the solution with commitment. Also, it is cheaper and more expedient in terms of time.
Section 89 of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 as amended in 2002 has opened the door for introduction of conciliation, mediation and pre-trial settlement methodologies. In California, where the systems of mediation, conciliation and pre-trial settlement were introduced only two decades ago, it has been found that 94% of cases are referred for settlement through one or the other of the ADR systems and 46% of such cases are settled without contest.
While the techniques of Alternate Dispute Resolution have been widely used in civil and commercial context but efforts to prioritize the use of alternatives in criminal cases is still less well known, and perhaps more controversial. One of the reasons for the controversy as to whether alternatives to the formal criminal justice process should be permitted can be attributed to high degree of state control over the offenders where the voiceless victim or the offender has little role to play. It is an accepted fact that the courts are overloaded with minor matters and small claims for which elaborate legal procedures involve disproportionate costs, in financial terms, human resources and time. It is important to evaluate the performance of alternate dispute settlements before rejecting them as they have proved to be very efficient in sharing the burden of caseloads, disposing off the matters quickly, reducing the costs, reconciling the offender with the community and increasing victim satisfaction.
Following the success of ADR systems in civil and commercial matters, several Criminal Justice Systems have realized the potential of Mediation in Penal Law, and have initiated several Victim-Offender Mediation Programs. Most of these programs aim at settling private disputes which partake the character of minor criminal offences. Mediation entails the intervention of a third party who attempts to resolve disagreements between parties in dispute with one another. It has been defined as a process that "gives people...a chance to get together with neutral individuals-trained volunteer mediators-to talk things out and try to reach an agreement. Mediators do not take decisions FOR people. Their job is to help people make their OWN decisions. Mediation is thus a form of non-coercive conciliation involving three or more participants. Therefore, so general a form can prove to be very flexible and applicable to almost any kind of conflict.
A large body of Mediation and reparation schemes has emerged in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Belgium and in many other parts of the world.
| Country | Number of Victim-Offender Mediation Programs |
|------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Australia | 5 |
| Austria | 17 |
| Belgium | 31 |
| Canada | 26 |
| Denmark | 5 |
| England | 43 |
| Finland | 130 |
| France | 73 |
| Germany | 348 |
| Italy | 4 |
| New Zealand | Available in all jurisdictions |
| Norway | 44 |
| South Africa | 1 |
| Scotland | 2 |
| Sweden | 10 |
| United States | 289\(^{10}\) |
\(^{9}\) Hon'ble Mr. Justice Lakshmanan, Judge, Supreme Court of India, Alternate Dispute Resolution, Arbitration, Lok Adalat and Mediation, All India Seminar on Judicial Reforms, Supreme Court Bar Association, 2005.
\(^{10}\) Hon'ble Justice R.C. Lahoti, at the Conference of the Chief Justices of High Courts and Chief Ministers of states.
\(^{11}\) Hon'ble Mr. Justice Lakshmanan, *supra* note 4.
\(^{12}\) *Id.*
\(^{13}\) EDWIN L. BAKER, DECRIMINALIZATION OF NON SERIOUS OFFENSES: A PLAN OF ACTION (January 2005, Honolulu, HI: Legislative Reference Bureau).
\(^{14}\) What is Mediation? (District of Columbia Mediation Service). See Foreword by Paul Rock in TONY F. MARSHALL, ALTERNATIVES TO CRIMINAL COURTS: THE POTENTIAL FOR NON-JUDICIAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT, VIII (1986 ed. Gower).
\(^{15}\) U.S. Department of Justice, National Survey: Victim-Offender Mediation Programs of in the United States. April 2000.
In recent years, the United Nations, particularly the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, has been turning its attention to the development and implementation of mediation and restorative justice measures in criminal justice. In 2000, at the Tenth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, restorative justice issues took a prominent position in the workshop on offenders and victims which focused on accountability and fairness in the justice process. With the significant growth of restorative justice initiatives around the world, along with a report by a Group of Experts on Restorative Justice submitted to the United Nations in 2001, the momentum culminated in the development of the Basic Principles on the Use of Restorative Justice Programmes in Criminal Matters (the Basic Principles) in 2002.
It may also be relevant to note here that Mediation in Penal Law probably originated in India with its strong roots in community justice and is still extensively applied in the institutions of Panchayats and Lok Adalats. Thus, there is no harm in institutionalizing such a system. We shall now examine how we can develop this concept further to augment and facilitate the existing Criminal Justice System of India.
II. SCOPE
A. Feasibility
Although a criminal case is invariably seen as a dispute between the offender and the State, it would be naïve to assume that all offences actually concern the State. Quite a few IPC offences are of a civil nature\(^{11}\), e.g. defamation. Even with respect to many *malum in se*\(^{12}\) provisions of criminal law, many criminal complaints are a result of purely private disputes. For instance — in case of a breach of agreement to sell, it would be customary to also initiate criminal proceedings on grounds of cheating; divorce proceedings on grounds of cruelty may be complemented with criminal complaint for causing hurt; cheque bouncing cases can hardly be seen as a law and order problem etc. Very often the civil proceedings go hand in hand with the criminal complaints against one of the parties to the dispute, especially in the cases where there is a relief/remedy both under civil and criminal law. The State has no *prima facie locus standi* in such cases, although the importance of State control over such activities cannot be denied. Though it is better for the state to retain control over the most criminal justice matters, one exception might be where effective, cheap and fair methods of controlling some crime without recourse to prosecution are also available. Also the control need not always be by means of formal courts, where alternative mechanisms could prove valuable.
As indicated above, several criminal proceedings are initiated merely to bully the opposite party in a civil suit. Even though theoretically some of these offences are made compoundable\(^{13}\), the courtroom hardly provides adequate environment for any such conciliation between adversaries. In such circumstances, either the criminal proceedings are pressed strictly with a view to settle scores or offence is compounded on meeting of unfair demands made by the “victim”. In either case, a) it is an abuse of process of Court and b) the so called “solution” leaves *at least* one party dissatisfied. If we compare this with an amicable solution reached by mutual agreement between parties in presence of a trained mediator, the latter solution is not only more just and long-lasting, it is actually able to capture the essence of Section 320\(^{14}\) of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, and reduce burden of the Courts.
It is not only the compoundable offences which are feasible for Mediation. Most offences of a less serious nature, whether compoundable or not, are non-cognizable and corresponding cases are usually initiated on private complaints. Role of complainant in such cases is highlighted by Section 257\(^{15}\) (Withdrawal of complaint), Section 249\(^{16}\) (Absence of complainant), and Section 256\(^{17}\) (Non-appearance or death of complainant) of the Criminal Procedure Code. The Criminal Justice Machinery is set into motion when this dispute results in a complaint to the magistrate. A direct way to reduce the burden of the courts from minor offences would therefore be to resolve some of these disputes before a complaint may be filed, as there is a lot of scope to settle these private disputes out of the courts in an amicable fashion. Another useful mechanism would be diversion of suitable cases, whether expressly made compoundable or not, to the Mediation machinery after they are brought before the court. Both the methods which ultimately lead to mediation will empower the victim and/or the complainant to a certain extent which is lacking in the present system. If the victim is recompensed for the loss incurred by him/her either due to the breach of contract or the bounced cheque, there is no reason why he would go for a time consuming and arduous criminal litigation.
B. Identification of Offences
The object of identifying a comprehensive list of offences, that may be suitable for mediation, can not be achieved by merely looking at the Indian Penal Code, 1860. Whether an offence can be viewed as a minor breach of law partaking the nature of a private dispute or whether it can be viewed as a law and order issue over which State control in the form of formal courts is necessary, depends not only upon the nature of the offence but also upon the degree of the offence\(^{18}\). The formal criminal justice system
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\(^{14}\) Compounding of Offences.
\(^{15}\) Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, Section 257 — Withdrawal of complaint. — If a complainant, at any time before a final order is passed in any case under this Chapter, satisfies the Magistrate that there are sufficient grounds for permitting him to withdraw his complaint against the accused, or if there be more than one accused, against all or any of them, the Magistrate may permit him to withdraw the same, and shall thereupon acquit the accused against whom the complaint is so withdrawn.
\(^{16}\) Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, Section 249 — Absence of complainant. — When the proceedings have been instituted upon complaint, and on any day fixed for the hearing of the case, the complainant is absent, and the offence may be lawfully compounded or is not a cognizable offence, the Magistrate may, in his discretion, notwithstanding anything hereinbefore contained, at any time before the charge has been framed, discharge the accused.
\(^{17}\) Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, Section 256 — Non-appearance or death of complainant. — (1) If the summons has been issued on complaint, and on the day appointed for the appearance of the accused, or any day subsequent thereto to which the hearing may be adjourned, the complainant does not appear, the Magistrate shall, notwithstanding anything hereinbefore contained, acquit the accused, unless for some reason he thinks it proper to adjourn the hearing of the case to some other day.
\(^{18}\) Consultation Paper on Law Relating To Arrest, Law Commission of India.
\(^{19}\) At common law, most criminal offenses involved conduct that was *malum in se*, that is, conduct that was immoral and essentially evil, without regard to whether any law expressly prohibited it. With development of more complex systems of government came the creation of offenses involving conduct that was *malum prohibitum*, that is, involving conduct that was not essentially immoral but wrong precisely because law expressly prohibited it.
\(^{20}\) Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, § 320.
has an impersonal way of looking at the crime. Most IPC crimes are defined irrespective of degree and while the punishment may vary, the procedure applied is uniform irrespective of degree of deviance. For example, robbery will include predominantly minor offences of bag snatching etc., and most involve very minor, if any, injury and small amounts of money. Nevertheless the category as a whole is viewed in terms of stereotyped ideas of mugging, violence and danger. Some advantage may therefore be obtained in defining and categorizing minor offences as different from serious offences, and using less formal ways to deal with minor offences which would result in reduction of case load in the courts. The courts would thus be able to concentrate on cases of more uniform seriousness, where sentences are more likely to correspond with the offence stereotype.\textsuperscript{18} Broadly speaking, most minor offences causing little or no harm to one or few identifiable victims can be subject matter of mediation. This, of course, is a very broad generalization and whether a particular case is suitable for mediation would largely depend upon the facts and circumstances of that particular case.
Following guidelines may be helpful in making the determination:
1. \textit{Degree of offence}. — In cases of grave offences, a compromise between the accused and victim ideally should not be enough to absolve the accused from criminal responsibility. In case of minor offences\textsuperscript{20} on the other hand economy must be practised both in terms of courts’ time and employment of sanctions. Such cases clog up the system and it should usually be sufficient if the victim is adequately compensated.
In China, a Peoples’ Court may conduct Mediation in following cases:
(a.) cases to be handled only upon complaint; and
(b.) cases for which the victims have evidence to prove that those are minor criminal cases:\textsuperscript{21}
However, where non judicial methods of settlement are applied, it is important to preserve the defendants’ right of access or appeal to formal procedures, if basic individual rights are involved.\textsuperscript{22}
A separate alternative treatment is called for the offences which constitute low level or quality of life crime. For example, years ago in Poland’s ‘petty offences boards’ offences like poaching, petty theft, traffic and health violations etc. were tried by one criminal justice official and two lay persons\textsuperscript{23}. Petty offences are now taken care of by justices of peace.\textsuperscript{24} They discharge the function of police magistrates and are called upon to decide on petty offences or a breach of law punishable by fines between 25 to 250 Euros. The Night Prosecutor’s Programme in Columbus, Ohio, US emphasized on cases of interpersonal conflict and minor crime, e.g. bad cheques, assault, menaces, vandalism, telephone harassment, improper language and minor thefts.\textsuperscript{25} The Crown Heights Community Mediation Center in US tackles civil as well as minor criminal complaints like breach of contract, consumer/merchant disputes, co worker disputes, multi cultural disputes, employer/employee conflicts, harassment, noise complaints etc. Some quality-of-life offences are also taken up by various community courts around the globe that are alternatives to the formal system. For example, assaults, manifestation of prostitution, possession of drug paraphernalia, illegal dumping, code violation\textsuperscript{26}, misdemeanor, public intoxication, disorderly conduct, aggressive panhandling\textsuperscript{27}, criminal trespass, larceny, threatening, illegal liquor possessed by a minor, illegal vending\textsuperscript{28}, driving license violations, drug and weapon violations\textsuperscript{29}, graffiti, farebeating\textsuperscript{30}, loitering, noise ordinance, open container, park curfew, littering\textsuperscript{31}, theft, property damage, domestic violence, neighbourhood disputes\textsuperscript{32}, etc.
2. \textit{Whether the Dispute is between Private Parties}. — Usually in order to conduct mediation, an identifiable victim is necessary. Most programmes employing mediation in Criminal Law partake the character of victim-offender mediation programmes. This is also instrumental since mediation in Criminal Law is closely associated with Restorative Justice.
However, even victimless crimes that are either regulatory or economic in nature and to certain extent “hidden” can be resolved through mediation. For example, there are certain offences that are not really offences against the community at large and which in fact endanger one’s own safety. These are regulated by the state. A threat of punishment is only for the more apparent property crimes and for a few more obvious regulatory ones. They do not evoke the public sentiments of ‘fear, anger, etc.’ Mostly, for such categories of offences there are prescribed fines and/or negligible punishments. These are apt for alternate resolution, for example, on the spot fines. To some extent, our country is already in line with this approach but there is more scope for improvement.
India has not been able to establish a clean, efficient and accountable bureaucracy yet. In such circumstances if mediation is likely to take place between the
\textsuperscript{18} By degree of the offence, we mean the degree of deviance i.e. whether a minor theft or a big fraud and an important consideration in this regard is the harm caused to the victim.
\textsuperscript{19} TONY F. MARSHALL, ALTERNATIVES TO CRIMINAL COURTS: THE POTENTIAL FOR NON-JUDICIAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT (1986 ed. Gower).
\textsuperscript{20} Essang Nyong & Others v. State (N.C.T. of Delhi), decided on 03.05.2001, 681 of 1999, (Minor offences are defined as (i) offences where gravity of the offence is less and the punishment is not going to be very severe; or (ii) the offences in which the prisoners are involved being first offenders and may be entitled to benefit of probation, or (iii) the offences in which the prisoners may be let off by the Courts on payment of fine only); Common Cause, a Registered Society through its Director v. U.O.Land Others, I. JT 1996(4) SC 701, “It is a matter of common experience that in many cases where the persons are accused of minor offences punishable not more than three years—or even less—with or without fine, the proceedings are kept pending for years together”.
\textsuperscript{21} Criminal Procedure Law of The People’s Republic of China, art. 172.
\textsuperscript{22} Supra note 20.
\textsuperscript{23} Id. 23
\textsuperscript{24} Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/justice_home/jn/org_justice/org_justice_lux_en.htm.
\textsuperscript{25} Supra note 20.
\textsuperscript{26} Dallas Community Court, available at http://www.dallascityattorney.com/02_5CommunityCourts.htm.
\textsuperscript{27} Downtown Austin Community Court.
\textsuperscript{28} Community Court in Hartford, available at http://www.jud.state.ct.us/external/super/spsess.htmlCommunityCourt.
\textsuperscript{29} Frayer Community Criminal Court, available at http://www.scdag.com/commcrim.htm#top.
\textsuperscript{30} Midtown Community Court, available at http://www.courtinnovation.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.ViewPage&PageID=591¤tTopTier2=true.
\textsuperscript{31} Syracuse Community Court, available at http://www.nycourts.gov/courts/Sjd/onondaga/syracuse/community.shtml.
\textsuperscript{32} Neighbourhood Justice Centre in Collingwood, Victoria, Australia, available at http://www.justice.vic.gov.au/.
\textsuperscript{33} Supra note 20.
accused and a public officer, it is circumscribed with suspicion as to be tainted with corruption. If, however, mediation takes place under strict supervision and established guidelines, it may actually be instrumental in reducing the level of corruption.
3. *Compoundable Offences* — All offences enlisted in Section 320(1) are *prima facie* and those listed in Section 320 (2) are with the permission of the court, suitable for mediation.
4. *Category of Offender.* — Whether a particular case is feasible for mediation also depends largely upon the category of offender. There is some risk in allowing such a system to operate in case of habitual offenders. It would be safe to allow it to operate in case of first time offenders, juveniles and second time offenders under certain situations.
There are two advantages of dealing with this category of offenders. Firstly, the anti social element in their behaviour is nipped in the bud by a more empathetic set up like mediation. Secondly, unlike the formal criminal justice system, it does not tag them as criminals. In many countries around the globe, mediation has been successfully used to deal with juveniles. In Norway, Mediation boards strive to combine the advantages of Mediation with those of a community forum to focus on juveniles. Also, the tendency to focus mainly on juveniles has been a prominent feature of Mediation programmes across Europe. Often, Mediation with juvenile offenders has paved the way for Mediation with adults.\(^{34}\)
If ADR is to be employed to replace the formal criminal justice system, it is to be kept in mind that different categories of offenders call for a different treatment. Some victim -offender Mediation programmes apply to any type of offender, whereas others work only with juveniles or with adults, while a few work only with one type of offence, for instance shoplifting, robbery or violence offences. Some programmes are mainly aimed at minor offences or first-time offenders and yet others at more serious offences or even repeat offenders.
For example, the Family Group Conferences (FGC) in New Zealand is used in respect of juveniles for all medium serious and serious offending (except murder and manslaughter) and operates both as a barrier to court processing (for young people who have not been arrested) and as a mechanism for making recommendations to judges for pre-sentence (for young people who have been arrested). This means that a young person cannot be prosecuted in a Youth Court unless he or she has been arrested by police or has been referred to the family group conference and the conference recommends a prosecution. In practice, most conferences reach an agreement which avoids prosecution. It also means that judges cannot dispose of a case without taking into account the recommendation of the family group conference. In practice, most judges accept its recommendations. In contrast, most other jurisdictions which have introduced conferences have used them only selectively for non serious offending and solely as an alternative to court proceeding.\(^{35}\)
Similarly, Dakota Peer Court\(^{36}\) is an alternative sentencing programme which is available to Dacota county’s first time juvenile offenders and for second time property crime offenders. In this unique set up the offenders must admit their guilt, waive and give up their rights to privacy and anonymity, agree to be bound by the sentence which can be community service, drug/alcohol counselling, ethics and decision driving course, serving as juror in peer court etc. and waive their right to an attorney. If they decline to do so, they can be referred to juvenile court.
III. APPLICATION
As it has been pointed out earlier in this article, Mediation already forms a part of Indian Criminal Justice System in the institutions of *Panchayats* and *Lok Adalats*. The Mediation Cell at Tis Hazari, New Delhi which was recently demolished was handling cheque-bounce cases as well. We shall now elaborate upon how it can be more extensively incorporated in our existing legal and social structure.
As discussed above, a number of criminal complaints are a result of purely private disputes. It must also be acknowledged that reconciliation of disputes is not impossible. It can be accomplished by people with wisdom and inter-personal skills, who possess good understanding of local cultures and communities, even though they may not be legally trained. In a very inconspicuous way, such dispute resolution mechanism exists in every society. More so, it exists in the Indian society, where the feeling of community is more deeply rooted than in the West. In most small towns and villages, there exists a culture where everyone knows everyone. Respected members of such communities are usually sought for conflict resolution. What we lack is an adequate machinery to harness this immense resource for settling disputes. It is submitted that if adequate efforts are made, then without any expenditure, we can create a lowest level of dispute resolution mechanism based on restorative justice model.
One reason that every conflict resolution mechanism incurs expenditure is because we seek to regulate it. It requires regulation because power cannot be given without regulation, so that its misuse is prevented. One way to save expenditure would be to set up Community Conflict Resolvers without any punitive powers or legal status. These mediators could come from any section of society, provided they are educated and well respected. It may not be advisable to blindly follow foreign models in this respect. Being a social institution, such an informal mediation model would be unique to every society. School teachers or social workers are usually considered appropriate for such purpose, though any person who enjoys common trust of the disputing parties may be chosen on a case-to-case basis, by the parties themselves. Communities, in the nature of small towns throughout the country, could be guided to voluntarily select a panel of 1-5 people from the community itself. The process of selection would be significant. It should be so designed as to give preference to a teacher, doctor, social worker or any educated and respected member of the community, as opposed to simple elections. Disputes arising in the community can be referred to this panel which will
\(^{34}\) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, NATIONAL SURVEY: VICTIM-OFFENDER MEDIATION PROGRAMS OF IN THE UNITED STATES (April 2000).
\(^{35}\) ALLISON MORRIS & GABRIELLE MAXWELL, THE PRACTICE OF FAMILY GROUP CONFERENCES IN NEW ZEALAND: ASSESSING THE PLACE, POTENTIAL AND PITFALLS OF RESTORATIVE JUSTICE, (2000, Ashgate).
\(^{36}\) Available at http://www.co.dakota.mn.us/Courts/Peer_court.htm.
try and seek an amicable solution to the conflict. The panel may have no punitive powers and no remuneration may be received from the government. There is no need to provide court rooms or lay down a formal procedure. It can take place in school premises or government offices when the working time is over. A small fee may be charged from the parties involved, in lieu of mediation services rendered. Funds in the nature of contribution from the community itself may be encouraged. These mediators may occasionally be provided with professional training in mediation skills and restorative justice techniques. Restoration may be in the form of non-detergatory community service. This is particularly useful when the offence is in the nature of public nuisance.
It is admitted that number of disputes settled this way may not be many, but since it is absolutely inexpensive machinery, both in terms of financial and judicial resources, there is only something to be gained from it. Once such a service becomes established one would expect the bulk of referrals from the parties themselves. The proposed institution would be different from *Panchayats* since the latter are dispute settling as opposed to dispute resolving bodies. The solution is usually punitive rather than restorative in nature. Proper training could go a long way in realizing this significant difference. Also, while *Panchayats* exist in respect of villages, the proposed institutions could be set up in any small town or even in individual localities in big cities. The model outlined above would be instrumental in reducing the number of disputes entering the criminal justice system. If the dispute is not settled at this stage, the natural recourse under the present criminal justice system would be a complaint to the magistrate.\(^{37}\)
In addition to the Community Conflict Resolution, Mediation Cells can be hosted in court complexes, police stations, schools, other government bodies etc. In April, 2005, the Supreme Court had initiated the implementation of ADR law by establishing a Mediation and Conciliation Project Committee to oversee the implementation of ADR in its courts. The Delhi pilot project began in the lower courts in August 2005 and expanded to an additional lower court (Karkarduma) in December, 2005\(^{38}\). Mediation Cells were established within the Court complexes under this project. These Mediation Cells are also handling minor criminal compoundable cases. However, neither these Mediation Centers nor *Lok Adalats* can be approached directly by parties to a dispute involving a criminal offence. There must be a referral by the Court. Section 20\(^{39}\) makes it clear that a *Lok Adalat* can and has to take cognizance of a case only when it is referred to it by the court on an application for reference made by either party or when the case is being referred to it by the concerned authority or committee organising the Lok Adalat, and in no other manner. It has no power to take cognizance of a case and decide it, at the instance of any party thereto, independently of the references under Section 20 (1) and (2).\(^{40}\) Since the Mediators in the Mediation Centres would be trained both in Law and Dispute Resolution, it is submitted that they may be given jurisdiction to decide whether a particular case coming before them is suitable for mediation. In this way the disputing parties would be able to approach the mediators directly without taking recourse to formal courts.
After having discussed the possible alternatives which would help in sharing the burden of new disputes which are coming up, the other area of concern is the existing backlog of cases. Mediation can solve the purpose by being included as a ‘diversion from court’ mechanism. Here, the courts may divert the cases from the formal criminal justice system to the alternate mechanisms, as they think fit.
For example, the New York Dispute Resolution Centre\(^{41}\) was unique as its agreements were legally binding under an enactment by the state of New York, and was also atypical in proceeding automatically to arbitration if mediation failed. The centre accepted direct requests for mediation from members of community or social service agencies. It was, however, limited by contract to take at least 95% of its referrals from the criminal justice system, reflecting the main emphasis on diversion form adjudication. Cases were screened from complaints received by the summons part of the Criminal Court and from police referrals. Cases involving serious violence, drug abuse or repeat offenders were not accepted, but nearly a third of all charges were found suitable for attempted mediation. Minor criminal offenses were accepted for mediation. The complaint was then issued with a ‘request to appear’ summons which must be served by him/her in person on the respondent. Failure to appear or keep the agreement resulted in re activation of the criminal charges.
According to the Belgian law on ‘The Regulation of a Procedure for Mediation in Penal Matters’ (1994), the public prosecutor may dismiss a case with a possible maximum penalty lower than two years’ imprisonment, if the offender agrees to cooperate in reparation, treatment, training or community service or a combination of these. To put that disposition into operation, a mediation magistrate has been appointed in each of the twenty seven Belgian Courts of first instance, to select the cases, supervise the work and chair the final mediation session, together with one or more mediation assistance, to carry out the field work with the offenders and the victims. Here, the system has really opened the possibility for working with victims, and the mediation workers are fully integrated in the system\(^{42}\).
Although reference to Mediation may be made at any stage, it would be ideal to provide guidelines to Judges and Magistrates to refer suitable complaints to Mediation while taking cognizance of an offence or after examination of complainant under Section 200\(^{43}\) of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
Following General Principles have been laid down in European Council Recommendation on ‘Mediation in Penal Matters’\(^{44}\)
1. Mediation in penal matters should only take place if the parties freely consent. The parties should be able to withdraw such consent at any time during the mediation.
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\(^{37}\) Most offenses of less serious nature are non-cognizable and there can be no investigation except by or on the order of a Magistrate. See Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, § 155.
\(^{38}\) Staff Reporter, *Alternative dispute resolution needed: Apex court judge*, HINDU, Dec. 19, 2005.
\(^{39}\) Legal Services Authority Act, 1987.
\(^{40}\) P.S. NARAYANA, *LAW RELATING TO LOK ADALATS*, 180 (2002, Asia Law House).
\(^{41}\) Supra note 20.
\(^{42}\) LODE WALGRAVE, *EXTENDING THE VICTIM PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS A SYSTEMIC RESTORATIVE JUSTICE ALTERNATIVE* (2000, Ashgate).
\(^{43}\) Section 200 — Examination of complainant. — A Magistrate taking cognizance of an offence on com2. Discussions in mediation should be confidential and may not be used subsequently, even in a subsequent trial, except with the agreement of the parties. Confidentiality facilitates an environment where the parties can safely bring in such additional information as is often the basis for reaching an out-of-court settlement. Also it protects the interests of the parties, and encourages mediation. It is emphasized that participation in mediation should not be used against the accused if the case is referred back to the criminal justice authorities after mediation. Moreover, an acceptance of facts or even "confession of guilt" by the accused, in the context of mediation, should not be used as evidence in subsequent criminal proceedings on the same matter.
3. Mediation in penal matters should be a generally available service. This would, as a minimum, imply that mediation whether public or private programmes would be officially recognised by the states as a possibility, alternative or complementary to traditional criminal proceedings. Such programmes should normally have funding from a public budget (state and/or municipality) and there should normally be some kind of public accountability.
4. Mediation in penal matters should be available at all stages of the criminal justice process. This takes into account that the parties (particularly the victim) may not be ready to take advantage of mediation at an early stage.
5. Mediation services should be given sufficient autonomy within the criminal justice system. Of course, mediation services cannot operate as if they were totally detached from the criminal justice system. Criminal justice agencies should have sufficient authority to perform their "gate-keeping" role and their ultimate responsibility for the legality of the process. This involves the assessment of issues of public interest and procedural rights and safeguards of the parties when making decisions both before and after mediation.
6. It is crucial that parties, before agreeing to mediation, are fully aware of the "procedural situation", based on the facts of the case. They should also have the right to a comprehensive explanation of how the mediation procedure is going to be performed, by what service or by whom, and its possible consequences, in terms of criminal justice decisions, of the different outcome of mediation (e.g. success, failure or partial settlement). The burden of information lies with the criminal justice authorities. Each party should be informed separately, if need be. Such information is necessary for the parties to be able to exercise informed consent. Neither the victim nor the offender should be induced by unfair means to accept mediation.
7. Subject to national law, the victim and the offender should have the right to consult with legal counsel concerning the restorative process and, where necessary, to translation and/or interpretation. Minors should, in addition, have the right to the assistance of a parent or guardian. Utmost care should be exercised while involving
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plaint shall examine upon oath the complainant and the witnesses present, if any, and the substance of such examination shall be reduced to writing and shall be signed by the complainant and the witnesses, and also by the Magistrate.
44 Recommendation No. R (99) 19 adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on September 15, 1999.
lawyers in the mediation process so as not to reduce it to an adversarial system. Participation of lawyers should be subject to mediator's approval.
8. The basic facts of a case should normally be acknowledged by both parties as a basis for mediation. Without such a common understanding, the possibility of reaching an agreement during mediation is limited, if not excluded. It is not necessary that the accused, in addition, accepts guilt, and the criminal justice authorities may not pre-judge the question of guilt in order not to infringe the principle of the presumption of innocence. It suffices that the accused admits some responsibility for what has happened.
9. Mediators should be recruited from all sections of society and should generally possess good understanding of local cultures and communities.
10. Mediators should receive initial training before taking up mediation duties as well as inservice training. Their training should aim at providing for a high level of competence, taking into account conflict resolution skills, the specific requirements of working with victims and offenders and basic knowledge of the criminal justice system.
The training should inculcate in them the skills of maintaining neutrality; appreciating diversity and working with diverse participants; dealing with difficult people; and handling conflict and expressions of intense emotions, particularly anger. It is important for them to work effectively with juveniles and cultivate empathy for the offender.
11. Responsibilities of the mediator include facilitating a dialogue between the parties, making them feel comfortable and safe, assisting them in negotiating a restitution plan, actively listening to them, keeping a low profile so that the parties can talk directly to each other, actively and efficiently moving them towards a written agreement, reframing the statements of the parties, providing leadership and actively paraphrasing the comments made by them.
12. Agreements should be arrived at voluntarily by the parties. They should contain only reasonable and proportionate obligations. The requirement of a reasonable obligation implies some relationship between the offence and the type of obligation on the offender. The proportionality requirement means that, within rather wide limits, there should be correspondence between the burden on the offender and the seriousness of the offence. Mediation should not be used as an platform to black mail the accused or to buy one's way out of a criminal charge. The requirement that agreements should be voluntary does not, therefore, exclude the mediator from playing an active role in reaching the agreement.
13. The mediator should report to the criminal justice authorities on the steps taken and on the outcome of the mediation. The mediator's report should not reveal the contents of mediation sessions, nor express any judgment on the parties' behaviour during mediation.
14. There should be mechanisms to ensure compliance with the agreement.
A. Restorative Justice
The object and nature of solution is one of the most significant aspects of Mediation in criminal law, which aims at restoring victim’s interests to the condition they were in, before they were set back by the infraction/offence. A system that includes compensation (restoration) is better than one that does not\textsuperscript{45}. Restorative Justice is often used as a synonym of mediation\textsuperscript{46}. Central to the ideas underlying restorative justice are the involvement of victims in process that have the potential to repair the harm they have experienced, the involvement of offenders in making amends for that harm, and the restoration of some kind of balance between the two. In the modern revival, restorative justice has shown itself to be remarkably flexible. For example, restorative justice processes have been used pre-court as part of diversion, pre-sentence to inform sentencers, pre-release as part of prison programme and so on; they have also been used to determine how to deal with offenders, the placement of abused and neglected children and the placement of the children of women in prison. Restorative Justice is a process which drastically reduces the role of courts, the judiciary and other criminal justice professionals by returning the offence to those most affected by it and by encouraging them to determine appropriate responses to it.\textsuperscript{47}
The possible restorative outcomes include a wide range of actions of restitution, compensation, reparation – conciliation or apologies. Different processes exist to aim at such restorative outcomes. The most important distinction between them is based on voluntariness. Generally accepted as restorative are the processes of voluntary negotiation and concertation, direct or indirect between the offender and his or her victim, as individuals or backed by their relatives, for example, victim offender mediation, restorative group conferences.\textsuperscript{48} Restorative Justice models often include the ‘community’, and not the state, as a party in the restorative settlement of an offence. The mediator can be a representative of the community; family and other relatives of the victim and offender can play the role of ‘reintegrative shaming’\textsuperscript{49} community.
Restorative justice is not only about restoration, it is also about ‘justice’. ‘Justice’ has two meanings here. On the one hand, it refers to a feeling of equity, of being dealt with in a just way, according to a subjective balance of rights and wrongs. Restorative justice then means that it aims at optimal satisfaction of all parties with a stake in the offence. Victims should feel that their victimisation has been taken seriously and that the compensation and community support were reasonable in balance with their sufferings and losses. Offenders should feel that they have transgressed the limits of social tolerance and that they are being given an opportunity to make amends for their mistake in a constructive way.\textsuperscript{50}
Victim participation brings with it the notions of involvement and negotiation. Victim should be allowed to participate because, firstly, the crime has been committed against him or her, as well as against the wider community. This is not to say that crime is solely or chiefly against the direct victim, but that a significant wrong has been suffered by that person.\textsuperscript{51} Secondly, allowing the victim to express her or his thoughts about the offence may assist ‘reintegration’ or the process of coming to terms with what has happened.\textsuperscript{52} Thus, the key features of restorative justice are:
a. the goal of restoring the victim, by way of apology and/or compensation from, or reparation by, the offender;
b. the further goal of restoring the wider community; and
c. the participation of the victim in the process whereby the response to the offence is determined.\textsuperscript{53}
It is also important to ensure that in any system which retains a conventional or punitive approach for serious crimes but which has restorative justice for less serious offences, the ‘public interest’ element in restorative disposals remains in line with those other sentences.\textsuperscript{54}
Restorative Justice promotes the idea that with low-level offenses, the criminal justice system can better serve the community by using alternative sentencing options. For example, Community Service strengthens communities by reconnecting offenders with local residents through positive work projects and encourages smaller neighborhoods to organize and address crime problems by partnering with the criminal justice system. Additionally, as an alternative to incarceration, community service allows the Court to move low-level offenders out of the criminal justice system, freeing up costly jail space for more serious criminals. Restorative Justice applies the nontraditional approach of working to promote rehabilitation of offenders and address the underlying causes of criminality.
Community Service Restitution is designed to hold offenders accountable for their actions and instill the concept that public order offending does have consequences. It also provides a vehicle for offenders to restore the community for the harm they have done. Community Service may differ in its objective in various judicial settings:\textsuperscript{55}
\textsuperscript{45} Allen Buchanan, \textit{What’s So Special about Rights?} 2(1) SOC. PHIL. & POL. 71-73 (1984, Autumn).
\textsuperscript{46} See J. HUDSON & B. GALAWAY (1996). \textit{See also LODE WALGRAVE, EXTENDING THE VICTIM PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS A SYSTEMIC RESTORATIVE JUSTICE ALTERNATIVE} (2000, Ashgate).
\textsuperscript{47} Supra note 36.
\textsuperscript{48} Supra note 43.
\textsuperscript{49} Stigmatic shaming is a recognized part of the criminal justice system; many of its rituals serve to signify the separation and segregation of defendants. In ‘reintegrative shaming’, at least in theory, the offense rather than the offender is condemned and the offender is reintegrated with rather than rejected by society. \textit{See ALLISON MORRIS & GABRIELLE MAXWELL}, Restorative Justice in New Zealand: Family Group Conferences as a Case Study (1998); \textit{Western Criminology Review} 1 (1), available at http://wcr.sonoma.edu/v1n1/morris.html.
\textsuperscript{50} Supra note 43.
\textsuperscript{51} J. Dignan & M. Cavafino, Towards a Framework for Conceptualizing and Evaluating Models of Criminal Justice from Victim’s Perspective, 4 INT’L REV. VICTIMOLOGY 153-82 (1996).
\textsuperscript{52} ANDREW ASHWORTH, VICTIMS’ RIGHTS, DEFENDANTS’ RIGHTS AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE, (2000, Ashgate).
\textsuperscript{53} Id.
\textsuperscript{54} Id.
\textsuperscript{55} Supra note 43.
| Objective | Punitive | Rehabilitative | Restorative |
|-----------|----------|----------------|-------------|
| Deterrence | Adequate Treatment | Reasonable Restoration |
| Content | Painful for offenders | Adapted to the needs of offenders | Symbolic for the harm to the community |
| Duration depends on... | Seriousness of crime | Treatment needs | Seriousness of harm |
| Evaluation according to... | Just Desert | Conforming behaviour | Peace in community |
**B. Advantages of Mediation**
1. Lack of formality allows both complainants and their opponents ‘an opportunity to speak out fully about the whole situation and to play a significant role in shaping the resolution of their own problem’ (Chinkin and Griffiths 1980). This feeling of control over what is happening is liable to increase the commitment of both parties to the result and, indeed, Thibaut and Walker’s (1975) experimental research indicate a greater likelihood that parties will consider the outcome just in this situation. Unlike court proceedings, disputants can ‘talk in a verbal style that is natural and comfortable’ and that is ‘mutually intelligible’, for e.g. Use of local language instead of ‘English’; this in turn may be ‘therapeutic, in that it allows free ventilation of anger and frustration.’ (Witty 1980). Lack of bureaucracy may also increase the speed with which a case can be brought to a hearing and an effective resolution, of benefit both to the parties immediately involved and potentially to the society at large because of the saving in the resources. This, coupled with the avoidance of procedures employing costly legal personnel, may make the proceedings relatively inexpensive.\(^{56}\)
2. The degree of choice allowed to disputants is also an advantage if they are free to choose between mediation and litigation or arbitration. Voluntariness is, of course, important to consideration of due process and protection of legal rights\(^{57}\)
3. Alternative sanctions to imprisonment and containment are called for in offences where there is no such threat to the community as in serious crimes and for persistent offenders.
In case of petty offences, corporate crimes, quality of life offences and regulatory offences, where retaliation from victims is not much likely, in fact, recourse to compensatory techniques can offer more satisfaction.
4. Informal mediation or arbitration may save time and costs of the state. ‘Trivial’ cases are not worth a large expenditure. Minor offences are also generally not treated with enthusiasm by the authorities, although in some cases they may involve substantial distress to individual victims. In such cases, alternate methods to settle such disputes might be considered.
5. Alternatives to court in petty cases that involve victim in decision making are desirable.
Even though, some of the cases are initiated by private complaints by the parties and the victim is solely an individual, it is believed that the offence is committed against the society at large. In such cases involving minor crime against the community, instead of having out of court settlements between the parties through a mediator simply or giving the discretion to the prosecutor to mediate it, it would be better to involve community members as judges/mediators.
**C. Mediation and Lok Adalats**
Lok Adalats have been conferred jurisdiction to settle civil, criminal, matrimonial, Motor Accident Claims and revenue cases, at the pre-litigation level or when the disputes are pending in court. They employ ADR techniques to arrive at a settlement.
As per the rules of the Criminal Procedure in India, only compoundable offences can be settled outside the court. Once a criminal complaint is registered, in the case of non-compoundable offences, it cannot be withdrawn, even if a compromise is reached between the parties. If it fails to arrive at a settlement, it may advise the parties to seek remedy in an appropriate court.
The rationale behind this is that serious criminal offences are crimes against society and, not, merely, against individuals. However, Lok Adalats can be extremely helpful in case of compoundable offences as compensation can be awarded by the Lok Adalats, without resorting to long drawn out court procedures.
Experiences at the National Human Rights Commission’s Pilot Project for Students Voluntary Prison Services at Tihar Jail, Delhi, show that thousands of inmates of the jail are implicated in petty offences, which are compoundable and are lingering in Jail, much beyond the period they would have been reasonably sentenced to, in case of conviction. The delay is caused either for want of resources to furnish bail or, for want of adequate legal aid. Lok Adalats can come in handy to afford relief to such victims of circumstances and to ensure that due process and the right to equal and fair justice are provided to them.
States may, on their own, initiate the setting-up of such local forums to recommend the dropping of charges and the release of those who are accused of petty criminal offences. Often, they have been in prison, undergoing trial for periods longer
\(^{56}\) Mamta Bhatt, *Lok Adalats speed up administration of justice*, available at http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/116518.cms.
\(^{57}\) Id.
than the sentence that their respective crimes carry.\textsuperscript{58} The Legal aid system covers all the 3 stages: pending, pre-pending and post-pending litigation either by mediation or any other alternative. National Legal Service Authority has reported that more than 50000 cases have been settled at pre filing stage, out of which more than 18000 cases have been finally settled in Gujarat.\textsuperscript{59}
Therefore, it can be said that Lok Adalats have accomplished admirable success by offering inexpensive and expeditious settlement of disputes. Still, much is left to be desired as Lok Adalats are, only, accorded a status of ‘a mere ad-hoc arrangement, extraneous to the justice delivery system’. It is necessary to consider various modern ways and means for high order of Legal Aid and ADR, like use of Information Technology and also the concept of Plea Bargain which is in practice in U.S., U.K and many other countries and reported to be productive, at least to begin with certain petty offences and earmarked or defined minor offences, wherein, individual interest and not the public interest or Policy is involved and on experimental basis and that too within the monitoring and controlling supervision of courts.\textsuperscript{60}
Apart from one shortcoming of ‘a mere ad hoc arrangement’, it also restricts the cases to come either by reference from courts or concerned authority. Therefore, even if parties want to bring their case directly to a Lok Adalat and resolve their problems/disputes by ADR, they have to follow a formal procedure. There is a desperate and emerging need for a system where parties can directly settle the cases outside the formal procedures of the court. Using the structure and model of Lok Adalat in its less formal procedure when cognizance of an offence is taken and the nature of offences that it deals with, there is a scope for setting up many mini Lok Adalats on a permanent basis in the legal system and which are within proximate location of the courts, police stations and authorities that can refer the cases to such Lok Adalats. Also, these mini Lok Adalats may be conferred with a wider jurisdiction. There are many more offences, though non compoundable, but they do not still fit into the stereotypical definition of a particular ‘crime’ or ‘offence’ and such can be earmarked and be resolved through the Alternate Dispute Resolution techniques.
\section*{IV. CONCLUSION}
The complexity of social issues is such that one cannot make clear cut distinctions between occasions when one or another type of settlement process is preferable. It is, therefore, important to plan for a system of dispute settlement procedures that allows for variety of approaches, interchanges between agencies, and even for changes over time in the nature of dispute. Negotiation rejected at an earlier stage may become acceptable at a later stage. Rather than an alternative system to criminal justice system, one needs a system of alternatives which includes the judicial. Such a system requires a flexible arrangement of channels whereby the ultimate mode of disposition is not determined, more or less blindly, from the very beginning of intervention.\textsuperscript{61}
\textsuperscript{58} Supra note 41.
\textsuperscript{59} Id.
\textsuperscript{60} Supra note 20.
Such a system of alternatives would have a number of advantages. It would provide flexibility that the formal procedures at present lack. Encouraging the involvement of the parties themselves in the dispute settlement process, by giving them some influence over the form this takes, may also lead to greater commitment to the resulting parties.\textsuperscript{62}
Such a system could be built upon the naturally evolved, but haphazardly developed, mix of informal mechanisms that already exist. In other words, a ‘Multi-tier model’\textsuperscript{63} of dispute settlement can be used which ranges from lowest tier of informal community mechanisms without external intervention, through use of individuals and agencies whose role is to facilitate solutions to conflicts left unsettled, and mediated settlement achieved by criminal justice officials, to the highest tier of formal adjudication.
\textsuperscript{62}Id.
\textsuperscript{63} Law Reform Commission of Canada, see TONY F. MARSHALL, ALTERNATIVES TO CRIMINAL COURTS: THE POTENTIAL FOR NON-JUDICIAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT, 164 (1986 ed. Gower).
COMPULSORY JURISDICTION UNDER THE UN LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION: A COMMENT IN LIGHT OF THE SOUTHERN BLUEFIN TUNA AND MOX PLANT CASES
Deepali Liberhan*
Farrah Ahmed*
I. INTRODUCTION
The economic stakes involved in international disputes regarding the rights and duties of coastal or maritime states, the delineation of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and the sharing of natural resources make an effective dispute settlement mechanism essential for the international law of the sea to effectively govern relations between nations with respect to all matters maritime. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ¹ (LOSC) because of its extensive dispute settlement procedure is the broadest commitment ever made by parties to a multilateral convention to compulsory dispute settlement.² The LOSC thus marks a growing acceptance of compulsory dispute settlement procedures by states. It is increasingly thought that apart from resolving disputes, such procedures also discourage unreasonable behaviour on the part of states.³ This trend is clear from the fact that the LOSC is a widely ratified convention⁴ and that states appear to be comfortable resorting to compulsory dispute settlement procedures in general.⁵ That is not to say that the LOSC is therefore completely unprecedented, it has counterparts within the EU⁶ and GATT/WTO⁷ framework and number of other conventions.⁸
In this paper we propose to examine the dispute settlement procedure of the LOSC in the light of two cases that have great significance for the settlement of international disputes. The first, the decision of the arbitral tribunal constituted under Annex VII of the LOSC (hereinafter the arbitral tribunal) in the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case⁹ has far-reaching consequences for the interpretation of jurisdictional clauses, the powers of such tribunals under LOSC to take provisional measures¹⁰ and the way the principle of consent¹¹ operates when a judicial forum is faced with a ‘compulsory jurisdiction’ clause. However, it is our view that this case has created more questions than it has answered. Further, the second case, the order regarding provisional measures delivered by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) in the MOX Plant Case seems to have subjected the basis of some of the conclusions reached by the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case to question. In this state of legal uncertainty, we propose to carefully study these issues bearing in mind the conclusions of these tribunals and the opinions of writers and publicists.
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¹ LL.B, Campus Law Centre, Final Year, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
² LL.B, Campus Law Centre, Final Year, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
³ United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, concluded in Montego Bay on December 10, 1982, Vol. XXI, ILM (1982), 1261, UN Doc. A/CONF 62/122.
⁴ ALAN E. BOYLE, Dispute Settlement and the Law of the Sea Convention: Problems of Fragmentation and Jurisdiction, 46 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 37 (1997). Bernard H. Oxman, Complementary Agreements and Compulsory Arbitration, 95 Am. J. Int’l L. 277 (2001).
⁵ J. G. MERRILLS, INTERNATIONAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT, 106 (1984, Sweet & Maxwell).
⁶ The Convention had 139 signatories originally. Twenty nine states have yet to ratify and among the thirty nine states that did not sign the LOSC or were non-independent states at the time of its opening for signature, seventeen states have acceded or succeeded to it. (As on September 30, 2005 ).
⁷ During President Schwebel’s triennium 1997-2000 twenty one of the twenty four new cases in total were brought by unilateral applications, as followed in the 2000-2003 triennium by such eight new cases, including the Congo v. Belgium Arrest Warrant of April 11, 2000; Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (Revision of 1996 Judgment); Liechtenstein v. Germany Certain Property; Nicaragua v. Colombia (Arbitration and Maritime Dispute; Congo v. Rwanda (New Application: 2002); El Salvador v. Honduras Gulf of Fonseca (Revision of 1992 Judgment); Congo v. France (forum prorogatum); and Mexico v. USA Ayers and Cuban Mexican Nationals cases”. See Barbara Kwiatkowska, The Australia And New Zealand v. Japan Southern Bluefin Tuna (Jurisdiction And Admissibility) Award Of The First LOSC Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal, 16 Int’l J. Mar. & Coastal L. 239-294 (2001). In the Radio Orient case, UNRIAA, Vol. III, at 1873, between Egypt and the states of the Levant, arbitral proceedings were triggered unilaterally on the basis of a compromissory clause.
⁸ Euratom Treaty of March 25, 1957, art.193, 51 Am. J. Int’l L. 955 (1957) (in force: January 1, 1958) and the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union (EU) of February 7, 1992 as amended by Treaty of Amsterdam of October 2, 1997, art.292; previously art.219, 31 ILM 247 (1992) and 37 ILM 56 (1998) (in force: May 1, 1999).
⁹ On Understanding of Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes, constituting Annex 2 of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the WTO of April 15, 1994, 33 ILM 1144 (1994).
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⁴ Convention on the Protection of the Rhine Against Chemical Pollution of December 3, 1976, art 15 and Annex B, ILM 242 (1977) (in force: February 1, 1979); UNEP Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment of April 24, 1978, art. 25, and its related Protocols, 17 ILM 511 (1978); 1140 UNTS 133 (in force: June 30, 1979), 2065 UNTS 68; the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of December 20, 1988, art.32, 1582 UNTS 96; 28 ILM 493 (1989) (in force: November 11, 1990); and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change of the same date, art 14 and its 1997 Kyoto Protocol, art. 19, 31 ILM 809 (1992); 1771 UNTS 108 (in force: March 21, 1994); and 37 ILM 227 (1998), 96 Am. J. Int’l L. 487 (2002); see also Millennium Summit Multilateral Treaty Framework 80 (2000, UN); the Paris OSPAR Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic of September 22, 1992, art.32, 31 ILM 1069 (1993) (in force: March 25, 1998); the London Protocol of November 8, 1995, 16 to 17 ILM 222 IMO Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 36 ILM 1 (1997), Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, art. 20, to the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime of November 2, 2000, art. 35, 40 ILM 334 (2001), the IMO Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, art.16, March 10, 1988, 27 ILM 668 (1988); 1678 UNTS 201 (in force: March 1, 1992); for a comprehensive list see Barbara Kwiatkowska, The Australia And New Zealand v. Japan Southern Bluefin Tuna (Jurisdiction And Admissibility) Award Of The First LOSC Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal, 16 Int’l J. MAR. & COASTAL L. 239-294 (2001).
¹⁰ Southern Bluefin Tuna Case (Australia and New Zealand v. Japan)(August 4, 2000), 39 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL MATERIALS 1359 (2000), (hereinafter “Southern Bluefin Tuna Case”).
¹¹ Art. 290(5), provides that a claimant can have recourse to the ITLOS pending the constitution of an arbitral tribunal for the purpose of prescribing provisional measures if ITLOS considers that prima facie the Annex VII tribunal once constituted would have jurisdiction and that the urgency of the situations so requires.
¹² For further elaboration of the principle of consent in International law, see ANNE PETERS, International Dispute Settlement: A Network of Co-operative Duties, EUR. J. Int’l L. 14 (2003).
¹³ See remarks of the President of the Conference, Ambassador H. S. Amarasinghe, in 1976 A/CONF.62/ WP9/Add.1, March 31, 1976 ¶ 6; See statements by President Tunny Koh on December 6 & 11, 1982 at the final session of the Conference at Montego Bay, published in THE LAW OF THE SEA: OFFICIAL TEXT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA, (1983, United Nations).
II. SCHEME OF UN LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION AND ITS DISPUTE RESOLUTION PROCEDURE
The LOSC was intended to establish a comprehensive regime for the law of the sea. Its provisions for the peaceful settlement of disputes were considered indispensable in order to achieve its object and purpose.\(^{12}\) United States delegation expressed this view in the United States Seabed Proposal, in which they included an explanatory note stating:
Compulsory dispute settlement is the foundation of a new world order in ocean space. If nations cannot agree to settle their disputes peacefully (and be bound to do so) and to obey the decisions that are given, then all the standards of the rights and duties in the law of the sea convention will be of little practical value.\(^{13}\)
The President of the Conference, Ambassador H. S. Amerasinghe, in 1976 prepared an informal single negotiating text on the Settlement of Disputes. He explained his initiative as follows:
Dispute settlement procedures will be the pivot upon which the delicate equilibrium of the compromise must be balanced. Otherwise the compromise [embodied in the whole LOSC text] will disintegrate rapidly and permanently. I should hope that it is the will of all concerned that the prospective convention should be fruitful and permanent. Effective dispute settlement would also be the guarantee that the substance and intention within the legislative language of a treaty will be interpreted both consistently and equitably.\(^{14}\)
It was felt (i) that the settlement of disputes by effective legal means would be necessary in order to avoid political and economic pressures; (ii) that uniformity in the interpretation of the Convention should be sought; (iii) while the advantages of obligatory settlement of disputes are thus recognized, a few carefully defined exceptions should be allowed; (iv) that the system for the settlement of disputes must form an integral part and an essential element of the Convention, an optional protocol being totally inadequate; and (v) with well-defined legal recourse, small countries have powerful means available to prevent interference by large countries, and the latter in turn could save themselves trouble, both groups gaining by the principle of strict legality which implies the effective application of the agreed rules.\(^{15}\)
Section 2 (Articles 286-296) of the LOSC which provides for compulsory dis-
\(^{12}\) *United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982-A Commentary* (University of Virginia).
\(^{13}\) President Tommy Koh, *supra* note 12.
\(^{14}\) *United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982-A Commentary* (University of Virginia) at XV4) as cited in *Southern Bluefin Tuna Case*, *supra* note 9, separate opinion of Sir Kenneth Keith.
\(^{15}\) Separate Opinion of Sir Kenneth Keith, *Southern Bluefin Tuna Case*, *supra* note 9 ¶ 22.
pute settlement entailing a binding decision, seems to cover every circumstance. For example, Article 287 leaves the choice of the means of dispute settlement to the parties, but they are deemed to have chosen arbitration unless another listed forum is selected. When the drafters wanted to exclude any provision of LOSC from the scope of compulsory dispute settlement under Part XV, they did so expressly, for example, in Articles 297 and 298. What emerges from a study of the structure of Part XV of the LOSC is that the intention was that unless state parties to the LOSC explicitly excluded compulsory dispute settlement procedures in their agreements with other state parties to the LOSC, they would be bound by the same.\(^{16}\)
III. THE CONCLUSIONS OF THE SOUTHERN BLUEFIN TUNA CASE WITH RESPECT TO LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION DISPUTE SETTLEMENT PROCEDURE
Nevertheless, in light of the decision of the arbitral tribunal in the *Southern Bluefin Tuna* case, which marked the first instance of application of compulsory arbitration under Part XV, Section 2 of the LOSC, the question arises as to whether the LOSC raises such arduous procedural barriers to the application of the compulsory dispute settlement mechanism as to make application of compulsory dispute settlement impossible. It is in relation to this question that it becomes necessary to examine the provisions of Part XV of the LOSC, with a special emphasis on Section 1, as well as the arbitral award in the *Southern Bluefin Tuna Case*.
A. The Facts and Issues
Before considering the arbitral award, it is important to recapitulate briefly the facts of the case. The conservation and management of the Southern Bluefin Tuna (a migratory species of pelagic fish) is regulated by the Convention for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT) to which Japan, Australia and New Zealand are parties. Under the CCSBT, national allocations were established for each of the three countries. Japan fished within its allocation in the high seas, but also caught additional Southern Bluefin Tuna by way of a unilateral experimental fishing. Australia and New Zealand objected and decided to commence compulsory dispute resolution procedures under Part XV of LOSC. Pending the constitution of the arbitral tribunal to which the dispute was to be submitted under LOSC’s Annex VII, Australia announced its intention to seek the prescription of provisional measures under Article 290(S) of LOSC,\(^{17}\) including the immediate cessation of unilateral experimental fishing by Japan. ITLOS found that it had prima facie jurisdiction to hear the dispute and granted the request for provisional measures.
Japan then filed a memorial in which it raised a preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the tribunal to try the merits of the case. The arbitral tribunal held that it did not indeed have the jurisdiction to try the merits of the case. Certain provisions of the LOSC are extremely important in order to understand the issues involved in this case, they are therefore, reproduced here:
\(^{16}\) Art. 290(S), *supra* note 10.
Article 280: Settlement of disputes by any peaceful means chosen by the parties —
Nothing in this Part impairs the right of any States Parties to agree at any time to settle a dispute between them concerning the interpretation or application of this Convention by any peaceful means of their own choice.
Article 281: Procedure where no settlement has been reached by the parties —
1. If the States Parties which are parties to a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of this Convention have agreed to seek settlement of the dispute by a peaceful means of their own choice, the procedures provided for in this Part apply only where no settlement has been reached by recourse to such means and the agreement between the parties does not exclude any further procedure.
2. If the parties have also agreed on a time-limit, paragraph 1 applies only upon the expiration of that time-limit.
Article 282: Obligations under general, regional or bilateral agreements —
If the States Parties which are parties to a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of this Convention have agreed, through a general, regional or bilateral agreement or otherwise, that such dispute shall, at the request of any party to the dispute, be submitted to a procedure that entails a binding decision, that procedure shall apply in lieu of the procedures provided for in this Part, unless the parties to the dispute otherwise agree.
Article 281(1) lays down that Part XV, Section 2 compulsory procedures will not apply if “the other agreement between the parties does not exclude further procedure.” The tribunal was satisfied that the CCSBT constituted an agreement seeking “settlement of the dispute by a peaceful means of their own choice” and that it did, in fact, exclude further procedure. We will critically examine the basis for this decision and its implications.
B. Some Conclusions of the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case which Strengthen the Dispute Settlement Procedure of Law of the Sea Convention
We would like to emphasize at the outset that the conclusions of the arbitral tribunal are not in any way binding on the ICJ\(^{18}\) or on any future tribunals constituted under the terms of LOSC.\(^{19}\) Some writers have pointed out that this is as it should be because “ad hoc tribunals can make ad hoc justice.”\(^{20}\) This is not to say that these conclusions have no value whatsoever as precedent, for it is rare for an international judicial forum not to listen with respect to the findings of another international judicial forum on the same issue.
The tribunal reaffirmed the principle that the fact that a dispute is covered by more than one jurisdictional clause, under more than one treaty, does not necessarily entail a conflict between them.\(^{21}\) There is frequently a parallelism of treaties, both in their substantive content and in their provisions for settlement of disputes.\(^{22}\) The treaties, taken in their ordinary meaning can be read harmoniously to give effect to the dispute settlement procedure in both. This conclusion is also consistent with the principle of good faith\(^{23}\) which obliges the parties to strive to settle disputes and specifically to keep adopting new strategies, even if one fails.\(^{24}\)
The decision in the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case, thus categorically rejected the submission made before it by Japan that the dispute settlement provision of a regional Convention, namely, the Convention on the Conservation of the Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT) signed between Australia, New Zealand and Japan could or would over-ride or supplant the dispute settlement procedures of the LOSC despite the CCSBT being later in time than the LOSC and the tribunal having heard detailed arguments by Japan on it being lex specialis and lex posterior.\(^{25}\) It instead affirmed that principle of parallelism of the jurisdictional clauses of both treaties.\(^{26}\)
C. Some Conclusions of the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case which Weaken the Dispute Settlement Procedure of Law of the Sea Convention
The arbitral tribunal at the same time pointed out that the dispute settlement mechanism was not a comprehensive regime and that parties could opt out of it.\(^{27}\) Devine\(^{27}\) notes:
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\(^{18}\) MOHAMMED SHAHBUDEEN, PRECEDENT IN THE WORLD COURT, Hersch Lauterpacht Memorial Lectures, 35 (1996 Grotius Publications / Cambridge University Press)
\(^{19}\) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, art.296
\(^{20}\) Cesare Romano, *The Southern Bluefin Tuna Dispute: Hints of a World to Come Like it or Not*, 32 OCEAN DEV. & INT’L L. 334 (2001)
\(^{21}\) Electricity Company of Sofia & Bulgaria (Preliminary Objections), (1939) PCIJ, Ser A/B, No 77, 76
\(^{22}\) Southern Bluefin Tuna Case (Australia and New Zealand v. Japan) (August 4, 2000), *supra* note 9
\(^{23}\) Nuclear Tests Case (Australia v. France ), ICI Reports 268 (1974), ¶ 46; UN Charter, art.2 ¶ 2; Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States, art.34 (1)4, ILM (1965), at 532; Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes of the WTO Agreement, art.3(10), 33 ILM (1994), at 1124; 1997 Gabon-Koivo-Nagymaros Project Judgment; 1998 Cameroon v. Nigeria (Preliminary Objections) Judgment, ICI Reports 1998, 314-315, at 296 ¶ 38.
\(^{24}\) Anne Peters, *International Dispute Settlement: A Network of Co-operational Duties Exa.*, J. Int’l L. 14 (2003)
\(^{25}\) Available at www.worldbank.org/scsid/highlights/bluefintuna/qna_australia.pdf ¶ 116.
\(^{26}\) Southern Bluefin Tuna Case, *supra* note 9, ¶ 62.
\(^{27}\) D. I. Devine, *Compulsory Dispute Settlement in United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Undermined?*, 25 SAYIL 103-4 (2000).
under the LOSC in another manner at all.\textsuperscript{29} This would, also mean that all regional and other agreements similar to the CCSBT, could not be used to oust the jurisdiction of Section 2, Part XV of the LOSC and consequently place the LOSC’s dispute settlement procedure on less tenous ground. The characterization of disputes in this manner is also supported by the conclusions of the ITLOS in the \textit{MOX Plant Case} discussed below.
\textbf{2. The Significance of the Time and Purpose of the Agreement vis-à-vis a Particular Dispute} — Whether a pre-existing agreement of a management or regulatory nature would constitute “another peaceful means” of settling a dispute within the meaning of Article 281(1) is also questionable. It is arguable that Article 281 relates to a specific procedure, strategy or means that two or more states which are parties to a dispute agree to use to address a specific dispute and that it does not relate to general arrangements for dispute settlements which may arise in certain circumstances, such as the CCSBT. It could be argued that Article 280 refers to an agreement between parties to “a” dispute, after that dispute has arisen, to settle it by a peaceful means that they choose. This would mean that Article 280 refers only to a specific dispute that is already in existence when the agreement is concluded. One could therefore only have \textit{ex post facto} consensual substitution of an alternative mechanism. The phrase ‘a dispute between them’ does perhaps suggest a dispute that actually exists.\textsuperscript{30}
This view is, again, supported by the separate opinion of Sir Kenneth Keith in the Southern Bluefin Tuna Award. Sir Keith rejected Japan’s submission that the CCSBT constituted an agreement for the “settlement of the dispute by a peaceful means of their own choice” but rather suggested that the parties did agree to settle their dispute but through negotiations evidenced by their diplomatic exchanges.\textsuperscript{31}
\textsuperscript{29} Separate Opinion of Sir Kenneth Keith, \textit{Southern Bluefin Tuna Case}, \textit{supra} note 9, ¶ 5.
\textsuperscript{30} \textit{Southern Bluefin Tuna Case} (Australia and New Zealand v. Japan) (August 4, 2000), \textit{supra} note 9.
\textsuperscript{31} UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA 1992-A COMMENTARY (M. Nordquist et al. eds., University of Virginia) at 23 (281.5): G Eiriksson, \textit{The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea}, 24 (2000). Separate Opinion of Sir Kenneth, \textit{Southern Bluefin Tuna Case}, \textit{supra} note 9, ¶ 18.
\textsuperscript{32} See, for example, North American Free Trade Agreement, Dec 17, 1992, Can-Mex.-U.S., art.1121, 32 ILM 605 (1993).
\textsuperscript{33} J.R. Stevenson & B.H. Oxman, \textit{The Law of the Sea Convention III 1974 Caracas Session}, 69 Am. J. Int’l. L. 1, 29 (1975); REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES DELEGATION TO THE THIRD UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE LAW OF THE SEA 77 (M.N. Nordquist & Choon-ho Park eds. 1983), stating with respect to working paper on the Settlement of Law of the Sea Disputes, co-sponsored by the United States, UN Doc. A/CONF.62/L.7, 27, August 1974, in LOSC III Official Records, Vol. III, 85 (UN 1975), that it resulted from constructive meeting chaired by Ambassadors Galindo Pohl (El Salvador) & Ralph Harry (Australia), Louis Sohn (USA) Rapporteur, which dealt with eleven points, including: “3. Clause relating to other obligations. The issue dealt with is whether, in the absence of express agreement to the contrary, precedence is given to the procedures in the Convention or other procedures accepted by the parties entailing a binding decision” (emphasis added).
\textsuperscript{34} Message from the President of the United States of October 7, 1994 transmitting the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to the U.S. Senate With Commentary, 103 Congress, 2d Sess., Treaty Dec. 103-39, reprinted in 34 ILM 1393 (1995) at 51.
\textsuperscript{35} DAVID A. COLSON & DR. PEGGY HOYLE, \textit{Satisfying the Procedural Prerequisites to the Compulsory Dispute Settlement Mechanisms of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention: Did the Southern Bluefin Tuna Tribunal Get It Right?}, 34 OCEAN DEV. & INT’L L. 60 (2003).
3. Whether an Agreement which Excluded Further Procedure Impliedly can Pre-empt Section 2, Part XV Procedures under Law of the Sea Convention? — The arbitral tribunal’s decision implies that “…the compulsory dispute settlement under the LOSC may be defeated by consensual arrangements even where there is no clear manifestation that the Parties intended their consensual arrangement to trump the compulsory procedures of the LOSC.”\(^{32}\) But the opinion that the compulsory dispute settlement procedures of the LOSC can be excluded by implication is open to question.\(^{33}\) It has been contended that if the parties to a treaty were to have such a clear and unambiguous intention as to exclude procedures for dispute settlement, other than those given in the convention itself, they could have very easily simply said so in a clear and unambiguous manner. It is true that when states have wanted to exclude certain procedures, they have often done so explicitly.\(^{34}\) There is also evidence from the travaux préparatoires\(^{35}\) and the interpretation of states\(^{36}\) that the parties to LOSC intended and understood that only agreements expressly ousting further procedure would oust the Section 2 procedure of LOSC.
4. Implication of the Decision for State Parties to Regional Agreements — All parties to the regional and other agreements that have provisions relating to the law of the sea would not be able to avail of the Compulsory Jurisdiction procedure of LOSC even though their very purpose in signing LOSC was to have such a Compulsory Jurisdiction procedure because the existing arrangements including these agreements were inefficient and not functional.\(^{37}\) If the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case’s decision is treated as precedent on this point, it would mean that one of the most important intentions, i.e. to rework an inefficient system of regional conventions of the parties to the LOSC is not given effect. The MOX Plant Case, discussed below, sheds some light on how the decision is in fact viewed in other judicial fora.
IV. THE MOX PLANT CASE
The MOX Plant Case, like the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case discussed earlier, demonstrates the problem of overlapping of jurisdictional clauses of treaties and the procedural and substantive challenges that follow as a consequence. The MOX Plant proceedings were initiated before three dispute settlement bodies; an arbitration body under the OSPAR Convention, an arbitration body under the LOSC (preceded by provisional measures proceedings before the ITLOS) and before the ECJ (which is to make a decision relating to the lawfulness of the government of Ireland initiating proceedings against the United Kingdom before the LOSC dispute settlement bodies rather than before the competent EC bodies).
A brief review of the facts of the case is necessary to understand the predicament arising from the overlap of the treaties. This case involves the operation of the MOX plant run by British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL). Since the plant borders the Irish Sea, Ireland objected to its operation, basing its complaint on the fact that the operation of the plant poses a serious threat to the marine environment of the Irish Sea.
Proceedings were initiated by Ireland under the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 1992 (“the OSPAR Convention”) based upon the claim that United Kingdom’s refusal to publish two reports dealing with the economic justification of the MOX plant in full was inconsistent with its obligations under Article 9 of the OSPAR Convention. The arbitral award delivered under this convention is beyond the scope of this paper.
Thereafter Ireland instituted arbitral proceedings under LOSC on 25th October under Article 290 of LOSC,\(^{38}\) the primary allegation being that in continued operation of the plant, the United Kingdom had failed to fulfill its obligations to prevent, reduce, or control pollution of the Irish sea from operational discharges from the MOX Plant or from accidental release from the MOX Plant and was therefore in breach of its obligations, primarily under Articles 192 and 193 of LOSC.
The United Kingdom, in its defense, invoked the bar to the jurisdiction of LOSC under Article 282, provides for exclusion to the compulsory jurisdiction of LOSC in case of existence of other treaties between the parties that entail binding decisions. The United Kingdom claimed that the dispute settlement procedures of the LOSC were ousted by the dispute settlement procedures of certain agreements to which Ireland and the United Kingdom were party.
The first of these was the OSPAR Convention, to which both Ireland and the United Kingdom are parties. Under Article 2 of OSPAR, the parties are obliged to protect the marine environment and to avoid marine pollution. The United Kingdom therefore contended that all issues of marine pollution arising from the MOX Plant case should be dealt with under the OSPAR convention. The United Kingdom referred to Article 32 of the OSPAR convention, which provides that all disputes concerning the application and interpretation of the OSPAR convention that cannot be settled by the parties are to be submitted to arbitration. This is a mandatory provision, as the failure to settle the dispute leads to binding arbitration at the request of one of the parties.
The United Kingdom further contended that matters relating to nuclear material were governed by EU directives and that the suitable forum for the resolution of disputes arising out of such matters was the European Court of Justice (ECJ), which was identified in the treaties establishing both the European Communities and Euratom as the exclusive medium for such disputes as both treaties provide that, “Member States undertake not to submit a dispute concerning the interpretation or implementation of the Treaty to any method of settlement other than those provided for therein.”\(^{39}\)
Ireland, on the other hand, resorted to the argument of cumulative application of treaties, that the rights conferred under the other treaties and under LOSC were cumulative and that Ireland was entitled to pick and choose as to which of them it relied on and to select the forum accordingly.
\(^{38}\) Art.290 (5), supra note 10.
\(^{39}\) EC Treaty, art. 292; Euratom Treaty, art. 193.
Rejecting the argument that the proceeding before it was barred under Article 282 of LOSC, ITLOS held that:
The dispute settlement procedures under the OSPAR Convention, the EC Treaty and the Euratom Treaty deal with disputes concerning the interpretation or application of those agreements, and not with disputes arising under [LOSC]. . . Even if the OSPAR Convention, the EC Treaty and the Euratom Treaty contain rights or obligations similar to or identical with the rights or obligations set out in [LOSC], the rights and obligations under those agreements have a separate existence from those under [LOSC]. . . The application of international law rules on interpretation of treaties to identical or similar provisions of different treaties may not yield the same results, having regard to, inter alia, differences in the respective contexts, objects and purposes, subsequent practice of parties and travaux préparatoires.
The ITLOS thus characterizes the disputes under the OSPAR Convention, the EC Treaty and the Euratom Treaty and the LOSC differently. A dispute settlement mechanism dealing with disputes arising with respect to the interpretation and application of one of these instruments, would not therefore qualify as a dispute settlement procedure to deal with disputes arising out of the interpretation and application of any of the other instruments although the substance of the dispute may be the same.
Such a decision may be criticized on that ground that it will increase the risk of conflicting decisions by international courts and tribunals with overlapping jurisdictions and of the practice of ‘forum-shopping’ among states. The decision on the MOX plant by the arbitral tribunal on merits in June 2003 seems to recognize these concerns.
In the circumstances, and bearing in mind considerations of mutual respect and comity which should prevail between judicial institutions both of which may be called upon to determine rights and obligations as between two States, the Tribunal considers that it would be inappropriate for it to proceed the further with hearing Parties on the merits of the dispute in the absence of a resolution of the problems referred to. Moreover, a procedure that might result in two conflicting decisions on the same issue would not be helpful to the resolution of the dispute between the Parties.
Therefore the LOSC arbitration tribunal, in direct contrast to the interim deci-
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40 MOX Plant, Order of Dec. 3, 2001, ITLOS, at ¶ 49-51 (emphasis added), available at http://www.itlos.org/case_documents/2001/document_en_197.pdf.
41 The arbitral tribunal constituted under Annex VII of the ILOS.
42 MOX Plant (LOSC arbitration), ¶ 28.
43 The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Order in the MOX Plant Case, Provisional Measures (Ireland v. United Kingdom).
44 Yuval Shany, The First MOX Plant Award: The Need to Harmonize Competing Environmental Regimes and Dispute Settlement Procedures, LEIDEN J. INT’L L., 17 (2004), 815-827. See also Malcolm J. C. Forster, The MOX Plant Case-Provisional Measures in the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 16 LEIDEN J. INT’L L. 611-619(2003).
‘SUNLIGHT IS THE BEST DISINFECTANT’*
A REVIEW OF THE RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT, 2005
Shruti Rajagopalan*
I. PRELIMINARY
The Indian Constitution does not explicitly recognise the fundamental right to information and in the absence of enabling legislation, no statutory guarantee for this right has ever existed in India. Over the years, the Supreme Court has read the right to information into the fundamental rights part of the Constitution, under the right to free speech and expression¹ and right to life². The Right to Information Act, 2005 (RTIA) is therefore a significant debut for a statutory guarantee to the right to access information³. It is evident that though constitutionally the right to know was recognised by the Supreme Court as early as 1950⁴, it was never an enforceable right wherein citizens could seek information through the administration or the courts⁵. The first glimmer of hope was in the Election case⁶ in 2002 when the Supreme Court directed the Election Commission to secure to voters information pertaining to each candidate contesting election to Parliament and to the State legislatures⁷.
An effective right to information regime needs to formulate three components: (a) an access to information policy, (b) a disclosure of information policy, and (c) an information regime. The RTIA provides suitable disclosure powers which the government may exercise suo moto and an access regime that may be utilised for information not already disclosed. It is the first real effort made by the government towards a comprehensive access policy. This legislation is the outcome of the weak Freedom of Information Act, 2002 (FOIA)⁸, which was never implemented, and the impositions of the National Common Minimum Programme (CMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government⁹. Previous attempts to provide a statutory
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* A phrase used by Justice Louis Brandeis of the United States Supreme Court to emphasise the importance of transparency on governance. See LOUIS D. BRANDEIS, OTHER PEOPLE’S MONEY 62 (1914).
¹ 2nd Year, LL.B., Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi. This paper was written by the author as a researcher at the Public Interest Legal Support and Research Centre (PILSARC) under the guidance of Dr. Rajeev Dhavan and Mr. Bhairavi Acharya.
² S. P. Gupta v. Union of India, (1981) Supp. SCC 87, at 67. The Supreme Court in this case read right to information as part of Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution dealing with right to free speech and expression.
³ Essar Oil Ltd. v. Halar Utkarsha Samiti, AIR 2004 SC 1834. In this case the court by further expanding the horizon of Article 21 of the Constitution read right to information as part of right to life.
⁴ The Right to Information Act, 2005 received Presidential assent on June 16, 2005 and came into effect on October 12, 2005.
⁵ Romesh Thapgar v. State of Madras, AIR 1950 SC 124.
⁶ State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain, (1975) 4 SCC 428, at 453; Reliance Petrochemicals Ltd. v. Proprietors of Indian Express Newspapers Bombay (P) Ltd., (1988) 4 SCC 592, at 612; S. P. Gupta v Union of India, (1981) Supp SCC 87.
⁷ See Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms, (2002) 5 SCC 294, at 302.
⁸ The FOIA has been repealed by Section 31 of the RTIA.
⁹ Government of India. National Common Minimum Programme, available at http://pmindia.nic.in/cmp.pdf.
guarantee either remained in the draft stage or were never operationalised due to a lack of political will, despite its universal demand from different civil society groups.
II. BACKGROUND: THE DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION LAWS
A. Events Leading to Enactment of RTIA
There have been many proposals for an access to information law. The first proposal was made by the Janata Party in 1977, in reaction to the preceding Emergency, and promised an “open government” by looking at the existing access to information laws¹⁰. The step was not towards enacting an access to information law, but only to modify the Official Secrets Act, 1923. This issue gained importance again in 1989 as the National Front Government¹¹ headed by Mr. V. P. Singh announced¹² its commitment towards an open government, borrowing from the election manifesto of the Janata Party. The government appointed a Cabinet Committee which was, however, dissolved in August 1990 without any report or recommendations.
In 1993, a draft right to information law was proposed by the Consumer Education and Research Council, Ahmedabad (CERC). Despite the considerable internal confusion that the draft law faced within the ruling Congress party, the government made a small attempt at easing information laws by enacting the Public Records Act, 1993. This was followed in 1996 by a Press Council of India draft of a right to information legislation. It was the first time a clear model law had been drafted and lobbied for with the government.
The Press Council draft law was later revised by the National Institute of Rural Development and renamed the Freedom of Information Bill, 1997. Unfortunately, none of these draft laws were seriously considered by the government. After sustained civil society pressure, the Central Government appointed a Working Group under Mr. H. D. Shourie in 1997 to officially propose fresh legislation on freedom of information. The Shourie Committee’s Report and draft Bill, which were prepared in 1997, eventually resulted in the Freedom of Information Bill, 2000 despite considerable dilution of its original provisions. The Bill was introduced in Parliament and passed in December 2002. It received Presidential assent in January 2003 and took effect as the Freedom of Information Act, 2002. However, the Act was weak and never notified. Important lessons were learned from the FOIA fiasco, chief among them was the necessity for political
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¹⁰ S. Maheshwari, Secrecy in Government in India, 1979, 25 IIPA 1101.
¹¹ Election Manifesto of the Janata Party-led National Front Government, 1989. See also, Jaytišak G Roy, Right to Information: A Key to Accountable and Transparent Administration, available at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/EROPA/UNPAN014329.pdf.
¹² Prime Minister V. P. Singh in his first broadcast to the nation in December 1989 said, “We will have to increase access to information, if the government functions in full public view, wrong doings will be minimised. To this end, Official Secrets Act will be amended and we will make the functioning more transparent. Right to information will be enshrined in our Constitution”. See ROY, id.
will to liberalise an area of democratic governance, thence the exclusive preserve of the government’s massive bureaucracy.
In comparison, Mr. Ram Jethmalani, Law Minister in the then National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government in 1998, ordered that photocopies of all the records and documents of his department would be made available to any citizen upon demand\(^{12}\). However, this move was opposed by the Cabinet Secretary and order was forced to be withdrawn\(^{13}\).
The current RTIA was born out of the UPA government’s CMP commitments that resulted, on December 23, 2004, in the introduction of a draft Bill in Parliament by the Minister of State for Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Mr. Suresh Pachauri. The exercise was ostensibly aimed at redressing the ignominy of the FOIA and to improve upon its weak provisions. The Right to Information Bill, 2004 that was tabled in Parliament was based on the suggestions of the National Advisory Council (NAC) though it ignored many of the suggestions proposed by it. Members of the NAC and other individuals protested the dilution of their suggested draft law and the Bill was sent to a Parliamentary Standing Committee for clarifications and review. The Standing Committee reintroduced many of the propositions of the NAC. The Bill was finally passed by the Lok Sabha on May 11, 2005, by the Rajya Sabha on May 12, 2005 and received the assent of the President on June 15, 2005 to become the Right to Information Act, 2005. The Act was notified in the Official Gazette on June 21, 2005 and it came into force on the one hundredth and twentieth day of its enactment\(^{14}\).
**B. Freedom of Information in the States**
In the meanwhile, various states were also enacting their freedom of information laws. Tamil Nadu, Goa and Madhya Pradesh were the first states to enact a right to information legislation in 1997 despite a relative absence of civil society pressure within their states. In April 1998, the Madhya Pradesh Governor reserved the Bill for Presidential assent which was denied on the ground of legislative incompetence. However, Madhya Pradesh government drafted another Bill\(^{15}\) which, in January 2003, was enacted as the *Madhya Pradesh Jankari Ki Swatantrata Adhiniyam*, 2002 and received the assent of the Governor. Chhattisgarh applies the right to information law of Madhya Pradesh\(^{16}\).
In 2000, following a campaign by the noted social activist Mr. Anna Hazare\(^{17}\), Maharashtra enacted its own Right to Information Act, 2000. However, this enactment faced considerable criticism and was replaced with a Right to Information Ordinance, 2002 that lapsed in January 2003. In March 2003, the Maharashtra Government passed a new Maharashtra Right to Information Act which replicated the 2002 Ordinance and received Presidential assent on August 10, 2003\(^{18}\).
Karnataka and Delhi enacted access to information laws in 2000 and 2001 respectively without much controversy. In Rajasthan, the *Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan* (MKSS) movement gathered enough momentum to force the Chief Minister into promising the enactment of legislation as early as 1997. Following various executive orders, a consolidated Rajasthan Right to Information Act was enacted in 2000.
While the north eastern states remained isolated from the right to information debate, Assam enacted its right to information law in 2002 without adequate consultation with civil society groups and other stakeholders\(^{19}\). Jammu and Kashmir, constitutionally shielded from the automatic application of national laws\(^{20}\), enacted its own Right to Information Act, 2004\(^{21}\). Other States, including Orissa\(^{22}\), Andhra Pradesh\(^{23}\), Kerala\(^{24}\), Jharkhand\(^{25}\) and Uttar Pradesh\(^{26}\) had also drafted their access to information laws.
**III. LEGISLATIVE COMPETENCE AND CENTRAL AND STATE LAWS**
An important component of India’s federal structure is preserved in the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution that delineates the various subjects upon which the Centre and the States can legislate upon. These subjects are listed in three legislative Lists — the Union List (List I), the State List (List II) and the Concurrent List (List III). The Centre is competent to enact laws on subjects entered in the Union List or the Concurrent List, or matters which are ancillary or incidental\(^{27}\) to Entries in the Union or Concurrent List. Similarly, the State has competence to enact laws on entries in the State List or Concurrent List or matters incidental to entries in such Lists\(^{28}\). The right to information is not specifically covered under any of the three Lists in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution.
A specific entry on freedom of information laws is not mentioned in any of the three lists. The enactment of the RTIA presents a situation where a parliamentary enactment, applicable throughout the territory of India, exists in parallel with several State legislations regarding freedom of information. Can these enactments co-exist?
An argument, which found support in the NDA government, was that since Right to Information is not mentioned in any of the three entries, only the Centre has the
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\(^{12}\) Rajeev Dhavan, *Mr. Jethmalani Springs a Surprise*, HINDU, Oct. 9, 1998.
\(^{13}\) M. Kishwar, *Yes Minister*, MANUSH, 108, Sep.-Oct. 1998.
\(^{14}\) Right to Information Act, 2005, § 1(3).
\(^{15}\) See Kalpana Sharma, *Digvijay Singh cornered on Right to Information*, HINDU, Apr. 6, 2001.
\(^{16}\) Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2000, §§ 78, 79.
\(^{17}\) See Bharat Rawal, *The Second Freedom Struggle: An Interview with Anna Hazare on the State of RTI Laws*, available at http://www.indiatogether.org/2005/feb/rti-hazare.htm.
\(^{18}\) See Manjiri Madhav Damle, *Hazare writes to Advani on Right to Information Bill*, TIMES OF INDIA, Aug. 3, 2003.
\(^{19}\) Barun Das Gupta, *Assam Plans Right to Information Bill*, HINDU, Aug. 29, 2001.
\(^{20}\) INDIAN CONST., art. 370.
\(^{21}\) Staff Reporter, *Jammu and Kashmir Passes Right to Information Bill*, HINDU, Dec. 19, 2003.
\(^{22}\) Draft-Bill for Orissa Right to Information Act, 2002.
\(^{23}\) Andhra Pradesh Right To Information Bill, 2001.
\(^{24}\) Kerala Right to Information Bill, 2002 & Kerala Transparency in Public Purchase Bill, 2002.
\(^{25}\) Jharkhand Right to Information Bill, 2001.
\(^{26}\) Code of Practice on Access to Information, Government of Uttar Pradesh.
\(^{27}\) Kesaram Industries Ltd., (2004) 10 SCC 201, ¶¶ 31, 74, 138.
\(^{28}\) INDIAN CONST., art. 246.
\(^{29}\) See Union of India v. H. S. Dhillon, AIR 1972 SC 1061.
competence due to its Residuary Power to enact laws not mentioned in any of the lists under Article 248 read with Entry 97 of List I of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution\textsuperscript{30}. This provision may come into play if the law pertains to good governance in general\textsuperscript{31}.
An alternate view\textsuperscript{32} is that since there is no specific entry in the Union, State or Concurrent Lists dealing with the Right to Information, “It would be open to any legislative body to provide for access to information on any subject on which it has legislative competence”, further that both central and state laws may coexist “the Central Act will override the State Acts, where there is a conflict between the two”\textsuperscript{33}. This argument is essentially that providing information is an ancillary matter in the governance of the subjects under Centre and State. This means that the Right to Information laws are ancillary and important for the governance of the areas under state control and similarly right to information is ancillary to good governance at the central level. If this view is correct then the more important issue is: Can the Central law impose a duty on the State to provide access even in departments and matters which are only under the State List on which the Centre may not enact legislations? This question arises because the RTIA covers Public authorities under both the Central and the State Governments in Section 2 of the Act.
If the Union claims that its legislation is under its residuary power\textsuperscript{34}, enacting freedom of information legislation would fall exclusively within its sphere to the exclusion of the States. This is not a satisfactory situation. Thus, the only solution is coexistence so that the Union operates in its sphere and States in their spheres. One clear solution is that the RTIA and state laws fall under Entry 12 in the Concurrent List pertaining to matters on public acts and records. This would give both the Centre and the States the power to enact freedom of information laws. However the Central law would have predominance over the state laws in case of any inconsistency unless the state specially seeks presidential assent\textsuperscript{35}. This interpretation makes most clauses of the state laws void as they are inconsistent with the central law. To address this issue, the NAC had suggested that, where there is a state law then the citizens can access information under the state law and the central law if the information pertains to a subject under the State List\textsuperscript{36}. However this suggestion was not included in the RTIA and it is still unclear whether the centre or the states have competence.
IV. ‘OFFICIAL SECRETS’ AND THE CITIZENS’ RIGHT TO INFORMATION: AN INCONSISTENT DICHOTOMY
While the right to information movement has gained strength in the country, the Indian government continues to wield the Official Secrets Act, 1923 (OSA). The product of a colonial government’s attempt to marshal information, the OSA’s coexistence with modern right to information laws presents a puzzling contradiction. The first Official Secrets Act, 1889 applied to British India and almost replicated the British Official Secrets Act, 1882. This was amended once in 1904; and, later, the Official Secrets Act, 1911 was enacted by the British in India not as a permanent law, but specific to wartime. The Act of 1911 was strengthened in 1920 to make it as effective as its British counterpart. The stated object of the Official Secrets Act, 1923 was to consolidate all the laws relating to ‘official secrecy’ in India. Its more insidious purpose was to protect the colonial government from the large amount of information leaking out through its civil servants and also to protect executive secrets. Post-independence, the OSA was amended in the aftermath of the India-Pakistan War of 1965 post Indo-Pak war in 1967 to strengthen some aspects to deal effectively with the increasing number of spies.
The OSA was a regressive law, passed as a temporary measure in England in 1911 in one day and replicated in India in 1923. A Committee in England in 1972 suggested it be “pensioned off”\textsuperscript{37}. But it took some time for England to get rid of this imperial relic and in 1977 Mrs. Thatcher declared the Crohan Memorandum following the recommendations of the Franks Committee\textsuperscript{38}. In India, insistent suggestions that the OSA was not consistent with democratic ideal did not result in its repeal. Clearly the OSA and RTIA have differing and contradictory objectives. The former criminalises persons of any unauthorised information. The latter strives towards maximising information being made available. No doubt, technically the two can co-exist, since information made available under RTIA is authorised. But specific provisions are needed to keep the OSA in check so that it does not affront democracy.
The OSA’s prime consideration is the countering of espionage. Section 3(1) of the OSA, which prescribes the penalties for spying, makes it an offence for a person with a “purpose prejudicial to the safety or interests of the State”, and Section 3(2) qualifies the necessity of the prosecution to show a prejudicial interest to prove the guilt of the accused by allowing a conviction if from his conduct it appears that his purpose was prejudicial to the safety or interests of the State. Section 4 makes it unlawful to communicate with foreign agents or “any person reasonably suspected” of being a foreign agent.
However, the ability of the OSA to be used as a tool by the government to silence people who are not spies arises from Section 5. Dealing with the wrongful communication of information, Section 5 of the OSA corresponds to Section 2 of the British Official Secrets Act, 1889 that was described as a “catch all”\textsuperscript{39} clause and “pensioned off” following the recommendations of the Franks Committee\textsuperscript{40}. Section 5 makes it an offence, punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
\textsuperscript{30} R. Dhavan, \textit{Freedom of Information Bill, 2000, An Appraisal}, 2000 (unpublished working paper) (on file with PILSARC, No. 22, 2000 series).
\textsuperscript{31} This view has been forwarded by Mr. Prashant Bhushan, Advocate, Supreme Court of India.
\textsuperscript{32} S. Vincent, \textit{One step forward two steps back}, available at http://www.indiatogather.org.
\textsuperscript{33} INDIAN CONST., Entry 97, List I, Seventh Schedule.
\textsuperscript{34} \textit{Id.} Article 254(1) & 254(2). \textit{See also} Hoechst Pharmaceuticals v. State of Bihar, AIR 1983 SC 1019.
\textsuperscript{35} National Advisory Council Draft for The Right to Information Bill, 2004, § 1(4).
\textsuperscript{36} The 1972 Report of the Franks Committee on Section 2 of the (British) Official Secrets Act, 1911 refers to the observation of Caulfields, J. that Section 2 should be pensioned off.
\textsuperscript{37} Under the Crohan Memorandum, memos were sent from the Prime Minister’s Office to all departments requiring them to publish all important information especially those concerning public interest.
\textsuperscript{38} The 1972 Report of the Franks Committee on Section 2 of the (British) Official Secrets Act, 1911.
\textsuperscript{39} Rajeev Dhavan, \textit{Only the Good News: On the Law of Press in India} (1987, Manohar).
three years, or with fine, or both, for any person holding office under any government agency to wilfully communicate any official information to anyone other than an authorised person. It has since been amended even in Britain. Section 5 has been often employed to scare and punish whistleblowers within the government\textsuperscript{40}. Not only does it punish current or retired government officers, it also leaves it up to the government to authorise information and each government can determine how secretive or open it chooses to be. With Section 5 the OSA’s departs from the valid realm of counter-espionage and unnecessarily concerns itself with a whole range of policy matters that affect citizens and require public participation. Until recently, even the Annual Budget was deemed an official secret inviting criminal sanction under the OSA until it was actually presented\textsuperscript{41}. An important question arises here: How will the OSA and the RTIA affect each other what will be its impact on the same bureaucracy that is expected to disclose information under the RTIA?
As a first step towards a credible Indian freedom of information regime, the RTIA must override the OSA on non-espionage matters and the OSA’s omnibus Section 5 must be done away with. In the former regard of overriding the OSA, Section 22 of the RTIA states that RTIA will have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent with the OSA. In regard of the latter, no repeal of Section 5 of OSA has taken place.
Therefore RTIA overrides the OSA where a provision is repugnant to the RTIA. But, this only means that if a Government official or a citizen in possession of information was to divulge information which fell under “catch all” provision of the OSA they would still be liable for prosecution under the OSA unless the information was received or passed on under the RTIA or otherwise officially divulged by the Government. The “catch all” provision must therefore be repealed.
The RTIA also makes provision for further disclosure under its proviso to Section 8 which states that notwithstanding anything in the OSA a public authority may allow access to information, if public interest in disclosure outweighs the harm to the protected interests. Under this provision for public interest override information may be disclosed under the RTIA even where the OSA and RTIA are not inconsistent with each other as required by Section 22 of the RTIA. But the provisions for public interest override are most often subject to interpretation and this provision may not disclose information in greater public interest if the OSA continues to exist and prejudice officials.
Therefore, although on the face of it the RTIA legally overrides the OSA, the continued existence of OSA presents an inconsistent dichotomy in India’s freedom of information regime that will undermine the effectiveness of RTIA at the time of its implementation and hinder any participation between citizens and the bureaucracy.
\textsuperscript{40} M. S. Siddhu, \textit{The Workings of the Official Secrets Act}, MANUSHI, 108, Sep.-Oct. 1998.
\textsuperscript{41} Nand Lal, 1965 (1) Cri LJ 393.
\textsuperscript{42} National Common Minimum Programme, \textit{supra} note 8.
\textbf{V. JOURNEY FROM A ‘FREEDOM’ TO A ‘RIGHT’}
The FOIA was a weak law and was neither notified nor were any rules for its implementation formulated. In 2004, the UPA government responded to calls for an effective right to information regime by promising, in its CMP, that, “the Right to Information Act will be made more progressive, participatory and meaningful”\textsuperscript{43}. Many civil society campaigners and experts were also not satisfied with the mere ‘freedom’ to access information, but wanted instead a ‘right’ and a statutory guarantee to enforce that right. As an endeavour to increase transparency and enable citizens’ right to know, it would be fair to say that the RTIA has succeeded and come a long way from the FOIA.
The FOIA was very weak on many fronts that the RTIA has improved upon. The first and biggest flaw with the FOIA was that it came into force only on notification and not immediately\textsuperscript{43}. The absence of a time-bound period for implementation resulted in the FOIA remaining in executive abeyance for over eighteen months under the pretext that the rules for its implementation were being formulated. The RTIA addresses this problem by ensuring that a few of its provisions come into effect immediately and the rest on the one hundredth and twentieth day of its enactment\textsuperscript{44}.
The second area where the FOIA was weak and inadequate was its \textit{suo moto} disclosure policy which has been improved to some extent in the RTIA. Under the FOIA, only the particulars of an organisation; its functions, powers and the duties of its officers; norms; rules and regulations; list of records available to citizens; details of facilities to get information; facts related to any decision; reasons for its decisions, and, project schemes were to be disclosed \textit{suo moto}\textsuperscript{45}. The RTIA, on the other hand, contains powers to review the Act’s disclosure policy that are vested with an Information Commission. The Commission has the authority to add to the list of information to be disclosed \textit{suo moto}.
\textsuperscript{43} Freedom of Information Act, 2002, § 1(3).
\textsuperscript{44} Right to Information Act, 2005, § 1(3).
\textsuperscript{45} Freedom of Information Act, 2002, § 4(2).
\textsuperscript{46} Right to Information Act, 2005, § 4(1) (b).
\textsuperscript{47} The following have been added in the RTIA as an improvement over the \textit{suo moto} clause in FOIA:
a) the particulars of any arrangement that exists for consultation with the public in relation to the formulation of its policy or implementation;
b) statements of the boards, councils, committees and other bodies and whether the meetings of those boards, councils, committees and other bodies are open to the public, or the minutes of such meetings are accessible for public;
c) a directory of all officers and employees of every government department;
d) the monthly remuneration of such officers and employees, including the system of remuneration;
e) the budget allocated to each government agency, indicating the particulars of all plans, proposed expenditures and reports on disbursements made;
f) the manner of execution of subsidy programmes, including the amounts allocated and the details of beneficiaries of such programmes;
g) particulars of recipients of concessions, permits or authorisations granted by government departments or agencies;
h) details of all information available to such departments or agencies reduced into an electronic form;
i) the particulars of all facilities available to citizens for obtaining information; and,
j) the names, designations and other particulars of Public Information Officers and such other information as may be prescribed.
\textsuperscript{48} Freedom of Information Act, 2002, § 4(2).
In addition, the RTIA enables the publishing of more routine and detailed information at regular intervals\textsuperscript{46}. To the FOIA, the RTIA has added various other groups of information which are required to be published \textit{suo motu}.\textsuperscript{47}
The FOIA only required information to be maintained and indexed to meet operational requirements\textsuperscript{48} but was weak on a uniform documentation policy. Other than maintaining and indexing records, the RTIA also requires public authorities to ensure that all records that are appropriate to be computerised and connected through a network all over the country so that access is facilitated\textsuperscript{49}. This provision is a step towards the promise of the UPA in the CMP to enable ‘electronic governance’.
The third area where the FOIA left much to improve on was the number of specific, general and blanket exclusions that blocked a citizen’s access to information. The exclusions under the RTIA are fewer and more specific. The four general exemptions under Section 9 of FOIA\textsuperscript{50} have been deleted in the RTIA.
While the blanket exclusion the FOIA provided to intelligence and security agencies\textsuperscript{51} has been retained in the RTIA,\textsuperscript{52} information relating to human rights violations and corruption charges in these agencies is not exempt following NAC recommendation to that effect. This is a major step towards making the exclusion to intelligence agencies compatible with the norms of transparency and good governance.
The specific exemptions of the FOIA\textsuperscript{53} have been retained in the RTIA with two exclusions. These are: (a) the exemption provided to matters affecting Centre-State relations has been removed in the RTIA and the decision-making process for any policy is privy only during deliberation but must be disclosed after the decision is taken; and, (b) information received from foreign governments and information which would constitute contempt of court on disclosure has been excluded under the RTIA. Safeguards to protect privacy of individuals have been included in the RTIA\textsuperscript{54}. Despite a greater number of exemptions in the RTIA, their brevity and preciseness serve it better than the FOIA. Incidentally, none of the exemptions of the FOIA were subject to the public interest override clause, which has been provided for in the RTIA. For the information
\textsuperscript{46} Right to Information Act, 2005, § 4(1)(a).
\textsuperscript{47} Section 9 – “A public information officer may reject a request for information also where such request-(a) is too general in nature or is of such a nature that, having regard to the volume of information required to be retrieved or processed would involve unreasonable diversion of the resources a public authority or would adversely interfere with the functioning of such authority. Provided that where such request is rejected on the ground that the request is too general, it would be the duty of the Public Information Officer to render help as far as possible to the person making request to reframe his request in such a manner as may facilitate compliance with it. (b) relates to information that is required by law, rules, regulations or orders to be published at a particular time and such information is likely to be so published within thirty days of the receipt of such request. (c) relates to information that is contained in published material available to public. (d) relates to information which would cause unwarranted invasion of the privacy of any person.”
\textsuperscript{48} Freedom of Information Act, 2002, § 16.
\textsuperscript{49} Right to Information Act, 2005, § 24(1).
\textsuperscript{50} Supra note 51, 43 § 8(1).
\textsuperscript{51} Right to Information Act, 2005, § 8(1)(j).
\textsuperscript{52} Id. § 8(3).
\textsuperscript{53} Id. §§ 12, 15.
\textsuperscript{54} A. Thangavel Kunju Musalir, AIR 1956 SC 246, ¶ 63; Burrakur Coal Co. Ltd., AIR 1961 SC 954, ¶ 17; Amit Das, (2000) 5 SCC 488, ¶ 22.
\textsuperscript{55} INDIAN CONST., art. 370.
\textsuperscript{56} Section 1(3) of the Jammu and Kashmir Right to Information Act, 2004 states that the Act will come into force by government notification. Rules under J & K RTIA have been published on June 20, 2005, after a lapse of almost eighteen months.
C. Commencement
The commencement of the RTIA is an important issue, one which has created controversy in the past. Ordinarily, legislations come into force “at once” after they are passed by both Houses of Parliament and receive Presidential assent. Some legislative enactments also specify the date on which they come into effect; such as, “it (the Act) shall come into force on the hundred and twentieth day of its enactment”. However, some laws allow a further delay in the commencement clause by not specifying a time-bound period of implementation and leaving the matter up to the discretion of the Central Government. Typically, such provisions read thus: “it shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint”. This is a method to delay the commencement of a law and is referred to as a deferment clause. It is becoming more frequent in Indian legislations that the government finds difficult to implement and is an important indication of political will. If certain provisions of a law are not suitable to the government or require certain infrastructure before being operationalised, the legislation may provide for certain provisions of the Act to come into effect on different dates, or on notification which is another, more problematic deferment clause.
Deferment clauses that allow executive discretion sans any mandatory time-bound period for implementation are detrimental to governance. They also erode the confidence of citizens in the political will of their elected governments. For instance, the Freedom of Information Law in England was passed by the legislature in 2001 but came into effect only on 1 January 2005. This led the opposition to mount an uncomfortable campaign by claiming that there was a systematic shredding of documents which could embarrass the government in the four years while preparing for the law to take effect. Although there has been no such accusation on the previous government, it certainly casts doubts on its political will. The more crucial issue which affects Indian citizens is that there is no judicial remedy when the Central Government chooses which clauses to bring into effect and which to defer. The Supreme Court cannot order the government to bring the Act into effect, and hence in such a situation, despite there being legislation, citizens are helpless.
The FOIA was to come into effect on notification, but was never notified for over a year and half. To ensure the government did not renge on its duty to provide access to information, a public interest petition was filed by Mr. Prashant Bhushan. The Supreme Court asked the government to take a decision on the notification of the Act for implementing it or giving interim orders to the administration by September 15, 2004. By this time, the new UPA government had decided to improve on the weak FOIA with a new legislation and the case became infructuous. The commencement clause has been improved in the RTIA to make certain provisions take effect immediately and all other provisions after a certain period.
The provisions that come into effect immediately are those regarding the duties of public authorities; the designation of public information officers in each public authority; the constitution of Central and State Information Commissions; the appointment, terms and conditions of service of Central and State Chief Information Commissioners; the limited exclusion provided to intelligence agencies; and, the power to make rules by appropriate governments. The remaining sections of the Act came into effect on the one hundredth and twentieth day of enactment, on October 12, 2005.
D. Scope
The Act applies to both the Central and the State Governments for accessing information from public authorities established, constituted, owned, controlled or substantially financed by funds provided directly or indirectly by the Central or State Governments. The scope of ‘public authorities’ has been increased in the RTIA to include authorities constituted under the Constitution, by the Central or State Governments or by notification. This means that a range of new bodies have been brought within the purview of the Act including Panchayati Raj institutions, local bodies and all other bodies, including non-governmental organisations (NGOs), that are established, constituted, owned, controlled or substantially financed by both Governments. However, the RTIA is lacking due to its exclusion of private bodies. Best practices in access to information laws provide for all private bodies or, in case of difficulty in implementation, at least private bodies in the public domain to disclose information. In fact, the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2001 of South Africa allows both individuals and governments to access information from private bodies when necessary to enforce people’s rights. In a time of increased public-private partnerships and especially international private bodies working in the public domain, it is necessary that they be made subject to an access to information regime to make the RTIA more effective.
E. Information
The right to information includes the right to inspect, take notes, extracts, or certified
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64 Right to Information Act, 2005, § 2(h).
65 Id.
66 Model Freedom of Information Law, § 6 (World Bank), available at http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/legal/freedom.htm.
67 Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000 (South Africa), § 50.
68 Section 2(f) – Information means any material in any form, including records, documents, memos, e-mails, opinions, advices, press releases, circulars, orders, logbooks, contracts, reports, papers, samples, models, data material held in any electronic form and information relating to any private body which can be accessed by a public authority under any other law for the time being in force.
69 Section 2(i) – Records means:
(a) any document, manuscript and file;
(b) any microfilm, microfiche and facsimile copy of a document;
(c) any reproduction of image or images embodied in such microfilm; and
(d) any other material produced by a computer or any other device.
copies and samples of materials. RTIA has an inclusive definition for ‘information’ ranging from documents and memos to samples and models; and defines ‘record’ to include documents manuscripts, facsimile and images etc.
Therefore, the scope of the right to information is fairly broad in the Act. However, difficulties arise because the definition of information and record only entails what it includes. What about information that is not recorded or stored? The government has no uniform policy on how much of the information generated by public authorities must be maintained and the period and manner in which is to be maintained. Hence, public authorities may shred documents they do not want to disclose while citizens only have access to the ‘records’ and ‘information’ already available with the authority. To put it simply, the government only has an ‘access policy’ but does not have an ‘information policy’.
The only law contributing to our weak information policy is the Public Records Act, 1993 which was enacted for the creation, strengthening, maintenance, retirement of and access to public records of the Central Government. It was a feeble attempt towards the maintaining and developing of information systems to strengthen access to information. As its name suggests, it is used more to record and archive information than to maintain and update current information to ensure its accessibility. The Public Records Act has detailed provisions enumerating the powers of the government to create records and the duties of its officers to preserve them. The entire exercise is to keep documents secret even after thirty years, and only to record history as opposed to collecting information for access. Even unclassified records can be made available only to a ‘bona fide research scholar’ after a period of thirty years. Therefore, the information regime that is so desperately required in a country with such a large government is not fulfilled by the RTIA and a new look needs to be taken towards strengthening an information regime before the government can successfully provide accessibility.
**F. Suo Moto Disclosure**
*Suo moto* disclosure or a proactive disclosure policy of the government is one of the most important aspects of an access to information law. It means the information which the government makes public *suo moto* or automatically without any requests. It puts the onus on the government to provide routine information so that citizens do not have to ferret it out. The *suo moto* provision in the RTIA is more detailed and wide when compared to the FOIA. Section 4(1)(a) of the RTIA makes it a duty of every public authority to maintain information. Section 4(2) of the RTIA lists the information that the government is bound to disclose *suo moto*.
In addition, Section 4 also makes it mandatory for the government to publish “all relevant facts while formulating important policies or announcing the decisions which affect public” as well as its “reasons for its administrative or quasi-judicial decisions to affected persons”. The duty to publish information includes the duty to do so regularly in a wide form and manner and after taking into local language and barriers into consideration.
The first part of this disclosure policy deals with maintaining and indexing, but the RTIA requires the public authorities to not only document but also computerise the information to be later connected to a network accessible all over the country. This is a major step in moving towards forming an information policy. Also as the documentation and networking progresses the government wants to move towards electronic governance as promised in the Common Minimum Programme.
The second part of this provision deals with publishing different kinds of information. One such group is routine information which includes the particulars of any department or agency including the its budget and planned expenditure; powers and duties of its officers and employees; the procedure of work; the categories of documents held by it; all electronic information; its officers and employees and their salaries; the means and procedure whereby a citizen can access information; and, the names and other details of its Public Information Officers.
The other kind of the information to be published deals with specific programmes and policies for the public. This is governance-oriented information and includes the duty to publish any arrangement for public consultation in matters of policy; statements of all bodies constituted for the purpose of advice; details of the meetings of these bodies; details of subsidies; and, all facts relevant to the formulation of important policies and the reasons for administrative or quasi-judicial decisions. The provisions for the mandatory publishing of information relating to subsidies is important in the background of constant allegations of corruption in subsidy programmes and should aid better governance and transparency in the expenditure of public funds.
The third and most important of the *suo moto* disclosure provisions is the clause dealing with dissemination which is not spelled out as clearly as required. The dissemination clause requires the government to provide information at regular intervals through various means, including the internet, so that the public have minimum resort to the use of the Act to obtain information. The dissemination of information must be wide and carried out in a manner easily accessible to the public after taking into consideration the cost, local language and the most effective method of communication in that local area and the information should be easily accessible and to the extent possible in an electronic format. Despite its potentially vast scope, this clause remains problematic because of its vagueness and must be supplemented by rules which the Governments and competent authorities must prescribe. Hopefully, after reviewing the
---
30 Dhawan, *supra* note 30.
31 Rajeev Dhawan, *Public Records Act, A Critique*, (unpublished working paper) (on file with PILSARC, No. 20, 2000 Series)
32 Public Records Act, 1993, § 12.
33 Right to Information Act, 2005, §§ 4(2), 4(3), 4(4).
34 Id. § 4(1)(b).
35 Id. §§ 4(3), 4(4).
36 Id. §§ 27, 28.
37 Harsh Mander & Abha Joshi, *The movement for right to information in India: People’s power for the*
implementation of the Act, the Information Commissions at the Centre and the States will frame clearer rules regarding dissemination. Updating information is one of the most important aspects of a responsive disclosure policy and different types of information need to be updated at different intervals. In this regard, norms for the updating of information are desperately required for implementation and use. Without such a clear policy, more and more people will be forced to use the law to access information, which is clearly contrary to the intention of the government.
There are a few other areas where the disclosure policy is lacking. A further list of information to be published *suo moto* has been suggested\(^{77}\) to minimise the number of requests and move towards system where all information is available without citizens having to go out of their way to access it.
**G Exemption from Disclosure**
The best practices of access to information laws prove that minimal exclusions with maximum disclosures make for better governance. The exclusion provisions of the RTIA, while not as overreaching as those that were prescribed under the FOIA, damage the intent of the legislation due to their wideness and require closer interrogation. They are contained in a *non obstante* clause in Section 8 of the RTIA.
The first type of exclusion relates to the State. Any disclosure which would prejudicially affect the sovereignty and integrity of India; the security, strategic, scientific or economic interests of the State; relations with foreign States; or information received in confidence from a foreign Government is exempt from access by the public\(^{78}\). This exemption is considered necessary in almost every freedom of information law and is not very controversial. However, the RTIA sustains the twenty-year period of de-classification necessary for sensitive documents to be made accessible to the public\(^{79}\).
The second type of exclusion exempts information whose disclosure might constitute contempt of court or impede the process of an investigation or hinder the apprehension or prosecution of offenders or which might lead to the incitement of an offence. This is a law and order based exemption that is duplicated in many other jurisdictions and so escapes controversy\(^{80}\).
The third type of exclusion protects privacy and trade secrets, commercial confidence and intellectual property, the disclosure of which would harm the competitive position of a third party, or where such a request for providing access would involve an infringement of copyright subsisting in a person other than the State\(^{81}\). Also, information available to a person in a fiduciary relationship; personal information, the disclosure of which has no relation with any public activity or interest, or which would cause unwarranted invasion of the privacy of the individual is also exempt\(^{82}\). This exclusion is accompanied by a limited public interest override, which means that the information may be accessed if there is a greater public interest in its disclosure. The public interest override is extremely important in exclusions relating to intellectual property especially in developing countries depending on foreign research for pharmaceuticals to provide the right to public health and affordable medicines.
The fourth type of and more controversial exclusion exempts the disclosure of information which would cause a breach of privilege of Parliament or State Legislatures and Cabinet papers including records of deliberations of the Council of Ministers, Secretaries and other officers\(^{83}\). However, the reasons for the decisions taken are not exempt. This provision can be easily misused by claiming that the controversial documents of a department are Cabinet papers with the help of the senior bureaucrats and hence exempt from public access. To make matters worse, this information is also exempt from de-classification after 20 years. This is nothing but a loophole in the law to bypass requests for information that would embarrass the government, and the provision should be removed.
The last type of exclusion exempts the disclosure of information which would endanger
---
\(^{77}\) *Id.* §§ 8(1)(b), 8(1)(h).
\(^{78}\) *Id.* § 8(1)(d).
\(^{79}\) *Id.* § 8(1)(e).
\(^{80}\) *Id.* §§ 8(1)(c), 8(1)(i).
\(^{81}\) *Id.* § 8(1)(f).
\(^{82}\) *Id.* § 8(1)(g).
\(^{83}\) *Id.* § 8(1)(j).
the life or physical safety of any person or identify the source of assistance given in confidence for law enforcement or public security\textsuperscript{85}. While this provision may have been made to protect whistleblowers, some commentators feel that this is just another provision to reduce access, as there are more effective ways of protecting the identity of individuals. Model laws prescribe a different legislation to protect whistleblowers and not merely make it an exemption clause in an access to information law. Merely excluding such information from public access does not correspond to pro-active measures to protect the identity of such sources. Therefore this clause does not really protect whistleblowers and could be easily misused to deny access.
All exclusions other than the ones regarding Cabinet papers and public safety and security are subject to declassification after twenty years\textsuperscript{86}. This period is too long; legal norms prescribe a standard ten-year period of restriction, as followed in the British freedom of information law. The RTIA also allows information sources to be severed to restrict the access of parts of certain records and documents. Retaining the concept of severability\textsuperscript{87} will result in access being provided to parts of information sources which do not contain any information.
One of the weakest aspects of the Act is the blanket exclusion from disclosure given to intelligence and security agencies.\textsuperscript{88} There are currently eighteen organisations listed for exemption, but this number will increase as both the Central and State Governments start adding organisations to this list by way of notification. While on the face it, national intelligence agencies should be provided a limited cover from mandatory public access to their information, the RTIA’s blanket exclusion is odd considering the first exclusion relating to the safety and security of the State which, \textit{prima facie}, privileges strategic State secrets will operate to protect intelligence agencies\textsuperscript{89}. However, other information about intelligence agencies and security organisations, especially that relating to corruption and human rights violations, will not be exempt from disclosure. But to access this information, a public request must first be approved by the Information Commissioner, a procedure which can take up to forty five days. This limitation makes it cumbersome to exercise the right to information and must be removed\textsuperscript{90}.
\textbf{H. Third Party Information}
The provision to obtain third party information is also weak, in fact much weaker than some State laws. Since third parties are involved with local bodies for projects and schemes on a contractual basis, this provision may be used to deny vital information concerning governance. Under the RTIA, if a request is made relating to a third party and has been treated as confidential by that third party, the Information Officer must give a written notice to such third party of the request and invite the third party to make a submission in writing or orally, regarding whether or not the information should be disclosed\textsuperscript{91}. This provision considerably weakens the RTIA. It is imperative that private bodies working with public authorities be made subject to public transparency. The RTIA has safeguards for the privacy of individuals and also for trade secrets; hence, there is no basis for weakening the provisions regarding third party information. Third party information has not been specifically excluded even in the State laws of Delhi, Karnataka and Maharashtra. However, this provision is subject to a limited public interest override only on the discretion of the Information Officer.
\textbf{VII. Provisions to Access Information}
\textit{A. Designating Public Information Officers}
To process the requests made for access to information every public authority has to designate some of its officers as Central and State Public Information Officers (PIOs) and also designate Assistant Central and State Public Information Officers (APIOs) at the sub-district level. These PIOs will deal with the requests for information and assist citizens in accessing information. They may seek assistance of other officers to fulfil the requests\textsuperscript{92}.
\textit{B. Request for Obtaining Information}
Any person seeking information must make a written request to the concerned PIO of APIO and if the person is unable to make a request in writing the officer must entertain an oral request and reduce it to writing. No reasons need to be given for seeking information. If the information sought is not available with the authority, it must either transfer the request within five days or request information from the authority which may have it. Information sought must usually be made available in the form requested\textsuperscript{93}.
\textit{C. Time Limit}
A PIO shall as expeditiously as possible after receiving a request for information, and in any case within thirty days of the receipt of the request, either provide the information on payment of such fee as may be prescribed or reject the request for any of the reasons specified in Sections 8 and 9. When the request has been made to an APIO the time limit is thirty five days. Where a further fee is charged, the time taken for computing such fee must be excluded from the time period. But where the information sought for concerns the life or liberty of a person, the same shall be provided within forty eight hours of the receipt of the request. If no information or decision is given within the
\textsuperscript{85} \textit{Id.} § 8(3).
\textsuperscript{86} \textit{Id.} § 10.
\textsuperscript{87} \textit{Id.} § 24
\textsuperscript{88} \textit{Id.} § 8(1)(a).
\textsuperscript{89} \textit{Id.} § 24(4).
\textsuperscript{90} \textit{Id.} § 11.
\textsuperscript{91} \textit{Id.} §§ 5(1), 5(2).
\textsuperscript{92} \textit{Id.} § 6.
\textsuperscript{93} \textit{Id.} §§ 7(1), 7(2), 7(3).
specified time, it is a deemed refusal\textsuperscript{93}.
Thirty days is a very long and relaxed time period and should be reduced to twenty days. Most of the information sought is routine or very specific personal information and hence does not require much processing. And increasing the time limit by another five days in case of APIOs is just a way to delay access. Since a PIO has been created in every public authority with an APIO, the number of requests each PIO would have to deal with would not be large enough to justify such delay. The United Kingdom has prescribed a time limit of just twenty days. However, a progressive provision of the Act is the forty eight hours limit for information concerning life and liberty.
\textit{D. Fee}
Where access to information is sought in a printed or any electronic format, the applicant shall pay a reasonable fee as may be prescribed. No such fee shall be charged from persons who are below the poverty line as may be determined by the appropriate Government\textsuperscript{94}. The person making the request for the information shall be provided the information free of charge where a public authority fails to comply with the time limits specified.
A commendable proposition of the RTIA is to charge no fee for people below the poverty line. Ideally, no fee should be charged in the exercise of a fundamental right. The fee must not be a method of recovering the cost of the exercise of providing access, as large resources are bound to be spent. The fee must merely contribute towards the printing or making copies of information sought and not as a revenue measure. This is vital for the successful implementation of the RTIA especially in poor or rural areas.
\textit{E. Refusal}
Where a request has been rejected the PIO shall communicate to the person making the request, the reasons for such rejection; the period within which an appeal against such rejection may be preferred; and, particulars of the appellate authority\textsuperscript{95}. No response within the prescribed time period is a deemed refusal\textsuperscript{96}.
\textbf{VIII. INFORMATION COMMISSIONS}
With the constitution of State and Central Information Commissions, the RTIA has conformed to the best practices and prescriptions of various model laws in this regard. The demand for an independent body to implement and review the RTIA has been a longstanding demand of public advocacy groups in India. The establishment of Commissions is what makes the RTIA stronger than all State laws; it is one of the better features of the RTIA.
Under the RTIA, the Central Government has to constitute a Central Information Commission consisting of a Chief Information Commissioner assisted by up to ten Information Commissioners. The Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners must be persons of eminence in public life with a wide knowledge and experience in law, science and technology, social service, management, journalism, mass media or administration and governance. They will be appointed by the President upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister, Leader of the Opposition and other Union Cabinet Ministers. While the NAC draft sought to inject a level of judicial stringency in this exercise by proposing that the recommendations of the Chief Justice of India also be sought, the RTIA has returned the recommendatory powers to the political establishment. This is a way for the government in power to influence the composition of the Commission. Ironically, the political establishment showed a rare unity in collectively removing the judicial element and, to some extent, diluting the apolitical credibility of the Commission. The general superintendence, direction and management of the Central Information Commission vests in the Chief Information Commissioner\textsuperscript{97}.
The Chief Information Commissioner will hold office for not more than five years but in no circumstance over the age of sixty five. The office will be parallel to the position of the Chief Election Commissioner. Similarly, Information Commissioners shall hold office for five years or until they are sixty five years old. Information Commissioners may become the Chief Information Commissioner. The Chief Information Commissioner or any Information Commissioner can be removed from his office only by order of the President\textsuperscript{98}.
In a similar manner, the State Information Commissions will be constituted by the State Governments to consist of a State Chief Information Commissioner assisted by up to ten Information Commissioners. The State Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners must be persons of eminence in public life and will be appointed by the Governor upon the recommendations of the Chief Minister, Leader of the Opposition and another Cabinet Ministers of the Legislative Assembly. They shall hold office for five years and can be removed from office only by the Governor\textsuperscript{99}.
A request can be forwarded to the Central Information Commission on a disability to make a request to a PIO. Requests to the Central Information Commission may also lie if there is refusal to disclose information at the lower level, or if no response to a request is forthcoming or if the information provided is misleading or false. Both the Central and State Information Commissioners may initiate an inquiry into any matter pertaining to the disclosure or otherwise of information\textsuperscript{100}. They may also inquire into any record held by any public authority even if it is exempt from disclosure. Most importantly, the Central and State Information Commissions have been vested with the
\textsuperscript{93} \textit{Id.} § 7(5).
\textsuperscript{94} \textit{Id.} § 7(8).
\textsuperscript{95} \textit{Id.} § 7(2).
\textsuperscript{96} \textit{Id.} § 12.
\textsuperscript{97} \textit{Id.} §§ 13, 14.
\textsuperscript{98} \textit{Id.} §§ 15, 16, 17.
\textsuperscript{99} \textit{Id.} § 18(1).
\textsuperscript{100} \textit{Id.} § 18(3).
powers of a civil court trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 in respect of their functions under the RTIA.\textsuperscript{111}
**IX. APPEALS**
For the functional implementation of any right to information law, there must be an independent appellate authority. The system of appeals prescribed in the RTIA is much better than the systems in the State laws. There are different kinds of appellate authorities in the various laws operating in India. The first type is an internal appeal system where the complaint is made to a superior officer in the same department. The second type of appeal is where a single appeal may be made to an independent authority or tribunal. The third type is a system of two appeals, one internal appeal to the superior officer and a second appeal to an independent authority.
The internal appeal system is followed in Tamil Nadu\textsuperscript{102} and Madhya Pradesh\textsuperscript{103} where the aggrieved person can appeal to a superior officer within the same department. A system of independent appeals is followed in Goa to be made to the State Administrative Tribunal,\textsuperscript{104} and in Delhi to the Public Grievances Commission.\textsuperscript{105} A system of two appeals is followed in Rajasthan, which allows for one internal appeal\textsuperscript{106} and a second appeal to the District Vigilance Commission or the State Administrative Tribunal.\textsuperscript{107} This has been replicated in the Karnataka Act, where the second appeal can be made to a special Appellate Tribunal.\textsuperscript{108} In Maharashtra, the first is an internal appeal and a second appeal can be made to the Lokayukta whose decision is final.\textsuperscript{109} Each of these systems has varied in their efficacy, but the general consensus is that an independent authority is required in an appellate system and the internal appeal does not work well in most government departments.
Under the RTIA, appeals may be preferred on the grounds of non-response within the specified time, refusal to disclose information or incomplete information, to an officer senior to the concerned PIO within thirty days. An appeal may also be made against the decision of the PIO regarding third party information. A second appeal can be made against the decision of the first appellate authority within ninety days of such decision or non-response. In all appeal proceedings, the burden of proving the denial of information was justified, lies on the PIO that denied the information. The appeal must be disposed of within thirty days of its receipt or an extended period not exceeding forty five days and must be accompanied by reasons to be recorded in writing. Such decisions of the Central Information Commission or State Information Commissions,
\textsuperscript{102} Tamil Nadu Right to Information Act, § 4.
\textsuperscript{103} Madhya Pradesh Right to Information Act, § 7(1).
\textsuperscript{104} Goa Right to Information Act, § 6(1).
\textsuperscript{105} Delhi Right to Information Act, § 7.
\textsuperscript{106} Rajasthan Right to Information Act, § 6.
\textsuperscript{107} Id. § 7.
\textsuperscript{108} Karnataka Right to Information Act, § 6.
\textsuperscript{109} Maharashtra Right to Information Act, § 11.
\textsuperscript{110} Id. § 19.
\textsuperscript{111} Id. § 19(8).
as the case may be, shall be binding. Hence, the Information Commissions are apex appellate authorities with the final word to decide appeals and issue appropriate orders to PIOS\textsuperscript{110}.
In deciding appeals, the Central or State Information Commissions have additional powers to:\textsuperscript{111}
(a) require a public authority to take steps to ensure compliance with the RTIA, including
i) providing access to information, if so requested, in a particular form;
ii) appointing a Central Public Information Officer or State Public Information Officer;
iii) publishing certain information or categories of information;
iv) making necessary changes to its practices in relation to the maintenance, management and destruction of records;
v) enhancing the provisions for training its officials on the right to information;
vi) providing an annual report;
(b) compensate a complainant for any loss or other detriment suffered;
(c) impose any prescribed penalty; and
(d) reject applications for information.
The independence exercised by the Information Commissions will determine how functional the RTIA is at the implementation stage. The Commissions are empowered not just to review and monitor but also decide appeals and make rules. The Central Information Commission can order any PIO or State Commission to comply with certain rules or procedure and the State Information Commissions can similarly order PIOS and other officials in its State. Being a statutory authority, there is a lot the Commissions can do towards the realisation of the right to information in a meaningful and participatory manner. There are fears that mismanagement and scarce budgets allocated by the States will make these Commissions ineffective or just large unmanageable bureaucracies in charge of other bureaucracies. The fear at the Central level is that that the posts created in the Central Information Commission will serve merely to extend the service period of friendly retired bureaucrats already accustomed to the usual inefficiencies of the administration. For the effective working of these Commissions comparable, perhaps, with the Election Commissions, these fears must be avoided. The constitution and working of the Information Commissions will determine, to some extent, whether the law will be empowering only on paper or otherwise.
\textsuperscript{110} Id. § 20(1).
X. PENALTIES
When a PIO has, without any reasonable cause, refused to receive an application for information or has not furnished information within the time specified or denied a request for information *mala fide* or knowingly given incorrect, incomplete or misleading information or destroyed information which was the subject of the request or obstructed the furnishing of information, he may be penalised by the Central or State Information Commissions. The RTIA prescribes a fine of two hundred and fifty rupees per day on the concerned public authority till the application is received or the information is furnished. However, the fine cannot exceed twenty five thousand rupees. In addition, disciplinary action against the PIO may also be recommended by the relevant Commission\(^{112}\).
The penalty mentioned above is imposed only when information sought is not furnished. But, there is no penalty if the PIO does fulfil the duty to publish information in compliance with the *suo moto* disclosure provision of the RTIA. The absence of such a penalty will severely hamper the operation of the *suo moto* disclosure provisions and allow errant PIOs to function with impunity. Similarly, there is no punishment prescribed for the failure to update and maintain information systems, electronic or otherwise. For any penal provision to be successful, it should be simple to implement and strong enough to deter. By and large, these objectives are met by the RTIA’s penal clause, which imposes a monetary penalty on the public department that may work better as a deterrent. However, the absence of liability for *suo moto* requirements must be rectified.
XI. MONITORING AND REPORTING
The Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions shall, at the end of each year, prepare respective reports on the implementation of the provisions of the RTIA during that year and forward a copy to the appropriate Government. Each Ministry or Department is required to collect and provide necessary information in this regard, a duty that will be made possible by their compliance with the RTIA’s requirements regarding the keeping of records for the purposes of this section. This report has to be laid before each House of Parliament or State Legislature, as the case may be\(^{113}\). Each report must state in respect of the year to which the report relates\(^{114}\) and certain details must be included in the reports according to the law.
XII. PROMOTION AND TRAINING
Subject to resources, the appropriate government may develop and organise educational programmes to advance the understanding of the public, especially of disadvantaged communities, on how to exercise the rights contemplated under the RTIA and encourage public authorities to participate in these programmes. Under the RTIA it must also make the effort to train Central Public Information Officers or State Public Information Officers of public authorities and produce relevant training materials for use by the public authorities themselves. More importantly the government, within a certain time, has to compile a guide\(^{115}\) containing easily comprehensible information for any person who wishes to exercise any right specified in this Act and it must update and publish guidelines.
This promotional effort is essential for the success of RTIA. Often, the lack of knowledge of laws and their procedure prevent the exercise of rights by citizens. The promotion campaign must be sustained, sensitive to local language, and especially target marginalised and underprivileged communities and rural areas. To succeed in this venture, the appropriate governments must make available the resources to educate, promote and train its officers to make RTIA implemental. Public officers must also be made strictly aware of their obligations under the RTIA, especially those appointed to carry out functions under the RTIA. Unless an officer is trained to understand and implement the RTIA it would serve no purpose to impose penalties on the bureaucracy.
XIII. IN THE FUTURE
A. Whistleblower Protection
The RTIA lacks a provision to protect whistleblowers. Whistle blowing is a term used to refer to the process by which insiders make public claims of malpractice by, or within, organisations—usually after failing to remedy the matters from the inside, and often at great personal risk to them\(^{116}\). Individuals should be protected from any legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions for releasing information on wrongdoing. In some countries, protection for whistleblowers is conditional upon a requirement to release the information to certain individuals or oversight bodies\(^{117}\). The Model Law formulated by the World Bank prescribes provision to protect whistleblowers\(^{118}\). The United States has a Whistleblower Protection Act, 1989 and a False Claims Act, 1986 to protect whistleblowers. The United Kingdom’s Public Interest Disclosure Act, 1998 provides similar protection in both public and private bodies. Even South Africa now has Disclosures Act, 2000 for the same purpose. It is essential that a separate provision for protecting whistleblowers is made either within the RTIA or as a separate legislation.
B. Rules
Rules for the implementation of the RTIA are to be prescribed by the ‘appropriate government’ or ‘competent authority’. This means the Central or State Government department, as the case may be, may prescribe rules. The President, Governor or the Administrator of a Union Territory also has power to prescribe rules. This power also vests with the Speakers of the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies and the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and High Courts. Currently, the Central and State Governments are in the process of formulating rules that should, before their notification, be circulated for participatory debate and consultation. A large part of the success of
---
\(^{112}\) *Id.* § 25(1).
\(^{113}\) *Id.* § 25(3).
\(^{114}\) *Id.* § 26.
\(^{115}\) Aditi Dutta, *Whistleblowers in East & West*, HINDU, Feb. 3, 2004 *available at* http://www.hindu.com/opinion/2004/02/03/stories/2004020300381500.htm.
\(^{116}\) Principles on Freedom of Information Legislations. A Model Freedom of Information Law, Principle 9 (1999, Article 19), *available at* http://www.article19.org/pdfs/standards/modelfoilaw.pdf.
the RTIA will depend on how the rules are formulated and how simple and uniform they are across departments and states.
C. Implementation
The implementation of the Right to Information Act will require resources, infrastructure and, most importantly, political will. The government must be proactive and use its power to remove difficulties within the first year of the implementation of the Act on the basis of the annual report of the Information Commission. In the first two years of the enactment of the Act, Central Government must extend full support to states in their budget, infrastructure, training and promotion programmes. And as we look ahead, the government must formulate a clear information policy without which its access policy cannot be implemented very well.
To make the RTIA functional, a huge budget would have to be set aside by the Central and State Governments in the seminal years of its implementation. Once the system is in place, the costs would reduce. But never must a fee be charged with the intention of collecting revenue to finance the costs of implementation. This would make the RTIA an instrument only the rich can use, as the fee then charged would be high.
XIV. Conclusion
The RTIA may well be the first step in breaking out of the cycle of corrupt and bad governance India has become accustomed to. However, to achieve this objective, several changes must be made to the Act. These include strengthening the access to information regime by:
1. allowing citizens to access information affecting the public interest from private bodies;¹¹⁹
2. reinforcing the public interest override for the disclosure of information relating to intellectual property for the purpose of public health;¹²⁰
3. lessening the current twenty years period of secrecy before certain sensitive documents can be made public;¹²¹
4. preventing public authorities from evading the disclosure of controversial documents by misrepresenting them as Cabinet papers or breaches of privilege;¹²²
5. removing the clause that apparently protects whistleblowers as it has no place in an access to information law;¹²³
6. removing the blanket exemption that is provided to intelligence agencies since sensitive information of these agencies is already protected;¹²⁴
7. removing the cumbersome procedure prescribed to access information relating to corruption and human rights from security organisations;¹²⁵
8. strengthening and clarifying the provisions for accessing information from third parties;¹²⁶
9. reducing the time limit given to a PIO to provide requested information from thirty days to twenty days;¹²⁷
10. specifying that the fee charged on every information request is merely administrative and not for underwriting the working of the Act¹²⁸
Expanding the disclosure of information regime by:
1. increasing the scope of the mandatory list of information to be disclosed *suo moto*;¹²⁹
2. clarifying the duty of dissemination by specifying what information is to be disseminated, the mode of dissemination and fixing regular intervals for such dissemination;¹³⁰
3. prescribing penalties for PIOs who do not comply with the *mandatory suo moto* disclosure requirements;¹³¹
Strengthening the information maintenance regime by:
1. minimising the possibility of political manipulation in the Information Commissions by seeking the recommendations of the concerned Chief Justice in the matter of appointments;¹³²
2. prohibiting public and private authorities from destroying information before it can be disclosed *suo moto* or upon demand;¹³³
3. prescribing penalties for public authorities for the failure to update and maintain information.¹³⁴
---
¹¹⁸ Section 47 of the Model Freedom of Information Law published by the World Bank, available at http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/legal/freedom.htm. Section 47 – “No one may be subject to any legal, administrative or employment-related sanction, regardless of any breach of a legal or employment obligation, for releasing information on wrongdoing, or that which would disclose a serious threat to health, safety or the environment, as long as they acted in good faith and in the reasonable belief that the information was substantially true and disclosed evidence of wrongdoing or a serious threat to health, safety or the environment.”
¹¹⁹ Right to Information Act, 2005. § 2(h).
¹²⁰ *Id.* § 8(10(d).
¹²¹ *Id.* §§ 8(1)(a), 8(1)(c), 8(1)(i) read with § 8(3).
¹²² *Id.* § 8(1)(c), 8(1)(i) read with § 8(3)
¹²³ *Id.* § 8(1)(g).
¹²⁴ *Id.* § 24 read with § 8(1)(a).
¹²⁵ *Id.* provisos to §§ 24(1), 24 (4).
¹²⁶ *Id.* § 11.
¹²⁷ *Id.* § 7(1).
¹²⁸ *Id.* § 6, 7(5).
¹²⁹ *Id.* 4(1).
¹³⁰ *Id.* § 4(2), 4 (3), 4 (4).
¹³¹ *Id.* § 20.
¹³² *Id.* §§ 12(3), 15(3).
¹³³ *Id.* § 4(1).
¹³⁴ *Id.* §§ 4(1)(a), 20.
The RTIA is a clear beginning towards bringing greater accountability and transparency in governance in India. If certain changes are undertaken and the implementation of the Act is constantly monitored India is not far from fulfilling Justice Brandeis’s prophecy.
ANOMALIES AND REFORM IN THE LAW RELATING TO THE TORT OF DEFAMATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Sushila Rao*
I. INTRODUCTION
Defining “tort reform” is indeed a nebulous endeavour. Although tort reform can generally be described as state legislative initiative to modify existing tort law, no single definition can possibly encompass the myriad of permutations attendant to tort reform. Moreover, even the seemingly innocuous task of defining the movement engenders debate, and at its worst, fosters antagonism.
Advocates of the reform movement in the United Kingdom argue on primarily two fronts. First, the expansion of tort liability theories and the increase in plaintiff’s potential remedies over the last forty years has resulted in a greater number of law suits being filed. Even when plaintiffs cannot prevail with all these advantages, tort reform proponents argue that the cost of defense is still astronomical. The second front assails the amount of damages awarded by juries. Perhaps no other dimension of tort reform generates as much debate and hyperbole in the public, legislatures and judiciary as damage caps (fixing limits for damages), particularly for non-economic damages for non-quantifiable injuries such as pain and emotional distress. This will reduce the overall costs of health care, and provide some measure of predictability in the outcome, aiding in underwriting and settlement of suits.
No area of the law has traditionally excited more interest and controversy, than the law of defamation (i.e. the law of libel and slander). The unique combination of celebrity litigants, salacious allegations, and extensive media coverage ensures that defamation is seldom far from the public eye. And beneath this surface-level appeal lie matters of grave concern, relating to the appropriate balance to be struck between freedom of expression, (particularly in the news media) and individual; interests in reputation and privacy.
In the above context, this paper outlines the anomalies and incongruencies in the present law in the sphere of tortuous Defamation in the jurisdiction of its origin, (the UK), the attempts at modification of the law, and the scope and desirability of further
* 2nd Year, B.A. LL.B. (Hons.), National Law School of India University, Bangalore.
1 G.Haberkorn et al., Tort Reform in the United States, 4 INT. ILR 74, (1996).
2 vociferously argue that the effort has not been to reform torts but to restrict the recovery of damages by the victim of a wrongdoer. See C.T. Bogus, War on the Common Law: The Struggle at the Center of Products Liability, 60 MLR 1-5 (1995).
3 Governmental, familial and charitable immunities, once a bulwark for defendants, have been totally abolished. Contributory negligence as an absolute defence has been limited or abolished. Procedural and substantive changes to the laws of emotional distress, economic loss, non-economic loss, medical malpractice and products liability have made recovery more attainable for plaintiffs.
4 S.P. Croley et al., The Non Pecuniary Costs of Accidents: Pain-and-Suffering Damages in Tort law, 108 HARV. L. REV. 1805, (1995).
5 M. LUNNEY ET AL., TORT LAW: TEXT AND MATERIALS, 581, (2000, Oxford University Press).
reforms, in order to facilitate a keener comprehension of the nuances of the law, and inspire careful, well thought-out reforms in India as well.
II. MEANING OF DEFAMATION
The tort of defamation protects interests in reputation. It consists in the publication to a third person of a matter "containing an untrue imputation against the reputation of another". Under long-established English common law principles, a plaintiff can establish a *prima facie* case of defamation merely by showing that the defendant voluntarily communicated to a third party ("published") a defamatory statement referring directly or indirectly to the plaintiff. A defamatory statement is one that exposes the plaintiff to hatred, contempt, or ridicule, or tends to "lower the plaintiff in the estimation of right-thinking members of society generally." There is a rebuttable presumption that a defamatory statement is false, relieving the plaintiff of any obligation to introduce evidence regarding the statement's accuracy.
Hence, the basis of the wrong of defamation is the unassailable right of every person to maintain and preserve his 'reputation'. It is an inherent personal right — a *jus in rem*. The supremacy of the civil liberty of speech and expression in any democratic society is also incontrovertible. The central problem in the law of defamation, thus, is the reconciliation of these fundamentally opposing concepts, constantly warring in their competing demands for precedence. The law has created certain checks and balances in the form of certain defenses, which are its inadequate attempts to come to terms with this difficult dilemma.
The law of defamation in the United Kingdom is largely the product of four hundred years of common law evolution. Maintaining the proper equilibrium between individual dignity and freedoms of speech and press has been particularly difficult when one generation's accommodation of them is subjected to the pressures of the next generation's social, economic, and technological transformations. Moreover, inflexible rules of *stare decisis* severely limit common law adjustments to such pressures. Thus, the tort of defamation has had to periodically undergo legislative modifications at the margins. Indeed, over the past two centuries, the British Parliament has enacted important reforms of defamation law about once every half-century.
Much criticism has centred on the fact that the conventional common law defenses do not always respond to the realities of modern media activities. For example, the increasingly international character of media reports available within the UK has exposed shortcomings in legal principles developed with domestic news reporting in mind. The unique problems posed by new computer-based technologies, like the Internet, confound efforts to allocate responsibility for defamatory messages transmitted through them.
More fundamentally, the past decade has seen a dramatic rise in the amounts of damages awarded by juries against media defendants in libel cases, with detrimental consequences for press freedom. Defamation law has been exempt from the general trend of removing civil actions from the province of juries. Juries remain vested with the power to determine the level of compensatory and exemplary damages to be awarded to a successful plaintiff. Furthermore, a defeated defendant is responsible for the plaintiff's costs and legal fees, which in libel cases often approach the size of the verdict itself.
Keeping the above trends in mind, the author has sought to systematically analyze the reforms carried out in various aspects of the law relating to defamation by delineating the problems posed by the extant law in respect of procedural rules, defences available etc., various legislative and judicial interventions designed to overcome them, and the scope for further reform.
III. ASSIMILATING THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LIBEL AND SLANDER
In English law, libel and slander are the two modes through which defamation may be committed. In Pollock's words, libel is written defamation, and slander is spoken defamation.
The Porter Committee's Report in 1948, forming the basis of the Defamation Act of 1952, was aware of the obvious absurdities of the distinction between libel and slander. Referring to a man as a drunkard may be actionable when written on a postcard.
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6 GATLEY, LIBEL AND SLANDER, 235 (W.V.H. Rogers et al. eds., 10th ed. 2004, Sweet & Maxwell). Defamation has been defined as the publication of a statement that reflects on a person's reputation and tends to lower him in the estimation of any right thinking member of the society generally or tends to make him shun or avoid him. See WINFIELD AND JOLOWICZ ON TORT, 391(16th ed. 1998, Sweet & Maxwell).
7 See, for example, Newstead v. London Express Newspaper Ltd. [1939] 4 All ER 319.
8 Per Lord Atkin in, Sim v. Streach, [1936] 2 All ER 1237 at 1240.
9 R. Weaver et al., *Defamation Law and Free Speech: Reynolds v. Times Newspapers and the English media*, 37 Vind J. Tratsinat'1 L 1255, (2004), available at http://international.westlaw.com.
10 B. M. GANDHI, LAW OF TORT, 431, (1987, Eastern Book Company).
11 As Iyer rightly points out, the aim of the law in modern conditions is not merely to prevent breaches of peace, but also to make people adhere to standards of speech and writing which will preserve social harmony and make public life and cooperative effort possible. See R. IYER, LAW OF TORT (9th ed. 2003, Law Book Pvt. Co.).
12 Id.
13 See E.C.S. WADE ET AL., CONSTITUTIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW, 371 (11th ed. 1993, Sweet & Maxwell).
14 These enactments include: Fox's Libel Act 1792, three measures between 1840 and 1845 (The Parliamentary Papers Act 1840, Libel Act 1843, & Libel Act 1845), Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, Defamation Act 1952, and Defamation Act 1996).
15 See Note on Defamation Law—UK Reform, 3 JIILT 45, (1996), available at http://international.westlaw.com.
16 Even with the changes brought by the Defamation Act 1996, juries will continue to decide most of the substantive issues relevant to the outcome of a libel case.
17 Damage awards (and settlements) in defamation cases routinely surpass £50,000 ($75,000), and a few cases have topped £1,000,000 ($1,500,000). See B. Markesinis et al., Concerns and Ideas about the developing English law of Privacy (and how Knowledge of foreign law might be of help), 52 AJCL 133 (2004), available at http://international.westlaw.com.
18 Id.
19 Gandhi, supra note 10, at 444.
read by a third party, but not actionable when openly stated to a crowd of thousands.\textsuperscript{20} Such unrealistic niceties are crucial in litigation: if words are communicated orally, the plaintiff generally faces the difficult burden of proving special damages-identifiable pecuniary loss. Yet the Committee, unlike its predecessor a century ago\textsuperscript{21}, rejected the assimilation of libel and slander.
An analysis of the merits of such assimilation permeates legal discussion on defamation over the last hundred years. Supporters of assimilation emphasize the illogical state of the law of defamation and rely on evidence of such successful assimilation in other countries.\textsuperscript{22} The major arguments for retaining the distinction include discouraging frivolous actions, the greater malignancy exhibited in libel, the faulty recollection of witnesses of oral statements, greater danger of permanence, etc. Yet there is no necessary correlation between degree of malice and form of publication. More important, if defamation seeks to protect interest in reputation, then malice is quite irrelevant.\textsuperscript{23}
The Faulks Committee on Defamation\textsuperscript{24}, recommended that the distinction between the written and spoken word retained in Section 3 of the Defamation Act, 1952 be removed, and that proof of special damage be always unnecessary provided that the words are likely to cause pecuniary damage to the plaintiff. This would bring English law in line with the law in Scotland.\textsuperscript{25}
It is regretfully submitted that the codification of the law of defamation in England has not removed this distinction between libel and slander. As noted by Winfield,\textsuperscript{26} the distinction is purely historical and obviously antiquated in relation to modern innovations.
Back in 1667, it was held that a written statement was actionable without proof of special damage, the reason being that the fact of writing showed it to be especially malicious.\textsuperscript{27} However, defamation need not take the form of words and it has become necessary to determine whether visual images and gestures constitute libel or slander. Furthermore, the development of modern methods of communication (in film, television, telephone and sound recording) further complicated the matter. In some areas, statutes have had to come to the common law’s aid. Defamatory words, pictures, visual images, gestures etc. on radio and television or any other ‘programme service’ are to be treated as libels by Section 166 of the Broadcasting Act 1990. In addition, the publication of defamatory words in the course of a performance of a play, by virtue of Section 4(1) of the Theatres Act, 1968, is treated as libel.
When it comes to other ways of communicating meaning, we turn back to the common law. Here, the test seems to have become one of permanence or transience of the ‘statement’\textsuperscript{28}.
This libel-slander distinction has not been accepted in India either, and has been vociferously criticized as absolutely peremptory, unsatisfactory and inconsistent, even by Lord Macaulay who said, “[I]f defamation be punished on account of its tendency to cause breach of the peace, then spoken defamation ought to be punished even more severally than written defamation, having that tendency in a higher degree.”\textsuperscript{29}
\textit{The General Requirement of Proving “Special Damage” for Establishing Slander}
Libel is actionable \textit{per se}, while Slander generally requires proof of actual identifiable pecuniary loss, called ‘special damage’. Mere loss of reputation is insufficient.\textsuperscript{30} The purpose of this rule was to safeguard those who speak out from trivial litigation, yet it often caused much hardship and incongruity. Hence, the law in this respect has been reformed by introducing certain exceptions, by statute and judicial determination. These include:
1. \textit{Imputation of Criminal Conduct.}\textsuperscript{31}
2. \textit{Imputation of Certain Contagious Diseases.}
3. \textit{Imputation of Unchastity.} – A slanderous accusation of unchastity was not actionable \textit{per se} at common law, because immoral conduct fell within the sphere of the spiritual courts. The plaintiff was put to proof of special damage, even if the words were intended to injure her in any trade in which she was engaged. The Slander of Women Act, 1891, removed this ‘barbarous rule’ in England.\textsuperscript{32} Evidently, the statutory protection was deemed necessary only for women.\textsuperscript{33}
4. \textit{Imputation of Unfitness in Business.} – This controversial exception was added by Section 2 of the Defamation Act, 1952. Slandering a person in the way of his trade, profession, business or calling is actionable as it involves a temporal loss.\textsuperscript{34} The Porter Committee took note of the injustice arising from the common law’s absolute requirement that the words be spoken of the plaintiff in his calling, i.e., refer to a matter of particular importance in the performance of his profession or calling, rather than
\textsuperscript{20} Williams, \textit{Committee on the Law of Defamation: The Porter Report}, 12 MLR 222, 217 (1949).
\textsuperscript{21} \textit{Id} at 224.
\textsuperscript{22} \textit{Reform in the Law of Defamation: The English Defamation Act, 1952}. 66 HLR 481, 476 (1953).
\textsuperscript{23} \textit{Id}
\textsuperscript{24} Committee on Defamation, Chairman Lord Faulks Report, Cmnd 5909, 1975.
\textsuperscript{25} In Scotland, the term libel and slander are also used loosely and without the defined connotations of the English law and are synonyms for the delict of defamation, itself a species of the genus ‘verbal injury’. \textit{supra} note 11, at 444.
\textsuperscript{26} WINFIELD & JOLOWICZ, \textit{supra} note 7, at 399.
\textsuperscript{27} King v. Lake, (1667) 1 Hadres 470. \textit{See} J. FLEMING LAW OF TORT, 570, (7th ed. 1987. Law Book Co. Pvt. Ltd.).
\textsuperscript{28} In Monsoms v. Tussaud’s Ltd., [1894] 1 QB 671 at 692, Lopes LJ stated — “Libels are generally in writing or printing, but this is not necessary, the defamatory matter may be conveyed in some other permanent form. For instance, a statue, a caricature, an effigy, signs etc.”
\textsuperscript{29} Gandhi, \textit{supra} note 10, at 447.
\textsuperscript{30} Davies v. Solomon, [1870-73] All ER Rep. 112.
\textsuperscript{31} Gray v. Jones, [1939] 1 All ER 795.
\textsuperscript{32} Fleming, \textit{supra} note 27, at 525.
\textsuperscript{33} Kerr v. Kennedy, [1942] 1 K.B. 409. In Newfoundland, however, the rule protects everyone, irrespective of sex.
\textsuperscript{34} J. Fleming, \textit{supra} note 32, at 574.
matters of general significance. Thus, accusing a teacher of committing adultery with the wife of the school superintendent, is not actionable *per se*, but imputing to a teacher that his conduct with pupils is objectionable, is actionable.\(^{35}\) Hence, Section 2 of the 1952 Act incorporated this recommendation and abolished this requirement.
**IV. THE PROCEDURAL CONTEXT**
Ever since Fox’s Libel Act, 1792, it has been considered a staunch safeguard of democratic liberty that the issue of “libel or no libel” is within the exclusive province of a jury.\(^{36}\) Indeed, so entrenched is this principle that the widespread scepticism regarding jury participation in civil litigation has not cast the slightest shadow on their function in defamation cases, and with but isolated exceptions, trial by jury in action for libel and slander has remained a matter of right in England and Australasia.\(^{37}\) It has been necessary, therefore, to develop rules to divide responsibility for the determination of different issues by judge and jury, and this has led to a great deal of technicality, as Lord Denning said “technicalities beyond belief”.
Such technicalities unnecessarily prolong proceedings and add significantly to the costs of an action, hence, defamation is commonly described as a sport (exclusively) for the rich. Legal aid has never been available for defamation actions.\(^{38}\)
Further, the unconscionable level of damages awarded by juries in defamation cases has been generating valid criticism in legal circles. This is partly due to the intangible nature of the harm pertaining to the reputation. Also, juries are allowed to assess aggravated damages when they find the defendant’s conduct particularly vexatious\(^{39}\) and exemplary damages when they find the defendant has acted deliberately or recklessly with the object of profiting from the defamatory statements. Here, too, juries are asked to equate a vague conception of the defendant’s just desserts with a concrete monetary figure.\(^{40}\) It is hardly surprising that verdicts have been inconsistent and often excessive.
The “summary disposal of claim” procedure introduced by Sections 8-10 of the Defamation Act, 1996 contemplates early judicial evaluation of defamation claims—whether requested by the parties or not—and a judicial determination of the most straightforward claims without a jury.
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\(^{35}\) Jones v. Jones, [1916] 2 AC 481.
\(^{36}\) The Act applied in terms only to criminal claims, but its principle was applied to civil claims.
\(^{37}\) FLEMING, supra note 32, at 567.
\(^{38}\) In a recent case brought by Mr. Donald’s corporation against two environmental protestors, the environmentalists were reduced to representing themselves, as they could not afford representation. See supra note 6, at 584.
\(^{39}\) D.W. Vick et al., *An Opportunity Lost: The United Kingdom’s Failed Reform of Defamation Law*, 49 FCLJ 630, 621 (1997), available at http://international.westlaw.com.
\(^{40}\) Id. at 631.
\(^{41}\) Defamation Act, 1996 § 8.
The Act of 1996 envisions the adoption of rules of court which will authorize either party to a defamation action to seek summary disposal at any point in the litigation, and permit the court to invoke the summary procedure on its own accord. If the court determines that the plaintiff’s claim is meritless, it may summarily dismiss the case.\(^{42}\) On the other hand, if it determines that the defendant has “no defense … with a realistic prospect of success, and that there is no other reason why the claim should be tried”, it may enter judgment for the plaintiff and grant summary relief in accordance with Section 9.\(^{43}\) Controversially, when parties cannot agree on the content of the correction and apology or the manner of their publication, the court can direct the defendant to publish a summary of its judgment in the manner and at the time the court determines.\(^{44}\)
In the Parliamentary debates preceding this provision, Lord Hoffman stressed that this proposal was intended to be a modest measure that would not affect most of the high profile cases. The Act provides that in determining whether to dispose of a claim without a jury trial, the court is to take account of the seriousness of the plaintiff’s claim and “whether it is justifiable in the circumstances” to deny the plaintiff a full trial, even in cases in which the defendant waives all defenses to take advantage of the extremely low 10,000 pounds cap on damages. Moreover, the court is specifically instructed to consider whether the maximum award available under the procedure is adequate to compensate the plaintiff.\(^{45}\)
Over the decades, numerous reforms have been proposed with the hope of bringing jury verdicts into line. In 1975 the Faulks Committee recommended that “[juries should not assess damages directly, but rather only determine what category]” of damages should be awarded (substantial, moderate, nominal, or contemptuous), with the final determination of the actual amount to be awarded being left to judges.\(^{46}\) The Committee also proposed that exemplary damages in defamation cases should be eliminated. A decade earlier, it had been suggested that the judge should lay down minimum and maximum levels for an award, with the jury being free to assess damages within those limits.\(^{47}\) But, despite the introduction of the new offer of amends\(^{48}\) and summary disposal of claim procedures for minor claims, the Defamation Act 1996 will do nothing to dispel the threat of excessive damage awards that hangs over most English libel actions.
**V. DEFENSES**
A number of general defenses are available in a suit for defamation,\(^{49}\) but here the author focuses on the problems inherent in those defences which are peculiar to the cause of action relating to defamation. These include:
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\(^{42}\) Section 9 gives the court the discretionary power to declare that the plaintiff was libelled and to restrain the defendant from any further dissemination of the defamatory statement; to award damages not exceeding £ 10,000; and to order the defendant to publish “a suitable correction and apology.”
\(^{43}\) Defamation Act, 1996 § 9(2).
\(^{44}\) Id. § 8(3).
\(^{45}\) Faulks Committee Report, supra note 24, at ¶¶ 512, 513. The Faulks Committee also questioned whether jury trials should be granted as often as they were in defamation cases. Id. ¶¶ 455-57.
\(^{46}\) VICK ET AL., supra note 39.
\(^{47}\) Defamation Act, 1996, § 2-4.
\(^{48}\) For example, Consent, on which see Monsons v. Tussaud’s Ltd. [1894] 1 QB 671.
A. Truth/Justification
Truth is an absolute defense whatever may be the defendant’s motive. Furthermore, in UK, the defendant need not show that the publication was in the public interest, for the law of defamation is not concerned with unwarranted invasions of privacy, but only with false imputations against a person’s reputation.\(^{49}\)
It is submitted that this is an uncomfortable position, for to admit truth alone as a complete defense condones embarrassing exposures of purely private matters, lacking any countervailing public interest. Thus a distinguished Select Committee of the House of Lords in as far back as 1843 recommended that truth should be a defense only if publication was for the public benefit.\(^{50}\) This was embodied in Lord Campbell’s Libel Act of 1845, but only for criminal proceedings.\(^{51}\)
A defamatory statement is presumed to be false, and the burden of proving its truth lies on the defendant. This also runs counter to the general rule of law of placing on the person initiating proceedings, the burden of establishing the principal elements of the cause of action, and grants the claimant an unwarranted shield behind which to shelter, given that he may deny the defendant access to information about his affairs, and hence the means to substantiate the allegations in question.\(^{52}\) This defect must be looked into.
1. Allegations of Criminal Conduct. — If the charge is that the claimant is guilty of a criminal offence then the defendant need only establish the fact of the claimant’s conviction for that offence by way of justification.\(^{53}\) Conviction is conclusive evidence that the claimant has in fact committed that offence, as per Section 13 of the Civil Evidence Act, 1968. However, the public interest in the rehabilitation of offenders is protected by the rule that one who maliciously publishes details of a ‘spent’ conviction\(^{54}\) cannot rely upon the defense of justification (as per Section 8 of Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974.
2. “Drawing the Sting of the Allegation”. — It is no longer the rule that the defendant must prove that his libellous statement is true in every incidental detail, but must justify the ‘sting’ of the allegation by proving that it is true in substance. In Alexander v. North Eastern Railway Co.\(^{55}\), the plaintiff brought an action of libel based on a notice which the defendants had published, that he was convicted in the penalty of 9 pounds, including costs, or three weeks’ imprisonment, for riding in a train for which his ticket was not available, and for refusing to pay the proper fare. In fact the plaintiff has been sentenced to fourteen days imprisonment in default of payment of fine and costs, and the defense of justification was held to succeed.
A statutory analogue to the common law rule of the ‘sting doctrine’ (which applies to only a single defamatory charge) has been introduced in this context.\(^{56}\) Section 5 of the Defamation Act provides:
[I]n an action for libel or slander, in respect of words containing two or more distinct charges against the plaintiff, a defense of justification shall not fail by reason only that the truth of every charge is not proved if the words not proved to be true do not materially injure the plaintiff’s reputation having regard to the truth of their remaining charges.
B. Fair Comment in the Public Interest
This defense is also a complete defense to an action for defamation. Of all the defences to an action for defamation, it has been described as the ‘most useful to the media’.\(^{57}\)
The publication must be comment rather than fact and must be on a matter of public interest. It must have a factual basis, with the facts being true or privileged. And the comment must be “fair” — that is, possible for a commentator to make — but even a fair comment will be defeated by a showing of malice.\(^{58}\)
The question that arises now is to what extent must the defendant prove the veracity of the facts in order to establish the defense of fair comment? The position under the common law on this point was unclear. Prior to the passing of the Defamation Act, 1952 it was necessary to prove that all allegations of facts in the words complained of were true, and that the comment upon those facts was bona fide and fair comment on a matter of public interest.\(^{59}\) At the trial it was accordingly incumbent on the defendant to prove that each and every statement of fact in the words complained of was true. If the defendant failed to prove the truth of any of the statements, he necessarily failed in his defence.\(^{60}\)
This position has been substantially changed by Section 6 of the Defamation Act, 1952, which provides:
[I]n an action for libel or slander in respect of words containing partly of allegations of fact and partly of expression of opinion a defense of fair comment shall not fail by reason only that the truth of every allegation of fact is not proved, if the expression of opinion is fair comment having regard to such of the facts alleged or
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\(^{49}\) Gately, *supra* note 6, at 289.
\(^{50}\) Fleming, *supra* note 32, at 508.
\(^{51}\) Id. at 530.
\(^{52}\) Lunney et al., *supra* note 6, at 607.
\(^{53}\) Gandhi, *supra* note 11, at 434.
\(^{54}\) A conviction becomes spent, except in the case of very serious criminal conduct, by the lapse of a period of time whose length is determined by the heaviness of the sentence imposed.
\(^{55}\) [1865] 6 B&S 340; 122 ER 1221.
\(^{56}\) Hepple et al., *Tort: Cases and Materials*, 962 (5th ed. 2000, Butterworths).
\(^{57}\) Lunney et al., *supra* note 5, at 612.
\(^{58}\) Newstead, [1939] 4 All ER at 289-90.
\(^{59}\) Sutherland v. Stopes, (1924) All ER Rep. 19.
\(^{60}\) Peter Walker v. Hodgson, (1909) 1 KB 239.
referred to in the words complained of as are proved.
Thus, the court is only concerned with the comment in the statement complained of: if that is fair in relation to such of the facts on which it is based as are proved, the defense of fair comment is made out, and it is in principle irrelevant whether the facts which are proved true are a substantial part of the facts relied upon, or whether the facts relied on are substantially true.\footnote{61}
\textit{C. Privilege}
Absolute and qualified privilege, defenses in which truth need not be shown, traditionally have been narrow and have mainly allowed the media to reproduce official documentation, rather than encourage investigative reporting. The developments in qualified privilege in the late 1990s are some of the most significant legal changes in this sphere.
1. \textit{Absolute Privilege} — It classically applied to comments made in Parliament\footnote{62} and to statements by participants in court proceedings. It also applied to communications outside court that were part of the process of investigating malfeasance before a possible prosecution or regulatory hearing.\footnote{63} Section 14 of the Defamation Act 1996 extends absolute privilege to contemporaneous fair and accurate reports of judicial proceedings in U.K. courts as well as in some European and international bodies. In India, the Parliamentary privileges are protected by Articles 105 and 194 of the Indian Constitution.
2. \textit{Waiving of Parliamentary Privilege} — Section 13 of the Defamation Act, 1996 allows a Member of Parliament to waive Parliamentary privilege “so far as [it] concerns him” if necessary to pursue a civil claim. This waiver would allow evidence to be introduced in a civil trial concerning the Member’s conduct within Parliament, even if such evidence would otherwise be forbidden by the privilege.
Parliament passed Section 13 after May, J.\footnote{64} ruled that in an action brought by an MP, that the rule based on Article 9 of the Bill of Rights 1688, i.e., absolute privilege accorded to Parliamentary proceedings, meant that “the claims and defences raised issues whose investigation would infringe parliamentary privilege to such an extent that they could not be fairly tried”, and any such suit must be dismissed.
In \textit{Hamilton v. Al Fayed},\footnote{65} the House of Lords confirmed that parliamentary privilege would prevent evidence to be led about the ‘veracity or propriety’ of things done or said in parliamentary proceedings and so would justify a stay on the ground of preventing a fair trial. But the claimant in that case successfully invoked Section 13 to waive parliamentary privilege.
Of all the changes effected by the 1996 Act, this late amendment drew the maximum comments, both, within Parliament and in the press.\footnote{66} Many were concerned that insufficient consideration was being given to the potential constitutional implications of the measure. However interesting Section 13 may be to scholars of the British Constitution, it is unlikely to have much impact on defamation law. On the third reading in the Lords, Lord Hoffman pointed out that before the Hamilton case, there had been no cases in the 300 years since the English Bill of Rights was proclaimed in which an MP had attempted to bring a libel action, which raised a question about his own Parliamentary conduct.\footnote{67}
3. \textit{Qualified Privilege} — The common law also recognized various categories of qualified privilege, which were for the “common convenience and welfare of society.”\footnote{68} Qualified privilege was available when publishers acted to protect an interest or were under a recognized legal, social, or moral duty and the recipients had a corresponding duty or interest in receiving the publication.\footnote{69} This shared duty or interest could exist when material was published to a small audience, but if publication was widespread, the defense would likely fail.\footnote{70}
Although the occasions of privilege were not definitively set by nineteenth century case law, the defense remained narrow during almost all of the twentieth century. Courts were reluctant to recognize new occasions on which society’s “common convenience and welfare” required privilege to exist.\footnote{71} The law required allegations of malfeasance to be reported to relevant authorities rather than to be published generally. The defense did not allow suspicions of corruption, for example, to be publicized. And there was no defense for publishers who reasonably believed defamatory allegations to be true, or for those who published something in the public interest after making reasonable inquiries. Successive statutes extended qualified privilege to various fair and accurate reports of public proceedings in court and Parliament, including public inquiries, as well as some public meetings, notices, and official reports.\footnote{72}
Schedule 1 of the 1996 Defamation Act sets out the categories of reports protected in this way. For some reports, such as those of public meetings, the protection is lost if the defendant refuses a claimant’s request for it to publish a reasonable
\begin{itemize}
\item \textsuperscript{61} GATLEY, \textit{supra} note 6, at 299.
\item \textsuperscript{62} The fountainhead of this right is Article 9 of the Bill of Rights, 1688 which provides that “[f]reedom of speech and debates or proceedings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament.”
\item \textsuperscript{63} Mahon v. Rahn (No. 2), [2000] 4 All ER 41.
\item \textsuperscript{64} Hamilton v. Al Fayed, [1999] 1 All ER 317 (Court of Appeal).
\item \textsuperscript{65} [2000] 2 All ER 224.
\item \textsuperscript{66} D. Hencke et al., \textit{A Liar and a Cheat}, GUARDIAN (London), Oct. 1, 1996, at 1.
\item \textsuperscript{67} Id. It may be that \textit{Hamilton’s} case is \textit{sui generis}, and that Section 13 is no more than the British equivalent of pork barrel legislation intended to benefit a single individual, rather than a reform of more general importance.
\item \textsuperscript{68} Toogood v. Spryng, [1834] 1 C&MR 181 at 193.
\item \textsuperscript{69} Blackshaw v. Lord, [1984] QB 1.
\item \textsuperscript{70} Id.
\item \textsuperscript{71} GANDHI, \textit{supra} note 10.
\item \textsuperscript{72} Defamation Act, 1996, Schedule 1.
\item \textsuperscript{73} Id. § 15(2).
\item \textsuperscript{74} Id. § 15(4).
\end{itemize}
explanation in response to the report.\textsuperscript{73} For all the reports protected under statute, the privilege is lost if publication is not of public concern or for the public benefit.\textsuperscript{74}
In a recent significant decision, \textit{McCartan Turkington Breen v Times Newspapers}\textsuperscript{75}, the House of Lords made clear that media conferences are within the concept of public meetings so that media reports of the conferences receive this statutory protection. This meant that the public meeting provisions of the Defamation Act, 1996 offered a significant avenue for protecting media reporting.\textsuperscript{76}
\textbf{D. Offer of Amends}
Reputation in England is so stringently protected that the liability, for publishing defamatory statements, attaches even without showing any fault. Liability does not depend on the defamer’s intention, but on the fact of defamation.\textsuperscript{77} In 1825, it was finally settled that absence of ill will and malice against the person defamed, and honest belief in the truth of the allegation did not excuse the defendant.\textsuperscript{78} Not only does the law not consider the meaning intended by the publisher, it is equally irrelevant that he did not refer to the plaintiff at all. “The question is not who was aimed at, but who was hit.”\textsuperscript{79}
In \textit{Hulton v Jones}\textsuperscript{80}, this rule was applied even to fiction. The defendants published a libelous narrative, intended to refer to a fictitious person, one Artemus Jones. The plaintiff who had answered to this unlikely name, was allowed to recover, because the description was capable of being reasonably understood to refer to him, and was actually so read by several of his acquaintances.
Obviously, fiction must not become a shield for character assassination. The law is concerned with defamatory lies masquerading as the truth and not defamatory lies purporting to be fiction.\textsuperscript{81} This imposition of liability regardless of fault has often been criticized as an unwarranted restriction on the freedom of speech and expression.
Thus, in the U.K., successive statutes have mitigated the harshness of these principles. Initially, Section 4 of the 1952 Act provided for a mechanism for a defendant who has innocently defamed another person to make an offer of amends, which, in certain circumstances, acts as a defense against defamation proceedings. These provisions were very rarely used, as they were unattractive to the defendants, being complex, limited in scope, and difficult to comply with, and to plaintiffs, to whom they gave no right to compensation. The Neill Committee, in whose \textit{Report on the Practice and Procedure in Defamation, 1991}, the provisions of the 1996 Act originated, stated:
\begin{itemize}
\item \textsuperscript{73} [2000] 4 All ER 913.
\item \textsuperscript{74} The defense, however, does not protect what was said at media conferences; it only protects subsequent media reports of what was said.
\item \textsuperscript{75} Cassidy v Daily Mirror Newspapers Ltd, [1929] All ER Rep 117 at 140.
\item \textsuperscript{76} Bromage v Prosser, (1825) 107 ER 1051. Malice is relevant today only for the purpose of defeating the defenses of fair comment and qualified privilege, and for awarding exemplary damages.
\item \textsuperscript{77} Kerr [1942] 1 K.B. 409.
\item \textsuperscript{78} [1910] AC 20.
\item \textsuperscript{79} Kerr, \textit{supra} note 79 at 515.
\item \textsuperscript{80} It is unsatisfactory that defendants should have a defense available, based on their reasonable behavior after publication, which would leave the plaintiff with no compensation at all, in respect of hurt feelings or injury to reputation, to take account of what was ex hypothesi a defamation….We see no overriding public interest in depriving plaintiffs of all compensation merely because the defendants have seen the error of their own ways.
\item \textsuperscript{81} Damages for defamation may include general damages for harm to reputation, special damages for identifiable pecuniary loss, and punitive damages for particularly outrageous defamation.\textsuperscript{82} Precluding the recovery of even special damage was going a bit too far.\textsuperscript{83}
\end{itemize}
Sections 2-4 of the 1996 Act lay down the modified procedure. The effect of the provisions is (a) to create a formal mechanism for the consensual resolution of defamation disputes, with provisions for judicial determination of appropriate compensation etc., in default of agreement between parties, and (b) to allow a defense to an innocent defamer whose offer has been rejected.\textsuperscript{84} Defamation claimants will lose the right to compensation if they reject a valid offer of amends, unless they are able to prove that the publication was culpable in the sense that the defendant knew or had reason to know that the statement either referred to the claimant or was both false and defamatory of the claimant. Once accepted, the offer commits the defendant to make a suitable correction and a sufficient apology, and to publish them in a suitable manner, and also commits him to pay compensation that is assessed by the Court on the same principles as damages in defamation proceedings, plus costs, unless the parties agree the relevant figures themselves. If the claimant is not satisfied with the correction/apology or the manner of publication of the correction/apology, this can be taken in to account by the Court in assessing the amount of compensation.
In one key respect, the new provisions are of broader scope than the 1952 Act. The defense now seems to cover the case where the statement is known to refer to the claimant and to be defamatory to him, but is reasonably believed to be true e.g. where an investigative journalist researches a story to the best of his ability and has made every reasonable effort to verify his allegations.\textsuperscript{85}
The Faulks Committee felt that the principle in \textit{Hulton} should stand, whereas Lord Denning\textsuperscript{86} commented “I would like to see the House of Lords take \textit{Hulton v Jones} by the scruff of the neck and throw it out of the Courts and start afresh”: The author submits that the amends defense in the Defamation Act, 1996 tries to achieve a compromise between these conflicting views.
While the new procedure is a marked improvement over the 1952 Act, several
\begin{itemize}
\item \textsuperscript{82} See \textit{supra} note 22.
\item \textsuperscript{83} Id.
\item \textsuperscript{84} Gatley, \textit{supra} note 6, at 635.
\item \textsuperscript{85} Gatley, \textit{supra} note 6, at 635.
\item \textsuperscript{86} LORD DENNING, WHAT NEXT IN THE LAW? 213 (1982, Butterworths).
\end{itemize}
shortcomings may diminish its effectiveness. For example, an offer must be made before a defense has been served in defamation proceedings brought against the offeror. Also, the requirement that the defendant must renounce all other defenses to invoke the amends procedure is bound to be controversial.
VI. DEFAMATION, FREE SPEECH AND THE PRESS
We shall now consider the sensitive question of whether the English law strikes the correct balance between concerns of free speech and the protection of reputations.
A relevant question here is the extent of the 'chilling effect' on the media, with the result that there is undue restriction on the media's freedom to publish material of real public interest.\textsuperscript{86} While to an extent the chilling effect is justified, it has often been validly stated that the English law of defamation is too harsh in its operation, resulting in undue interference in the reporting of news by the media, and acting as a shield which can be manipulated by the rich and powerful to deflect attention away from shady business deals and intrigue.\textsuperscript{87} The passage of the Human Rights Act, 1998, which requires that the Courts in appropriate cases should have regard to the right of free speech in the European Convention of Human Rights\textsuperscript{88}, may serve to redress the balance to some degree.
However, what is disturbing is the absence of any form of 'public figure' defense in the UK. Unlike in the UK, in the United States, it is generally necessary for the claimant to prove fault on the defendant's part. In \textit{New York Times Co. v Sullivan}\textsuperscript{89}, it was held that a requirement of 'actual malice' must be substituted for the normal requirement of default in all cases involving the conduct of public figures. Brennan, J held:
Against the background of a profound national commitment to the principle that debate on public issues should be uninhibited, robust and wide open, and that it may well include vehement, caustic, and some times unpleasantly sharp attacks on government and public officials...the Constitutional guarantees require that a public official be prohibited from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to his official conduct unless he proves that the statement was made with 'actual malice' with the knowledge that it was false, or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.
Both the Faulks and the Neill Committees on Defamation considered the question whether a rule similar to the \textit{Sullivan} rule should be introduced in England.\textsuperscript{90}
\textsuperscript{86} The most obvious manifestation, called the direct chilling effect, occurs when articles, books or programmes are specifically changed, in the light of legal considerations, such as the omission of material the author believes to be true but cannot establish to the extent judged sufficient to avoid an unacceptable risk of legal action and award for damages. Another deeper and subtler way in which libel inhibits media publication is the structural or indirect chilling effect. It functions in a preventive manner: the prevention of creation of material. Particular organizations and individuals are treated as off-limits. Certain subjects are taboo etc. See E. BARENDT ET AL., LIBEL AND THE MEDIA: THE CHILLING EFFECT (1997, Clarendon Press).
\textsuperscript{87} WEIR, A CASEBOOK ON TORT, 558 (10th ed. 2004, Sweet and Maxwell).
\textsuperscript{88} Article 10 of the Convention reads — Freedom of Expression — (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This Article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises.
(2) The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it certain duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties, as are prescribed by the law, and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interest of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputations and rights of others...
\textsuperscript{89} 376 US 254 (1964).
\textsuperscript{90} See Defamation Act, 1996, Section 1 — Responsibility for Publication: (1) In defamation proceedings a person has a defence if he shows that - (a) he was not the author, editor or publisher of the statement complained of, (b) he took reasonable care in relation to its publication, and (c) he did not know, and had no reason to believe, that what he did caused or contributed to the publication of a defamatory statement.
\textsuperscript{91} [1999] 4 All ER 342.
\textsuperscript{92} LUNNEY ET AL., supra note 6, at 958.
On both occasions, such a reform was considered undesirable. The Neill Committee commented:
Standards of care and accuracy in the press are, in our view, not such as to give any confidence that a *Sullivan* defense would be treated responsibly. It would mean, in effect, that the newspapers, could publish more or less what they liked, provided they were honest, if their subject happened to be within the definition of 'public figure'. We think this would lead to great injustice. What matters is the subject matter of the publication, and how it is treated, rather than who happened to be the subject of the allegations.
As such, the Defamation Act, 1996 did not incorporate such a defence. It is pertinent to note that Indian law as well does not contemplate any requirement of a higher level of proof for establishing the defamation of a public figure, with ominous portends for accountability.
**VII. AN OPPORTUNITY LOST?**
With the exception of Section 13, the Defamation Act 1996 offers well-considered reforms of defamation law. Nonetheless, those reforms fall far short of resolving the most compelling problems in English defamation law.
For middle-and lower-income individuals harmed by irresponsible conduct by the press, the libel laws will continue to be a privilege reserved for the rich. Legal aid remains unavailable to potential plaintiffs (and defendants) in libel actions, and the procedural reforms conceived by the Act do not go far enough in providing less expensive alternatives to litigation for potential complainants.\(^{94}\) Thus, the Act does not remedy the fundamental problem of access to justice for all but continues to serve the wealthiest members of society.
Moreover, the Act does not address the deleterious effect of UK’s defamation laws on the exercise of the freedoms of speech and press in the context where those freedoms matter most: when the conduct or character of public figures is at issue. Those individuals and organizations that have the resources and the inclination to pursue defamation claims with vigour are often those whose activities should be subject to the greatest public scrutiny. The defamation laws can deter the press from publishing truthful stories concerning such individuals and organizations, even when the stories concern "matters which it is very desirable to make public."\(^{95}\) This is primarily the consequence
\(^{94}\) WICK ET AL., *supra* note 40.
\(^{95}\) *Per* Lord Keith of Kinkel in, Derbyshire County Council v. Times Newspapers Ltd., [1993] : All ER 1011 at 1025.
\(^{96}\) The offer of amends procedure established by sections 2-4 of Defamation Act, 1996 comes into play only if the defendant decides to make an offer, something a party contemplating legal action cannot depend upon in weighing the costs and benefits of bringing suit. Similarly, the summary disposal of claim procedure established by sections 8-11 affords few guarantees for a potential claimant concerned about the costs of litigation, since a demonstration that there are genuine defenses will defeat an application seeking summary relief.
JURISDICTION TO REGULATE BORDERLESS BORDERS
Neha Nanchahal*
I. INTRODUCTION
"Liberty finds no refuge in a jurisprudence of doubt."
Suppose from Delhi you make an online purchase of a pornographic CD from a web site owned by a Scandinavia based company but hosted in the United Kingdom or participate in an online gambling on a web site developed and hosted in the United States. You use a credit card issued by a bank in the United States for the online payment. At the time of payment, the website which per se exhibited to be a secure payment portal showed an error and asked for re-submission of your credit card details.
A dispute may run with respect to the validity of the contract, as a transaction of good or service may be legal in one country but illegal in another; relating to the faulty product that you purchase; pertaining to hacking of your bank accounts from which the payments were made; connected to taxation of the online transaction.
In the world market that is getting flatter by the second, e-commerce and internet have grown to become the buzzwords. In the business world that transcends the boundaries, there is a surge in the number of disputes that may arise between unknown individuals. Where, against whom and what law would be applicable in search of the remedies? Do courts of every state or nation from where information on the web can be accessed have personal jurisdiction to hear and try the case?
In Latin "juris" means "law" and "dicere" means "to speak" thus the literal meaning of jurisdiction is "the authority or power to speak the law". The issue of jurisdiction requires a determination at the very outset of any litigation. Without jurisdiction, a court's judgment is inefficient and impotent. This article attempts to highlight the various jurisdictional challenges that arise out from the online communications and endeavours to bring out the various approaches adopted by nation states while keeping their sovereignty intact, to tackle the disputes arising within the arena of cyber space—that is nowhere but everywhere.
II. CHALLENGES IN THE INTERNET AGE
Disputes in the offline world are resolved on a territorial basis, i.e., each country applies their local laws on the foundation of territorial nexus. In the world of internet if the disputing parties belong to the same jurisdiction then the disputes can be resolved in the same manner as any other offline dispute. However, by the very nature of transactions on the internet transcending geographical boundaries the laws of all the countries involved in the transaction hold equal value. In many transactions, the laws of (i) the country of the seller's residence, (ii) the country of the buyer's residence, (iii) the country from where the website was hosted or has sufficient connection such as where the content was provided, (iv) the country in which the sale occurred, (v) any country through which the product was transmitted, (vi) the country in which the cause of the dispute arose, give rise to the concept of multiple jurisdiction. Therefore the glaring
* First Year, B.A. LL.B. (Hons.), University School of Law & Legal Studies, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi.
1 See Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey, 112 S.Ct. 2791, 2803 (1992).
2 [Internet is not a physical or tangible entity, but rather a giant network which interconnects innumerable smaller groups of linked computer networks... Small networks... are in turn connected to other networks in a manner which permits each computer in any network to communicate with computers on any other network on the system. The global Web of linked networks and computers is referred to as the Internet. See American Civil Liberties Union v. Reno, 929 F.Supp. 824, 830-31 (E.D. Pa. 1996). See also J.H GRAHAM SMITH, INTERNET LAW AND REGULATION, (3rd ed. 2002. Sweet & Maxwell), for a general overview of the internet and its boundaries being blurred by "intranet" and "extranet".
3 Jurisdiction has been defined as (a.) A court's power to decide a case or issue a decree; (b.) A geographical area within which political or judicial authority may be exercised. See BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY, (7th ed. 1999).
4 Cyberspace is a "software world" where "code is Law." See Ethan Katsh, Software Worlds and the first Amendment: Virtual Doorkeepers in Cyberspace, University of Chicago Legal Forum 7 (1997), available at http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/law/ilf/ijpf/articles/content/20011127801.html
5 Concept of territorial nexus requires an understanding of the concepts of:
1. Prescriptive jurisdiction — When a sovereign State has jurisdiction to prescribe, it legitimately may apply its legal norms to conduct. Prescriptive jurisdiction proceeds from the concept of territoriality.
2. Enforceable jurisdiction — When a State has jurisdiction to enforce, its police and customs authorities may restrict the flow of trade, detain individuals, and alter property interests. See Henry H. Perritt Jr., Jurisdiction and the Internet: Basic Anglo/American Perspectives, available at http://www.kentlaw.edu/perritt/montrealrev.html. A State's prescriptive jurisdiction is unlimited and a State may legislate for any matter irrespective of where it occurs or the nationality of the persons involved. A State's ability to enforce those laws is necessarily dependent on the existence of prescriptive jurisdiction. However, the sovereign equality of States means that one State may not exercise its enforcement jurisdiction in a concrete sense over persons or events actually situated in another State's territory irrespective of the reach of its prescriptive jurisdiction. That is, a State's enforcement jurisdiction within its own territory is presumptively absolute over all matters and persons situated therein. See also VAKUL SHARMA, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY LAW AND PRACTICE, CYBER LAW AND E-COMMERCE, (Universal). See generally David R. Jonathon & David Post, Law and Borders-The Rise of Law in Cyberspace, 48 STAN. L.REV. 1367 (1996).
6 SHARON K. BLACK, TELECOMMUNICATIONS LAW IN THE INTERNET AGE, (2002. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers).
7 See Minnesota v. Granite Gates Resorts, Inc., 568 N.W.2d (Minn. App. 1997), 576 N.W.2d 747 (Minn. 1998). [S]ome courts have upheld exercises of jurisdiction on the basis of the accessibility of a Web page. Cf. Weber v. Jolly Hotels, 977 F.Supp. 327 (D.N.J. 1997). A presence on the Web is not enough to support jurisdiction over non-resident defendants. Cf. Flewings Inc. v. Phoenix Int'l Ltd., (2000) 5 SR 697; (2000) E.T.M.R. 369, at ¶ 7 d. in appeal (2002) FSR 12. [M]ere fact that websites can be accessed anywhere in the world does not mean, for trademark purposes, that the laws should regard them as being used everywhere in the world. It all depends upon the circumstances, particularly the intention of the website owner and what the reader will understand by accessing the site. In other fields of law publication on a website may well amount to a publication, but I am not concerned with that. Cf. GTE New Media Services, Inc. v. Bell South Corporation et al. 199 F.3d 1343. The District of Columbia Circuit held that simply having links on an Internet site was not enough to justify exerting personal jurisdiction. [P]ersonal jurisdiction surely cannot be based solely on the ability of District residents to access the defendant's web sites, for this does not by itself show any persistent course of conduct by the defendants in the District. Cf. Bensusan Restaurant Corporation v. King, 937 F.Supp 295 (S.D.N.Y. 1996). [C]reating a web site ... may be felt nationwide
challenge in the internet age today is that the global presence\(^8\) of a website generates a worldwide jurisdiction.
*Playboy Enterprises, Inc.* v. *Chuckleberry Publishing, Inc.*\(^9\) is the first published international case addressing multi-jurisdictional issues in cyberspace. The court held that “The Internet is a world-wide phenomenon, accessible from every corner of the globe. [Defendant] cannot be prohibited from operating its Internet site merely because the site is accessible from within one country in which its product is banned. To hold otherwise “would tantamount to a declaration that this Court, and every other court throughout the world, may assert jurisdiction over all information providers on the global World Wide Web.”
**A. Private International Law**
“International law sets little or no limit on the jurisdiction which a peculiar state may arrogate to itself.”\(^{10}\) Several established principles are more or less recognized by all. However, Internet, the borderless medium, challenges traditional views and necessitates, to revisit and to reinterpret the doctrines. No doubt, “a similar phenomenon occurs in many domestic as well as international conflicts contexts”\(^{11}\) but one can hardly disagree that the Internet has raised it to qualitatively new levels. The court in *California Software Incorporated v. Reliability Research, Inc.*, laid down that “While modern technology has made nationwide commercial transactions simpler and more feasible, even for small businesses, it must broaden correspondingly the permissible scope of jurisdiction exercisable by the courts.”
Some internet controversies fit perfectly to the traditional principles; for ex-
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\(^8\) 939 F. Supp. 1032 (S.D.N.Y. 1996).
\(^9\) J.G. STARKE, INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW. (10th ed. 1989, Butterworths).
\(^10\) Jack L. Goldsmith, *Against Cyberarchy*, 65 U. CHILL. L. REV. 1199, 1208 (1998).
\(^11\) 631 F.Supp. 1356 (C.D. Cal 1986).
\(^12\) Nationality (or personality) principle allows the state to exercise jurisdiction irrespective of the territory where the act was committed because of the nationality of the actor (active nationality principle) or because of the nationality of the victim (passive nationality principle). See Starke, *supra* note 9, at 210-11. Nottelbohm Case (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) (Second Phase), ICI Rep 1955 4. Nationality…to determine that the person upon whom it is conferred, enjoys the rights and is bound by the obligations, which the law of the State in question grants to or imposes upon its nationals; reffered in Sharma, *supra* note 5, at 251. *See also,* for a discussion on the application of the “active” and “passive” nationality principles on the internet transactions. Yulia A. Timofeeva, *World Prescriptive Jurisdiction in Internet Content Controversies—A Comparative Analysis*, CONN. J. INT’L L., Vol. 20, 199 (2005), *also available* at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol/13/papers.cfm.
\(^13\) “[T]he territorial principle of jurisdiction is originally derived from an assumption about the absoluteness of boundaries and sovereign power within them. *See,* Achieving Legal and Business Order in Cyberspace: *A Report on Global Jurisdiction Issues Created by the Internet*. 55 BUS. LAW 1801, 1824 (2000). *SS Lotus Case* [France v. Turkey, PCJU Ser A (1927), No. 9]. “The first and foremost restriction imposed by international law upon a State is that — failing the existence of a permissive rule to the contrary — it may not exercise its power in any form in the territory of another State. In this sense jurisdiction is certainly territorial; it cannot be exercised by a State outside its territory except by virtue of a permissive rule derived from international custom or from a convention.” The issue of jurisdiction under the territorial principle is double-sided. On the one hand, it seems that it does not give much power to the state for control of Internet activity, most of which occurs trans-nationally with participation of foreign actors without any tangible contact with a given forum. On the other hand, the territorial principle should not be underestimated. See Timofeeva, *supra* note 12, at 6-7.
\(^14\) The effects principle allows the State to exercise jurisdiction on a person with no territorial or national connection, if the conduct has a substantial effect within the State’s territory.
\(^15\) S.K. VERMA & RAMAN MITTAL, LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF CYBERSPACE (2004, Indian Law Institute, New Delhi). Full text of the Draft Convention *available* at http://www.hchc.net.
\(^16\) *Available* at http://www.law.unimelb.edu.au/ipria/developments_in_ip/intdev/hague.html.
European Union. By signing this treaty, member countries have agreed on a common platform for exchange of information relating to investigation, prosecution and the strategy to gear against cyber crimes, including exchange of cyber criminals. The objective of the Convention as set out in the preamble, is "to deter action directed against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer systems, networks and computer data as well as the misuse of such systems, networks and data by providing for the criminalization of such conduct, as described in this Convention; and the adoption of powers sufficient for effective combating of such criminal offences, by facilitating their detection, investigation and prosecution at both the domestic and international levels and by providing arrangements for fast and reliable international co-operation". It particularly deals with offence related to infringement of copyright, computer-related fraud, child pornography and offences connected with network security. It also covers a series of procedural powers such as searches of and interception of material on computer network. It can be said that this Convention is an effort aimed at the protection of society against cyber crime, through the adoption of appropriate legislations and fostering international co-operation".
C. Challenges to the Sovereignty of Nations
The court may determine its authority to adjudicate problem that a case concerns, referred to as 'subject matter jurisdiction' or jurisdiction over the participants in the suit, referred to as 'personal jurisdiction'. In relation to the Internet transactions personal jurisdiction becomes a primary factor because of its inherent decentralized nature. The continuous convergence and globalization of the computer networks, has created roadblocks to the existing international law principles for their ability to adapt to the new situations such as, online crimes and contraventions. The access by sysops to domain names and IP addresses brings forth the existence of differing venues on the net to meet the wide array of challenges depending on the nature of the dispute and under which branch of law it falls. Some of the challenges in the cyberspace are relating to:
1. **Contractual Disputes.** — E-Commerce is a new way of conducting and executing business transactions in a 24x7 accessible environment. When a dispute arises in relation to an e-commerce transaction, as to the quality of the product, or the consideration; or any other technical anomaly at the time of the transaction, then which law would be applicable and which forum would adjudicate to provide the remedy.
Each website has its own terms of service and privacy policies. They may or may not require the customer to subscribe to their choice of law or the forum selection clause as a precondition to allow them accessibility to the services that they render. Hence, the determination of jurisdiction needs to be resolved efficiently.
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21 Fall text of the Convention available at http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/185.htm
22 Sharma, supra note 5, at 256.
23 The court's jurisdiction over each "person" is also termed as jurisdiction in personam.
24 System operators who control ID issuance and the servers that hold files.
25 Tata Consultancy Services v. State of Andhris Pradesh (2001) 4 SCC 629.
26 See Benjamin A. Spencer, Jurisdiction and the Internet: Returning to Traditional Principles to analyze Network-Mediated Contact, available at http://home.law.uiuc.edu/rev/publications/2000s/2006/2006_1/Spencer.pdf.
27 See JOHNSON ET EL., supra note 5, David G. Post, New Wine, Old Bottles: The Evanescent Copy, AM. LAW., 103 (May 1995) discussing the choices that legal authorities face in developing copyright law in Cyberspace.
28 Domain name serves the same function as a trade mark and is not a mere address or like finding a number on the Internet and, therefore, it is entitled to the same protection as a trade mark. See Yahoo! Inc. v. Akash Arora, 1999 DLT 285; Rediff Communication Limited v. Cyberbooth, A.I.R 2000 Bom. 27.
5. Domain Names as Trademarks. — The domain names, 'virtual real estate' upon registration generate a new type of property akin to the trademark rights with the owner, but without inherent ties to the trademark law of an individual country. The placement of a trademark on the World Wide Web page at times overlaps with a validly registered trademark of another country as there is no global registration scheme existing to protect a famous mark worldwide. Is a trademark owner required to master each country's trademark laws to avoid the suits arising from uses of confusingly similar marks validly registered in that country? The *in rem* provision proves to be controversial.
Although the domain name initially assigned to a given machine may be associated with an Internet Protocol address that corresponds to that machine's physical location (for example, an "in" domain name extension), the machine may be physically moved without affecting its domain name. Thus a server with "in" domain name may be anywhere, and users, generally speaking, are not even aware of the location of the server that stores the content that they read.
6. International Cyber Crime. — Computer networks can be used to facilitate online forms of traditional crimes, such as gambling, child pornography, fraud, and software piracy. Loss of privacy is another major worry where the network is concerned. In these circumstances national borders may be inconsequential both to the commission of the crime or the location of the relevant evidence.
III. LEGAL APPROACHES TO TACKLE THE CHALLENGES
With the exponential growth of e-commerce, the jurisdictional laws of the nation states act as new wine in the old bottles, as extraterritorial effect is given to them to adjudicate upon the exigencies arising from the transactions which recognize no borders.
A. The United States
The United States exercises its jurisdiction over foreign defendants based upon their Internet activity, as per the general principles governing jurisdiction under the United States Rules. In the United States, a state cannot claim jurisdiction over any party it chooses. It must first consider whether the state has certain 'minimum contact' with the party such that the maintenance of suit does not offend the notion of 'substantial justice'. In such cases, the claimant is known as the forum state and in deciding what contacts are sufficient, elements such as (1) residence, (2) incorporation, or (3) property ownership in the state are considered. While physical presence of the defendant in the state is not required, lesser contact, such as business transactions by mail or wire communications can establish jurisdiction. In the year 1945, the U.S Supreme Court in *International Shoe Co. v. State of Washington* laid down the test for determining the minimal contact between the out-of-state defendant and a particular jurisdiction. It held that a court's exercise of personal jurisdiction over a non-resident defendant is proper if that defendant has had certain minimum contacts with [the forum state] such that the maintenance of the suit does not offend 'traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice'. It enunciated three criteria for establishing minimum contact: (i) the defendant must 'purposefully avail' himself of the privilege of doing business with the forum state; (ii) the cause of action arises from defendant's activities in the forum state; (iii) the exercise of jurisdiction would be fair and reasonable. The nation states have tried settling the diabolic debate whether the mere accessibility of a web page implies a valid jurisdiction, by enlarging the sphere of applicability of the territorial principles to the transactions which cross the boundaries. These criteria are known as the states' 'long-arm statutes' which must also adhere to the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S Constitution. This principle allows the US states to exercise jurisdiction over those persons who do not belong to that state but who have some kind of transaction with that state in order to exercise jurisdiction over them. The Connecticut Federal court in *Inset Systems, Inc. v. Instruction Set, Inc.* confirmed advertising via the Internet to be a solicitation of a sufficient repetitive nature to satisfy [Connecticut's long-arm statute]. Second, while "substantial, continuous, and systematic" contact establishes general jurisdiction, these are rare in Internet
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28 Hanson v. Denckla 57 U.S 235 (1958), stated that there must be "some act by which the defendant purposely avails [itself] of the privilege of conducting activities with the forum state". See also Asahi Metal Industry Co. v. Superior Court, 480 U.S 102, 112 (1987). The Supreme Court in *World-Wide Volkswagen v Woodson*, 444 U.S 286, 297 (1980), held that personal jurisdiction is subject to a test of reasonableness. The court in *Hillman v. Napier*, 406 U.S. 403 (1972), held, 406 U.S. 408 (1984) held that a plaintiff must show "either that the defendant's contacts with the forum are continuous and systematic, or that the suit arises out of or is related to those contacts." In *Burger King Corp. v Rudzewicz*, 471 U.S 462, 476 (1985) it was noted that "[I]t is an inescapable fact of modern commercial life that a substantial amount of business is transacted solely by mail and wire communications across state lines, thus obviating the need for physical presence within a State in which business is conducted. So long as a commercial actor's efforts are "purposefully directed" towards residents of another State, we have consistently rejected the notion that an absence of physical contacts can defeat personal jurisdiction there. In *Cody v Ward*, 954 F.Supp. 43 (D. Conn. 1997, "purposeful availment" requirement was satisfied by the defendant's electronic contacts with the plaintiff. In *Cybersell, Inc. v Cybersell, Inc.*, 130, F. 3d 414 (9th Cir. 1997) it was observed that "it is essential in each case that there be some act by which the defendant purposefully avails itself of the privilege of conducting activities within the forum state, thus invoking the benefits and protections of the laws."
29 Minnesota case, *supra* note 7.
30 The long arm statutes went a step ahead of minimum contacts to analyze whether contacts were sufficient to establish purposeful availment. e.g. (a.) purposefully and successfully solicitation of business from forum state, (b.) establishment of contracts with the forum state residents, (c.) associated with other forum state related activity, (d.) substantial connection with the forum.
31 937 F. Supp. 161 (D.Conn. 1996).
32 See, Jurisdictional Aspects of Cybersecurities Working Group on Securities: Jurisdictional Project of the Committee on Law in Cyberspace, available at http://www.calbar.ca.gov/calbar/pdfs/sections/buslaw/cyberspace/cyberspacelibrary/1999-9_jurisdictional-aspects-cybersecurities.pdf for a discussion on the general and specific jurisdiction.
33 89 F. 3d 1257 (6th Cir. 1996). The defendant's 'contact' with the forum state was established on the
cases because online transactions typically are brief and predominantly one-time occurrences. Instead, nonsystematic contact results in specific jurisdiction, which is more common in Internet cases. On the other hand, a mere phone call, fax or other electronic communication to the forum state, is not, by itself, sufficient contact to establish personal jurisdiction.
The Sixth Circuit dwelled on ‘minimum contact principle with respect to the internet transactions’ in *CompuServe Inc. v. Patterson* and held that the defendants had “reached out” from Texas to Ohio, where the plaintiff was based and “originated and maintained” contracts with Ohio. In the case of *The League Against Racism and Antisemitism (LICRA) and the French Union of Jewish Students v. Yahoo! Inc., California and Yahoo! France Inc.* the Court held “France is within its rights as a sovereign nation to enact hate speech laws against the distribution of Nazi propaganda in response to its terrible experience with Nazi forces during World War II. Similarly, LICRA and UEJF are within their rights to bring suit in France against Yahoo! for violation of French speech law”. “…[A]ny possible difficulties in executing our decision in the territory of the United States…cannot by themselves justify a plea of incompetence”. The courts in *Intercon, Inc. v. Bell Atlantic Internet Solutions, Inc.* went further to consider that personal jurisdiction existed for an Internet Company that does not properly route its electronic messages.
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grounds that (a.) the defendant had ‘purposefully availed’ himself of the privilege of doing business in Ohio by subscribing to CompuServe and subsequently accepting online CompuServe’s Shareware Registration Agreement (which contained an Ohio choice of law provision) in connection with his sale of shareware programmes on the service, as well as by repeatedly uploading shareware programmes to CompuServe’s computers and using CompuServe’s e-mail system to correspond with CompuServe regarding the subject matter of the lawsuit; (b.) CompuServe’s system was located in Ohio; (c) the cause of action arose from Patterson’s activities in Ohio because he marketed his shareware through CompuServe; and (d.) he should have reasonably expected disputes with CompuServe to yield lawsuits in Ohio. Similarly in *EDiAS Software International v. BASIS International Ltd.* 947 F. Supp. 413 (1996), the court upheld the personal jurisdiction over the defendant, as the online activities had sufficiently been supported by offline activities, like sale of the goods and visits.
205 F.3d 1244 (10th Cir. 2000). The Court of Appeals found sufficient contacts to warrant exercising personal jurisdiction over the defendant. “After receiving notice of the routing error, defendant knew its conduct over the next four months was causing injury in Oklahoma, and it should reasonably have expected to be sued there.”
35 486 U.S. 783 (1984).
In order to have personal jurisdiction, there must be — (a.) intentional actions (b.) expressly aimed at the forum state (c.) causing harm, the brunt of which the defendant knows is suffered or likely to be suffered in the forum state….What separates the “effects test” from other personal jurisdiction approaches is that the focus is on the “knowledge” or “likelihood” of causing harm in the forum state. See Sharma *supra* note 5.
938 F. Supp. 616 (C.D. Cal. 1996) It reasoned that “Toeppen allegedly registered Panavision’s trademarks as domain names with the knowledge that the name belonged to Panavision and with the intent to interfere with Panavision’s business. Toeppen expressly aimed his conduct at California”.
Panavision’s principal place of business. In *PurCo Fleet Services, Inc. v. Towers*, 38 F.Supp.2d 1320 (D. Utah 1999), the court was satisfied that the effects test was satisfied. Defendant registered domain name corresponding to plaintiff’s trademark, and set up website that forwarded mailing list with information about the defendant’s products or services; (v) whether the website provides information about the defendant’s specific commercial activities in the forum in which it is sought to be defendant will sell merchandise; (vi) the level sued; (vii) whether there have been interactions or sales through the website with residents of the forum in which the action is brought; (viii) the likely market for the products or services being sold; (ix) the
Another criterion that has been accepted by the courts to settle the jurisdictional issue has been the ‘effects test’. Jurisdiction is grounded on the fact that there arises an injurious effect, although neither the act nor omission itself occurred in the territory of the State. The test originated in *Calder v. Jones*. In the instant case the court reasoned that the defendants had engaged in “intentional, and allegedly tortuous, actions [that were] expressly aimed at California,” and that “they knew that the brunt of the injury would be felt” by the plaintiff in California. The ‘effects test’ takes into consideration the effect that “out-of-state” conduct has in the forum state. The California court in *Panavision Int’l. L.P v. Toeppen* held that jurisdiction was “proper because Toeppen’s out-of-state conduct was intended to, and did, result in harmful effects in California.” The Sixth Circuit in Tennessee’s *United States v. Thomas*, while determining their jurisdiction concluded that the defendants knew the jurisdiction in which their files were being accessed, and the downloading could not occur without their approval.
The U.S Courts have developed the ‘sliding scale approach’ based on the different uses to which businesses put their websites and on the level of interactivity. According to the court that originally developed the scale in *Zippo Manufacturing Co. v. Zippo Dot Com, Inc.* “The likelihood that personal jurisdiction can be constitutionally exercised is directly proportionate to the nature and quality of commercial activity that an entity conducts over the Internet.” The sliding scale has become the standard by which courts determine if a business has minimum contacts or “does or transacts business within the state” where the court is located.
The courts use a “sliding scale” approach that divides Internet activities into three categories for the purpose of jurisdictional analysis:
1. **Active Internet Business.** — Where there are repeated and purposeful actions such as initiating and continuing contracting, marketing, and distribution activities over the Internet with a business based in a particular state, the combination of such contacts satisfies the “transacting business” requirement. Thus, a firm that advertises and sells products uses e-mail communications for sales orders, and provides an on-line news service into a state subjects the e-commerce business to jurisdiction there.
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market visitors to its own site.
74 F.3d 701 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 117 S. Ct. 74 (1996).
Factors that have been found to be relevant to the “sliding scale” analysis include the following: (i) whether the defendant makes sales in the jurisdiction; (ii) whether the defendant maintains a toll-free telephone number that is advertised on the website and is accessible from the jurisdiction; (iii) whether the website includes a disclaimer as to the areas in which the of interactivity permitted by the website; (iv) whether the website permits a visitor to the site to sign up for an interactive “which the website itself explicitly or implicitly indicates it is targeting; (v) whether the website permits orders to be placed on-line; and (xi) whether the defendant has otherwise marketed its services in the jurisdiction. Simon Johnson et al., *Internet Activity and Jurisdiction over Foreign Defendants*, available at http://www.dunn.com/papers/paper_3.shtml.
957 F.Supp. 1119 (W.D.Pa. 1997).
CompuServe case, *supra* note 33.
2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 383 (N.D.Ill. 2000). *See also* BAGBY & MCCARTY, THE LEGAL AND REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT OF E-BUSINESS: LAW FOR THE CONVERGING ECO-UNITED STATE, (2003, Thomson).
2. Interactive Internet Business. — If a firm provides for only an exchange of information with residents of a state, who are without the ability to contract, and the firm has no other contact with the state in question, then that state does not have the necessary minimum contacts to support jurisdiction. The court in *Ty. Inc. Clark*43, an English defendant who had a beaniebabiesuk.com website, accessible in the state of Illinois, provided information about order for Beanie Babies he owned that were created by the plaintiff. However, the defendant did not take orders or enter into contracts over the website. When he was sued by the plaintiff, an Illinois-based firm, the court held that defendant could not be forced to respond to a trademark infringement suit in Illinois because that court lacked personal jurisdiction over the defendant. On the other hand, in *CoolSavings.Com Inc. v. IQ. Commerce Corp.*44, the court held that if a firm sets up an interactive website directed at the entire country, sends some representatives into the state, hires people there to help promote its technology and obtains customers from that state, the state does have jurisdiction. In *Edberg v. Neogen Corp.*45, the courts denied existence of jurisdiction for lack interactivity, where site included both a toll-free number and a link for sending of e-mail to the defendant.
3. Passive Internet Business. — The Western District of Pennsylvania in *Zippo Manufacturing case*46 distinguished between active and passive web sites and held that remote passive web sites did not accord personal jurisdiction to the forum, the court demanded deliberate action by the defendant to the forum state. The mere fact that a person gained information on the infringing product was not considered equivalent to a person advertising, promoting, selling or otherwise making an effort to target its product in New York.47 The court in *GTE New Media Services, Inc. v. BellSouth Corp.*48 concluded that if a firm’s only presence in the state is a passive website, one that allows only viewing of the site’s contents, the site cannot be subjected to jurisdiction merely because the site can be accessed within the state. *3D Systems, Inc. v. Arotech Laboratories,*49 the court applied federal circuit law to the personal jurisdiction issue in a patent infringement case that included claims based on state law. The court upheld specific jurisdiction against one defendant but not against its corporate agent, whose website was “essentially passive” under the *Cybersell* approach.
In these cases, the exercise of jurisdiction is determined by examining the level of interactivity and commercial nature of the exchange of information that occurs on the website.
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43 6 F. Supp. 2d 1000 (N.D.Ill. 1999).
44 17 E.Supp.2d 104 (D.Conn.1998).
45 Zippo case, supra note 40
46 Bensusan Restaurant Corp. case, supra note 7.
47 199 F.3rd 1343 (D.C Cir. 2000). In *Hearst Corporation v. Gold Berger* 1997 WL 97097, 1997 US Dist. Lexis 2065) (SDNY Feb. 26, 1997) it was noted that “[N]ew York long arm statute did not permit a federal court to exercise personal jurisdiction over an out-of-state defendant solely because defendant’s website is accessible to and has been electronically accessed by computer users in New York”.
48 160 F.3d 1373 (Fed. Cir. 1998).
49 1990 O.J. (C 189) 2 (consolidated). This new regulation is an update of a 1968 treaty among European countries, known as the Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters. See Sharma, supra note 5.
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B. The European Union
The European Approach to meet the jurisdictional challenges is far different from the American approach. The rules determining which country’s courts have jurisdiction over a defendant are set out in a regulation issued by the Council of the European Union (EU), known as the Brussels Regulation.50 The Brussels Convention (Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters of September 16, 1968) on jurisdiction for intra-European disputes looks at various forms of contract between defendants and the state asserting jurisdiction. In the internet context, defendants have generally claimed that a remote forum is precluded from jurisdiction because the contacts are only established through a server that is not within the forum.
The Brussels Regulation has become the established law to resolve disputes concerning jurisdiction and enforcement of foreign court’s judgments in civil and commercial matters. However, it neither extends to revenue, customs or administrative matters, nor to a variety of specifically excluded subject-matter. The general rule under Article 2 of the Brussels Convention, subject to various exceptions, provides that a defendant domiciled within a Contracting State, notwithstanding his nationality, shall be sued in the Courts of that State.51 Article 5.1 and 5.1 provides that in matters relating to contract, a person domiciled in a Contracting State may be sued by another. In contractual relationships, a person may be sued in the courts of the country where the obligation should be performed. In the case of involvement of a branch, agency or other establishment, the courts of the place where such branch, etc. is situated have jurisdiction to adjudicate the matter. In consumer disputes, the complainant is entitled to bring proceedings against a supplier of goods or services or a creditor in the state where the consumer is domiciled. Finally, an entrepreneur can only bring proceedings against a consumer in the country where the consumer is domiciled. Article 23, provides that the parties to a contract are free to agree to depart from the above mentioned Article 5.
50 This means that an individual (including a sole trader or a partner in a business sued on his own) can be sued where his principle residence is. Article 60 provides that the domicile of a company or other association (including a partnership) is wherever it has its statutory seat, its central administration or its principal place of business, available at http://www.dti.gov.uk/ccp/topical/guide/jurisdiction_brussels.htm. [Article 17 provides that if the parties, one or more of whom is domiciled in a Contracting State are to have jurisdiction to settle any dispute which has arisen or may arise in connection with a particular legal relationship, that court or those courts shall have exclusive jurisdiction…] [The substantive provision of Article 17 does not apply to consumer contract proceedings, for which jurisdiction is determined by Articles 13-15 except to limited jurisdiction agreements that Article 15 does permit for consumer disputes, even though not expressly stated to do so. See Smith, supra note 2.
51 “[T]he trader ‘undertakes commercial activities in the Member State of the consumer’s domicile or, by any means, directs such activities to that Member State…’.” Article 13 of the Brussels Convention states that the consumer may bring proceedings in his own court against a trader “[i]n the state of the consumer’s domicile the conclusion of the contract (or preceded by a specific invitation addressed to him or by advertising”. For a discussion on the concept of ‘directed activities’ and the proposed development by the UK Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). See Sharma, supra note 5, at 275.
As websites are generally accessible from anywhere, thus a trader with a website might be said to be directing its activities to all EU countries such as in case of a dispute. The scope of trader’s liability has been broadened under Article 15\(^{51}\) as the consumer has a right to take legal action in his or her home country. Any judgment given there would be enforceable in the trader’s own country. Regarding commercial matters, the Brussels Convention can be said to provide ideal solutions for jurisdictional issues when it comes to electronic commerce, especially in cases when the products are delivered over the Internet i.e., digital product. If the website provides information in the ‘countries specific language’ and offers goods and services in such currency, then it may fulfill the criteria of “specific invitation”. In such a case a website is to be seen as the one being ‘directed’ at that specific country and the consumer can bring proceedings against the trader in their specific (home) country. For example, a website giving information in French and quoting prices in francs, cannot be said to be ‘directed’ towards the UK consumers. As far as the applicable law is concerned, the courts within the EU apply the Rome Convention even where the applicable law is that of a third country or the parties are not resident or established in the European Union.\(^{52}\)
In order to resolve cross border consumer contractual disputes, the determination as which state’s substantive law shall be applicable the EU Member States are signatories to the Rome Convention (EC Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations of June 19, 1980), 1980. It provides for party autonomy. The choice need not necessarily be in writing, but it must be expressed with reasonable certainty by the terms of the contract or the circumstances of the case. Thus, this requirement has to be interpreted in different Internet environments.\(^{53}\) In the absence of choice of law, the Rome Convention expresses the principle that the law of the state with which the contract is most closely connected shall govern the contract.
**C. India**
In absence of specific laws, jurisdiction to govern Internet transactions is determined on the basis of (1.) Forum of Choice (2.) Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC), (3.) Choice of Law and (4.) The Information Technology Act, 2000.
1. **Jurisdiction based on the Forum of Choice.** — It is well settled that if the court has no inherent jurisdiction, neither acquiescence nor waiver nor estoppel can create it.\(^{54}\) Where two or more courts have jurisdiction to try a particular suit, parties may by an agreement between them select one of such forum and exclude the other.\(^{55}\)
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\(^{51}\)Sharma, *supra* note 5, at 276-277.
\(^{52}\)Article 3 further states that “the ‘mandatory rules’ of the consumer’s country of habitual residence will always apply whatever choice of law is made”.
\(^{53}\)A defect of jurisdiction strikes at the very authority of the court to pass any decree, and such a defect cannot be cured even by consent of parties. See Chiranjivlal v Jasjit Singh, (1993) 2 SCC 507; Sushil Kumar v Gobind Ram, (1990) 1 SCC 193 (205).
\(^{54}\)[Such an agreement] is not contrary to public policy...does not contravene Section 28 of the Contract Act. See Hakam Singh v. Gammon (India) Ltd. (1971) 1 SCC 286. Similar proposition was propounded in New Moga Transport Co. v. United India Insurance Co. Ltd., (2004) 4 SCC 677.
\(^{55}\)See *supra* note 32.
\(^{56}\)Infra note 62, 63, 64.
\(^{57}\)Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 § 9: P.M.A Metropolitan v. M.M. Mariboma. A.I.R 1995 SC 2001
Therefore, courts will ordinarily compel parties to abide by these agreements which are legal, valid and enforceable. The court in India can adjudicate upon a suit if it finds that the balance of convenience, interests of justice and the circumstances of the case warrant trial in India.\(^{56}\) The foreign judgments, subject to certain exceptions, are given binding character under Section 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.\(^{57}\)
2. **Jurisdiction determined under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.** — In civil matters the courts have jurisdiction pursuant to the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 to try a suit if two conditions are fulfilled (a.) the suit must be of a civil nature; and (b.) the cognizance of such a suit should not have been expressly or impliedly barred.\(^{58}\)
Where only one court has a jurisdiction, it is said to have exclusive jurisdiction. Where more courts than one have jurisdiction over a subject matter, they are called courts of available or natural jurisdiction. To establish whether the jurisdiction of the courts is exclusive or non-exclusive, in the Internet setting, one must involve the jurisdictional principles as under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (a.) pecuniary (b.) subject-matter (c.) territory and (d.) cause of action.\(^{59}\) The suit shall be instituted in a court within the local limits of whose jurisdiction the ‘cause of action’, whether wholly or partly, arises.\(^{60}\) It does not take into consideration ‘due process’ or ‘minimum contact principles’. Therefore, a mere access to a website would suffice for a court to assume jurisdiction. However, the judicial pronouncements prove that legal approach is to look beyond mere access to a website and take into account the effect, the access would have, within the forum state.\(^{61}\)
\(^{56}\)For Jurisdiction of Civil Court see generally C.K. THAKER, CIVIL PROCEDURE (5th ed., Eastern Book Company). See also M. P JAIN, THE CODE OF CIVIL PROCEDURE-SUPREME COURT REFERENCE BOOK (Wadhwa).
\(^{57}\)Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, § 20.
\(^{58}\)Oil and Natural Gas Commission v. Upasni Kumar Basu and Other. (1994) 4 SCC 711 ([M]ere because it read the advertisement at Calcutta and submitted the offer from Calcutta and made representations from Calcutta would not in our opinion, constitute facts forming an integral part of the cause of action. So also the mere fact that it sent fax messages from Calcutta and received a reply thereto at Calcutta, would not constitute an integral part of the cause of action).
\(^{59}\)Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, Section 2(6) defines ‘Foreign Judgment’ as a judgment of a foreign court.
\(^{60}\)(2001) 7 SCC 728; Roshanlal v Mohan Singh (1975) 4 SCC 628 ([T]he court cannot go into the merits of the original claim and it shall be conclusive as to any matter thereby directly adjudicated upon between the same parties subject to the exception enumerated in clauses (a) of (f) of Section 13).
\(^{61}\)A foreign judgment which is conclusive under Section 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 can be enforced in India in the following ways: (a.) by instituting a suit on such foreign judgment, or (b.) by instituting execution proceedings.
\(^{62}\)For a detailed discussion on Foreign Judgments see generally THAKER supra note 59 Narasimha Rao
Clause (a) to (f) of Section 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 provide as to conclusiveness of a foreign judgment.\textsuperscript{62} A foreign judgment operates as \textit{res judicata} between the parties. The Supreme Court in \textit{Smita Conductors Ltd v. Euro Alloys Ltd}\textsuperscript{63}, observed that a foreign award cannot be recognized or enforced\textsuperscript{64} if it is contrary to (a.) fundamental policy of Indian law; or (b.) the interests of India; or (c.) justice or morality. Section 14 of the Code declares that the court shall presume, upon the production of any document purporting to be a certified copy of a foreign judgment, that such judgment was pronounced by a court of competent jurisdiction, unless the contrary appears on the record, or is proved. However, if for admissibility of such copy any further condition is required to be fulfilled, it can be admitted in evidence only if that condition is satisfied.\textsuperscript{65}
3. \textit{Choice of Law}. — Courts apply the choice of law rules to determine ‘what law should be applied’. Under private international law the characterization may be done either to apply the law of the forum (\textit{lex fori}), or to apply the law of the site of the occurrence that gave rise to the litigation in the first place (\textit{lex locii}).\textsuperscript{66} The modern theory of conflict of laws recognizes the ‘proper law of a contract’\textsuperscript{67} and to the true intention of the parties to govern the contracts\textsuperscript{68}.
4. \textit{The Information Technology Act, 2000}\textsuperscript{69} — In May 2000, at the height of the dot-com boom, India enacted the Information Technology Act, 2000 to regulate the activities in the cyberspace. This Act shall apply to the whole of India and to any offence or contravention committed outside India by any person.\textsuperscript{70} It is further explained that such an act or conduct would constitute an offence or contravention if it involves a computer, computer system or computer network located in India.\textsuperscript{71} Hence, as far as the criminal law is concerned, the Indian courts exercise jurisdiction, endorsing the ‘effect theory’. The only international treaty on this subject is the Council of Europe’s Convention on Cyber Crime\textsuperscript{72} formulated primarily by the European Union. India is not yet a part of this group.
\textsuperscript{62} Venkata Lakshmi (1991) 3 SCC 451 (463-64). ([M]ere production of a Photostat copy of a decree of a foreign court is not sufficient. It is required to be certified by a representative of the Central Government in America.
\textsuperscript{63} See generally PARAS DIWAN, PRIVATE: INTERNATIONAL LAW-INDIA AND ENGLISH, (Deep & Deep Publications).
\textsuperscript{64} National Thermal Power Corporation v. The Singer Company, AIR 1993 SC 998.
\textsuperscript{65} British India Steam Navigation Co. Ltd. v. Shamughaivas Cashew Industries, (1990) 3 SCC 481 (True intention of the parties, in the absence of express selection has to be discovered by applying “sound ideas of business, convenience and sense to the language of the clause itself”). The express choice of law made by parties obviates need for interpretation. The chosen court may be a court in the country of one or both parties, or it may be a neutral forum. The jurisdiction clause may provide for a submission to the courts of a particular country, or to a court identified by a formula in a printed standard form, such a bill of lading referring disputes to the courts of the carrier’s principal place of business... If there is no express choice of the proper law of the contract, the law of the country of the chosen court will usually, but not invariably, be the proper law.
\textsuperscript{66} Information Technology Act, 2000
\textsuperscript{67} Id. § 1(2).
\textsuperscript{68} Id. § 72 (2)
\textsuperscript{69} Convention on Cyber Crime, supra note 17.
\textsuperscript{70} CHRISTOPHER HEALTH, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN THE DIGITAL AGE: CHALLENGES FOR ASIA, IEEM CONFERENCE SERIES (2001, KL. L. INT'L).
\textsuperscript{71} JOHNSON ET AL., supra note 5. An analogy to the rise of a separate law of Cyberspace with the new legal system — Lex Mercatoria (Law of Merchant) has been drawn in the book.
\textsuperscript{72} Daniel A. Fancr, Stretching the Margins: The Geographic Nexus in Environmental Law, 48. STAN. L. REV. 1247, 1248 (1996).
RIGHT TO PRIVACY: AN INDIAN VIS-À-VIS OTHER LEGAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
Anurag Goel*
Neeti Sachdeva**
I. INTRODUCTION
Right to privacy is a person’s right to be left alone by the government…. the right most valued by civilized men\(^1\). This statement defining privacy way back in 1890 recognised it as a right to be left alone by the government, but in today’s world can ‘right to privacy’ be confined to such a narrow sphere? Answer is definitely no, the ‘right to privacy’ from its traditional aspect has grown to encompass whole new aspects, from a seed it has developed into a whole grown tree, on which every now and then new branches are stemming. Now privacy is defined as to mean the ability of a person to control the availability of information about exposure of himself. It is related to being able to function in society anonymously (including pseudonymous or confidential information). Seeing the growth of right to privacy, it would not be wrong to say that even being asked to define your privacy boundaries can be an invasion of your privacy. By naming areas of your life that you wish to have kept private, you are in essence calling attention to some areas over others and revealing something about yourself that you might prefer not to reveal. Even international instruments like Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1946\(^2\) and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966\(^3\) have explicitly recognised the ‘right to privacy’. This article tries to highlight the growth of different facets of privacy in different legal systems all over the world and then analyzes where the Indian Law on privacy stands vis-à-vis other legal systems of the world.
II. ASPECTS OF PRIVACY
Right to privacy, other than the right to be left alone from interference by government agencies, also includes the right to financial privacy, privacy over internet, workplace privacy, medical privacy, marital and sexual privacy, data privacy, privacy from unsolicited calls, children’s right to privacy, privacy in torts, privacy from press, etc., many of which may be considered to be offshoots of personal information privacy. Some of these aspects are discussed hereinafter.
A new branch under right to privacy is the right to Financial Privacy. Many financial institutions collect information about their customers as a regular part of their business of providing products or services. For instance, when you apply for a loan, you provide your name, phone number, address, income and details about your assets. When the institution is considering your application, it may collect additional details from other sources, such as credit reports prepared by credit bureaus. And as you use a financial product – a credit card, for example, your institution will have a record of how much you buy and borrow, where you like to shop and whether you repay your balance in time.\(^4\) Some financial institutions share this information with other entities – including completely unaffiliated companies such as retailers, telemarketers, airlines and non-profit organizations to help them target consumers who might be interested in their products or programmes. This gives rise to consumer’s right to financial privacy.
Apropos Internet Privacy, it is submitted that advancement in technology at a supersonic speed and the advent of internet and World Wide Web has definitely revolutionized the way we gather information. Instead of sitting in libraries and collecting materials over several months, now just with a click of a button, whole information is at our command. No doubt internet and new technologies are a boon to us and our coming generations, but as the saying goes, howsoever beautiful a rose may be it is never without thorns or howsoever tall a tree may be it can never touch the skies. These two sayings clearly reveal the status of privacy rights in the world of internet and technology. There exists inexpensive and ready access to an ever growing pool of personal information on internet making it possible for even the smallest of business to collect and analyze detailed information about identifiable individuals almost anywhere in the world.\(^5\) Websites collect much personal information both explicitly, through registration forms, survey forms, order forms and online contests, and by using software in ways that are not obvious to online consumers, that is, through cookies and hacking software. Website owners are also able to follow consumers’ online activities and gather information about their personal preference and interests\(^6\), thereby denying a person his basic human desire to secure identity. In order to maintain privacy of personal information, one must be informed about and control each of these three distinct protections\(^7\) – privacy\(^8\), confidentiality\(^9\) and security\(^10\), but courtesy internet and technology all these are at the risk of infringement any moment and that too by any person howsoever far or near the person concerned may be.
Workplace Privacy involves issues such as, does an employer have the right to search an employee’s computer files or review the employee’s electronic mail?\(^11\) Does an employer have a right to refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, that is, terminate employment, or otherwise disadvantage any person because he or she uses alcohol and/or tobacco away from the job site on non-working time? Alternatively, can it be
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* Final Year, B. A. LL. B (Hons.), University School of Law & Legal Studies, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi.
** Final Year, B. A. LL. B. (Hons.), University School of Law & Legal Studies, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi.
\(^1\) Samuel Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, *The Right to Privacy*, 4 Harv. L. Rev. 193 (1890).
\(^2\) Article 12 provides, “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks”.
\(^3\) Article 17 provides; “No one shall be subject to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation and everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks”.
\(^4\) FDIC Consumers News-Winter 2000/2001, available at www.fdic.gov/consumers/consumer/news/cnwin0001/newrights.html.
\(^5\) Oishik Sircar, *Privacy on the Internet: A Legal Perspective*, available at www.asianlaws.org/projects/privacy_internet.htm.
\(^6\) Id.
\(^7\) Don Goldhauner, *Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility*, available at www.cpsr.org.
\(^8\) When and with whom, you share your personal information?
\(^9\) When and with whom, another person or organization shares your personal information?
\(^10\) How well your information is protected from unauthorised access, alteration or destruction?
said that employees have no right to privacy at workplace as e-mail is monitored to keep tabs on employees’ productivity or to prevent potential liability for the employer that employers are concerned with productivity and efficiency of the employees and would not welcome usage of company equipment and company time spent on non-productive activity. Moreover, the liability of employer becomes even more serious when emails contain racist, sexist or sexually explicit messages that can expose employers to potential liability from other employees based on ‘holistic work environment’ claims.\(^{12}\)
Individual health care information, once entrusted only to one’s physicians or close family members, has now become routinely available to a much broader audience with the arrival of digital age\(^{13}\) and this brings in the question of Medical Privacy. Various electronic forms of medical records have existed in western countries, but mostly in an unintegrated fashion. This lack of integration has in a large part facilitated the violation of privacy.\(^{14}\) Breaches or potential breaches of confidentiality in the context of therapy seriously jeopardize the quality of the information communicated between patient and doctor and also compromise the mutual trust and confidence necessary for effective therapy to occur.\(^{15}\) On the other hand, a person’s right to privacy is not absolute. Situations in which the patient has a specific incapacity, the patient has become a danger to himself or others, the public good is at stake, or a serious injustice might occur were relevant, significant information may not be withheld.\(^{16}\)
**III. PRIVACY IN OTHER LEGAL SYSTEMS**
**A. India**
Right to privacy has been culled out of the provisions of Article 21 and other provisions of the Constitution of India relating to the Fundamental Rights read with the Directive Principles of State Policy. It was in this context that it was held by the Supreme Court in *Kharak Singh v. State of U.P.*\(^{17}\) that police surveillance of a person by domiciliary visits would be violative of Article 21 of the Constitution. In *R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu*\(^{18}\), the right of privacy vis-à-vis the right of the press under Article 19 of the Constitution was considered and it was laid down, “the right to privacy is implicit in the right to life and liberty granted to the citizens of this country by Article 21. A citizen has a right to the privacy of his own, his family, marriage procreation, motherhood, childbearing and education among other matters. None can publish anything concerning the above matters without his consent – whether truthful or otherwise and whether laudatory or critical”. Again, in *People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India*\(^{20}\), it was held that right to privacy would certainly include telephone conversation in the privacy of one’s home or office and that telephone tapping infringed Article 21 of the Constitution unless it is permitted under the procedure established by law. In this case the court also recognized the employee’s right to privacy by holding that ‘technological eavesdropping’ is a violation of the right to privacy.
However, right to privacy in terms of Article 21 is not an absolute right. In the landmark case of *Govind v. State of Madhya Pradesh*\(^{21}\), the Supreme Court held, “Assuming that the fundamental rights explicitly guaranteed to a citizen have penumbral zones and that the right to privacy is itself a fundamental right, that fundamental right must be subject to restriction on the basis of compelling public interest”. In *X v. Z Hospital*\(^{22}\), the court held that right to privacy is not absolute and may be lawfully restricted for the prevention of crimes, disorder or protection of health on morale or prediction of rights and freedom of others. The court agreed that in the doctor-patient relationship, the most important aspect is the doctor’s duty of monitoring secrecy and that the doctor cannot disclose to a person any information regarding his patient which he has gathered in the course of treatment nor can the doctor disclose to anyone else the mode of treatment or the advice given by him to the patient but where the patient has been found to be HIV(+), its disclosure to the lady with whom the patient was likely to get married would not be violative of either the rule of confidentiality or the appellant’s right of privacy as the above mentioned lady was saved in time by such disclosure, or else she too would have been infected with the dreadful disease if the marriage had taken place and consummated. In *M. Vijaya v. The Chairman, Singreni Collieries and Others*\(^{23}\), the Supreme Court upon a detailed discussion of the competing rights of a private party and public right with reference to right to privacy of a person suspected of suffering from AIDS held, “there is an apparent conflict between the right of privacy of a person suspected of HIV not to submit himself forcibly for medical examination and the power and duty of the state to identify HIV infected persons for the purposes of stopping further transmission of the virus. In the interest of the general public, it is necessary for the State to identify HIV positive cases and any action taken in that regard cannot be termed as unconstitutional”. In *Sharda v. Dharmapa*\(^{24}\), where the issue was would subjecting a person to a medical test be a violation of Article 21, court held that some limitations on the right to privacy have to be imposed and particularly where two competing interests clash. In *Association for Civil Liberties and Another v. Union of India*\(^{25}\) while rejecting the respondent’s contention that right to information made available to voters/citizens by judicial interpretation has to be balanced with the right of privacy of the spouse of the contesting candidate and any insistence on the disclosure of assets and liabilities of the spouses invades his/her right to privacy which
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\(^{11}\)Lloyd L. Rich, *Right to Privacy in the Workplace in the Information Age*, available at www.publaw.com/privacy.com.
\(^{12}\) *India: Look Out! You’re Being Watched At Work-E-Mail Monitoring And The Law Of Privacy*, available at. www.wikipedia.com/privacy1.html.
\(^{13}\) Philip Beck, *Privacy in the Digital Age*, CPA Bulletin 48 (1999).
\(^{14}\) *Data Privacy*, available at www.wikipedia.com/privacy.
\(^{15}\) Philip Beck, *The Confidentiality of Psychiatric Records and the Patient’s Right to Privacy*, available at www.tortopa-ape.org/publications/position_papers/records.asp.
\(^{16}\) See H. KAPLAN & B. SADOCK, *SYNOPSIS OF PSYCHIATRY* (8\(^{th}\) ed., Baltimore).
\(^{17}\) AIR 1963 SC 1295.
\(^{18}\) (1994) 6 SCC 632.
\(^{19}\) AIR 1997 SC 84.
\(^{20}\) (1975) 2 SCC 148.
\(^{21}\) AIR 1999 SC 495.
\(^{22}\) AIR 2001 AP 502.
\(^{23}\) (2003) 1 SCW 1950.
\(^{24}\) AIR 2003 SC 90.
is implied in Article 21, the court held, "By calling upon the candidate to disclose the assets and liabilities of his/her spouse, the fundamental right to information of a voter/citizen is thereby promoted. When there is a competition between the right to privacy of an individual and the right to information of the citizens, the former right has to be subordinated to the latter right as it serves larger public interest".
As regards Internet Privacy, there is no general data protection law in India. The National Task Force on IT and Software Development submitted an "IT Action Plan" calling for the creation of a "National Policy on Information Security, Privacy and Data Protection Act for handling of computerized data." It examined the United Kingdom Data Protection Act as a model and recommended several cyber laws including ones on privacy and encryption\(^{25}\). In May of 2000, the government passed the Information Technology Act, a set of laws intended to provide a comprehensive regulatory environment for electronic commerce\(^{26}\). The Act addresses computer crime, hacking, damage to computer source code, break of confidentiality and viewing of pornography. The legislation gives broad discretion to law enforcement authorities through several provisions. Section 69 allows for interception of any information transmitted through a computer resource and requires that users disclose encryption keys or face a jail sentence up to seven years. Following the enactment of the IT Act the Ministry of Information Technology adopted the Information Technology (Certifying Authorities) Rules in October 2000 to regulate the application of digital signatures and to provide guidelines for Certifying Authorities\(^{27}\). In February 2003, India convicted its first cyber-criminal when a Delhi High Court sentenced Arif Azim on the charges of online cheating. In the said case, Arif Azim, while working for a call centre near Delhi stole the credit card information that belonged to an American citizen and used it to order a color television and a cordless hand phone. This case has highlighted the security and privacy risks for companies to outsource some of their processing operations in India where there is a lack of a clear privacy legal framework. The Indian government is definitely considering the idea of enacting a detailed law on data protection under the initiative of the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology\(^{28}\).
**B. United States of America**
Right to privacy is an intrinsic American value\(^{29}\). Although the United States Constitution does not explicitly refer to "privacy", the United States Supreme Court has nonetheless inferred a right to privacy from various portions of the Bill of Rights and the Common Law. An article\(^{30}\) written in 1890 by Supreme Court Justices Warren and Brandeis and entitled "The Right to Privacy" is often cited as the first implicit declaration of a US right to privacy. In the 1891 case of *Union Pacific Railway Co. v. Botsford*\(^{31}\), the Supreme Court outlined the right to bodily integrity and linked it to the right to privacy. Subsequently, in *Pierce v. Society of Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary*\(^{32}\), the Supreme Court recognized a right to privacy and invalidated a law which required all children between the age of eight and sixteen to attend public schools calling it an interference with the liberty of parents and guardians to direct the upbringing and education of children under their control. These cases, stretching over a period of seventy years, set the stage for the landmark 1965 decision in *Griswold v. Connecticut*\(^{33}\) which is the first Supreme Court decision to fully articulate the right to privacy. The court held that right to privacy included the right for married couples to use contraceptives and invalidated a Connecticut law criminalizing the use of contraceptives as violative of right to marital privacy. The Court inferred a right to privacy from the guarantees contained in the First, Third, Fourth, Ninth, Tenth and the Fourteenth Amendments. A later case, *Eisenstadt v. Baird*\(^{34}\) established the right of unmarried people to contraception. Privacy arguments also arose in the later, much more controversial *Roe v. Wade*\(^{35}\). Roe v. Wade was the landmark Supreme Court decision which established that laws against abortion violate a constitutional right to privacy, overturning more than hundred years of judicial precedent. The decision in Roe v. Wade has been a cause of decades-long debate over legality of abortion and role of religious views in the political sphere among others. Resultantly Roe Iv. Wade has been challenged in various subsequent cases. In a 5:4 decision in *Webster v. Reproductive Health Services*\(^{36}\), Supreme Court declined to explicitly overrule Roe v. Wade, but did uphold several abortion restrictions. The Supreme Court, however, in *Planned Parenthood v. Casey*\(^{37}\) re-examined Roe and explicitly upheld its validity. More recently, in *Lawrence v. Texas*\(^{38}\), the Supreme Court held that a Texas law prohibiting homosexual sodomy violated the liberty under the Fourteenth Amendment of adults to engage in private intimate conduct. Apart from the above mentioned cases which highlight the growth of the right to privacy primarily through the prism of reproductive rights of women, there have also been cases in other fields such as data privacy amongst others which have had a role to play in the development of right to privacy. Taking a queue from the judiciary, United States Legislature has also enacted various privacy legislations *inter alia*, Privacy Act 1974, Code of Information Practices 1973, Electronic Communication Privacy Act 1986.
As regards Financial Privacy, Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act, 1999 contains the relevant provisions. It requires each financial institution to tell its customers about the kinds of information it collects and types of businesses that may be provided that information. This disclosure is called the privacy notice and is intended to help customers decide whether they are comfortable with that information-sharing arrangement. The Act provides that if the financial institution in-
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\(^{25}\) National Task Force on IT & SD, *Basic Background Report*, June 9, 1998, available at http://it-taskforce.nic.in/it-taskforce/bg.htm.
\(^{26}\) Information Technology Act 2000, No. 21 of 2000, available at www.mit.gov.in/it-bill.htm.
\(^{27}\) Information Technology (Certifying Authorities) Rules, 2000, available at http://www.mit.gov.in/rules/rulesfinal.htm.
\(^{28}\) www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_156334.0%&.htm.
\(^{29}\) Constitutional Origin of the Right to Privacy, available at www.ala.org/ala/washoff/oitp.htm.
\(^{30}\) WARREN ET AL., supra note 1.
\(^{31}\) 141 US 250 (1891).
\(^{32}\) 268 US 510 (1925).
\(^{33}\) 381 US 479 (1965).
\(^{34}\) 405 US 438 (1973).
\(^{35}\) 410 US 113 (1973).
\(^{36}\) 492 US 490 (1989).
\(^{37}\) 505 US 833 (1992).
\(^{38}\) 539 US 558 (2003).
tends to share your information with anyone outside its corporate family, it must give one the chance to "opt out" or say "no" to information sharing under certain circumstances. Even consumers who are not technically customers\textsuperscript{39} of financial institutions will have the right to opt out of information sharing with outside companies. Further, the Act requires that financial institutions should describe how they will protect the confidentiality and security of one's information. On the question of what kind of information can one stop an institution from sharing, the Act provides that one cannot ban an institution from providing personal information to outside companies and organizations in certain circumstances\textsuperscript{40}, this is in accordance with an earlier US law called Fair Credit Reporting Act, which gives one limited rights to stop selected information-sharing with affiliates and also provides that an institution has a right to give an affiliate any information obtained from your transactions with that institution.\textsuperscript{41} Pursuant to the enactment of Federal Law in financial privacy\textsuperscript{42}, in 2003 California enacted the California Financial Information Privacy Act, commonly known as 'SB1'. It provides the strongest financial privacy protection in the nation.\textsuperscript{43}. This Act was challenged in the case of \textit{ABA v. Lockyer}\textsuperscript{44}, questioning the constitutional validity of the "opt out" provision for affiliate sharing. The court, however, held otherwise, stating that the federal Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act, 1999 allows states to erect strong financial privacy protection.
As regards Internet Privacy, as the information privacy of individuals became increasingly threatened by the heightened use of computers by the government, the Congress enacted statutes to provide individuals control of some amount of privacy with regard to the internet. The two federal statutes involved are the Freedom of Information Act and the Privacy Act, 1974. These two statutes give individuals the power to preclude government from invading their privacy through misusing personal information.\textsuperscript{45} Under the Freedom of Information Act, every American has the right to look at any government records unless the disclosure of a record would warrant an "invasion of personal privacy."\textsuperscript{46} Ironically, the Act simultaneously creates a tension between public's right to know and an individual's right to privacy\textsuperscript{47} as the Act permits that files may be available to "any person". The Privacy Act of 1974 was implemented
\textsuperscript{39} For instance, former customers or people who unsuccessfully applied for a loan or a credit card.
\textsuperscript{40} That is to say, the information needed to help conduct normal business, information needed to protect against fraud or unauthorised transaction, or is provided in response to a court order, also if institution reasonably believes the information is 'publicly available' and lastly if information is used as a part of 'joint marketing agreement'.
\textsuperscript{41} For instance, banks can give an affiliated insurance company details about one's deposit account, as this would be useful information if insurer wants to offer you an annuity as an investment when one of your CDs is about to mature.
\textsuperscript{42} Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act, 1999.
\textsuperscript{43} It allows customer to 'opt-out' if information-sharing practice between affiliated institutions, companies that have common ownership, and also bars financial institutions from sharing information about consumers with non-affiliated third parties unless an individual gives his or her express "opt in" consent.
\textsuperscript{44} Case No. S-04-0778 MCE KJM, United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, \textit{available at} www.epic.org/privacy/preemptions/lockyer\_brief.html.
\textsuperscript{45} James M. Alkinson, \textit{Right to Privacy in the Age of Telecommunication}, \textit{available at} www.tsem.com/full\_text.html.
\textsuperscript{46} FREEDMAN, THE RIGHT OF PRIVACY IN THE COMPUTER AGE, 18 (1987, Quorum Books).
\textsuperscript{47} Id.
"to provide certain safeguards for an individual against an invasion of privacy."\textsuperscript{48} The "Code of Fair Information Practice" was recommended by an advisory committee of the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare in a report called Records, Computer, and the Rights of Citizens in 1973.\textsuperscript{49} The code served as the model in constructing the Privacy Act giving five major principles. Notwithstanding the efforts by the Congress to protest privacy by enacting the Privacy Act, the Office of Technology Assessment in 1986 concluded that much of the protection from the Privacy Act of 1974 has been eroded by computer matching, front-end verification, and computer profiling.
With respect to Workplace Privacy, Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 1986 prohibits the "intentional or wilful interception, accession, disclosure or use of one's electronic communication". However, the Act is combined by three exceptions that limit its applicability to employee monitoring\textsuperscript{50}, they being, provider exception\textsuperscript{51}, ordinary course of business exception\textsuperscript{52} and consent exception\textsuperscript{53}. Statutory law have purported to protect a government employees workplace privacy, however, the reality of case law is that the protection afforded to public employees for work related search and seizure is minimal.\textsuperscript{54} In case of \textit{Smyth v. Pillsbury}\textsuperscript{55}, a Federal District Court in Pennsylvania upheld the employer's termination of an employee, based on a review of intercepted mail transmitted over the company system and held that the review was not a violation of the employee's right to privacy. In \textit{O'Connor v. Ortega}\textsuperscript{56}, Court held that the reasonable standard applies to supervisory searches of public employees. Therefore, a public employee has a reasonable expectation of privacy, but it is a qualified one that is subject to the "operational realities" of the workplace. Further, in \textit{Schowengerdt v. General Dynamics Corp.}\textsuperscript{57}, Court followed Ortega and further weakened and possibly practically eliminated, an employee's right to privacy in the computerized workplace.\textsuperscript{58} In \textit{Blakey v. Continental Airlines}\textsuperscript{59}, while rejecting the employee's right to privacy, court upheld the employer's contention that postings on a work-related electronic board could have serious ramifications on the employer's liability and thus allowed the interception of e-mails. Congress introduced legislation in 1993 named Privacy for Consumers and Workers Act to extend the applicability of Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 1986 to private employers. Further development in the field of workplace privacy is the enactment of Right to Privacy in the Workplace Act, Illinois\textsuperscript{60} section 5 of which prohibits any employer to refuse to hire or to discharge any indi-
\textsuperscript{48} Privacy Act , 1974, § 2(b).
\textsuperscript{49} MICHAEL RUBIN, PRIVATE RIGHTS: PUBLIC WRONGS: THE COMPUTER AND PERSONAL PRIVACY (1988, Alex Publishing Corporation).
\textsuperscript{50} See supra note 12.
\textsuperscript{51} Where the employer provide their employees with e-mail through a company owned system.
\textsuperscript{52} Where the employer is monitoring business-related correspondence or has a legitimate business justification for monitoring.
\textsuperscript{53} Where the prior consent of the employee has been taken.
\textsuperscript{54} Rich, \textit{supra} note 11.
\textsuperscript{55} 914 F. Supp. 97 (E.D. Pa. 1996).
\textsuperscript{56} 480 US 709 (1987).
\textsuperscript{57} 823 F.2d 1328 (9th Cir. 1987).
\textsuperscript{58} Rich, \textit{supra} note 11.
\textsuperscript{59} 751 A.2d 538 (NJ 2000).
\textsuperscript{60} 820 ILCS 55/1.
individual, because the individual uses lawful products (alcohol, tobacco) in the premises of the employer during non-working hours. However, this section does not apply to the use of those lawful products which impairs an employee’s ability to perform the employee’s assigned duties.
As regards Medical Privacy, no comprehensive federal law currently exists to safeguard the confidentiality of personally identifiable health information. A consensus has long existed that federal health privacy law is needed. Numerous federal advisory commissions and agencies have recommended enactment of a federal health privacy law and a wide range of consumer, privacy and health care organization and providers agree\(^{61}\) because personal medical information is far from private in the United States. Insurers use identifiable medical records for risk rating, employers use them for hiring and firing, health systems for quality assurance, pharmaceutical firms for marketing, banks for assessing loan risk and the government for the detection of fraud.\(^{62}\) It is difficult to obtain health insurance without consenting to the release of the present and future medical data into an information market that is largely unregulated. This struggle between patients and commercial interests was reflected in the Medical-Privacy bill introduced in Congress in 1999 namely Medical Information Privacy and Security Act which provides individuals with access to health information of which they are subject, ensure personal privacy with respect to health-care related information, impose criminal and civil penalties for unauthorised use of protected health information, to provide for the strong enforcement of these rights and to protect State rights given under Section 3 of the Act.
C. United Kingdom
The incorporation of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights in UK Law by the Human Rights Act, 1998 creates a general right to respect for privacy where none previously existed. Article 8 offers general protection for a person’s private and family life, home and correspondence from arbitrary interference by the state. This right effects a large number of areas of life ranging from surveillance to sexual identity to issues of data privacy such as gathering information for the official census, recording fingerprints and photographs in a police register, collecting medical data or details of personal expenditures.\(^{63}\) However, the right to respect for these aspects of privacy under Article 8 is qualified and any state interference with a person’s privacy is acceptable only if three conditions are fulfilled: (1) the interference is in accordance with the law, (2) pursues a legitimate goal and (3) it is necessary in a democratic society\(^{64}\). On the question of telephone tapping affecting an individual’s right to privacy, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act, 2000 makes it an offence for any person, intentionally and without lawful authority\(^{65}\), to intercept any communication in the course of its transmission through a public telecommunication system and except in specified circumstances through a private telecommunication system. As regards bugging by Police, Police Act 1997 puts police bugging on a statutory footing. Under the Act, the use of bugs by the police in relation to homes, offices and hotel bedrooms require prior authorization by a Commissioner or a serving or retired High Court Judge. On the issue of breach of privacy by Unsolicited Calls, under the Telecommunication Act 1984, it is a criminal offence to make menacing telephone calls or calls which cause annoyance, inconvenience or needless anxiety. As regards Unsolicited Goods, the Goods & Services Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulation 2000 addresses the issue of ‘inertia selling’. The technique involved sending goods to customers who were then charged for them if they did not go to the trouble of returning them.\(^{66}\) Under the Regulation, a recipient of unsolicited goods may keep them as gifts. The regulation also makes it an offence for a sender to try and obtain payment for such goods. The Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1971 continues to make it an offence to send obscene or indecent books, magazines, leaflets or advertising material describing or illustrating human sexual acts.\(^{67}\) As regards Internet Privacy, the issue of unwanted e-mails is addressed by the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003. The Regulations make e-mail marketing ‘opt-in’ in many cases (the recipient must have given prior consent) and provide greater privacy protection in cyber space. The provisions of Data Protection Act 1984 are also relevant with respect to internet privacy. As regard Medical Privacy, on the question of disclosure of confidential information by the doctor, the law in England is similar to that of India\(^{68}\) and permits disclosure with the consent, or in the best interests of the patient, in compliance with a court order or other legally enforceable duty and, in a very limited circumstances, where the public interest so requires.
The discussion on privacy in the United Kingdom would remain incomplete without an analysis of the judicial response in this respect. In Perry v. United Kingdom\(^{69}\), European Court of Human Rights held that a convicted armed robber’s right to respect for private life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights were infringed when he was secretly videotaped by police after he refused to take part in any identity parade. In Lady Archer v. Williams\(^{70}\), the claimant obtained a permanent injunction restraining the defendant, her former aide, from disclosing confidential information obtained during her employment. The defendant’s right to freedom of expression under Article 10 of European Convention on Human Rights was held not to override the claimant’s rights to privacy under Article 8. In Mersey Care NHS Trust v. Robin Ackroyd\(^{71}\) the Court held that the principle of confidentiality of journalists’ sources attracts a high level of protection under Article 10 of the European Convention on
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\(^{61}\) Setting Information-Age Parameters for Medical Privacy, Press release, March 10, 1999, available at http://leahy.senate.gov/press.
\(^{62}\) Charles A Welch, Sacred Secrets-The Privacy of Medical Records, N ENGL. J MED. 345 (2001).
\(^{63}\) Data Privacy, available at www.wikipedia.com/privacy.html.
\(^{64}\) Id.
\(^{65}\) RIPA allows for the interception of telephone calls by appropriate authorities, for example, Security Services, Secret Intelligence Service, NCIS, GCHQ, Police or Customs, under authorisation of the Home Secretary. Such authorisation is provided by way of an interception warrant which must name or describe either one person as the interception subject, or a single set of premises where the interception is to take place.
\(^{66}\) Liberty Guide to Human Rights, available at www.yourrights.org.uk.
\(^{67}\) Id.
\(^{68}\) Code of Professional Conduct, framed by Medical Council of India, under § 33(m) read with § 20A of Medical Council Act, 1956.
\(^{69}\) Decision of European Court of Justice, July 17, 2003, available at http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int.
\(^{70}\) [2003] EWHC 1670 (QB).
\(^{71}\) [2003] EWCA Civ 663.
Human Rights and that although there is a clear public interest in preserving the confidentiality of medical records, that alone could not be automatically regarded as overriding the respondents rights under Article 10. In *D v L*72, the Court of Appeal held that an injunction will not necessarily be granted to prevent the use of tape recorded conversations between individuals about sexual matters, where the information is already in the public domain.
**D. Other Legal Systems**
Australian law on privacy is governed by the Privacy Act, 1988. The Act gives effect to Australia’s agreement to implement guidelines adopted in 1980 by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) for the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data, as well as to its obligations under Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966. The Act contains eleven Information Privacy Principles (IPPs) which set out strict safeguards for any personal information that is handled by federal government and ACT government agencies. It also has ten National Privacy Principles (NPPs) which set out how private sector organisations should collect, use and disclose, keep secure and provide access to personal information. The principles give individuals a right to know what information an organization holds about them and right to correct that information if it is wrong. Part III-A of the Privacy Act regulates credit providers and credit reporting agencies. The Federal Privacy Commissioner also has some regulatory functions under other enactments, including the Telecommunications Act 1997, National Health Act 1953 and Crimes Act 1914. The above discussed legislative provisions are supported by a plethora of case laws73.
The South African Constitution of 1996 in Section 14 explicitly provides that everyone has the right to privacy, which includes the right not to have (a) their personal home searched (b) their property searched (c) their possessions seized (d) the privacy of their communications infringed. Further, Section 32 of the Constitution gives everyone a “(1) …right of access to (a) any information held by the State, and (b) any information that is held by another person and that is required for the exercise or protection of any rights…” The right to privacy under the South African Constitution is, however, not an unlimited right. Section 36 of the Constitution contains a “limitations clause” which provides that in-roads can be made into other rights contained in the Constitution where it would be reasonable and justifiable to do so. Therefore, the right to privacy under Section 14 of the Constitution is not an absolute right and has lawfully been limited by the Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication Related Information Act, 2002. The right to access information under Section 32 is also not an absolute right and has been limited by the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000.
Among other countries, The Constitution of Argentina, in Article 18 provides that the domicile, written correspondence, and private papers may not be violated and that search and seizure should be conducted only in accordance with law. The French Constitution of 1958 has found that the right to privacy is a “fundamental principle” of constitutional status, pursuant to Paragraph 1 of the Preamble to the 1946 French Constitution. Finally, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom, in Section 8 provides a right not to be subject to “unreasonable search or seizure” and a search is permitted only if authorised by a reasonable law and carried out in a reasonable manner74. However, an analysis of Chinese Laws depicts that there is no mention of a citizen’s right to privacy highlighting a serious shortcoming in China’s legal system.
**IV. CONCLUSION**
Invasion of one’s privacy not only causes unwarranted interference in the life and affairs of another person but has the sordid potential of assailing human dignity as the countless recent incidents have unequivocally manifested. This has brought the Right to Privacy in sharp focus evoking interest of the entire society and not just the elite classes. Indisputably, this is one of the invaluable and cherished rights which people are vying for. On analysis of the law of privacy it is clearly revealed that though Indian Law is far ahead when compared to certain other countries such as People’s Republic of China, which as of now has no law on privacy, but the other side of the coin depicts a picture that still much needs to be done in certain respects. In the field of internet privacy India needs to develop appropriate standards for cyber security as international trade can flourish only if built on a solid foundation of security. India may explore the possibilities of enacting a specific legislation which covers all the conceivable aspects of privacy on the lines of the Australian Privacy Act, 1988. As regards the issue of violation of privacy through the use of camera phones, it is suggested that India should take immediate action to counter this menace by making it mandatory for all new camera phones to incorporate a default flash. It is pointed out that Australian law has already banned camera phones around swimming pools; the
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72 [2003] EWCA Civ 1169.
73 B v. Private Health Insurer [2002] PrivCmrA 2; A v. Insurer [2002] PrivCmrA 1; C v. Commonwealth Agency [2003] PrivCmrA 1; D v. Private Health Service Provider [2003] PrivCmrA 2; E v. Financial Institution [2003] PrivCmrA 3; F v. Credit Provider [2003] PrivCmrA 4; G v. Credit Provider [2003] PrivCmrA 5; H v. Credit Provider [2003] PrivCmrA 6; I v. Major Wholesaler [2003] PrivCmrA 7; J v. Two Individuals [2003] PrivCmrA 8; K v. Major Financial Institution [2003] PrivCmrA 9; L v. Commonwealth Agency [2003] PrivCmrA 10; M v. Commonwealth Agency [2003] PrivCmrA 11; N v. Private Insurer [2004] PrivCmrA 1; O v. Large Retail Organisation [2004] PrivCmrA 2; H v. Financial Institution A and B [2004] PrivCmrA 3; X v. Commonwealth Agency [2004] PrivCmrA 4; O v. Credit Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 5; Q v. Real Estate Agency [2004] PrivCmrA 6; R v. Credit Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 7; S v. Various Commonwealth Agencies [2004] PrivCmrA 8; U v. Major Banking Institution [2004] PrivCmrA 9; N v. Internet Service Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 10; Y v. Real Estate Agent [2004] PrivCmrA 11; P v. Various Entities [2004] PrivCmrA 12; T v. Commonwealth Agency [2004] PrivCmrA 13; A v. Private Sector Health Service Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 14; B v. Credit Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 15; Z v. Credit Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 16; C v. Service Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 17; H v. Credit Provider [2004] PrivCmrA 18; E v. Motor Vehicle Retail Organisation [2004] PrivCmrA 19; A v. Insurer [2005] PrivCmrA 1; B v. Credit Provider [2005] PrivCmrA 2; C v. Commonwealth Agency [2005] PrivCmrA 3; D v. Health Service Provider; E v. Health Service Provider; F v. Health Service Provider; G v. Health Service [2005] PrivCmrA 4; H v. Commonwealth Agency [2005] PrivCmrA 5; I v. Commonwealth Agency [2005] PrivCmrA 6; J v. Superannuation Provider [2005] PrivCmrA 7.
74 Affirmed by the Court in R. v. Collins, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 265.
75 Harish Pathak v Union of India & Ors.
Unites States of America, United Kingdom and Canada have banned them in changing rooms, workplaces, and schools. Lastly, it is suggested that the problem of unsolicited calls, which has also been highlighted by the recent Public Interest Litigation filed before the Supreme Court\(^1\), could be reasonable addressed by the incorporation of the concept of “opt-in” and “opt-out” within our legal system on the lines of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act, 1999, which would require the cellular providers and financial institutions to explicitly receive the consent of the customers before passing on their personal information, whether for consideration or otherwise, to their affiliates and third persons.
**EUTHANASIA, SUICIDE AND THEOLOGY**
*Surantra Sinha*
**I. INTRODUCTION**
The contemporary technological developments date the re-conceptualization of human rights. The potentials for both good and evil, which flow from such developments, are to be interpreted by not only cultural norms and scientific traditions, but by religious values bioethical principles, moral judgments and economic policies. The human needs of the patient, the family and the physician establish a relational empathy to the conception of human rights and its application.\(^2\) Time and again, these competing values force a balancing test between the extent of individual freedom\(^3\) and behavioural restrictions imposed to maintain the health, safety and welfare of the public at large.\(^4\) It is in this context that we deliberate and ruminate on the issues concerning life and death i.e. euthanasia and suicide.
The world euthanasia is derived from the Greek word ‘euthanatos’ meaning ‘well death’ and originally referred to intentional mercy killing. It is sometimes equated with the term right to die.\(^5\) The term ‘euthanasia’, when used to refer to the withholding or withdrawal of life-sustaining medical treatment, is an accurate depiction of what the law permits under the banner of the right to die, despite the occasional discomfort of judges with the term.\(^6\)
Some find it ironic that there is a need to establish a legal right to die, given that death is inevitable.\(^7\) The law-making institution i.e. the courts and the legislature have had to walk a delicate line between recognizing the individuals right of autonomy in matters of health care and observing the traditional legal and moral prohibitions on suicide, homicide and related crimes.\(^8\)
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\(^1\) 2nd Year, B. A. LL.B (Hons.), National Law Institute University, Bhopal.
\(^2\) E.B. BRODY, BIOMEDICAL TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN RIGHTS (1993).
\(^3\) Winifred Brugger, *The Image of the person in Human Rights concept*, 3, HUM RIGHTS Q., 594-611, (1996).
\(^4\) L.O. GOSTIN ET AL., HUMAN RIGHTS AND PUBLIC HEALTH IN THE AIDS PANDEMIC, (1997).
\(^5\) Delio v. Westchester County Medical Ctr., 510 N.Y.S.2d 415 (Sup. Ct. 1986), rev’d 516 N.Y.S.2d 677 (App. Div. 1987).
\(^6\) Kamisar, *When is there a Constitutional Right to Die? When is there no Constitutional Right to Live?*, 25, Ga.L.Rev., 1203-42, (1991).
\(^7\) Cruzan v. Harmon, 760 S.W.2d 408, 428 (Mo. 1988) (Blackmar J. dissenting). However Justice Stevens observed in Cruzan v. Director, 497 U.S. 261, 339 (1990) that “Medical advances have altered the physiological conditions of death in ways that may be alarming: Highly invasive treatment may perpetuate human existence through a merger of body and body that some might reasonably regard as an insult to life rather than its continuation.”
\(^8\) As the New Jersey Supreme Court observed in re Quinlan, 355. A.2d 647, 659-660 (N.J. 1976) (Quoting Bishop Casey, a witness at trial): “It is both possible and necessary for society to have laws and ethical standards which provide freedom for decisions, in accord with the expressed or implied intentions of the patient, to terminate or withhold extraordinary treatment in cases which are judged to be hopeless by competent medical authorities, at the same time leaving an opening for euthanasia.”
From an international law perspective, the extended administration of futile medical treatment also comes within the meaning of The United Nation’s Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment where torture is defined as “any act, causing severe mental or physical pain or suffering, intentionally inflicted upon a person.” Such actions would violate the United Nation’s Declaration of Human Rights as well, for they would rob the dying patient of the “inherent dignity” granted to “all members of the human family.”
II. EUTHANASIA OR ASSISTED SUICIDE?
It is cruel and unusual punishment to sustain patients who exist in a persistent vegetative state. This is equivalent to giving a life sentence to an innocent person. When the diagnosis is persistent vegetative state, there is consensus/ among the physicians that such a condition is not ‘living’ and that preservation of ‘life’ in that state is not a proper goal for medicine. This is supported by the ‘traditional and modern view that expert physicians should not prescribe therapies which cannot restore health to a dying person’ and all medical decision-making should have as its goal the benefit of the human person. Clearly physicians have no duty to preserve mere biological ‘existence’ per se. The futile maintenance of ‘life’ under artificial conditions of this nature more often than not offends human dignity and ‘transgresses civilized standards of humanity and decency.’
The line between homicide and assisted suicide is particularly hazy when the patient is competent and the means by which death occurs is the forgoing of life sustaining treatment i.e. voluntary passive euthanasia. If the patient is incompetent, it makes even less sense to conceptualise the resulting death as assisted death rather than homicide, unless it occurs pursuant to a patient’s request through an advance directive.
Voluntary active interventions to end life take two forms. In the practice of both assisted suicide and active euthanasia, one person provides the person seeking to end his life with the instrumentality of death. This is ordinarily done because the patient is, by virtue of the illness or injury from which relief is sought, physically incapable of obtaining an instrumentality of death himself. The important difference between the two “arises from the administration of the lethal agent, not from its procurement.”
When the means by which death takes place involves an active intervention, providing the patient with the means of taking his own life, it is generally denominated assisted suicide, but when a third party administers the agent that produces the patient’s death, this is generally construed to be active euthanasia. If the forgoing of life sustaining treatment is not viewed as suicide, then those health care professionals who withhold or withdraw treatment cannot be held liable for assisted suicide. The voluntary and informed choice of a competent patient, implementing the individual’s freedom from unwanted interferences with his person, legitimates the forgoing of life sustaining treatment.
Under the causation rationale, a patient’s death subsequent to forgoing treatment does not constitute suicide because it is not caused by forgoing treatment but by the patient’s medical condition for which treatment has been forgone. Suicide is self-inflicted death whereas under these circumstances death results from an illness or injury that is not self-inflicted.
Moreover, a patient’s refusal of treatment that is likely to cure in favour of one that is not as effective does not constitute suicide. A decision to forgo life-sustaining treatment does not constitute suicide because the patient’s wish is not to end life. The patient is said to have no specific intent to die or to have as his intent the relief from suffering. Forgoing life-sustaining treatment is sometimes said to be permissible because it is passive euthanasia rather than ‘active killing’ of the patient.
In assisted suicide, the patient retains complete and final control over whether he, in fact, will die from the administration of a lethal agent. The patient decides when and ultimately whether to end his life and the patient is the last human agent in bringing about death. The patient retains greater ability to change his mind and to ensure that death will not occur without his voluntary consent. Where as in active euthanasia, another person retains final control, is the last actor in the sequence of events, and retains ultimate control over when and whether the patient’s life, in fact, would end.
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16 Rasmussen v. Fleming, 741 P. 2d 674, 685 n16 (Ariz.1987). See also Wanzer et al., The Physician’s Responsibility Toward Hopelessly Ill Patients, 320 NEW ENG. J. MED. 844, 848 (1989) (“Suicide differs from euthanasia in that the act of bringing on death is performed by the patient, not the physician.”)
17 In Bouria v. Superior Court (Glencur), 225 Cal. Rptr. 297 (Ct. App. 1986), the California Court of Appeal upheld this approach. The case involved a competent, non-terminally ill woman suffering from severe cerebral palsy and her doctors had inserted a feeding tube in her body against her will.
18 See Gray v. Romeo, 697 F Supp.580 (D.R.I. 1988); Bouria v. New Eng. Sinai Hosp. Inc., 497 N.E. 2d 626, 638 (Mass. 1986); McKay v. Bergstedt, 801 P.2d 617, 627 (Nev. 1990).
19 See Donaldson v. Van de Kamp, 4 Cal. Rptr. 2d 59, 62 (Ct. App. 1992); Bouria v. Superior Court (Glencur), 225 Cal. Rptr. 297, 306 (Ct. App. 1986); Bartling v. Superior Court, 209 Cal. Rptr. 220, 225 (Ct. App. 1984).
20 In re Ingram, 689 P. 2d 1363, 1371 (Wash. 1984).
21 See Fosmire v. Nicoletau, 551 N. E. 2d 77, 82 n 2 (N.Y. 1990), Leack v. Akron Gen. Medical Ctr., 426 N. E. 2d 809, 815 (C.P.P. Div. Summit County, Ohio 1980).
22 Thor v. Superior Court, 855 P. 2d 375, 386 (Cal. 1993) (Where life must be sustained artificially and under circumstances of total dependence the adult’s attitude or motive may be presumed not to be suicidal.) See also Foody v. Manchester Memorial Hosp. 482 A. 2d 713, 720 (Conn. Super. Ct. 1984); McKay v. Bergstedt, 801 P. 2d 617, 627 (Nev. 1990).
23 See De Grella v. Elston, 585 S.W. 2d 698, 706 (Ky. 1993); In re Grant, 747 P. 2d at 461 (Goodloe, J. dissenting).
III. THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Passive euthanasia allows for divine dominion in human life and rejects an immobilization rather than a deliberateness of will.\textsuperscript{24} The response of some in the Church to human suffering in terminal illness has been to value the redemptive nature of suffering — that is, the positive role of suffering in ‘soul making’ — and appear to promote suffering.\textsuperscript{25} Nevertheless it is true that many in the midst of suffering with chronic disease,\textsuperscript{26} within a struggle with cancer and its pain\textsuperscript{27}, or in the grief process\textsuperscript{28} describe valuable learning and development. But most of them will be willing to forego the learning if they could dispense with the suffering. Patients do not really wish to end their lives. Indeed, they often very much wish to live.\textsuperscript{29} Their goal in refusing treatment is to maintain the integrity of their religious beliefs.
The most critical concern comes with the consideration and conceptualisation of the right to life. Human right activists, drawing inspiration from the religious institutions\textsuperscript{30} do not fail to take up the stand that all human life is sacred, and no one has the right to take away that life. The moral argument against euthanasia is quite strong. The point of ethics, culture and well being of the individual raises a strong contention. One view is when life is a gift from God, what right do individuals have to take it away even though with the purpose of relieving someone from intolerable pain or suffering. When one cannot create, one should not destroy. The second reason is more pertinent to health care professionals. If physicians and nurses become associated with killing people, then the trust and respect of the patients will be eroded. This point is illustrated in Greek history as well.\textsuperscript{31}
\textsuperscript{24} Ronald Russell, \textit{Redemptive Suffering and Paul’s Thorn in the Flesh}, 39/4 JETS, 561, 559-570 (Dec. 1996), available at, http://www.etjets.org/jets/jetsjournal/39/39-4/39-4-pp559-570_JETS.pdf.
\textsuperscript{25} See for an illustration, J. V. SULLIVAN, \textit{THE IMMORALITY OF EUTHANASIA, BENEFICENT EUTHANASIA} (M. Kohlet. ed. 1975). A similar kind of situation may be illustrated in C. S. LEWIS, \textit{THE PROBLEM OF PAIN}, 36 (1962, Macmillan).
\textsuperscript{26} S. Schmidt, \textit{The Sufferer’s Experience: A Journey through Illness}, 13 SECOND OPINION, 90-108 (1990)
\textsuperscript{27} R. Mack, \textit{Lessons From Living with Cancer}, 311 NEW ENG. J. MED. 1640-1644 (1984); E. A. Vatyan, \textit{Spiritual Aspects of the Care of Cancer Patients}. 36 CA 110-114 (1986).
\textsuperscript{28} See V. Crenin, \textit{In Loving Memory of My Sons}, READER’S DIGEST, 103-108 (July 1991); J. Claypool, \textit{Tracks of the Fellow Waggons} (1982, Word).
\textsuperscript{29} See e.g., Powell v Columbian Presbyterian Medical Ctr., 267 N. Y. S. 2d, 450, 451 (Sup. Ct. 1965) Patient did not object to receiving the treatment involved — however, she would not direct its use.
\textsuperscript{30} The fight against euthanasia has been led by the Church right from the very inception of the concept being materialized. The position was stated most recently in the Pope’s letter, \textit{Evangelium Vitae} (Latin for ‘The Gospel of Life’) of March 1995. The document takes as one of its starting points what it calls ‘the incommutable value of every human person’. This means that every human life is to be valued from its very beginning (which the Church regards as the moment of conception) to the moment of natural death. Nobody has the right to take that life from another person, even if the person has appeared to give consent. Since it would be premeditated killing, it is the same as murder. Available at, www.catholicew.org.uk/faith/living/euthanasia.htm.
\textsuperscript{31} Rejecting the notions of euthanasia, Hippocrates (460-370 BC), the ancient Greek physician, in his famous oath stated, “I will not prescribe a deadly drug to please someone, nor may give device that may cause his death.” Clearly the oath places emphasis on the value of preserving life and in putting the good patients above the private interests of physicians.
In order to offer another ethical perspective to the question, we must consider the purpose of medicine. Medicine aims at preventing illness in order that a person may achieve optimal human functioning according to his or her capacities. In order to function humanly, there must be some capacity for cognitive-affective function. If the potential for cognitive-affective function is not there, for example, in the state of irreversible coma, then applying medical care does not have a purpose. Hence, medical care should be withdrawn once it is determined that it cannot achieve its purpose of improving physiological function.
Not everyone finds a ‘salvific meaning’ in suffering.\textsuperscript{32} Indeed, even those who do subscribe to this interpretation recognize the responsibility of each individual to show not only sensitivity and compassion but render assistance to those in distress.\textsuperscript{33} Pharmacologic hypnosis, morphine intoxication and terminal sedation provide their own type of medical ‘salvation’ to the terminally ill patient suffering unremitting pain.\textsuperscript{34} The Hindu Jurisprudence of \textit{Sanatana Dharma} also backs this viewpoint with the notion of immortal Atman.\textsuperscript{35}
IV. LEGAL PERSPECTIVES
Die you must, but how to die and when to die, should this too be a matter of choice? The recent case of 25 year old \textit{Venkatesh}\textsuperscript{36} suffering from fatal illness involved serious legal and ethical questions about right to die, mercy killing and organ transplantation. India has no policy on mercy killing. Unfortunately, in this case, \textit{Venkatesh} died a martyr with his death wish unfulfilled before Supreme Court could decide.
From the legal viewpoint, euthanasia is the intentional causing death of a human being for reasons of compassion, by unnatural means. The definition involves three things; intention, motive and causation. The intention is to kill. The motive is to eliminate suffering. And the cause of death is human intervention.
The removal of life-sustaining medical treatment is an act that brings about the patient’s death and under general principles of criminal law there is a prima facie case of homicide. Furthermore, the omission to act when there is a duty to act can also be the basis for criminal liability.\textsuperscript{37} Going strictly by Section 300 of the Indian Penal Code, euthanasia qualifies as consensual killing.\textsuperscript{38}
\textsuperscript{32} Pope John Paul II, Apostolic Letter, \textit{Salvific Doloria}, On the Christian Meaning of Human Suffering, U.S. Cath. Conf., I-40 (1996). See generally Mandziuk, \textit{Easing Chronic Pain with Spiritual Resources}, 32 J. REL. & HEALTH, 47 (1993).
\textsuperscript{33} Id.
\textsuperscript{34} Stiefel et al., \textit{Morphine Intoxication During Acute Reversible Renal Insufficiency}. 7 J. PALLIATIVE CARE, 45 (1991); Green et al., \textit{Titrated Intravenous Barbiturates in the Control of Symptoms in Patients with Terminal Cancer}. 84 SO. Medical J. 332 (1991). See also Bernabei et al., \textit{Management of Pain in Elderly Patients with Cancer}. 279 J.A.M.A., 1877 (1998) (concluding pain management is all too frequently reported to be poor).
\textsuperscript{35} Quoting verse 2.12 from the Holy Bhagavad Gita: “Na prevaham jata nasam na rava name janadhipah: Na carva na bhavisyaman surve vayumalan param”. The philosophy tells that bodies come and go, the soul remains.
\textsuperscript{36} Renu Deshpande, \textit{Should Euthanasia be Legalised?}, available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/966936.cms, see also Geoff Thompson, \textit{Indian Sparks Euthanasia Debate}, available at http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2004/s1267763.htm.
\textsuperscript{37} See Barber v. Superior Court, 195 Cal. Rptr. 484.
It would be unfair if we rest the matter without deciding as to what, actually, is the scope of Article 21\textsuperscript{39} of the Constitution of India with respect to euthanasia? What is the meaning of life, as contemplated in Article 21 of the Constitution? We have to comprehend the term ‘life’ wide enough to contemplate and include the ‘right to die’ within its nomenclature. The activists argue that, if life includes all actions till death, then certainly the ‘right to die’ goes along with everything associated with Article 21 because the decision to die also comes within its purview (as the decision to die certainly comes before dying).
However, \textit{Gian Kaur’s case}\textsuperscript{40} has held that “the right to live with human dignity cannot be construed to include within its ambit the right to terminate natural life at least before the commencement of the natural process of certain death.”\textsuperscript{41} In an interesting case\textsuperscript{42}, the High Court of Assam referred to the defence of diminished responsibility\textsuperscript{43} which enables the Judge to reduce or extinguish the sentence on merciful grounds and does not leave the accused entirely to the discretion of the executive. In \textit{Maruti Shripati Dubal’s case}\textsuperscript{44}, the Bombay High Court held that “what is true for one fundamental right is also true of other fundamental rights. It is not and cannot be disputed that the fundamental rights have their positive as well as negative aspects.” The Court also stated that the views that life is sacred, a gift of God, who alone has the right to take it, that premature end of life whether accidental or suicidal keeps the soul hovering in the sphere of ghosts, were only ideological or religio-moral objections which fail to appeal to reason and could not be sustained as a contention against not allowing the right to die to be read in Article 21.\textsuperscript{45}
\section*{V. WHO DECIDES?}
The physicians would have the primary responsibility for determining whether a given situation calls for withholding or withdrawing care on the grounds of medical futility.\textsuperscript{46} One such a decision is made, the patient and/or his family would have the right to take a \textit{de novo} appeal to the hospital ethics committee. If the patient and his family are not satisfied with the decision of the ethics committee, a limited appeal may be taken to the judiciary.
\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{itemize}
\item[\textsuperscript{38}] It is to be noted that till today no case has ever been brought before the High Courts or the Supreme Court for consideration, on a matter directly dealing with the issue of mercy killing. There have only been three notable cases where the argument of mercy killing has been raised but by indirect reference. Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab, AIR 1996 SC 946; P. Rathiham v. Union of India, AIR 1994 SC 1844; Maruti Shripati Dubal v. State of Maharashtra, 1987 Cri. LJ 743 (Bom.).
\item[\textsuperscript{39}] ‘No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by Law.’
\item[\textsuperscript{40}] Gian Kaur, AIR 1996 SC 946 (The points raised here formed the core of the reasons extended by the Hon’ble Judges, delivering the judgment on the issue of the right to die being beyond the ambit of Article 21).
\item[\textsuperscript{41}] See id. ¶¶ 30.
\item[\textsuperscript{42}] Sudheswari v. State of Assam, 1981 Cri. LJ 1005.
\item[\textsuperscript{43}] Homicide Act, 1957 (Britain), § 3.
\item[\textsuperscript{44}] 1987 Cri. LJ 743.
\item[\textsuperscript{45}] See id. ¶¶ 14.
\item[\textsuperscript{46}] Schneiderman & Jecker, \textit{Futility in Practice}, 153 ARCH. INTERN. MED. 437 (1993).
\end{itemize}
\end{footnotesize}
Some argue that the patient or family should be able to decide when the treatment is futile.\textsuperscript{47} But it is herein submitted that the physician is trained to make such decisions and is further insulated from emotional burdens of the patient or family which may make such a determination more difficult or impossible.\textsuperscript{48}
While some argue that futility removes both the duty to treat and the duty to inform,\textsuperscript{49} preclusion of a duty to inform infringes too greatly on patient autonomy.\textsuperscript{50} Informing the patient and the family about the decision for not administering treatment on the ground of futility helps patients and families cope with the inevitability of death.\textsuperscript{51} Furthermore, by informing the patients that the physician has made a decision that the treatment is futile permits the patient and family to seek second opinion or alternative medical care.\textsuperscript{52} Moreover, informing the patient and documenting the decision makes the physician accountable\textsuperscript{53} for decisions negligently made and exposes the physician to liability.\textsuperscript{54}
\section*{VI. A LEGISLATIVE APPROACH: FEARS AND FALLACIES}
Before moving forward to legalize euthanasia, we must take into account the consequences as well. For instance, a doctor maybe waiting for an organ to conduct a transplant or for a bed to be vacated, and relatives may simply wish to be relieved of the burden of an ill member of the family. Also, if a person is in great pain or is suffering from mental problems, then he may not be in a position to make a balanced decision. The elements of free consent also need to be incorporated because if any patient gives such consent, it could be argued that his consent was vitiated by undue influence.
However, the most noteworthy argument is that of slippery slope. In short, the essence of this argument is that permitting voluntary euthanasia would over the years lead to a slide down the slippery slope and eventually we would end up permitting even non-voluntary and involuntary euthanasia.\textsuperscript{55}
\begin{footnotesize}
\begin{itemize}
\item[\textsuperscript{47}] Massie, \textit{Withdrawal of Treatments for Minors in a Persistent Vegetative State: Parents Should Decide}, 35 ARIZ. L. REV. 137 (1993).
\item[\textsuperscript{48}] Grant, \textit{Medical Futility: Legal and Ethical Aspects}, 20 J. LAW, MED. & HEALTH CARE, 331, (1992).
\item[\textsuperscript{49}] Younger, \textit{Futility in Context}, 264 J.A.M.A. 1295, (1990); Murphy, \textit{Do Not Resuscitate Orders: Time For Reappraisal in Long-Term Care Institutions}, 260 J.A.M.A. 2098 (1998).
\item[\textsuperscript{50}] Smith, \textit{Slips, in the Name of Love!}, ANGLO-AMERICAN L. REV. 55, (1990).
\item[\textsuperscript{51}] Younger, \textit{supra} note 49, at 1295.
\item[\textsuperscript{52}] Cranford et al., \textit{supra} note 10, at 493.
\item[\textsuperscript{53}] Younger, \textit{supra} note 49, at 1296.
\item[\textsuperscript{54}] Cranford et al., \textit{supra} note 52.
\item[\textsuperscript{55}] The opponents of euthanasia point out two relevant examples for demonstrating the mechanism of slippery slope (1) In England, the House of Lords in \textit{Airedale NHS Trust v. Bland}, (1993) 1 All ER 821 permitted non-voluntary euthanasia in case of patients in a persistent vegetative state. Subsequently, the Supreme Court of Ireland, in \textit{re A Ward of Court}, (1995) 2 ILRM 401, expanded the persistent vegetative state to include cases even where the patient possessed limited cognitive faculties. (2) In Netherlands, the Supreme Court in a 1984 ruling had held that euthanasia could be lawful only in cases of physical illness. However, a decade down the line, the Supreme Court in \textit{Chabot’s case} held that it could even extend to cases of mental illness. See John Keown, \textit{Physician Assisted Suicide and the Dutch Supreme Court}, 111 LQR, 394, (1995).
\end{itemize}
\end{footnotesize}
VII. CONCLUSION AND ANALYSIS
The most pertinent question for supporters of euthanasia, who base their argument on the right to choose, is whether free choice for many should come at the expense of few depressed lonely lives. What about the administration of capital punishment — is it not defiant of a person’s liberty to choose?56
The role of autonomy should also be considered by those supporting euthanasia as a compassionate law to alleviate suffering. Is a suffering patient really free to choose? Do they accept a doctor’s decision that an individual’s existence is worse than death, even when that individual is unable to request death? Should society pass judgment on which lives are worth living or should society seek to affirm and defend all life?
Many people may not think past the slogans that seem to make sense: “death with dignity”, “compassion in dying”, “deliverance” or “the right to choose”. One has to agree that there is hardly a critical thought about what is meant by “dignity”, “quality of life”, “suffering”, etc.
Reiterating the observation made in Rex v. Cog,57 it is submitted:
[E]uthanasia is not lawful at common law. It is of course well known that there are many responsible members of our society who believe that euthanasia should be made lawful; but that result could, I believe, only be achieved by legislation which expresses the domestic will that, so fundamental a change should be made in our law, and can, if enacted, ensure that such legalized killing can only be carried out, if, subject to appropriate supervision and control.
Although a terminal illness may last for months or even years, but the actual dying process takes around a few days to a week or two to complete.58 It is through the dying process that one may seek to learn that a good death should be but a complement to a life well lived.59
56 John Locke (1632-1704) defended capital punishment, contending that a person forfeited his rights when committing even minor crimes. He said that punishment was called for to protect society by deterring crime through example. On the other hand Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishment (1764), contended that capital punishment was not necessary and that long-term imprisonment was a more powerful deterrent since execution was transient. He argued that people did not sacrifice their right to life when entering into a social contract.
57 (December 18, 1992) (Unreported). Cf. Gian Kaur, supra note 40, A.I.R. 1996 SC 946.
58 Trafford, The Act of Dying, The Art of Living, WASH POST HEALTH, July 1, 1997, at page 6. See also Lynn et al., Defining the Terminally Ill: Insights from Support, 35 DUQUESNE L. REV. 311 (1996); McGivney et al., The Care of Patients With Severe Chronic Pain in Terminal Illness, 251 J.A.M.A., 1182, (1984).
59 See S. B. Nuland, How We Die: Reflections on Life’s Final Chapter, (1994); Ardwig, Is There A Duty to Die?, 27 Hastings Center Rpt., 32 (1997).
60 Sulmasy et al., End of Life Care, 277 J.A.M.A. 1854, (1997). See also Cassell, The Nature of Suffering and the Goals of Medicine, 306 NEW ENG J. MED. 639 (1982).
61 Quill, Death and Dignity-A Case of Individualized Decision Making, 324 NEW ENG J. MED. 691 (1991).
EVALUATING THE DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF CONSTITUTION OF PAKISTAN
Syed Ali Raza*
I. INTRODUCTION
The study of the Constitution of Pakistan discloses struggle, aspiration and havoc the State suffered in its attempt to achieve its most important legal document. Pakistan has had the most unusual and turbulent constitutional experience in the era following the departure of the British from India. A State with only sixty years of history and furnished with several pre-constitutional codes, at least three comprehensive legal codes and seventeen amendments, indeed shows constitutional chaos and social helter-skelter, but it also reflects the legal romanticism of the society to achieve a compromise between a State and its subjects. Pakistan has experienced democratic and military regimes, pseudo democracy and quasi dictatorship, and even a civilian Martial Law.
This constitution may not be a hallmark for the modern and established democratic societies but it has to be extolled for its continuous struggle to adjust to the needs of more than 160 million people. Its study amounts to living perpetually in a laboratory wherein all kinds of constitutional experiments are being conducted by whosoever is in control of the State for the time being.
The similarities between the Constitution of Pakistan and the Indian Constitution are to a great level. The overall structure, pattern, formulation grounds, governance systems, and areas of operation are almost identical in both of them. Obviously this tends to the Common Law background of both the states which still constitutes portion of laws available in both the countries. Apart from that under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Government of India Act 1935 became, with certain adaptations, the working Constitution of Pakistan and India. Thus it serves as basis on which the edifice of both the legal empires stand and the commonalities are quite evident. The present discourse will view "The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1973" in its brief historical context, will highlight its striking features and describe leading constitutional cases.
I. HISTORICAL BACKDROP
The constitutional vision of Pakistan was envisaged just days before its emergence on August 14, 1947. Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah addressing the first Constitutional assembly of Pakistan on August 11, 1947 said:
We should wholly and solely concentrate on the well-being of the people, and especially of the masses and the poor. If you will work in co-operation, forgetting the past, burying the hatchet, you are bound to succeed. If you change your past and work together in a spirit that every one of you, no matter to what community he belongs, no matter what relations he had with you in the past, no matter what is his color, caste or creed, is first, second and last, a citizen of this state with equal rights, privileges and obligations, there will be no end to the progress you will make. We should begin to work in that spirit and in course of time all those angularities of the majority and minority communities, the Hindu Community and the Muslim Community, because even as regards Muslims you have Pathans, Punjabis, Shias, Sunnis... You are free; you are free to go to your temples. You are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this state of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed that has nothing to do with the business of the State.
This was a re-affirmation of what Jinnah had told Doon Campbell, Reuter's correspondent in New Delhi in 1946. It was envisioned that the new State would be a modern democratic State with sovereignty resting in the people and the members of the new nation having equal rights of citizenship regardless of their religion, caste, or creed. It was thought that the Objectives Resolution would act as a benchmark for every later constitution to depict the vision varied to the one elaborated on August 11, 1947. However, it cannot be said to have deviated from the original spirit visualized by the founder. The preamble of all the constitutions — of 1956, 1962 and 1973 deal exclusively with it. The Objectives Resolution had three distinct components:
1. What could be called its structural feature was that the sovereignty of God descending on the people of Pakistan constituting State of Pakistan was to be exercised through their chosen representatives.
2. Its qualitative feature was that the sovereignty shared or enjoyed is delegated, capable of further delegation, is by its very nature a sacred trust and has to be exercised within the limits prescribed by the Almighty.
3. Its normative feature was that the norms the goals, the ideals, mostly mundane in nature are spelt out with particularities which have to be achieved through the Constituent Assembly and by the process of framing a Constitution.
Jinnah visualized Pakistan as a modern, progressive, and democratic state whose energies would be harnessed towards the uplift of the people especially the masses and the poor.
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*Final Year, LL.B., Pakistan College of Law, Lahore, Pakistan.
1 HAMID KHAN, CONSTITUTIONAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF PAKISTAN, 23 (Samina Choonara ed., 3rd ed. 2004, Oxford University Press).
2 Id.
3 Id.
4 Indian Independence Act, 1947, § 1. See Constitutional Documents (Pakistan), Vol. III (1964, Government of Pakistan).
5 AITZAZ AHsan, INDUS SAGA AND THE MAKING OF PAKISTAN, 336,337 (2nd ed. 2001, Nehr Ghar).
6 Khan, supra note 1, at 76.
7 MOHAMMAD MUNIR, FROM JINNAH TO ZIA, 29 (1980, Vanguard Books Ltd Publications).
8 TARIQ MEHMOOD KHAN, CONSTITUTION OF PAKISTAN, 9 (1st ed. Kausar Law Book Publishers).
However, soon after the creation of Pakistan the political events changed rapidly. The power wrestle became worse, leaders went astray for political authority and greed for the ruling seat involved more players from bureaucratic and military circles. The politician’s unending nag continued incessantly. In this entire episode, constitutional process got wounded for a very long time. The ill famous, *Maulvi Tamiz-ud-Din* case\(^9\) deflated the superior courts’ ability to resist authoritarian rule. Military takeover of General Ayub was another major set back for the constitutional growth. This first *coup d’état* also resulted in the demise of the 1956 Constitution. At the other front, the exploited stretch between the two wings followed by Decca debacle in 1971 did certainly not create suitable conditions for the formation of the present document. An interim constitution was followed by the 1973 Constitution, affirmed and accepted by all.
The Constitution of 1973 embodied the best possible arrangement to accommodate the various political parties, political issues and demands, economic interests, parties’ manifestoe, and so on.\(^{10}\) It was, thus, another historical proven reality that only the true voice of the people can solve most difficult problems of the State.
**II. TEXTURES OF THE PRESENT CONSTITUTION OF PAKISTAN**
Every constitution is a byproduct of the aspirations of the people in which the experiences of the past are taken care of. Factors like historical inspirations, geographical recognition, political formulations and people’s expectations affect the changes in the *suprema lex* “which to the rigid theory would amount to unpardonable change but to a flexible theory it would be a natural result of” changing times. Pakistan, doubtlessly, owes its creation to ideological belief reflected in the Objectives Resolution. It has always remained the Preamble of almost all constitutions though not rigidly encircled by it, but always remaining within its horizon subject to all such changes which manifest different shades of the same colour.\(^{12}\)
The overall structure of the Constitution of 1973 like the earlier ones remains lengthy and detailed. It contains 280 Articles divided into twelve parts and six schedules. Part I deals with the Republic and its territories and other introductory matters; Part II with fundamental rights and principles of policy; Part III with the federation; Part IV with the provinces; Part V with relations between the federation and the provinces; Part VI with property, contracts and suits; Part VII with judiciary; Part VIII with elections; Part IX with the Islamic provisions; Part X with emergency provisions; Part XI with amendment of constitution; and Part XII with miscellaneous, temporary, and transitional provisions. The first schedule deals with laws that are constitutionally protected. The election of the President and oaths and affirmations are contained in the second and the third schedule respectively. The fourth schedule deals with legislative lists; the fifth with powers of the Supreme Court and remuneration of judges; and the sixth with the laws altered, repealed or amended without the previous sanction of the President.\(^{13}\)
The Preamble is elaborate in nature and affirms the allegiance to Almighty Allah and ensures that His authority is to be exercised by the people of Pakistan. The later part of the Preamble focuses on as to what should be the characteristics of the State of Pakistan. It is to be kept in mind all the time that the religiosity of the constitution does not make it a theocratic or rigid religious state with non-democratic or extremist ambitions. The Preamble is basically inspired from the reasons of its foundation and the religious sentiments of its people. Part I of the Constitution of Pakistan declares Islam to be its state religion in Article 2 but only after it calls Pakistan to be a Federal Republic in Article 1.
Articles 3, 4, 5 and 6 have great significance. These articles deal with the elimination of exploitation, right of individuals to be dealt with in accordance with law, obedience to law and the constitution and high treason respectively.
Part II of the constitution enshrines a detailed list of Fundamental Rights and the Principles of Policy. The list of fundamental rights is similar to Article 14-32 in the Constitution of India. Article 8 of the Constitution of Pakistan seeks to dismantle every law which is either inconsistent or in derogation to the fundamental rights. These rights are so vigorously dealt that constitutional explanation follows at the end of most. These rights transcend social, religious, ethnic and cultural boundaries. The Principles of Policy are embedded from Article 29 to 40.\(^{14}\) The Principles of Policy holds each organ and authority of the State responsible, to provide for all citizens, within its available resources, facilities for work and adequate livelihood, with all reasonable rest and leisure. The state is also duty bound to provide basic necessities of life to its citizens who are disabled, permanently or temporarily to earn their livelihood. For reasons of accountability a report on the observance and implementation of the Principles of Policy is to be forwarded annually. This new provision has no parallel in the earlier two Constitutions.\(^{15}\)
Part III of the Constitution prescribes the system of governance in Pakistan. According to Article 50 the Parliament is to comprise of the President, and two Houses to be respectively known as the National Assembly and the Senate. Article 41 calls the President to be the Head of State and shall represent the unity of the Republic. To ensure the Islamic image of the State, to be a Muslim becomes a qualification for the
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\(^9\) Khan, *supra* note 1, at 76.
\(^{10}\) *Maulvi Tamiz-ud-Din Khan v. Governor General of Pakistan*, PLD 1955 FC 240. In the instant case *Maulvi Tamiz-ud-Din Khan*, President of the first dissolved Constituent Assembly on October 24, 1954, challenged the legality of the proclamation of the Governor-General in the Chief Court of Sind, by a Writ Petition under section 223-A of the Government of India Act, 1935, which empowered the High Courts to issue Writs of Mandamus, Certiorari, Quo warranto and Habeas Corpus. It was held that the assent of the Governor General was necessary to all legislations and that since section 223-A of the Government of India Act under which the Chief Court of Sind issued the writ had not received such assent, it was not yet law and therefore, that Court had no jurisdiction to issue the writs.
\(^{11}\) Khan, *supra* note 1, at 486.
\(^{12}\) M. MEHMOOD, CONSTITUTION OF ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN, 1973, 44, 53 (4th ed. 2004. Pakistan Law Times).
\(^{13}\) Khan, *supra* note 1, at 487.
\(^{14}\) JUSTICE EHSAN-UL-HAQ CHAUDHARY, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN, 1973 (2004).
\(^{15}\) Mehmoood, *supra* note 12, at 240-241.
President. However no bar is placed on the basis of sex. Constitution does not anywhere place a bar on Muslim women to contest the presidential election and to be the head of the state. The three hundred forty two seated National Assembly is to be elected directly, and, like every form of parliamentary government, it is to elect the leader of the House. Here in the national assembly no provision appears to prohibit a non-Muslim to be the leader of the House and thus the Chief Executive. The details of elections, functions, and procedural matters of the house, Senate, bill formations and other peculiar points appear in this part. The formation of Cabinet, federal authorities, powers of both President and Chief Executive are also comprehensively discussed here. The balance of power between the two has been ensured by the Eighth Amendment which gives President the power to dissolve assembly restrictively. It should be noted that the Eighth Amendment Act, 1985 made drastic changes in the Constitution. However the basic structure, that of Parliamentary form of Government remained and was not altered.
Part IV deals with the federating units. The four provinces have Governors who act as the Agent of the President in the provinces. "It has been held that the Governor would be bound by the advice of the Chief Minister in discharge of his functions." It has also been held that "[i]t is the duty of the Governor before accepting his advice for dissolution of Provincial Assembly to ask him to obtain vote of confidence from the Assembly." The four Provincial Assemblies have seats dispersed as the General seats, Women seats and seats for the non-Muslims. A Chief Minister is the Executive Head of the province and is elected by the provincial assembly.
Part V of the Constitution regulates the relation between the Federation and the provinces. The constitution follows a federal pattern according to which the Centre possesses certain specified powers and the rest vest in the Provinces. There are only two lists, Federal and Concurrent, with the Central legislature having exclusive powers to make laws with respect to the former and both the Central Legislature and the Provincial Legislature having power to legislate with respect to the latter. The Central Legislature has specifically been restrained to legislate upon any matter not enumerated in the two Lists, thus leaving the residuary powers with the Provinces, except for such areas as is not included in any province.
On the distribution of powers between the centre and the unit, an interesting decision became part of the legal history of Pakistan. It was before the cessation of two units and the birth of the 1973 constitution. It was held:
The distribution of power is qualified in favor of the Provinces in so many respects that as a matter of constitutional law and political science it can be described as the Constitution of Federation. The Central Legislature has not been made judge of its own jurisdiction and if it makes a law in respect to a matter which does not specifically falls within the sphere of the Central Legislature it can be questioned on the ground of want of jurisdiction.
The distribution of powers between the units and the centre is such that the centre still occupies greater chunk of legislative machinery. The Constitution, nevertheless, also states that the residuary powers are to vest in the provinces. The federal and concurrent lists in ascertaining the legislative limits of the two domains speak articulately and are flavored in such a manner that a strong centre emerges ultimately.
Part VI deals with the finance, property contracts and suits. It largely discusses the distribution of revenues between the federation and the provinces. "A Provincial Assembly has, by an Act, power to tax professions, trades, callings and employments; but it can do so only within the limits as fixed by an Act of Parliament. A tax so imposed is not to be considered as a tax on income."
The most exhaustive domain of the Constitution is Part VII which deals with the Judiciary. The Constitution states that "[t]here shall be a Supreme Court of Pakistan, a High Court for each Province and such other courts as may be established by law." It is well established that
The judiciary is entrusted with the responsibility for enforcement of Fundamental rights. The Judiciary in Pakistan is independent. It claims and has always claimed that it has the right to interpret the Constitution and any legislative instrument means or does not mean, even if that particular provision is a provision seeking to oust the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
On the issue of composition, the observations of the Apex court can be noted in Khan Asfandyar Wali v. Federation of Pakistan
Supreme Court is not a Federal Court, it is the apex Court and is a court for the whole of Pakistan and does not go by the principle of Federation in that fashion in which the allocations are made and distributions taken [sic] place. Supreme Court, in its wisdom, may decide how to manage its composition.
The Supreme Court of Pakistan generally acts as a court of Original Jurisdiction, as an appellate court, passes declaratory judgments and further hears the Public Interest Litigations. The Supreme Court also has an Advisory Jurisdiction.
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16 Mehmoond, supra note 12, at 263.
17 Federation of Pakistan v. Aftab Sherpao, PLD 1991 SC 723.
18 M. Anwar Durrani v. Province of Balochistan, PLD 1989 Quetta 25.
19 Mehmoond, supra note 12, at 377.
20 PLD 1963 Dacca 856.
21 Mehmoond, supra note 12, at 394.
22 Art. 175(1), See Chaudhary, supra note 14, at 88.
23 Wasim Sajjad & others v. Pakistan, PLD 2001 SC 233.
24 PLD 2001 SC 607.
High Courts function at the province level. The four High Courts have been given enormous powers. Article 199 allows the High Court to become a guardian of the citizen’s rights and protect them from any executive action that is either *ultra vires* or comes in clear contradiction with the law. The ability of courts to interpret the Constitution allows them to inspect any executive action and forecast its consequences thereof. Any citizen will be provided with a possible relief by the High Court, if he or she feels aggrieved by an executive action. In its mischief sense the Article ensures a major check on the public functionaries and regulates relation between them and the citizens.\(^{25}\)
It has also been held that “where any Authority or a Tribunal passes an order by ignoring any admitted fact or material evidence or when there is a gross misreading or non-reading of any material document then High Court under Art.199 of the Constitution is competent to interfere with such order to correct such illegality.”\(^{26}\)
The Islamization period of Zia produced the Federal Shariat Court. Chapter 3A of the Constitution and Articles 203A to 203I deal with this new court. Chapter 3-A within the limits prescribed by Article 203-B(c) of the Constitution, confers jurisdiction on the Federal Shariat Court. The Constitution expressly falls outside the sphere of activity and pale of jurisdiction of Federal Shariat Court. Article 203-B(c) makes a clear distinction between ‘law’ and Constitution It further goes on to say that the law includes customs or usages having the force of law.\(^{27}\)
Apart from these parts of the Judicature, Constitution of Pakistan also provides for other Administrative Courts and Tribunals, and Supreme Judicial Council which ensures a check on the Judges of the Higher Courts.
Election and its procedures are contained in Part VIII of the Constitution. This part deals with the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commission, Electoral Laws and Conduct of Elections.
Part IX of the Constitution of Pakistan deals with the Islamic Provisions. They range from Articles 227-231. According to Article 227(1), all existing laws shall be brought in conformity with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and Sunnah and no law shall be enacted which is repugnant to such injunctions.\(^{28}\) Also, nothing shall affect the personal laws of non-Muslim citizens or their status as citizens.\(^{29}\) This Article substantiates itself through Council of Islamic Ideology. This council basically has a recommending and advisory capacity which to refer its report to the Parliament.
Part X lists out Emergency Provisions. Its sole purpose is to provide Constitutional safeguards to the Constitution itself when extreme circumstances prevail. However, at no place the constitution sheds its democratic mask.
Part XI is about the process of Amendment of Constitution, which demands a vigorous procedure.
A bill requiring an amendment in the Constitution should originate in the National Assembly and is to be passed by not less than two-third votes of the total membership of the Assembly. The bill when passed is to be transmitted to the Senate and if it is passed by the Senate by a majority of the total membership it shall be presented to the President for assent. Thus it can be safely said that by rules and procedures the present Constitution is more rigid than flexible.\(^{30}\)
The last Part XII is miscellaneous in nature and deals with the “Services”, “Armed Forces”, “Tribal Areas” and other viable rules necessarily available in most Constitutions. Seven Schedules follows the parts, which are then followed by fifty Appendices.
**IV. ROLE OF JUDICIARY IN INTERPRETTING THE CONSTITUTION AND ENVISAGING NEW AND MEANINGFUL INTERPRETATIONS**
**A. Doctrine of Necessity**
The Military coups in Pakistan have, many a times, sought shelter under the banner of doctrine of necessity to justify their disobedience. According to this doctrine, an act transforms from illegal to become legal, if, done *bona fide* under stress of necessity with the intention to preserve the Constitution, the state or society and to prevent it from dissolution.\(^{31}\)
Almost in all the military coups in Pakistan, the judicial safeguard to their legitimacy and takeover was justified by the doctrine of necessity, originally propagated by Kelson\(^{32}\). The doctrine of necessity was first of all applied in the notorious *The State v. Dosso and another*.\(^{33}\) It was held in the *Dosso* case that a victorious revolution or successful coup is an internationally recognized legal method of changing a Constitution and after a change of that character had taken place the national legal order must, for its validity, depend upon the new law creating organ. Even Courts lose their
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\(^{25}\) Mehmood, *supra* note 12, at 485.
\(^{26}\) Mst Kausar Parveen v. Abdul Khalid, 1999 YLR 615.
\(^{27}\) Haji M Saifullah v. Federal Govt. PLD 1992 FSC 376.
\(^{28}\) Chaudhary, *supra* note 14, at 122.
\(^{29}\) Art. 227(3).
\(^{30}\) Mehmood, *supra* note 12, at 725.
\(^{31}\) Begum Nusrat Bhutto v. Chief of Army Staff & Pakistan, PLD 1977 SC 657.
\(^{32}\) See Dosso and Others v. The State, PLD 1958 SC 533; Ms Asma Jilani v. Government of Pakistan, PLD 1972 SC 139.
\(^{33}\) Dosso and Others v. The State, PLD 1958 SC 533 (The main issue before the Court was the annulment of Constitution of 1956 and legality of military take over by Chief Martial Law Administrator Ayub Khan).
existing jurisdictions and can function only to the extent and in the manner determined by the new Constitution. Thus the Apex court in this case applied the doctrine of necessity more than it was necessarily required.
However, in a later landmark decision, *Ms Asma Jilani v. Government of Pakistan*¹⁴, it was pronounced by the Supreme Court that, *Dossio’s* case “proceeded on farce presumptions”. Kelsen’s theory was neither the basic doctrine of the science of modern jurisprudence, nor did Kelsen ever attempt to formulate any theory which favored totalitarianism. An individual becomes the Head of a State through the municipal law of his own State and not through the recognition of other states. It is, therefore, not correct to say that the proclamation of Martial Law by itself must necessarily give the Commander of the armed forces the power to abrogate the Constitution, which he is bound by his oath to defend.
The status of this doctrine was questioned again in another ill famous case, *Begum Nusrat Bhutto v. Chief of Army Staff*¹⁵. Ironically, it was held that:
[T]he conditions culminating in the Proclamation of Martial Law were so grave that the very existence of the country was threatened, that chaos and bloodshed was apprehended and there was complete erosion of the constitutional authority of the Federal Government, leave alone that of the various Provincial governments. Thus, the situation demanded an extra-constitutional step.
Supreme Court of Pakistan, once again referred to this doctrine when the validity of another military takeover took place. In the case of *Zafar Ali Shah v. General Pervez Musharraf*¹⁶, the court was of the opinion that the judicial review vested in the Superior Courts could not be taken away on the principle of necessity. The proclaimed state of emergency includes regimes of exception, which have overthrown and not merely suspended the previous constitutional order and have assumed legislative and executive powers analogous to those under a formal state of emergency. Government should take steps to ensure that the fundamental rights of citizens are not affected and derogation must be proportionate to the emergency, while adopting constitutional as well as extra-constitutional means. The Army take-over of October 12, 1999 was extra-constitutional and efforts are to be made to minimize emergencies and to induce the authorities concerned to respect the Fundamental Rights.
However, it should be noted that application of the doctrine of necessity varied by each subsequent case that invoked it. *Zafar Ali Shah* case restricted the military rule in a certain paradigm. Judicial review was thus strongly ensured. In *Wasim Sajjad and others v. Federation of Pakistan*¹⁷, a time frame was given to the Military Government of General Musharraf, for return to democracy by holding general elections in specified time. Furthermore, the right to amend the Constitution by the military regime was curtailed in *Watan Party v. Chief Executive/ President of Pakistan*¹⁸. This reflects the will of the Supreme Court to uphold the rule of law, although at an exceptionally slow pace.
**B. On Freedom of Expression**
The higher courts of Pakistan have interpreted the constitution in favour of freedom of expression and freedom of the press. In *Muzaffar Qadir v. District Magistrate*¹⁹, the court held that the constitutional guarantee of liberty of the press is one of the strongest bulwarks of liberty and any order which violates the freedom of the press would be unconstitutional and void. Freedom of expression and freedom of press is the notion pressed close to the heart of almost all constitutions of the world²⁰.
It is the responsibility of state to act in a manner for the promotion of the fundamental rights, which pertains to freedom of press.²¹ There are, however, limitations as imposed by law on the right to free speech and expression. That is to say that this right can be curbed or restricted in the interest of Islam or the integrity security or defence of Pakistan or relates to friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality or in relation to contempt of court or incitement of an offence. Since the security of Pakistan is foremost concern, the liberty of speech can not be used as endangering the existence of the State.²²
For example, recently, in Pakistan, a newspaper published, narrating the speech of the person accused of contempt that “the High Court and Supreme Court Judges are on payroll of drug mafia.” Even though the accused forwarded unconditional apology, but the courts pursued the case and held that freedom of speech has limitations and the independence of judiciary cannot be ensured if this institution is scandalized.²³
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¹⁴ Ms Asma Jilani, PLD 1972 SC 139.
¹⁵ Supra note 31.
¹⁶ PLD 2000 SC 869.
¹⁷ PLD 2001 SC 233.
¹⁸ PLD 2003 SC 74.
¹⁹ PLD 1962 Lahore 1198. (The petitioner applied to the respondent seeking a declaration for the publication of a daily newspaper under the provisions of the press and Publications Ordinance 1960. The respondent did not respond to the application for two years and then imposed conditions to the authentication of the declaration. The question was whether these conditions violated the concept of the freedom of expression). See also, CJ DR. NASHI HASAN SHAH, JUDGMENTS ON THE CONSTITUTION, RULE OF LAW, AND MARTIAL LAW IN PAKISTAN, 48 (1st ed. 1993, Oxford University Press).
²⁰ See, for example, Indian Constitution, 1950. Leading Indian cases on the right to free speech and expression are: Brij Bhushan v. State of Delhi, AIR 1959 SC 129; Ramachandran v. State of Madras, AIR 1950 SC 124; Sakal Papers Pvt. Ltd. v. Union of India, AIR 1962 SC 305; Express Newspapers Pvt. Ltd. v. Union of India, AIR 1958 SC 578; Benett & Coleman Co. v. Union of India, AIR 1973 SC 166, S.Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram, (1989) 2 SCC 574; Secretary, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting v. Cricket Association of Bengal, (1995) 2 SCC 161. See V.N. SHUKLA, CONSTITUTION OF INDIA, 106 (10th ed. 2001, Eastern Book Company).
²¹ PLD 1989 Lahore 12.
²² PLD 1957 Lahore 142.
²³ State v. Khalid Masood PLD 1996 SC 42.
²⁴ PLD 1977 Lahore 852.
C. On Fairness
In *M. Aslam Saleemi v. Pakistan Television Corporation and Another*⁴⁵, the two respondents had the sole monopoly of television and radio broadcasting which are the principal news media for the dissemination, *inter alia* of news to the people at large with regard to the activities relating to the election campaign of the various contesting parties and are run and controlled by the Government of Pakistan. Petitioner’s main grievance was that they had not been acting impartially and fairly in projecting the news with regard to the election campaign of the alliance and had been evidently discriminatory and biased in favour of the ruling party. The courts were determined to uphold the fairness doctrine.⁴⁶ The State television was clearly instructed, to give all parties participating in election equal coverage, and not to only promote the campaign of ruling party.
D. On Rights of Minority
Supreme Court, at no point of time, allowed the rights of minority to be infringed in any manner. In the case of *J. K Tajik v. Government of Balochistan*⁴⁷, the Supreme Court held that a special exemption, made to safeguard the rights of non-Muslims in implementation of the constitutional mandate, cannot be nullified on the ground that it was in the national interest to do so.
Also, in *Darshan Masih v. State*⁴⁸, Supreme Court acted for the enforcement of fundamental rights of several Christians who were all working as bonded labourers in a brick kiln situated in the heart of Lahore and were subject to extreme hardships. The labourers were released from bondage. Notably the Court in the instant case accepted jurisdiction under Article 184(3) of the Constitution and decided to take up the issue based on a telegram received from petitioner Darshan Masih and twenty of his companions who included women and children.
E. Welfare and Safety of Citizens at Large
Right to unpolluted environment and preservation and protection of nature’s gift was recognised in *Ms. Shela Zia and others v. WAPDA*⁴⁹. In this case, citizens had apprehension against construction of a grid station in residential area. They sent a letter to the Supreme Court for consideration as a human rights case. It involved the welfare and safety of the citizens at large because the network of high tension wires spread throughout in energy production projects could have caused harm to the citizens. The court held, “The energy production is essential to all the developing countries however in a quest of economic development one has to adopt such measures which may not create hazards to life, destroy the environment and pollute the atmosphere.”⁵⁰
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⁴⁵ Civil Appeals Nos. 45-Q/1990, 46-Q/1990 and 47-Q/1990, Decided on March 19, 1993. See Shah, *supra* note 39, at 378, 379.
⁴⁶ PLD 1990 SC 513.
⁴⁷ PLD 1994 SC 693.
⁴⁸ Khan, *supra* note 8, at 37-38.
⁴⁹ M. Nawaz Sharif v. President of Pakistan and Others, PLD 1993 SC 473. See also, Shah, *supra* 39, at 392.
⁵⁰ *supra* note 49, at 473.
A JURISPRUDENTIAL AFFIRMATION OF JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
Anirudh Rastogi*
The great Judge is a bold Judge, not because he chances his arm, but because he so perceives the philosophy and history of the law that he can sweep aside the incidental and reach for the essential, and fashion and refashion the basic principles so that they serve the society of his time.
Justice E.G. Brennan
I. INTRODUCTION
Judicial Activism is the bold Judge’s key to constitutional and legal interpretation. The interpretation of law sometimes takes the form of law-making itself, an exclusive domain of the legislature, which in the eyes of many is a subversion of the law made by the elected and the accountable, by the law made by the appointed and the unaccountable. Is it, therefore, undemocratic, imperial, autocratic, dictatorial, or is it democratic and legitimate?
The debate on the democratic nature of judicial activism can be captured, and answered in the affirmative, on two grounds:
1. Inevitability. — That, judicial activism is the inevitable product in a triangular (legislature, executive, judiciary) set-up. A strict separation of powers is inconceivable.
2. Legitimacy. — That, even if judicial activism is not absolutely inevitable it has certainly gained legitimacy, by the people, for the people, and of the people, and is therefore democratic.
II. INEVITABILITY OF JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
Austin, a positivist, conceived law as a command of the sovereign backed by sanction. It was not necessary, however, in Austin’s view that a command qualifying as a law must issue directly from a legislative body of the state. It may proceed from an official organ to which the sovereign has delegated lawmaking authority. Judge-made law, according to Austin, was positive law in the true sense of the term, since the rules that the Judges make derive their legal force from the authority given by the state. Such authority the state may have conferred expressly; ordinarily, however, it imparts it by way of acquiescence. For, since the state may reverse the rules which he [the judge] makes, and yet permits him to enforce them by the power of the political community, its sovereign will ‘that his rules shall obtain as law’ is clearly evinced by its conduct, though not by its express declaration.¹
This consensual but covert delegation of powers to the judiciary is at times a staged stratagem conspired by men in politics, to avoid taking politically harmful stands in controversial matters. For instance, in the Ayodhya issue, it was politically convenient not to take an extreme stand but instead to approach the courts for resolving the same, soliciting the judiciary to become partners in the legislative and executive process. In another instance, in the Mandal Commission impasse, the BJP and the Congress Party refrained from taking any stand over the recommendations and waited for the Supreme Court to give its verdict, clearly, to avoid rubbing their vote banks, in the upper as well as lower classes, the wrong way.
Thus, Austinian jurisprudence contemplates that the law making power flows to the judiciary from the legislature itself. On the other hand, contributors to analytical jurisprudence, John Chipman Gray, Wesley N. Hohfeld, and Albert Kocourek, modified the Austinian theory itself by shifting the seat of sovereignty in lawmaking from the legislative assemblies to the members of the judiciary. It was Gray’s opinion that the body of rules the Judges lay down was not the expression of pre-existing law but the law itself, that the Judges were the creators rather than the discoverers of the law, and that the fact must be faced that they are constantly making law ex post facto. Even the statutory law laid down by the legislature gains meaning and precision, in his view, only after it has been interpreted by a court and applied in a concrete case² and the law becomes positive only in the pronouncements of the courts.
The realist school of jurisprudence further destroyed the myth that the Judges merely declared the pre-existing law or interpreted it and asserted that the Judges made the law. Jerome Frank, Justice Holmes and Cardozo and Karl N. Llewellyn were the chief exponents of the American realist school that asserted that the Judges made law, though interstitially. Llewellyn’s work spanned the entire movement of realism from its beginning in 1930s until his death in 1962. He emphasized upon the insufficiency of existing legal rules and, thus, the need for judicial creation of law as a means to the ever changing social ends. He advocated that society changes faster than law, and so there is a constant need to examine how law meets contemporary social problems; all a clear case for judicial activism. Though, it must be understood that the influence of factors extraneous to legal rules on decision of cases is an inevitable consequence of the judicial process itself, and must not be misunderstood to be a deleterious by-product of judicial activism.
The American Realists, discussed above, were practicing lawyers or law teachers, who sought to approximate legal theory to legal practice. In Scandinavia the group of jurists known as realists approached their task on a more abstract plane and with the training of philosophers. Vilhelm Lundstedt might be regarded as the most extreme of the Scandinavians. He maintained that the idea of law as a means of achieving justice is chimerical. It is not founded on justice, but on social needs and pressures. Indeed, ‘the feelings of justice are guided and directed by the laws as enforced, i.e., as maintained. In place of justice’, Lundstedt substituted the method of ‘social welfare’, which
¹ “The shape in which a statute is imposed on the community as a guide for conduct is that statute as interpreted by the courts. The courts put life into the dead words of the statute.” Id. at 101.
is 'a guiding motive for legal activities', namely, the encouragement in the best possible way of that... which people in general actually strive to attain. Judges should actually think in terms of social aims, not 'rights'. He insisted that these are not aims for which people ought to strive, but those that they are observed to be seeking. They include decent food, clothing, shelter, security of life, limb and property, freedom of action and protection of spiritual interest. And this is what our apex court has been observing when it upholds the right to food in *Kishen Pattanayak* case, or the right to livelihood in *Olga Tellis* case, or, panders to spiritual interests in the *Ayodhya* case.
Thus, we see that in reality Judges do make law; laws that are functional, purposive, and aimed at social interests, not rights; and they do so with acquiescence of the other organs of the government. The watertight compartments envisaged by the doctrine of separation of powers exist nowhere and is impracticable as much as it is inevitable. While law-making through interpretation and expansion of the meanings of open-textured expressions such as 'due process of law', 'equal protection of law', or 'freedom of speech and expression' is an absolutely justifiable judicial function, the making of an entirely new law, which the Supreme Court has been doing through directions is also not supplanting but merely supplementing the legislature through such directions. The courts have legislated through directions only because no law existed to deal with situations such as inter-country adoption or sexual harassment of working women and that its direction could be replaced by legislation of the legislature.
**III. LEGITIMACY OF JUDICIAL ACTIVISM**
**A. Conceptualization of 'Legitimacy'**
H.L.A. Hart, a critic of analytical jurisprudence, conceptualized legitimacy. Analyzing the definition of law as conceived by Austin, he asks, whether an order of a gunman asking a bank teller to hand over his cash is law. The order of a gunman is also backed by sanction, i.e. fear of death. Is a gunman a sovereign? Austin defines a sovereign as a person or authority who is subordinate to none and is obeyed by everyone. At the particular point of time when the gunman orders a teller to hand over the money, he is obeyed by everyone who is under his threat and he is not required to obey everyone. The difference between a gunman and a political sovereign is, however, that a gunman is not considered to be a lawful authority and his command is obeyed because of fear of death alone. According to Hart, the teller is 'obliged' to obey the gunman. He is not under an obligation to obey. The difference between 'being obliged to obey' and 'having an obligation to obey' arises out of legitimacy. A sovereign is considered to be a legitimate authority.
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3 *Id.* at 136.
4 *Kishen Pattanayak v. State of Orissa*, AIR 1989 SC 677.
5 AIR 1986 SC 180.
6 Dr. M. Ismail Faruqui v. Union of India, AIR 1995 SC 605.
7 Laxmi Kant Pandey v. Union of India, AIR 1987 SC 232.
8 *Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan*, (1997) 6 SCC 241.
9 H.L.A. Hart, *Concept of Law*, 19 (1970, ELBS & Oxford University Press).
10 *Id.* at 80.
According to Max Weber the most common form of legitimacy is 'the belief in legality i.e. the acquiescence in enactments which are formally correct and which have been made in the accustomed manner'.
**B. Judicial Activism Acquiring 'Legitimacy'**
Judicial activism has acquired a certain legitimacy, because its subjects have developed an 'obligation to obey' it, as put by Hart or a 'belief in legality, as put by Weber. Judicial activism is not only welcomed by individuals and social activists who take recourse to it but also by governments, political parties, civil servants, constitutional authorities such as the President, the Election Commission, the National Human Rights Commission, statutory authorities including the tribunals, commissions or regulatory bodies, and other political players. None among the political players have protested against judicial intrusion into matters that essentially belonged to the executive. On the other hand, we find that the political establishment shows unusual deference to the decisions of the court. They have considered themselves bound to function within the limits drawn by the Supreme Court, whether they are limitations of the basic structure doctrine on Parliament's constituent power under Article 368 or limitations upon the President's powers under Article 356. Moreover, the people, in general, consider the government and other authorities bound to abide by the decisions of the courts, and consider the latter to be better arbiters in matters of conflicting interests, than their own representatives. For instance, in the recent Jharkhand controversy, where the apex court was applauded more than it was criticized, for reprimanding the Governor on his convention-breaking stand over the formation of the government in the state.
People also recognize the judiciary as a more accessible institution; more so after the courts relaxed the requirements of *locus standi* and started entertaining public interest petitions against government lawlessness and inaction. During the regime of Mr. Narasimha Rao, the Court's activism flourished against corruption and abuse of power. Courts' stand on environmental matters is also exemplary. Surveys show that people have gone to the courts because there are no other means of grievance redressal. The governments are no longer responsive to their protests.
Llewellyn, expounded that the several institutions like the legislature, the executive, the judiciary, bureaucracy, police, and the civil societies are manned by human beings; all of whom are not the same. Institutions manned by greater men usurp powers of the other institutions because of increased acceptance by the people of such a usurpation. When this happens, it is said that the institution is passing through a 'grand period'. In India, since the late 80s and early 90s the judiciary is enjoying a grand period at the expense of the legislature, the executive and the other institutions.
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11 S.P. Sathe, *Judicial Activism in India* 251 (2002, Oxford University Press).
12 INDIAN CGNST.
13 *Id.*
14 Sathe, *supra* note 11 at 277.
15 Sathe, *supra* note 11 at 278.
However, judicial activism does not have its legitimacy only because the other organs of government have failed. Even if the other organs function effectively, there will be a need for judicial activism for upholding and protecting the rights of powerless minorities. Judicial activism in the United States has been impressively counter-majoritarian and has protected three types of minorities, namely (1) political dissenters, (2) racial minorities\(^{16}\) and (3) unpopular minorities such as accused criminals and homosexuals\(^{17}\); the major issues of American life sooner or later appear as questions for decisions by the courts\(^{18}\). In India too, social action groups have taken recourse to the public interest litigation channel for minority causes\(^{19}\). Although each of these groups is small and therefore incapable of making an impact on its own, the aggregate of such groups constitutes a large fragmented majority of the people. Judicial activism draws its support from them\(^{20}\).
Accounting for credit to the above, it needs to be mentioned, that no other institution in the contemporary times has inspired greater trust in the pan-Indian sub-continent. The Supreme Court of India has thus become the only institution that is not considered parochial or sectarian and that can be approached against injustice.
We have to admit that Judges are human beings, as fallible as any other. Judges are bound to have the predilections, notwithstanding the shared perception that they are independent and apolitical; and those predilections are bound to affect their judgments. However, the courts, by avoiding absolutes, by testing general maxims against concrete particulars, by deciding only in the context of specific controversies, by holding itself open to the reconsideration of dogma, by imposing restraints upon their own powers, by following precedents, and, by subjecting their judgments to record and criticism, exhibit a rare fusion of idealism and pragmatism. It is this rare fusion that constitutes, in the end, the most notable characteristic of the judicial process as it is carried on in the Indian Supreme Court. It is this fusion that helps it sustain its legitimacy.
The legislature in a democracy also derives its legitimacy from the people. Judicial activism is, therefore, in the Hartian or Weberian paradigm, as democratic as anything else so long as it enjoys the peoples’ ‘belief in legality’.
It can be said in conclusion, that it is a mere myth that Judges do not make law. It is inevitable that they make law, and they do so with legitimacy. We may well recognize that a constitutional court is a political institution, not meaning that it is partisan or unprincipled, but political, because it limits and delimits the powers of the other organs of the government. Its activism is to be advocated on grounds of functionalism in today’s era, wherein the context for a popular revolution against the all-pervasive state is missing. It is in this context that inevitable and legitimate activism attains its own significance.
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\(^{16}\) See Brown v. Board of Education, 347 US 483 (1954), that overruled the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine and disallowed desegregation on racial grounds.
\(^{17}\) Sathe, supra note 11, at 279.
\(^{18}\) See Paul A. Freund, Talks on American Law, 81 (1972, Harold J. Berman).
\(^{19}\) Public interest petitions have been filed by social action groups or individuals on behalf of powerless groups such as women, children or people, displaced by big development projects.
\(^{20}\) Sathe, supra note 11, at 280.
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SPACE FAR AND BEYOND: OUTER SPACE AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
Ekta Sarin*
Amit Bhagat**
I. INTRODUCTION
Intellectual Property\(^1\) laws typically grant the author of the intellectual creation a set of exclusive rights for exploiting and benefiting from the creation, which are limited in scope, duration and geography. The policy behind the protection of Intellectual Property Right (IPR) has at least two aspects. Firstly, intellectual property protection is intended to encourage the creativity of the human mind for the benefit of the public, by ensuring that the advantages derived from the exploitation of the creation will, if possible, inure to the creator himself, in order to encourage the creative activity and to afford the investors in research and development a fair return on their investments. The second policy consideration is to encourage the publication, distribution and disclosure of the creation to the public, rather than keeping it secret. It also encourages commercial enterprises to seek out creative works for profitable exploitation.
At the beginning of Space Age, space activities were predominantly public activities or governmental space programs mainly devoted to exploratory and experimental as well as military space operations, but they were not commercial. However, in the last decade until now, the character of space activities have fundamentally changed from public purposes to commercial ones.\(^2\) The current commercial uses of Outer Space\(^3\) involve many nations, some acting alone, some in regional cooperative organizations, others in large International cooperative ventures.
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* Final Year, LL. B., Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
** Final Year, LL. B., Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
\(^1\) Intellectual Property Rights, defined within the provisions of Article 2 of the Convention establishing the World Intellectual Property Organisation, include “the rights relating to: literary, artistic and scientific works; performances of performing artists, phonograms, and broadcasts; inventions in all fields of human endeavor; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks, service marks, and commercial names and designations; protection against unfair competition; and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.”
An Intellectual Property Right is the right to forbid third party exploitation, or to allow the exploitation by license on terms dictated by the registered Intellectual Property Right owner or his/her designated successor. The filed instruments, such as the claims of a patent, define the scope of Intellectual Property Right protection. The geographical scope of the protection is that of the territory of the State, which has registered the Intellectual Property Right. Intellectual Property Rights have limited lifetime (e.g. twenty years after the filing date of the application) and possess the dual nature of being both national and international.
\(^2\) The global policy for the free goods and service trade as well as fair competition have expanded and thus, created new patterns of relative investment (especially) in space activities. They range from government-government, government-private sector, to business enterprises themselves. Thus lies an area of exploration, usage and commercial exploitation of Outer Space.
\(^3\) Outer Space is all the space surrounding the Earth. It is where objects can move without artificial propulsion systems, according to the laws of celestial mechanics. It exists without being prevented from doing so by frictional resistance of the Earth’s atmosphere. It extends from an altitude above the earth of approximately 100 / 10 km. upward.
II. OUTER SPACE AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
Intellectual Property Rights are of ever growing importance as a competitive weapon, as a source of revenue and as a basis for, or a component of, collaborative activities in virtually every main industrial sector. However, the obtaining and use of IPRs in space-related fields is problematic because of the peculiarities of space activities and the applicable legal framework, especially as concerns nationally and territorially.
The space industry is unusual, compared to typical terrestrial activities, because of its research and development funding mechanisms on one hand, and a sort of fishbowl promiscuity on the other hand. Due to a limited number of programmes and players, competitors on one programme will be partners on another, customers or main contractors on another, subcontractors on still another.
Under International Space Law\(^4\), no State can claim sovereignty in outer space, and outer space cannot be appropriated by any means. No State can claim the applicability of its National Laws in outer space, comprising the inapplicability of intellectual property laws and the principle of territoriality of patent laws. There is tension between the principle that the use and exploration of outer space by all states, as well as scientific investigation shall be free and that the activities shall be carried out “for the benefit of all mankind” and that outer space shall be “the province of all mankind”. Furthermore, information on the nature, conduct, locations and results of such activities shall be shared with the public and scientific community. The acquisitions of exclusive rights such as IPRs, however, are not excluded by these provisions. The idea of IPR is not contrary to the principle of comprehensive information. The idea of protection of trade secrets is to keep certain information confidential, and as such this concept is contrary to the principle of comprehensive information. It is doubtful how the principle of information “to the greatest extent feasible and practicable” can be reconciled with the idea of trade secrets.
With regard to the protection of Intellectual Property through National Legislation, there has been certain reluctance by states to extend extraterritorial protection to its nationals who hold nationally granted patents, copyrights and trade marks. This has found theoretical support in the belief that if a State were to endeavour, on the basis of national legislation, to protect such rights in foreign countries, such endeavours would, in some manner, be offensive to the sovereignty of the State wherein such intellectual property was being exploited without the benefit of royalties to the foreign owner.
International Space Station (ISS) Agreement, officially known as the Intergovernmental Agreement, 1998\(^5\) (IGA) is generally eulogized as a quintessence of positives. It manifested at a time when space station was spreading wide elan and excitement, at the same while certain legal haziness were harrowing its realization.
IGA is the only international instrument having a direct clause on space applications of intellectual property. Article 21\(^6\) of the Agreement tries to resolve problems relating to intellectual property developed or used on board the ISS. Based on the Principle of Registration\(^7\) of particular elements of a Space Station, this Agreement has created a working framework for the determination of the territory where an invention has been made, and of the jurisdiction applicable to the activity on the station. According to Article 21 of IGA, “an activity occurring in or on board a space station flight element shall be deemed to have occurred only in the territory of the partner state of that element’s registry”
III. PROBLEMS AND IMPORTANCE OF INVENTION PROTECTION IN RELATION TO OUTER SPACE ACTIVITIES
Who owns the IPRs? Now chances are the two countries would broker some kind of agreement ahead of time. But that doesn’t mean others couldn’t copy the experiment in their module. Space is a free zone beyond the bounds of terrestrial copyright laws and the WTO.
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\(^4\) Among the basic principles set forth in the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies was that of non-appropriation and non-sovereignty. Thus, Article 2 of the Agreement provided — “Outer Space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means”. However, states engaging in space activities were not prevented from exercising jurisdiction over persons, property and events. The 1967 Principles Treaty had adopted the “freedom of high seas” principles applicable to the use of the ocean. This approach, allowing states to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction on the high seas, was adopted for space activity. Pursuant to Article 8 of the 1967 Treaty, a state retains jurisdiction and control over the space object and any personnel on board.
\(^5\) Agreement among the Government of Canada, Governments of Member States of the European Space Agency, the Government of Japan, the Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America concerning co-operation on the Civil International Space Station, 1998, generally known as Intergovernmental Agreement, otherwise known as International Space Station Agreement is an international treaty signed on January 29, 1998 by the fifteen governments. Initially such an agreement was put forward on 29 September 1988. This was later on replaced by another one in 1998. This key instrument establishes a long-term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed development, operation, and utilization of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes in accordance with international law. This legal framework defines rights and obligations of each of the countries and their jurisdiction and control with respect to their space station elements.
\(^6\) Article 21 - Intellectual Property — “For the purpose of this Agreement, ‘intellectual property’ is understood to have the meaning of Article 2 of the convention establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, done at Stockholm, July 1967.
2. Subject to the provisions of this Article, for the purpose of intellectual property law, an activity occurring in or on a space station flight element shall be deemed to have occurred only in the territory of the Partner State of that element’s registry, except that for ESA registered element any European State Partner may deemed the activity to have occurred within its territory. For avoidance of doubt, participation by a Partner State, its Co-operating Agency, or its related entities in an activity occurring in or on any other Partner’s Space Station flight element shall not in and of itself alter or affect the jurisdiction over such activity provided for in the previous sentence.
\(^7\) In respect of an invention made in or on any space station flight element by a person who is not its national or resident, a partner state shall not apply its laws concerning secrecy of inventions so as to prevent the filing of a patent application (for example, by imposing a delay or requiring prior authorization) in any other Partner State that provides for the protection of the secrecy of the patent applications containing information that is classified or otherwise protected for national security purposes. This provision does not prejudice (a) the right of any Partner State in which a patent application is first filed to control the secrecy of such patent application or restrict its further filing, or (b) the right of any other Partner State in which an application is subsequently filed to restrict, pursuant to any international obligation, the dissemination of an application.
This research paper examines the issue of the extent of applicability of patent laws to space activities. Industrial property plays an essential role for an orderly development of space activities and through huge investments it has been made to carry out the Space Station project as well as other space programs. It is of utmost importance to assess the legal regime for protection of technology use and new inventions in outer space.\(^8\) Taking into consideration the inventions in relevance to Outer Space activities, we perceive that space-related inventions can be made and can be used, either on earth or in outer space. Yet, there are some questions, such as:
1. Can various inventions made on earth resulting from space programmes be patented?
2. Or can various inventions made in outer space be patented?
3. If so, what law should be applicable?
Patent laws are developed in strong associations with territory and sovereignty of state, whereas outer space is outside any such State’s territory. According to R. Oosterlinck\(^9\), space-related invention can be divided into two main kinds:
1. Space related inventions resulting from job done on earth.
2. Space related inventions made in outer space.
**A. Space Related Inventions Resulting from Job Done on Earth**
Most of the legal inventions are generally developed under space programs made on earth. These inventions are the result of a space programme, which do not distinguish themselves from other inventions on earth. If an invention complies with the conditions of patentability, it is capable of being protected by a patent. There are, however, some exceptional cases, in which such an invention cannot be protected by patent because the patent application filed is still judging if or not, national interest should come before an individual’s own interests. The judgment also extends to the degree, whether a space exploitation monopoly might be harmful to the state. This is especially true to the case of inventions, which are health, national security and energy related issues.\(^{10}\)
In addition, with regard to inventions being patented on earth for applications in outer space, the patent should be applied for those countries which currently have in place, the legislation to protect the inventions for use in outer space.\(^{11}\) In principle, the national laws are restricted to relevant territories of the State. In case of an extension of this, explicit provisions must be enacted.\(^{12}\)
**B. Space Related Inventions Made in Outer Space**
There have been no inventions made in outer space until now. Furthermore, if we analyze the kinds of space related inventions made in outer space for terrestrial or spatial applications, the key point of these categories will relate to jurisdictional aspects. It must also be concluded that jurisdiction\(^{13}\) in outer space is rather an unclear situation. It will pose quite a number of problems for international community with respect to application of national law and/or the choice of law, since there is an absence of state practice and precedents.
In consideration to jurisdiction and space activities, outer space, the high seas and Antarctica alike, are considered as *res communis*\(^{14}\), and are not subject to any national appropriation.\(^{15}\) As far as International law is concerned, it does not normally fall under any national sovereignty. However, on the general principle of the Outer Space Treaty, a state party to the treaty, whose registry of an object was launched and carried into outer space, shall retain jurisdiction and control over the space object\(^{16}\). Thus, it seems that registration gives the solution, by which state’s jurisdiction and control will be applicable, when dealing with a space object.
For the issue of protecting inventions in outer space, we have found out that the applicability of national patent regulations are, in principle, enforceable only within the territorial boundaries of a given country. Therefore, problems will occur when an invention is used or infringed in outer space. Some provision of the Outer Space Treaty can be defined as the main concept for exercising (extra-territorial) jurisdiction over space objects.\(^{17}\) It is also for the patentability of invention in space, as the International Patent Treaties (namely, the Paris Convention, the Patent Cooperation Treaty, and the TRIPS Agreement, etc.) mainly address non-jurisdiction aspects of national patent systems similar to the validity and the entitlement of a patent. Therefore, it can be implied that these International Agreements can be applied to inventions made in outer space.
**IV. Harmonization and Intellectual Property Rights**
Due to its importance for the overall success of the space station project, one of the most delicate matters dealt with the IGA is the protection of IPRs. The difficulties faced by the parties to the IGA partly result from the fact that IPRs can only be protected under national Laws. National intellectual property laws are territorial in nature and are confined to the territory where they are created. The nature of IPRs is that they are anti-competitive, giving monopoly rights and thus restricting what others can do. Competition laws and intellectual property laws are in constant state of tension. IPRs are an intangible form of property and have an *erga omnes* effect. The results of a research can be protected either by a patent or by secrecy.
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\(^8\) See INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS AND SPACE ACTIVITIES IN EUROPE, 1 (1997, European Space Agency).
\(^9\) R. OOSTERLINCK, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND SPACE ACTIVITIES, THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE 26TH COLLOQUIUM ON THE LAW OF OUTER SPACE, IIISI, October 10-15, 1983.
\(^{10}\) Id. at 162.
\(^{11}\) See supra note 8, at 6.
\(^{12}\) Id. at 29-30.
\(^{13}\) Jurisdiction is the term used to describe the power being exercised by a state over any persons, property, or events.
\(^{14}\) A thing that belongs to a group of persons.
\(^{15}\) Outer Space Treaty, 1967, art. 2.
\(^{16}\) Id. art. 8.
\(^{17}\) Id.
V. PATENTS
With regard to space activities and activities in or on the ISS, the protection of inventions by means of patents will play the most important role. The three basic requirements are novelty, "non-obviousness" or "inventive step", and "intrinsic usefulness" or "industrial application". However, it is possible that, while the basic research is being conducted on board the ISS, this research does not result in patentable subject matter, because scientific discoveries, findings and ideas as such might not be patentable. Further work on earth might be necessary to make actual invention, in which case the applicable patent law is easy to determine. This also emphasizes the importance of the protection of trade secrets on board the ISS.
VI. TRADE SECRETS
Trade secret protection may be critical in certain circumstances to protect inventions stemming from outer space research or other un-patentable manufacturing processes employed in outer space. Trade secrecy laws can offer protection:
1. of a patentable invention during a patent application's pendency;
2. to protect information related to a patented invention but not covered by that patent;
3. to protect technical ideas that can be put to commercial use without at the same time becoming public, e.g. a process of manufacture;
4. to protect information or subject matter that is not or not yet patentable or which is only partially patentable, or where the party wants to continue to have rights in the subject matter beyond the term available through patenting.
The latter aspect is of specific relevance to the work on the ISS because scientific discoveries, findings and ideas which as such are not patentable, but which will lead to patentable inventions after the raw data is returned to earth and used for further research.
Trade secret protection may be the only practicable option to guard the invention, because many countries are yet to approve the patentability of life forms, or *ordre public* may require the disclosure of certain information. In other cases, the infringement of a patent may be difficult to detect, or one assumes that the invention will quickly be outdated by technological progress, so that it appears unnecessary to make the expenses connected to a patent application.
The maintenance of absolute secrecy on board the ISS or on board the European Space Agency module might not be feasible because space limitations are likely to restrict practical measures. If actual secrecy cannot be preserved, trade secrets can be protected by criminal law and through laws against corruption. Trade secrets are also
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29 Trade secrets or know-how include any transferable, technical information which is not generally known and not patented. It can encompass ideas, concepts, inventions, manufacturing processes and other confidential information. Technical information does not have to be novel or attain any level of inventiveness. Trade secrets do not have formal protection procedures, and the owner of a trade secret does not enjoy any exclusive rights. Because of their secret nature, national governments do not require submission of applications or any other form of official procedure. It is fundamental to the maintenance of a trade secret that it is protected and not disclosed to third parties except under circumstances that ensure the preservation of the holder's rights. Trade secrecy laws do not protect against independent discovery by a third party, against reverse engineering or analysis.
protected by civil liability, i.e. laws of delict or tort, unjustified enrichment, and unfair competition. Furthermore, contractual arrangements may be chosen to preserve the secrecy of valuable discoveries or processes. However, if nothing is agreed, the common or civil or criminal law of the State which governs the module shall apply. An obligation to maintain confidentiality also might arise as a fiduciary duty or be based on good faith.
The disadvantage of a contractual solution is that it can only cover the situations that the parties foresee, and it would only be binding for the contracting parties. The costs related to the negotiation and conclusion of appropriate contractual arrangements with the other users of the ISS also could discourage investors.
In contrast to other IPRs, the notion of breach of confidentiality is loosely defined. It may consist in any disclosure or use, which contravenes the limited purpose for which the information was revealed. The available remedies include injunctions and damages. The available means widely vary between different jurisdictions. The main protection of trade secrets will likely stem from contractual obligations. The applicable law can be determined by the rules of private international law. The rules of Article 21 are not designed to meet these requirements. Especially on board the ESA module, the applicability of different trade secret laws can lead to legal uncertainty. These types of protection are of some value in national context, but there is little guarantee of international reciprocity. Therefore, an overall trade secret scheme would be the preferable solution, e.g. incorporated into the IGA or as a separate agreement on European level. The likelihood of its implementation must be assessed in light of the IGA’s current jurisdictional patchwork regarding the patent law. If the question of jurisdiction has only been partially resolved in any other area of law, agreement is unlikely to be reached on trade secret law. The harmonisation of trade secret laws would enhance legal certainty and would thus be desirable.
VII. OTHER AREAS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAWS
Other areas of Intellectual Property laws, such as copyright law, trademark law, the protection of industrial design, etc. will play a lesser role in the field of space activities and of activities on board the ISS. These questions, however, can gain importance for the commercialisation of the ISS. In the area of copyright laws, for instance, the impetus for protection and harmonization is less pressing because so far this field has not been regarded as critical for a successful commercialisation of space activities, and areas protected by copyrights usually do not require a degree of financial commitment comparable to the subject matter covered by patent laws. This may, however, change in the long run if human beings begin to settle in outer space and produce works, which could be protected under copyright laws.
VIII. CRITICISM OF INTER-GOVERNMENTAL AGREEMENT
If the aura thrown around the Agreement is removed, the only unique thing is its clause on Intellectual Property, which is the only provision directly dealing with space related IPRs. But on a scrupulous analysis, it seems that Article 21 is poorly drafted and is inconsistent with the current intellectual property regime under TRIPS.21
Sreejith pointed out; firstly, Article 2 of IGA states that the utilization, development, and operation of International Space Station shall be in accordance with International Law. This indicates that the provisions of IGA should be consistent with International Law. Article 21 says, “for the purpose of Intellectual Property Law, an activity occurring in or on a space station flight element shall be deemed to have occurred only in the territory of the Partner State of that element’s registry”. Here Article 21 creates a micro territory on board the space station. And this as per Article 21 is for determining intellectual property rights, in particular patents. This clause is built-in in IGA mainly in the form of a cure for the existing patenting convolutions with regard to inventions made in outer space. It is submitted here that it somewhat is outspoken and brawls for solutions to an issue which is not existing. This is because under the current global IPR regime, all discrimination “as to the place of invention” for the grant of patents stands eliminated.22 The thrust given by Article 21 of IGA to ‘place of invention’ as a factor for determining the granting of patents thus remains incompatible with TRIPS provisions and there by is inconsistent with International law.
Secondly, even assuming that the provisions of Article 21 are justifiable, it poses certain problems while practically executing it. The logic behind Article 21 stems from Article 8 of Outer Space Treaty and Article 2 of Registration Convention both of which deal with jurisdictional aspects. The jurisdiction referred to in these Articles is quasi-territorial in character. It applies not only to the spacecrafts but also to personnel on board irrespective of their nationality.24 Furthermore, the jurisdiction of the State of registry applies to these persons, not only when they are on board but also when they are outside their vehicle. Thus, those personnel will be subject to the quasi-territorial jurisdiction of the State of registry of their respective spacecraft, irrespective of their nationality. The drafters of IGA do not envision this jurisdictional clash. The raison d’être behind Article 8 of Outer Space Treaty and Article 2 of Registration Convention is to make states accountable and to determine liability.25 There is nothing in these clauses, which is to be perceived as an enabling factor for determining patentability with regard
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21 S.G. Sreejith, *Intellectual Property Clause of the International Space Station Agreement: Damp Squib?*
22 According to Article 27 of TRIPS “… patents shall be available and patent rights enjoyable without discrimination as to the place of invention …”.
23 This is explicitly provided in Article 5 of IGA, which states “In accordance with Article 2 of the Registration Convention, each Partner shall register as space objects the flight elements listed in the annex which it provides, the European Partner having delegated this responsibility to ESA, acting in its name and on its behalf.”
24 Pursuant Article 8 of Outer Space Treaty and Article 2 of Registration Convention, each Partner shall retain jurisdiction and control over the elements it registers in accordance with paragraph 1 above and over personnel in or on Space Station who are its nationals. The existence of such jurisdiction and control shall be subject to any relevant provisions of this Agreement, the MoUs, and implementing arrangements, including relevant procedural mechanisms established there in”.
25 BIN CHENG, *STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL SPACE LAW* 231 (1997, Clarendon Press).
26 As reflected in the preamble of the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space,
to inventions made in Outer Space. This is the point where the Drafters of IGA went wrong.
IX. RECOMMENDATIONS
B.L. Smith, in his article “An Industry Perspective on Space-Related Intellectual Property Rights” for the *Société de Services en Propriété Industrielle*, Paris stated that, as for protection of research and development investment, it should be noted that quite often, the research and development has been funded under contract by a governmental or intergovernmental agency, with clauses which are intended to protect or recover the industry investment, but which offer little protection for the accompanying industry investment. Worse, many agencies that fund contracts also reserve licensing rights, commonly with extensive sub-licensing rights. This often means that the agency can grant sub-licenses to the originating firm’s competitors, effectively defeating the hope-for competitive advantages. In addition, there are considerable legal and practical uncertainties as concerns the possibilities of enforcement of IPRs. Applicable law is one major uncertainty because of its territorial nature. Another is how to discover potential infringements, and how to go about proving it to recover damages. Defense against third-party attacks is also uncertain, largely because of uncertainties of applicable law, and the resulting uncertainties of prediction of the outcome of infringement proceedings. Because of the huge sums which may be earned in a successful infringement suit, attempting an attack becomes attractive enough to raise venture capital to pay legal fees of the attacking party, even if the chances of success are objectively slim.
Smith stated that most importantly, we need legal certainty, arising from appropriate applicable, space-specific legislation, imperatively harmonised internationally for space use. Patchwork territoriality leads inevitably to inconsistent application and spawns legal uncertainty. Legal certainty is a necessity in order to attract private investors to finance space industry efforts in the commercial sector, and to enable industry to properly assess risks of infringement liability. In addition to legislation, we must also establish a workable enforcement policy and mechanisms. Currently, enforcement actions are almost always undertaken in a foreign country, under foreign laws. It seems that such unilateral extensions of territory are dangerous, tending to fill the legal void with space junk. Infringement is presently next to impossible to detect, let alone to prove, with the confidentiality which reigns in the industry. Most potential benefits of IPRs for space industry will remain illusory as long as such conditions prevail. Another major concern of the industry is the considerable IPRs which are under option, under license contracts signed with these entities when they were strictly non-commercial, public service and international cooperation’s or national administrations. The problem is that many of these entities are becoming privatised and are changing over to purely commercial operations, co-ownership, or assigned to agencies and/or treaty organisations. They may view these IPRs as a potential revenue source, and in any case, they will likely make different use of the IPRs than was foreseen by the industrial partners at the time of the signature of the contract. A potential industry backlash is building up against seeking patent protection for innovations resulting from agency contract funding. Some industry experts say when funded under such conditions, don’t make inventions! Or if you want to make inventions, don’t accept the agency funding!
X. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SPACE-RELATED INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS FROM AN INDUSTRY PRACTITIONER’S POINT OF VIEW
Industry would like to be able to use IPRs to protect its research and development investments, to gain competitive advantages, and to be able to continue industrial pursuits free from third-party aggressions on IPRs issues. A major necessary step towards these goals is to establish legal certainty for IPRs issues in space-related activities. Obtaining of IPRs must be clarified in view of disparate territorial principles. But even more important is to achieve harmonisation of the use of IPRs in space activities, free from territorial considerations of any sort. It seems that the only hope for such a situation would be some sort of International Legislation, with the concomitant creation of an international enforcement body, such as an International Board of Arbitration or an International Court. This may seem a gigantic undertaking, but it is surely more modest than attempting to harmonise the existing disparate national laws. Nationalist tendencies may take decades to overcome, but a uniform legislation must undoubtedly be proposed on a global level. As is already a long-standing tradition for terrestrial activities, it is becoming increasingly urgent to ensure that the space industry benefits from a workable IPRs legislative framework which can guarantee at least a minimum level of security for investments from the private sector and future commercial activities.
XI. CONCLUSION
The IGA and the other arrangements and agreements only provide for a patchwork of solutions. Article 21 introduces the applicability of national Intellectual Property laws on board the ISS, and offers some incomplete rules in the fields of the application of secrecy laws and infringement procedures in Europe. This analysis has shown that many questions are left unanswered, leading to practical problems, inconsistencies and obscurity in the legal framework. This is especially concerning because legal clarity is a prerequisite for the attraction of private investment in the ISS. Article 21 does not offer help in the application or harmonisation of trade secret laws.
In conclusion, the role of Intellectual Property in space activities is important in order to protect and promote the results of research and development, and to encourage industry to select creative works for exploitation. Space capabilities and activities have produced a shrinking world in which there is a need for wide-ranging international cooperation. This has resulted in new approaches to the protection of IPRs. This is allowing the product of creative and inventive persons to provide benefits to a wider society. The constant evolution of high technology and the ever-changing geopolitical situation underlines the need for the universal harmonisation of industrial and intellectual property laws.
**CHILD SEX TOURISM: AN OVERVIEW OF THE DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE**
*Sridevi Panikkar*
**I. INTRODUCTION**
The Declaration and Action for Agenda of World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (1996) provided this definition of the practice of commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) in general:
The commercial sexual exploitation of children is a fundamental violation of children’s rights. It comprises sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or kind to the child or a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual object and as a commercial object. The commercial sexual exploitation of children constitutes a form of coercion and violence against children, and amounts to forced labour and a contemporary form of slavery.\(^1\)
It consists of practices that are demeaning, degrading and threatens the physical and psychosocial integrity of the child.
There are three primary and interrelated forms of commercial sexual exploitation of children: prostitution, pornography, and trafficking for sexual purposes. Other forms of sexual exploitation of children include child sex tourism and early marriages. Commercial sexual exploitation seriously compromises a child’s right to enjoy childhood and to lead a productive, rewarding and dignified life. It can result in serious, lifelong, even life threatening consequences for the physical, psychological, moral and social development of children. The immediate danger exploited children face is physical violence from those who exploit them. Children are even more vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases than adults, including HIV infection and AIDS. Not only do they lack access to education on sexually transmitted diseases and safe sex practices, typically children who are exploited are not in a position to negotiate safe sex practices. Psychological impacts of sexual exploitation are harder to measure, but no less painful for the child.
Commercial sexual exploitation presents substantial challenges to the justice and social-service systems charged with the responsibility of holding offenders’ accountable and treating children’s present harm, physical as well as psychological, while also preventing future exploitation.
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\(^1\) Final Year, LL.B., Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
\(^1\) Declaration and Agenda for Action from the World Congress against the Commercial Exploitation of Children, Stockholm, Sweden, August 27-31, 1996, available at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/comp/child/standards/resolution/stockholm.htm.
This paper focuses only on one of the many forms of CSEC, Child sex tourism. It is part of the global phenomenon of commercial sexual exploitation of children. It involves the sexual abuse exploitation of both male and female children, usually, but not always, in tourist destinations and has become a common term to describe different situations where children are abused and when the offender does not come from the location where the abuse takes place. It includes: the prostitution of children, paedophilia-related child abuse, and the production of pornography involving children.
It is difficult to precisely measure the exact number of children affected by sex tourism. The covert and criminal nature of child sex crimes and the vulnerability of children, especially children living in poverty, make data collection a difficult and sometimes dangerous task. Estimates by governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) vary widely, while unsubstantiated numbers are often recycled without attribution or confirmation.
The next section gives a brief background of the issue under consideration. Section III traces how the issue is dealt with under the present international legal framework and also takes a brief look at national laws enacted in this regard by some countries. This section also looks at the regional instruments that have been evolved in South Asia in this regard. Section IV focuses on the situation and the legal framework in India.
II. BACKGROUND
The United Nations defines child sex tourism as “tourism organized with the primary purpose of facilitating the effecting of a commercial-sexual relationship with a child.” Child-sex tourism, however, may also include the opportunistic use of prostitute children while traveling on business or for other purposes. Child sex tourist usually refers to: persons who travel from their own country to another to engage in sexual acts with children, or foreigners who engage in sexual activity with a child while overseas. It often involves a third party who procures a child from local communities.
Although the general pattern is that “tourists” from developed countries seek out the sexual services of children in developing countries, Child sex tourism is not just a problem brought in by western tourists. Offenders can also be, and infact in most cases are, local tourists or expatriates working in the community. The sexual abuse of children by foreign military personnel has also created a sub-group that could be labeled under child sex tourism, although this requires further investigation.
Child sex tourism was first investigated in South-east Asia in the late 1980’s. Not long after, research was done in Sri Lanka that uncovered numerous cases of child sexual abuse along the tourist beaches. More cases emerged in Goa and later Kathmandu that confirmed fears that foreigners in tourist destinations were abusing children across South Asia.
However there is no hemisphere, continent, or region unaffected by the child sex trade. As countries develop their economies and tourism industries, child sex tourism seems to surface. Economic difficulties, civil unrest, poverty, and displacement of refugees all contribute to the growth of the child sex industry. In Africa many countries are faced with a rising child prostitution problem, partly due to poverty, migration from rural to urban areas, increase in the number of orphaned children due to the aids epidemic and the advent of tourism. Reports of children entering prostitution, being exploited by foreigners and aid workers, and trafficked to Western European brothels are coming from the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, and Russia.
However Asia continues to be the primary destination for child sex tourists. The United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF) released a report in 1997 estimating commercial-sex workers in Asia could number more than 2 million, with about half being children.
A. Causes
Abject poverty often contributes to the vulnerability of children to commercial sexual exploitation. Many children entering child sex industries come from poor and/or migrant families or are homeless children living on the street. They may be sold by someone they know to a procurer, arrive in a city with false expectations and be forced into the sex industry, be misled about the nature of their work, or be abducted. Children and young people may also become involved to support their families, to supplement their income from other sources, to meet their survival and daily needs or are sexually exploited because they have no protection or shelter.
However, even though poverty may be a principal catalyst, it cannot adequately explain commercial sexual exploitation of children. Many children from poor families do not enter the sex trade, while many children whose families are not impoverished do enter the sex trade. The sexual exploitation of children takes place in both ‘developing’ and ‘developed’ countries. When considering what makes children vulnerable to commercial sexual exploitation other factors should be taken into account.
Many countries also focus on tourism as a means for economic development. The loss of land and traditional livelihood due to development can be very disruptive, resulting in breakdowns in traditional and community systems and creating new and highly mobile and migration-prone communities. These elements lead to the vulnerability.
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2 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, United Nations Economic and Social Council, Commission on Human Rights, 52nd Session, Agenda Item 20, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/100 (1996), available at http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.1996.100.En?opendocument.
3 See ECPAT, Situational Analysis Studies on Child Sex Tourism in Tourist Destinations of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, 2003, available at http://www.ecpat.net/eng/Ecpat_intern/projects/sex_tourism/Executive%20Summary.Web1.pdf.
4 Eva J. Klain, Prostitution of Children and Child-Sex Tourism: An Analysis of Domestic and International Responses, 32-35 (1999), available at http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/publications/NC73.pdf.
5 See Charlotte Bunch, The intolerable status quo: Violence against women and girl, The Progress of Nations (1997), available at http://www.unicef.org/pon97/women1.htm.
Inadequate national laws, lax law-enforcement measures, and limited sensitization of law-enforcement personnel to the harmful impact of CSEC on children are other contributing factors. Corruption among police and other law enforcement officials is often cited as a major obstacle in combating commercial sexual exploitation.
Furthermore, some travel agencies, Internet chat rooms and message boards, and organizations such as NAMBLA (North American Man Boy Love Association) not only encourage child sex tourism, but also give detailed instructions on how to partake in it. The existence and encouragement of such groups in addition to the marked *laissez-faire* attitude of a number of governments greatly frustrates attempts at eliminating the child-prostitution industry.
However, undoubtedly, there is great diversity in the circumstances and levels of exploitation locally, regionally and globally.
**B. Sex Tourist**
Popular usage of the term "paedophilia" classifies all persons engaging in sex with a child as a paedophile. Paedophilia, a sexual preference for prepubescent children, is not a crime in itself. It is the act of sex with a child that is a crime. Put simply, a paedophile is a person with a sexual love for children. However, a person who exploits or abuses a child sexually is not necessarily a paedophile, and a paedophile may not necessarily act out his fantasies by engaging in sexual activities with a child.
It is more accurate and useful to use the term "child sex offender" to describe a person engaging in sex with a child, a term which includes but is not limited to paedophiles. The situational child sex offender for instance, does not have a sexual preference for children, but engages in sex with children because he or she is morally and/or sexually indiscriminate and wishes to 'experiment' with young sex partners.
In general, child sex tourists' travel to poorer countries from economically developed ones. However Child sex tourism is not just a problem brought in by Western tourists. Offenders can also be local tourists or expatriates' working in the community. Child sex industries cater to both foreign and local offenders.
Child sex tourists are generally men, although women have been known to employ foreign prostituted children as well. Contrary to the myth that is generally perpetrated, they are both homosexual and heterosexual. Some sex tourists travel from their home country to another solely for the purpose of committing a sexual act with a child. Others travel for business or vacation, but then become tempted by the availability of prostituted children or attracted by offers from tour companies and local establishments. Child sex tourists generally choose locations that combine widespread poverty with a well-developed and highly commercialized sex industry. Racist and sexist stereotypes and a demand for virgins fuelled by myths of 'virgin cure' built around HIV/AIDS are also factors that are seen as causes for offending.
**C. Impact on Children**
The commercial-sexual exploitation of children through child sex tourism violates their fundamental rights and prevents them from leading the "productive, rewarding and dignified lives" to which they are entitled.\(^6\) It causes damaging physical and psychological effects. Significant psychological effects associated with the prostitution of children include post-traumatic stress disorder, impairment of attachment, lowered self-esteem, and problems in interpersonal relationships.
Clearly, prostituted children are at a high risk for sexually transmitted diseases and related health concerns. There is also a high risk that young prostituted girls will become pregnant and give birth to premature newborns with low birth weights and other complications. In developing nations, access to pre-natal care is limited, especially for the population of sexually exploited girls who have little money and an unstable support system. Most girls, especially from developing countries, who are forced into or enter prostitution, are usually unable to escape it even in their adult lives.
**D. Child Sex Tourism and Tourism as an Issue**
A report from ILO, *The Sex Sector: The Economic and Social Basis of Prostitution in Southeast Asia*, examined commercial sex work in four countries—Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. The report found that the sex sector accounts for anywhere from 2 to 14 percent of these countries' Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and government authorities collect substantial revenues in areas where prostitution thrives, either illegally from bribes and corruption or legally from licensing fees and taxes on hotels, bars, and restaurants.
Tourism itself is not responsible for child sex tourism but creates increased opportunities for commercial sexual exploitation of children to occur and provides easy access to vulnerable children. For many governments around the world, international tourism provides an answer to economic growth and development. The commercial sexual exploitation of children has paralleled the growth of tourism in many parts of the world. The marketing of certain destinations, particularly within Asia, portray images of women and children who are passive, submissive and exotic, reinforcing beliefs that child sexual abuse can be justified and legitimizing sexual fantasies. Tourism also brings consumerism to many parts of the world previously denied access to luxury commodities and services. The lure of easy money has caused many young people, including children, to trade their bodies in exchange for T-shirts, walkmans, bikes, etc. In other situations, children are trafficked into brothels on the margins of tourist areas and sold into sex slavery, very rarely earning the money to escape.
Hence, even though tourism isn't in itself responsible for child sex tourism, child sex tourism is certainly a tourism issue. The tourism industry is ideally placed to
\(^6\) Declaration, *supra* note 1.
take action against it, especially by creating a greater awareness amongst tourism sector workers and by actively promoting more responsible and ethical behaviour while travelling. We shall briefly look at the initiatives taken by the international tourism industry later in the paper.
III. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The sex tourism industry has no territorial boundaries; therefore, in order to successfully combat this problem, it must be viewed from an international perspective. Numerous treaties, United Nations (UN) conventions and other international initiatives address the commercial sexual exploitation of children through prostitution and sex tourism. All attest to the importance placed on eradication of child prostitution by the international community. Unfortunately, the international instruments have varying degrees of enforceability and often rely entirely on the voluntary cooperation of nations. The most significant of all international instruments is the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)\(^7\). The Convention reflects a global consensus and in a very short period of time it has become the most widely accepted human rights treaty ever. Currently 191 States are party to the CRC. Every UN member, with the exception of United States of America and Somalia, has ratified the treaty.
Under Article 1 of the CRC, a child is defined as every person who is younger than eighteen years of age unless majority is obtained earlier under national law. Article 19 protects children from all forms of abuse, neglect, and exploitation by parents and others, and obligates states to undertake prevention and treatment programs to this end. The Convention expressly condemns the sexual exploitation of minors in prostitution and illegal sexual practices. Article 34 specifically requires States to protect children from sexual exploitation and abuse including prostitution and involvement in pornography. The States are required to take appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent such exploitation and abuse. Article 35 obligates States to prevent the abduction, sale, and trafficking of children.
The CRC established a Committee on the Rights of the Child \(^8\) for the purpose of monitoring the progress of the parties, in achieving the obligations under the Convention. Pursuant to Article 44, State parties must make periodic reports to the Committee on the measures they have adopted which gives effect to right contained therein and progress made towards enforcement of those rights. The Committee then considers these reports and publishes concluding observations and general recommendations as to how they can improve the condition of children in their countries.
However, the Committee lacks authority to receive petitions from States or individuals alleging violations of the Convention, and the Convention offers no remedies. Despite this limitation, the Committee is useful to NGOs working on children's rights as an international framework through which they can more effectively pursue their agenda, and the Convention helps establish a uniform international standard.
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\(^7\) Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 44/25 of November 20, 1989. It came into force on September 2, 1990, available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/treaties/crc.htm.
\(^8\) Id. Article 43(1).
The Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography is the first of two Optional Protocols to the CRC to enter into force\(^9\). The Protocol expressly prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography and is the first international instrument to define these terms. Accordingly, the Protocol requires these offences to be treated as criminal acts. The Protocol requires States parties to: establish grounds for criminalizing these prohibited acts; ensure jurisdiction over the offences; provide for the extradition of offenders; encourage international cooperation between States to pursue offenders; and provide support to child victims of commercial sexual exploitation. An important feature of the Optional Protocol is that it requires States to enact extra territorial jurisdiction that ensures their national legislation extends to crimes of sexual exploitation of or trafficking in children committed in other states by their own nationals, residents, corporations, or associations\(^10\).
ILO has several conventions addressing forced labor including prostitution of children. These include the Forced Labour Convention\(^11\), later reinforced by the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention\(^12\). Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention\(^13\) defines the worst forms of child labour as including all forms of slavery, trafficking, child prostitution, child pornography, use of children for illicit activities (such as for the production and trafficking of drugs), and use of children for any work that by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to harm the health, safety and morals of children.
A. Other International Initiatives
In 1996, the First World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children\(^14\) was convened in Stockholm, Sweden, as a forum to develop strategies for an international response. The Congress was organized by ECPAT and hosted by the government of Sweden in collaboration with UNICEF and the Group for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, an NGO. The World Congress adopted a Declaration and, what is known as the Stockholm Agenda for Action that calls upon States to accord high priority to action against the commercial sexual exploitation of children and allocate adequate resources to the effort, promote stronger cooperation between States and all sectors of society and strengthen the role of families, criminalize the commercial-sexual exploitation of children by condemning and penalizing the offenders while ensuring the child victims are not penalized, review and revise laws, policies, programmes, and practices, enforce laws, policies, and programmes.
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\(^9\) Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography was adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution A/RES/54/263 of May 25, 2000. It has been ratified by forty three countries, signed by one hundred and five countries, and entered into force in January 2002. India has not yet ratified this Optional Protocol, available at http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/treaties/opsc.htm.
\(^10\) Id., Article 4.
\(^11\) The Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29). It came into force on May 1, 1932, available at http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C029.
\(^12\) Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105). It came into force on January 17, 1952, available at http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C105.
\(^13\) Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 183). It came into force on 19 November, 2000. India has not yet ratified this Convention, available at http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C182.
\(^14\) Declaration & Agenda, supra note 1.
In December 2001 the Second World Congress on Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, hosted by the Japanese Government took place in Yokohama. The objectives of the Second World Congress were to enhance political commitment to the implementation of the Agenda for Action adopted at the First World Congress; review progress in the implementation of this Agenda; share expertise and good practices; identify main problem areas and/or gaps in the fight against commercial sexual exploitation of children; strengthen the follow-up process of the World Congress.
**B. Regional Instruments: South Asia**
The SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, 2002 aims to promote cooperation amongst member states to effectively deal with various aspects of prevention, interdiction and suppression of trafficking in women and children; repatriation and rehabilitation of victims of trafficking and preventing the use of women and children in international prostitution networks, particularly where the SAARC member countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) are the countries of origin, transit and destination. The Convention is legally binding on its signatory parties and is the first regional anti-trafficking treaty to emerge from the Asian continent. As of March 2004, the convention has been ratified by all member countries except Nepal and Sri Lanka.
The SAARC Convention defines 'child', 'prostitution', 'trafficking', 'traffickers' and 'persons subjected to trafficking'. It also provides for the protection of victims, mutual legal assistance, training and sensitization of enforcement officials, rehabilitation of victims. Offences under the Convention are extraditable.
The main criticism levied against the SAARC Convention is its narrow definition of trafficking, which is limited to prostitution; also that it makes no distinction between women and children.
In January 2002, the SAARC Convention on Regional Arrangements for the Promotion of Child Welfare in South Asia was signed by all seven SAARC member states with the purpose to fulfil promises member states have made to South Asian children under various national, international and regional world conferences and SAARC summits; and, to work together and develop regional arrangements to protect the rights of South Asian children.
**C. National Legal Framework of Select Countries**
International instruments only provide a basic uniform legal framework, the effectiveness of which undoubtedly depends on the initiative taken by the individual states to incorporate these elements into their national legal framework and to ensure enforceability. Infact, as highlighted by the First World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, strong cooperation between states is essential to successfully combat this problem.
Many countries have passed new statutes or are considering amendments to their national laws to address the commercial sexual exploitation of children and hold offenders accountable. Several destination countries have recently strengthened their laws addressing the prostitution of children in an effort to stem the influx of sex tourists and protect their children from exploitation.
The Philippine government has increased attention on foreign child sex tourists and promoted the Special Protection of Children against Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act. The Act creates criminal offenses aimed at patrons, procurers, advertisers, pimps, and brothel owners. There has been a Tourism Department administrative order banning 'accommodation establishments' from even permitting 'to enter the premises', anyone whom they have at least 'have reason to believe' is a prostitute, child sex offender or of questionable character.
In Taiwan, anyone placing 'indecent' advertisements for sexual services risks five years' jail and/or TWD 10,00,000 fine and the advertisement's publisher risks a fine of TWD 6,00,000 (USD 31,000 and 19,000 respectively); tourism workers are required to report any knowledge of prostitution of minors under eighteen years.
The government of Thailand also recently increased its measure against child sex tourism. While the Prohibition of Prostitution Act prohibits all forms of prostitution in Thailand and holds those involved in the criminal sex trade liable, it exempts customers and suffers from inconsistent enforcement. Thailand's statutory-rape law, however, allows for prosecution of customers who have sexual intercourse with a girl fifteen years old or younger and subjects them to a seven to twenty year sentence and fine. If the victim is younger than thirteen years of age, the sentence is life imprisonment.
Several other countries have also responded to the call for stricter national laws and increased penalties to fight sexual exploitation of children within their borders. The Czech Republic provides for prosecution of those who traffic in children, while the Portuguese government has moved to tighten laws that would make it a crime to profit from prostitution, either directly or indirectly, although prostitution itself has long been illegal.
However the responsibility for curbing sex tourism of children cannot rest solely with the destination countries. Sending countries must also act to punish those who travel to sexually exploit children. More recent efforts turned to holding these sex tourists accountable in their home countries. These statutes take several forms.
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15 See *The Yokohama Global Commitment 2001*, available at http://www.unicef.org/events/yokohama/outcome.html.
16 SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking In Women and Children for Prostitution, 2002, available at http://www.saarc-scc.org/old/freepubs/conv-trafficking.pdf.
17 Id., arts. 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
18 Klain, *supra* note 4, 42-45.
19 ECPAT, *International Child Sex Tourism Action Survey*, 37-38 (2001), available at http://www.ecpat.net/eng/Ecpat_inter/Publication/Other/English/Pdf_page/Child_sex_tourism_action.pdf.
20 Id.
21 Klain, *supra* note 4, 42-45.
22 Id.
One statutory approach is to extend the reach of domestic laws through extra-territorial jurisdiction (i.e., to hold nationals accountable for actions committed abroad that would violate domestic laws if committed within the sending country).
The Criminal Code of Germany was amended in 1993 to allow prosecution of Germans who travel for child sex tourism. The German law allows prosecution of citizens for engaging in sexual activity with a child who is younger than fourteen years of age, regardless of where the act occurs, and may be applied to criminal acts abroad including “criminal acts against sexual self determination.” While the severity of Germany’s penalties compares to other sending countries, the statutes do not encompass those who organize sex tours or procure children for others.
The Swedish Criminal Code allows for extraterritorial jurisdiction in criminal cases. Although the statute imposes a double criminality, the requirement does not apply to prosecutions of “grave crimes” punishable under Swedish law by a minimum of four years incarceration. Under Swedish law, aggravated rape, which applies to rape of a child who is younger than fifteen years of age, carries a punishment of four to ten years. Rape of a child who is younger than eighteen, however, does not carry a four year minimum sentence, and the extraterritoriality statute therefore does not protect children between fifteen and eighteen years of age from abuse by Swedish nationals abroad.
Another statutory approach is to directly outlaw travel to foreign countries to engage in sexual relations with children.
Australia’s Crimes (Child-Sex Tourism) Amendment Act of 1994 criminalizes sexual intercourse with someone who is younger than sixteen years of age while outside of Australia and applies to Australian citizens or residents of Australia.
Under United States of America’s law, proof of actual sexual acts is not required; only the proof of travel with the intent to engage in sexual acts with a minor. The intent, however, must be formed prior to travelling, and such intent may be difficult to prove without direct evidence such as travel arrangements booked through obvious child-sex-tour networks or operations. There is also some question whether the statute could be applied to offenders who engage in opportunistic child sex tourism.
In addition to the above-mentioned countries, several other countries like France, UK, Japan etc., have adopted, or are moving towards adopting variations on child sex tourism legislation. The discussion in this section has been cursory at best, the purpose of which is merely to look at some of the approaches that have and can be adopted with regard to formulation of national legal framework for prevention child sex abuse and child sex tourism.
D. The World-Tourism Industry
The world-tourism industry has substantial influence and ability to discourage and act against child sex tourism. Training, distribution of information, posters, in-flight videos and codes of conduct are some of the travel industry initiatives taking place around the world to prevent the commercial sexual exploitation of children. At the international level, travel industry associations and peak bodies are joining forces to see how they can develop policies that they can call upon their members to implement. Declarations have already been agreed upon by some of the world’s largest travel industry bodies—International Air Transport Association (IATA), International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IHRA), the Universal Federation of Travel Agents Associations (UFTAA).
Unfortunately, there are still numerous small travel companies throughout the world that promote sex tourism by identifying resorts where prostitution is widespread. Because these companies are so small, they rarely draw attention from law enforcement. The challenge for those who work in the travel industry is therefore to integrate these international initiatives into good work practices, to encourage the adoption of the declarations and to implement the codes of conduct and protocols. Education and training must continue and be reinforced by management policies that allow for open discussion of the issues that surround child sex tourism.
IV. THE INDIAN SCENARIO
In public discourse, child sex tourism is not considered a major social issue in India, partly because of the perception that the problem is not as acute as in some countries of South-East Asia and partly because the problem is largely associated only with poverty conditions. The social acceptability of having sex with a ‘minor’ is largely ignored because large-scale child marriage still takes place. In addition, women from a number of social groups are considered ‘inferior’ and their sexual exploitation is not considered as ‘something wrong’ in a section of Indian society. The women and girls of Dalit and Adivasi communities are termed as ‘loose’ and therefore free for all to sexually exploit. The perception of the Indian society about commercial sexual exploitation of children is largely governed by ‘poverty syndrome’.
With an untested estimate of 2,70,000 child prostitutes, the problem of child prostitution in India is widespread and quite visible. The form however varies in the different regions of India. In the major commercial centers of Mumbai, Chennai and Delhi, many child prostitutes are trafficked into the country from neighbouring Nepal and Bangladesh. Indigenous tribal women and children are trafficked to these centers and forced into sexual exploitation.
India is also a significant source and transit country. Many child prostitutes in the brothels of India’s major cities come from rural villages and they are trafficked under the same guise as children from Bangladesh and Nepal. Female children are trafficked to the Middle East and Europe, often forced into sexual slavery. This is similar for the Bangladeshi and Nepalese children who pass through India en route to the Middle East and the West.
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23 Klain, supra note 4, 42-45.
24 Id.
25 Klain, supra note 4, 41-42.
The extent of child sex tourism in India is not yet known. In port towns like Vizakhapatnam, Kolkata, Mumbai, Margoa, Mangalore, Cochin, Chennai etc. adults can be seen with children. Yet it has not yet been possible to determine whether these clients are preferential or occasional abusers. The tourist cities of India report high levels of sex tourism consisting of sailors, port employees and local tourists. Although so far the popular image of pedophiles is mostly of a potbelly foreigner’s but this kind of sexual exploitation is also made up of local nations from other parts of the country.
A. Legal Framework
In India, an important development has been the passing of the landmark Goa Child Act, 2003, against child sexual abuse. This addresses several child rights issues in an integrated manner. It is the only legislation so far in the country that deals with the issue of child sex tourism. It is also the only legislation that defines trafficking and comprehensively defines ‘sexual assault’, giving it a wider interpretation to include every type of sexual exploitation. The legislation has specifically made tourism related child sexual abuse a non-bailable offence under section 2 (a) of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973. The fines and jail terms are also severe—Rs. 1,00,000 with imprisonment between one to three years for sexual assault and incest and Rs. 2,00,000 with seven to ten years jail term in case of a grave sexual assault. Under the new legislation the owner and manager of a hotel or other establishment will be held solely responsible for the safety of the child in the premises as well as all adjoining beaches, parks, and if any child is allowed to enter the room without registration. Also, any persons who keep with them or reside wholly, partly or in any form with one or more child or children who are not related to them by blood, shall inform this fact immediately to the Director of Women and Child Development. The Act also prohibits the children from accessing objectionable material inside hotels and other establishments from Internet facilities that are not fitted with filters or through film or videos, discplayers, cable or any other medium. It provides for strong action against making children available to the adults for commercial exploitation including posing obscenely, selling or abetting sale of children even under the garb of adoption and even dedicating a girl child as devadasi (servant).
The Goa Children’s Act, 2003 prohibits and defines trafficking in accordance with the Optional Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons especially Women and Children. Though the practical worth of the Act remains to be seen, it is nevertheless important because it is the only legislation in the country that deals with the issue of child sex abuse in a holistic manner. With relation to child sex tourism and with regard to child sex abuse, commercial or otherwise, it could be a model for other states.
However this Act being a state legislation is applicable only in the State of Goa. At the national level, the Indian government is yet to take any legislative measures towards curbing child sex tourism, or for that matter even child sex abuse, commercial or otherwise.
The overwhelming understanding of sexual violence even today is that it occurs only when a stranger rapes an adult woman using great force. The legal definition of rape itself is extremely narrow, confining itself strictly to penile-vaginal penetration. This understanding does not recognize that women, children and men face substantial sexual violence outside this definition of rape.
The Indian Penal Code has no specific provisions with regard to child sexual abuse. The general provisions of Section 375 regarding rape cover child rape and sexual abuse of child. By Indian law, it is necessary to prove penetration, if one is alleging that rape has occurred. In cases of child sexual abuse, penetration may not always have taken place. This loophole allows the accused to plead that the case be treated as molestation and the punishment substantially reduced. Also, as per this provision, forced sexual intercourse by a man with a woman is essential to constitute rape. The rape of a boy child or homosexual rape is not even considered by the Code.
Under Indian law, the rape of a boy child or adult male amounts to an “unnatural offence” under Section 377. This section outlaws acts, such as acts of sodomy and buggery, which are strictly forbidden regardless of the participants’ age. It is a clear threat to the rights of sexual minorities in the country, manifesting itself in harassment, extortion and blackmail by the police, leaving them with no legal protection.
What is required is the inclusion of child sex abuse as an independent category of sexual offence and broadening of the definition of rape beyond the penile penetration of the vagina to include a wider understanding of sexual assault.
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA) is the principle legislation regarding commercial sexual exploitation was enacted for the prevention of ‘immoral trafficking’. All persons, whether male or female, who are exploited sexually for commercial purposes fall under the purview of ITPA. The Act however does not define trafficking.
The Act does not make any special provisions regarding the commercial sexual exploitation of children. According to the ITPA, “prostitution means the sexual exploitation or abuse of persons for commercial purposes, and the expression ‘prostitute’ shall be construed accordingly.” Since it does not define “persons”, it is understood to include children. Throughout the Act, there are references to offences against children and punishment where children are detained for prostitution. In addition, the law defines a child as a person who has not completed sixteen years of age; a minor as a person between sixteen-eighteen years of age, and a major as a person who has com-
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26 Goa Children’s Act, § 2 (z).
27 Id. § 2 (y).
28 Id. § 8(11).
29 Id. § 8(2). See also Section 9 (4) on penalty for child trafficking.
30 Id. § 8(10).
31 Id. § 8(4).
32 Id. § 8(10)(c).
33 Id. §§ 8(12), 8(14), 9 (7).
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14 Indian Penal Code, 1860.
15 Id.
16 Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, § 2(f).
pleted eighteen years of age\textsuperscript{17}.
The Act lays down any procedures regarding the treatment that is to be given to children and minors in prostitution. It does not state whether such children and minors are victims or offenders under the provisions of ITPA. As per the Juvenile Justice Act, 2000, trafficked children are defined as ‘children in need of care and protection’ and are to be looked after by a ‘Child Welfare Committee’ and are not to be produced before a court of law. There are also a lot of flaws in the process of age assessment. Generally, the police officials do not go beyond what has been stated by the brothel keeper. This of course results in avoidance the harsher punishments prescribed in the Act for offences regarding children. On the whole, the status of children is under IPTA is not clear.
Though the Act does not directly state that prostitution is illegal, it penalizes the act of prostitution. An analysis of the data regarding crimes registered under ITPA during the period 1997-2001 reveals that it is Section 8 of the Act which deals with seducing or soliciting for the purpose of prostitution that is frequently invoked. Eighty-seven per cent of the arrested persons are females. Most of the women and girls who are ‘picked up’ under are the ones who had been trafficked into commercial sexual exploitation\textsuperscript{18}. The tendency clearly is to harass/punish sex workers rather than traffickers. The crime of trafficking has remained suppressed under the alleged crime of soliciting.
It is high time that Indian lawmakers pay attention to the rising crisis of child sex exploitation, both commercial and otherwise, and formulate laws that are child friendly. Children engaged in prostitution must be treated as victims of sexual exploitation, violence, and forced labor, and not as criminals. There is a great need to draft a comprehensive legislation defining and prohibiting commercial sexual exploitation of children. Until then legislations such as ITPA need to be amended to define and prohibit child prostitution and child trafficking in accordance with international law.
Government and aid groups should support quality rehabilitation and reintegration programs for children who leave the sex trade, which include psychological counseling, health care, education and vocational training, and shelter, as appropriate.
V. CONCLUSION
Countries that have tightened their national laws against child sex tourism have taken different approaches. Combining these approaches can result in a comprehensive statute encompassing all potential activities supporting the sexual exploitation of children through prostitution.
Strengthening of national legislation addressing the sexual exploitation of minors within each country is an essential pre-requisite to achieving any sort of success regarding child sex tourism internationally. All countries, however, should protect their own children from exploitation from abroad and at home through criminal penalties for child abuse, rape, sexual assault, and all forms of sexual exploitation. National legislation should be broad enough to encompass the activities of travel agents, sex-tour operators, advertisers, and pedophile networks.
The criminal justice system needs to devote greater resources to combating the child sex trade, provide friendly facilities, and train law-enforcement personnel on child development and related issues. The children who testify against their exploiters should be afforded the greatest protection and support possible. Their testimony should be facilitated with the least disruption to their lives and rehabilitation issues. Law enforcement should also look to innovative approaches that change some of the current practices regarding how prostituted children are treated — for instance, by treating prostituted children as victims of sex abuse rather than criminals and to target pimps and procurers instead.
In addition to improved national legislation and international agreements, child sex tourism can be attacked through innovative and comprehensive law-enforcement initiatives that effectively enforce laws already in place. Because collaboration is essential to a comprehensive response, mutual cooperation between countries can aid in such enforcement. Law-enforcement agencies with greater experience in child sexual exploitation can collaborate on investigations or provide expert training, especially on investigative techniques for sexual offenses against children and how to target foreigners.
Strong partnerships between governments, international organizations, and all sectors of society are essential. This collaborative effort must address prevention, rehabilitation through counseling, temporary housing and protection, and, finally, reintegration through education and employment training. Other prevention measures include improved access to education, health services, vocational training, and supportive environments for at-risk children and their families. Governments and social service agencies need to create safe havens for children, support recovery and reintegration programs, and promote alternative means of employment. They also need to tackle the cultural and traditional practices that predispose children to involvement in the sex trade.
The responsibility to eliminate the sexual exploitation of children rests with governments, parents, social and legal organizations, law enforcement, the criminal-justice system, and society as a whole. It is only with combined efforts that the goal of dignified, valued, and respected lives for all children, at home and abroad, can be achieved.
\textsuperscript{17} Id., §§ 2 (aa), 2 (eb), 2 (ea).
\textsuperscript{18} See ACTION RESEARCH ON TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN 232-246 (2004, National Human Rights Commission, UNIFEM, & Institute of Social Sciences).
CURATIVE PETITION: THE LAST RESORT
Divyakant Lahoti*
I. Meaning
The word ‘curative’ means relating to or used in the cure of diseases or tending to cure something\(^1\); a means of improving a situation or course of remedial treatment\(^2\). The word ‘petition’ means, a formal written request presented to a court or other official body\(^3\); a request in writing and in legal language describes an application to a court in writing in contradistinction to a motion which may be made by a word of mouth. Additionally a petition is an application made in a summary way to the court, based upon a written statement of the facts leading up to the relief sought, and differing in that respect from a motion.\(^4\)
Thus, from its very name it becomes clear that a curative petition means any legal written document presented to a court of law for curing or improving the erroneous or wrong judgment or decision given by any official body or by court of law. Such petition tends to heal the defects or errors in any earlier decision or judgment or order or decree that infringes any fundamental right or legal right of any person or group of persons.
II. Origin of Curative Petition
To perpetuate an error is no virtue but to correct it is a compulsion of judicial conscience.\(^5\) The important question that arises is whether an aggrieved person is entitled to any relief against a final judgment/order of the Supreme Court, after dismissal of the review petition, either under Article 32 of the constitution or otherwise complaining of the gross abuse of the process of court and irremedial injustice? The court, in the case of *Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra*\(^6\) considered this significant question of constitutional law. This crucial concern is often shared by a large number of litigants, who, after losing the last legal battle, live with the knowledge that gross injustice has been done to them. With a view to offer another opportunity to such genuinely aggrieved litigants, the Court has offered a solution — a “curative petition”.
This judgment is not retrograde and allows a real possibility of challenging the occasional judgments that have been rendered in violation of natural justice or without jurisdiction or which have led to a gross miscarriage of justice. The Supreme Court has ruled that a curative petition can be filed after the dismissal of a review petition to reconsider its judgment. Under Article 32 of the constitution, a final order of the apex court cannot be “assailed”, but to cure a gross miscarriage of justice the apex court may reconsider its judgments in exercise of its inherent power.
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\(^7\) Article 129. — Supreme Court to be a court of record.—The Supreme Court shall be a court of record and shall have all the powers of such a court including the power to punish for contempt of itself.
\(^8\) Article 137. — Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court.—Subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament or any rules made under Article 145, the Supreme Court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it.
\(^9\) Rule 5. — Where an application for review of any judgment and order has been made and disposed of, no further application for review shall be entertained in the same matter.
\(^10\) Rule 1. — The Court may, for sufficient cause shown, excuse the parties from compliance with any of the requirements of these rules, and may give such direction in matters of practice and procedure as it may consider just and expedient.
\(^11\) Rule 6. — Nothing in these rules shall be deemed to limit or otherwise affect the inherent powers of the Court to make such orders as may be necessary for the ends of justice or to prevent abuse of the process of the Court.
\(^12\) Hanumant Govind Nargundkar v. State of M.P., AIR 1952 SC 343; See also Sheonandan Paswan v. State of Bihar, (1987) 1 SCC 288; Devender Pal Singh v. State, NCT of Delhi, (2003) 2 SCC 501; Zahira Hibbullah H. Sheikh v. State of Gujarat, (2004) 4 SCC 158, Bolin Chetia v. Jogadish Bhuyan, (2005) 6 SCC 81.
\(^13\) Golak Nath v. Union of India, AIR 1967 SC 1643; See also Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, AIR 1979 SC 2299; Gujarat Steel Tubes Ltd. v. Gujarat Steel tubes Mazdoor Sabha, (1980) 2 SCC 593, Narinder Singh v. Surjit Singh, (1984) 2 SCC 403; Delhi Transportation Corporation v. D.T.C. Mazdoor Congress, 1991 Supp. (1) SCC 600; Krishna Swami v. Union of India, (1992) 4 SCC 605; Khedai Mazdoor Chetna Sangath v. State of M.P., (1994) 6 SCC 260; Ratan Kumar Tandon v. State of U.P., (1997) 2 SCC 161; Ashok Kumar Gupta v. State of U.P., (1997) 5 SCC 201; K.G. Derasari v. Union of India, (2001) 10 SCC 496; State of Rajasthan v. Vansal Medical & General Store, (2001) 4 SCC 642; Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra, (2002) 4 SCC 386; Kalyani Packaging Industry v. Union of India, (2004) 6 SCC 719.
\(^14\) INDIAN CONST., art. 141. See also Behram Khurshid Pesikata v. State of Bombay, AIR 1955 SC 123.
In *S. Nagaraj v. State of Karnataka*¹⁵, Sahai, J. observed¹⁶, “Justice is a virtue which transcends all barriers. Neither the rules of procedure nor technicalities of law can stand in its way. The order of the court should not be prejudicial to anyone. Even the law bends before justice.”
The law existing in other countries is aptly summarized by Aharon Barak¹⁷ in his treatise thus:
The authority to overrule exists in most countries, whether of civil law or common law tradition. Even the House of Lords in the United Kingdom is not bound any more by its precedents. The Supreme Court of the United States was never bound by its own decisions, and neither are those of Canada, Australia, and Israel.
In *Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal case*¹⁸, the Constitutional Bench of the Supreme Court observed:
The decision of this Court on a question of law is binding on all courts and authorities. A decision given by this Court can be reviewed only under Article 137 read with Rule 1 of Order XL of the Supreme Court Rules, 1966 and on the conditions mentioned therein. When, further, this Court overrules the view of law expressed by it in an earlier case, it does not do so sitting in appeal and exercising an appellate jurisdiction over the earlier decision. It does so in exercise of its inherent power and only in exceptional circumstances such as ‘when the earlier decision is per incuriam or is delivered in the absence of relevant or material facts or if it is manifestly wrong and productive of public mischief.
The provision of Order XL Rule 5 of the Supreme Court Rules bars further application for review in the same matter. In a State like India, governed by rule of law, certainty of law declared and the final decision rendered on merits by the highest court in the country is of paramount importance. The principle of finality is insisted upon not on the ground that a judgment given by the apex court is impeccable but on the maxim *interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium*²⁰.
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¹⁵ (1886) 11 AC 660,664: 2 TLR 828 (PC).
¹⁶ (1993) Supp. 4 SCC 595.
¹⁷ Id. at 618, ¶ 18.
¹⁸ Aharon Barak’s Treatise. Aharon Barak was born on September 16, 1936. He is a professor of law at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and President of the Supreme Court of Israel since 1995. Barak is well-known for championing an activist judiciary that has interpreted Israel’s basic law as its constitution and challenged Knesset laws on that basis. Under his term the Supreme Court has issued controversial decisions on the nature of the state and the ability of both the Knesset and the Prime Minister to implement their decisions. Barak announced his retirement at the end of May 2006 leaving the Israeli Supreme Court a far different place.
¹⁹ 1993 Supp. (1) SCC 96 (II), 145, ¶ 85: AIR 1992 SC 522.
²⁰ It is in the interest of the State that there should be an end of lawsuits. *Supra* note 6 at 412.
It is a long-gone age concept that the role of the judiciary to merely interpret and declare the law. It is fairly settled that the courts can mould and mend the law formulating principles and guidelines as to adapt and adjust to the changing state of affairs of the society, the ultimate aim being to dispense justice.
The rational for curative petition was pithily summed up by the Court in *Rupa Ashok Hurra* case as:
The concern of this court for rendering justice in a cause is not less important than the principle of finality of its judgment. We are faced with competing principles — ensuring certainty and finality of a judgment of the Court of last resort and dispensing justice on reconsideration of a judgment on the ground that it is vitiated being in violation of the principles of natural justice or giving scope for apprehension of bias due to a Judge who participated in the decision-making process not disclosing his links with a party to the case, or on account of abuse of the process of the court. Such a judgment, far from ensuring finality, will always remain under the cloud of uncertainty. Almighty alone is the dispenser of absolute justice — a concept that is not disputed but by a few. Yet there may be circumstances, as mentioned above, wherein declining to reconsider the judgment would be oppressive to judicial conscience and would cause perpetuation of irremediable injustice.²¹
In *Harbans Singh case*²², A.N. Sen, J. in his concurring opinion observed:
Very wide powers have been conferred on this Court for due and proper administration of justice. I am of the opinion that this Court retains and must retain, an inherent power and jurisdiction for dealing with any extraordinary situation in the larger interests of administration of justice and for preventing manifest injustice being done. This power must necessarily be sparingly used only in exceptional circumstances for furthering the ends of justice.
Another issue which has not been answered or left open is that under the guise of its ‘inherent power’, the Supreme Court should tramme/ circumscribe a particular case to be re-filed by a litigant again. There should be a check by the Supreme Court on constitution of different forums for reviewing the same judgment repeatedly.
The Constitution of India assigned a pivotal role to the Supreme Court providing the supremacy of law with the rationale being justice is above all. The exercise
²¹ *Supra* note 6 at 413.
²² Harbans Singh v. State of U.P., (1982) 2 SCC 101,107, ¶ 20.
²³ A.R. Antulay v. R.S. Nayak, (1988) 2 SCC 602, 651.
²⁴ Amnon Rubinstein (born 1931) is an Israeli law scholar, politician and columnist. A member of the Knesset since 1977, he founded Shinui (The Center Party) in 1974, and has served as the Minister for Communications and as Education Minister. He is currently dean of the inter-disciplinary center (IDC) in Herzliya. In his columns for Haaretz and Maariv, Rubinstein has focused on countering anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism within the European radical left. In one of his best-known editorials, he criticized human-rights groups for attacking Israel while turning a blind eye to atrocities committed by Arabs, as well as to ethnic cleansing in Sudan.
of inherent power of the Court also stands recognised by Order XLVII Rule 6 of the Supreme Court Rules, 1966, which reads — “Nothing in these Rules shall be deemed to limit or otherwise affect the inherent powers of the Court to make such orders as may be necessary for the ends of justice or to prevent abuse of the process of the Court.”
Mukharji, J (as he then was) in *A.R. Antulay* case very lucidly and with utmost precision stated, “the superior court can always correct its own error brought to its notice either by way of petition or *ex dehito justitiae*. (See Rubinstein’s, *Jurisdiction and Illegality*).”
When the Constitution was drafted the substantive power to rectify or reconsider the order passed by Supreme Court was expressly provided by Article 137 of the Constitution. The framers of our Constitution who had the practical wisdom to envisage the efficacy of such provision deliberately conferred the substantive power to review any judgment or order by Article 137 of the Constitution. Article 145(c) allows Supreme Court to frame rules as to the conditions subject to which any judgment or order may be reviewed. In exercise of this power Order XL had been framed empowering the Court to review an order in civil proceedings on grounds analogous to Order XLVII Rule 1 of the Civil Procedure Code.
Apart from Order XL Rule 1 of the Supreme Court Rules the Court has the inherent power to make such orders as may be necessary in the interest of justice or to prevent the abuse of process of Court. The Court is thus not precluded from recalling or reviewing its own order if it is satisfied that it is necessary to do so for the sake of justice. It is desirous to be remembered that the powers conferred on the Court by Article 142 being curative in nature cannot be construed as powers which authorise the Court to ignore the substantive rights of a litigant while dealing with a cause pending before it.
The Supreme Court in exercise of its jurisdiction under Article 142 has the power to make such order as is necessary for doing complete justice between the parties in any cause or matter pending before it. The very nature of the power must lead
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25 145. Rules of Court, etc.— (1) Subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament the Supreme Court may from time to time, with the approval of the President, make rules for regulating generally the practice and procedure of the Court including— (c) rules as to the proceedings in the Court for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by Part III
26 Supra note 6 at 422
27 142. Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.—(1) The Supreme Court in the exercise of its jurisdiction may pass such decree or make such order as is necessary for doing complete justice in any cause or matter pending before it, and any decree so passed or order so made shall be enforceable throughout the territory of India in such manner as may be prescribed by or under any law made by Parliament and, until provision in that behalf is so made, in such manner as the President may by order prescribe.
(2) Subject to the provisions of any law made in this behalf by Parliament, the Supreme Court shall, as respects the whole of the territory of India, have all and every power to make any order for the purpose of securing the attendance of any person, the discovery or production of any documents, or the investigation or punishment of any contempt of itself.
28 Supra note 6 at 423.
29 Id.
Though Justices of the highest court perform their best, subject to the limitation of human imperfection, yet situations may arise, in the rarest of the rare cases, which would require reconsideration of a final judgment to set right miscarriage of justice complained of. In such case it would not only be proper but also obligatory both legally and morally to rectify the error. The duty to do justice in these rarest of rare cases shall have to prevail over the policy of certainty of judgment.
IV. CONCLUSION
No system of justice can rise above the ethics of those who administer it.\textsuperscript{30} The Attainment of justice is the highest human endeavour. If we are to keep our democracy, there must be one commandment; Thou shalt not ration justice.\textsuperscript{31}
Review literally and even judicially means re-examination or reconsideration. Basic philosophy inherent in it is the universal acceptance of human fallibility. Yet in the realm of law the courts and even the statutes lean strongly in favour of finality of decision legally and properly made. Exceptions both statutorily and judicially have been carved out to correct accidental mistakes or miscarriage of justice. The Privy Council in \textit{Rajender Narain Rae v. Bijai Govind Singh}\textsuperscript{32} noted:
[N]evertheless, if by misprision in embodying the judgments, errors have been introduced, these courts possess, by common law, the same power which the courts of record and statute have of rectifying the mistakes which have crept in.... The House of Lords exercises a similar power of rectifying mistakes made in drawing up its own judgments, and this Court must possess the same authority. The Lords have however gone a step further, and have corrected mistakes introduced through inadvertence in the details of judgments; or have supplied manifest defects, in order to enable the decrees to be enforced, or have added explanatory matter, or have reconciled inconsistencies.
Rectification of an order thus stems from the fundamental principle that justice is above all. It is exercised to remove the error and not for disturbing finality. When the Constitution was framed the substantive power to rectify or recall the order passed by this Court was specifically provided by Article 137 of the Constitution.\textsuperscript{33} The Court is not precluded from recalling or reviewing its own order if it is satisfied that it is necessary to do so for sake of justice.
In the event of there being any manifest injustice would the doctrine of ex \textit{debito justitiae} be said to be having a role to play in sheer passivity or to rise above the ordinary heights as it preaches that justice is above all. Manifest injustice is curable in nature rather than incurable and Supreme Court would lose its sanctity and thus would belie the expectations of the founding fathers that justice is above all.
\textsuperscript{30} Report of the National (Wickersham) Commission on Law Observance and Law Enforcement, 1929
\textsuperscript{31} Learned Hand, Address, Legal Aid Society of New York.
\textsuperscript{32} (1836) 1 Moo PC 117.
\textsuperscript{33} \textit{Supra} note 6, at 422.
The oft-quoted statement of law of Lord Hewart, C.J. in \textit{R v. Sussex Justices}\textsuperscript{34}, that it is of fundamental importance that justice should not only be done, should manifestly and undoubtedly be seen to be done, had this doctrine underlined and administered therein. It is now time that procedural justice system should give way to the substantive justice system and efforts of the courts of justice ought to be so directed. Flexibility of the law courts presently is its greatest virtue and as such justice-oriented approach is the need of the day in this century.
According to Magna Carta\textsuperscript{35} 1215, “to no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice.” Today, the Supreme Court of India is playing a pivotal role in pursuance of the above said notion.
\textsuperscript{34} (1924) 1 KB 256.
\textsuperscript{35} Magna Carta, 1215.
NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT, 2005: VISION OR ILLUSION
Nishi Kant Thakur*
I. INTRODUCTION
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (hereinafter referred as ‘NREGA’) 2005 has now become operative from February 2, 2006 in two hundred poorest districts throughout India. The Act guarantees to provide a minimum of hundred days of wage employment to at least one member from every rural household who volunteers to do unskilled manual work. The Act has been enacted to serve a very noble cause i.e. combating poverty and empowering the rural India that has been more or less neglected in today’s era of globalization-privatization-liberalization.
The idea of employment guarantee is not new but in recent times it has been debated with some sincerity. It has become clear to the government that providing employment on a guarantee basis and revival of agriculture are more than a political necessity now. Towards this end the government has enacted the National Rural Employment Guarantee Bill which after being passed by both the houses and getting the assent of the President on September 5, 2005 became an Act of Parliament. In this paper an attempt will be made to evaluate that whether the idea to provide guaranteed wage employment is feasible in the Indian context or not.
II. NEED OF AN ACT
It has often been questioned that why it is not enough to initiate a massive employment scheme instead of enacting an Act for the same? The main answer to this is that an Act places an enforceable obligation on the State and gives bargaining power to the labourers. It creates accountability. By contrast, a scheme leaves the labourers at the mercy of the government officials. Another major difference between an Act and a scheme is that schemes come and go but laws are durable. A scheme can be trimmed or even cancelled by a bureaucrat but changing a law requires an amendment by the legislature\(^1\). Under the guarantee system the demand for work (by labourers) and not the supply of the work (by officials) determines the size of the programme. Moreover, the element of guarantee reduces distress migration as the workers are assured of the availability of work near their own place\(^2\).
III. CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF THE ACT
The NREGA is seen by many, as an initiative to operationalise the concept of ‘Right to Work’ enshrined in Article 41 of the Constitution of India under the Directive Principles of State Policy. It was understood that the guarantee to be provided under the Act is not likely to be a full fledged realization of right to work but a measure of legally ensuring that those wanting but not getting the remunerative work would be provided with such work under certain conditions\(^3\). The right to work cannot be an absolute right. Even the relevant Article in the Constitution calls upon the state to make provisions and secure it within the limits of its economic capacity. Therefore, certain restrictions are expected to be laid down in the legal provisions guaranteeing employment but at the same time the conditions have to be reasonable for the guarantee to be meaningful\(^4\).
IV. RATIONALE OF EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE
The NREGA primarily addresses the issue of unemployment and especially underemployment, which is a phenomenon linked with rural India. The 10\(^{th}\) Five-Year Plan observes that the growth rate of employment has slowed down in 1990s. Though the average annual growth rate of GDP was higher in 90s (6.7%) than in 80s (5.2%), the rate of employment growth has been much lower (1.07%) in 90s than in 80s (2.7%). It even worsened during the period of 1994-2000 to 0.98%. Consequently, if the present trend continues, it will not be possible to generate enough employment during the 10\(^{th}\) plan even to absorb the addition made to the labour force during the plan period and the backlog (35mn) will remain as it is. With a higher growth rate of 8% and an alternative strategy for employment generation it may be possible to absorb the addition made to the labour force and reduce the backlog to half at the end of 10\(^{th}\) Plan\(^5\).
The unemployment rate in India is about 7.8% and it is rising. The situation is even worse in rural areas which according to the last census have 72 crore (720mn) people living in 6.27 lakh villages which exist off barely one-fourth of India’s $ 600 bn GDP. Again, of the 26 crore people living below poverty line, a majority of 20 crore live in rural areas\(^6\). Underemployment in the working poor is another major problem in rural India, since in a country like India people cannot afford to be unemployed and hence they agree to work on very low wages and productivity\(^7\).
All these unemployed and underemployed people need the attention of the policy makers to provide work with greater wages and productivity. There is an urgent need to support these people to enable them to come out of poverty and for this noble
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* LL.M., Final Year, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.
\(^1\) Jean Dreze, *Promise and Demise*, YOJNA, 4-8 (Apr. 2005).
\(^2\) Indira Hirway, *Providing Employment Guarantee in India-Some critical issues*, EPW, 5117-5124 (Nov. 27-Dec. 8, 2004).
\(^3\) Smit Gupta, *Rallying for a Right*, FRONTLINE, 85-87 (Nov. 19, 2004).
\(^4\) T.S. Papola, *A Universal Programme is Feasible*. EPW, 594-598 (Feb. 12-18, 2005).
\(^5\) Hirway, *supra* note 2.
\(^6\) Shanker Aiyer, *NREGS-Mother of All Sops*, INDIAN TODAY, 46-49 (Sep. 12, 2005).
\(^7\) A. Vaidyanathan, *Employment and Decentralization*, EPW, 1582-1587 (Apr. 16, 2005).
reason National Rural Employment Guarantee Act has been enacted by the parliament. This Act primarily addresses the issue of underemployment rather than unemployment. The Act only aims at providing a supplementary income to the existing income of a family, as the earning through the guaranteed employment will substantiate into only Rs. 500 per month to a family.
V. DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO COMBAT POVERTY
Four major approaches\(^9\) are adopted by various states for providing minimum income to poor people.
1. **Communitarian Model** — In this approach, workers are entitled to their minimum needs by belonging to a communal society. Under this approach, which was adopted by China in the pre-reform period, it is obligatory for the workers to work as per the needs of the community, and in return they are ensured minimum standard of living.
2. **Right to Income Model** — The un/underemployed have a right to a minimum income (social welfare) from the state. In return, they have to work whenever the work is available to them. The Netherlands adopted this approach in 1930s.
3. **Right to Work Model** — In this system workers have a legal right to demand work from the state for wage. This approach was adopted by the state of Maharashtra in India under its Employment Guarantee Act of 1977.
4. **Wage-Employment Model** — Under such a system wage employment on public works is provided to the poor on a scale, without any kind of guarantee. The poor are expected to earn additional income through this employment. India has used this approach under its wage employment programs like Jawahar Rojgar Yojna (JRY), Sampoorna Gramin Vikas Yojna (SGRY), and Food for Work Programme (FFWP) etc.
All the four approaches basically aim at using surplus manpower to generate productive assets. The first approach is not feasible in India politically and the second one is not possible financially, as it is not affordable.
India has used the fourth approach for more than three decades and now it is trying to combine both the third and fourth approaches together to generate employment.
VI. COST OF NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT
There has been a wide range of variation in the cost estimate on the NREGA. This is not only due to the difference in the assumptions regarding the conditions but also because of their use as a basis to argue against or in favour\(^8\). The most common estimate was however based on the assumption that every poor rural household which is below poverty line will be guaranteed a maximum 100 days work at statutory minimum wage. For example, if the number of households below poverty line is 40 million and unit cost of employment per day is assumed to be Rs. 100 (Rs. 60 wage + Rs. 40 material cost), and each household is to be guaranteed work for 100 days, then the total cost of the programme comes to 40 million x 100 days x Rs. 100 = Rs. 40,000 crore. Jean Dreze, a Belgian economist who is said to be the mastermind behind this ambitious idea, prepared an estimate of this magnitude for the National Advisory Committee. But, since the NREGA now covers all the rural households which according to the last census were 13.7 crore, the cost of the programme will now reach Rs. 1,37,000 crore\(^{10}\).
On paper this amount seems to be too much, but knowing that the Act will be implemented in phases and it will begin with two hundred poorest districts only and not every household is likely to avail the full guarantee of hundred days, and also the educated unemployed may not opt for the unskilled manual work, it may not be the same in practice. The experience of Maharashtra employment guarantee scheme (hereinafter referred as MEGS) suggests that a relatively small proportion of those un/underemployed actually report for the work provided under the scheme. For example in Maharashtra only 2.2% of rural workers participated in MEGS.
Keeping these considerations in view the actual cost of the programme may be much lower than the estimated cost\(^{11}\).
VII. COMMON FEARS ABOUT NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT
There are two most common fears regarding NREGA. Firstly, that the money will be wasted due to widespread corruption. Former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s statement that only 15 paise out of every rupee of anti-poverty programmes actually reach the poor is often quoted in this context. But while leakages are certainly rife in many cases, there are also examples of anti-poverty programs that have done relatively well. Recent experience in Rajasthan has demonstrated the possibility of eradicating corruption from public works using a combination of legal and social actions\(^{12}\). And also, if we oppose public interest laws on the ground of corruption then the police, education, hospitals etc. all have to be closed.\(^{13}\)
Secondly, the NREGA will lead to financial bankruptcy. The cost of NREGA
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\(^8\) V. P. Singh, *Down to Earth*, TIMES OF INDIA (New Delhi), Aug. 8, 2005.
\(^9\) Papola, *supra* note 4.
\(^10\) Dreze, *supra* note 1.
\(^11\) Chaturanan Mishra, *Job Guarantee Law Can Awaken Sleeping Lion*, MAINSTREAM, 6-7 (Sept. 3, 2005).
\(^12\) Hirway, *supra* note 2.
\(^13\) Papola, *supra* note 4.
is anticipated to rise from 1% to 4% of GDP. These estimates are based on relatively optimistic scenario whereby the Employment Guarantee Scheme (hereinafter referred to as EGS) lives unto its promise. If it does, then 2-4% of GDP would seem to be a reasonable price to pay to protect most of rural households from extreme poverty\textsuperscript{14}.
VIII. ISSUE OF URBAN EXCLUSION\textsuperscript{15}
The EGS envisaged under the Act will be operational in rural areas only. The rationale of this limitation is not adequately explained, but it can be argued that because of the nature of unemployment and scope of the work envisaged to be offered, it may have limited relevance in urban areas. The EGS is expected to primarily address the problem of underemployment, which is more a rural phenomenon than urban. MEGS also excludes urban areas presumably for the same reason. It therefore, seems logical to exclude urban areas from its scope.
IX. ADVANTAGES OF NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT\textsuperscript{16}
The NREGA has far-reaching social, economical and political significance. Some of them are:
1. An EGS would go a long way towards protecting rural households from poverty and hunger. In fact, a full-fledged EGS would enable most poor households in rural India to cross the poverty line.
2. An EGS is an opportunity to create useful assets in rural areas, in particular, there is a massive potential for labour intensive public works in the field of environment, watershed development, land regeneration, prevention of soil erosion, restoration of tanks, protection of forests etc.
3. An EGS is a unique opportunity to activate and empower \textit{panchayati raj} institutions like gram panchayats and gram sabhas. It will give them a new purpose backed with substantial financial resources.
4. It could lead to a dramatic reduction in urban-rural migration. This is because, if work is available in the village itself, many rural families will stop heading for the cities.
5. Guaranteed employment would be a major source for the empowerment of the women.
6. Guaranteed employment is likely to change power equation in the rural society, and foster a more equitable social order.
X. THE NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT, 2005
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Bill became the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act on September 5, 2005. The inspiration for NREGA came from three-decade track record of the employment guarantee scheme in Maharashtra, which originated as a relief programme in the early 1970s and then converted into an Act by the state in 1977\textsuperscript{17}.
National Advisory Committee constituted by the central government undertook the official process of drafting the legislation in this regard. The Maharashtra Act of 1977 provided the basic frame of reference for the NREGA\textsuperscript{18}. Before precipitating into current form of legislation the draft Bill went through several phases of modifications and re-modifications. Finally, after incorporating the recommendations of a cross party standing committee of Parliament headed by Mr. Kalyan Singh and a report presented by a Group of Ministers headed by Mr. Pranab Mukherjee, the Bill was passed by the Parliament and became an Act.
A. The Act
The Act states its objective\textsuperscript{19} as — “An Act to provide for the enhancement of livelihood security of the households in rural areas of the country by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in every financial year to every household whose adult member volunteer to do unskilled manual work and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”
B. Salient Features of the Act
The Act has thirty four sections and two schedules. Main features of the Act are as follows:
1. \textit{Guarantee}\textsuperscript{20} — The Act makes it a duty of the state government to provide, to one person from every rural household 100 days of wage employment in a financial year.
2. \textit{Unemployment Allowance}\textsuperscript{21} — If the work is not provided to anybody within
\textsuperscript{14} Priyaranjan Das & Chandrika Mago, \textit{Employment Bill May Prove Fiscal Nightmare}, TIMES OF INDIA (New Delhi), Aug. 6, 2005.
\textsuperscript{15} Papola, \textit{supra} note 4.
\textsuperscript{16} Dreze, \textit{supra} note 1.
\textsuperscript{17} Id.
\textsuperscript{18} Amit Bhaduri, \textit{Guarantee Employment and Right to Information}, EPW, 267-269 (Jan. 22, 2005).
\textsuperscript{19} National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005.
\textsuperscript{20} Id. § 3(1).
\textsuperscript{21} Id. § 7.
the given time, he will be paid an unemployment allowance which shall not be less than one fourth of the wage for the first thirty days and of half of the wage rate for the remaining period.
3. *Minimum Wage.* — Central government will specify the wage rate but it shall not be less than Rs. 60 per day in any case. Until central government specifies such rate, the wage should be the minimum wage fixed by the state government for agriculture labourers.
4. *Implementing and Monitoring Authorities.* — There are detailed provisions regarding these authorities, about their constitution, work, duties etc in the Act. These authorities are as follows:
a) Central Employment Guarantee Council,
b) State Employment Guarantee Council,
c) Panchayat at district, intermediate and village level. Panchayats have been given the status of principal authorities for planning and implementation of the scheme,
d) District Programme Coordinator,
e) Programme Officer.
5. *National* and *State* Employment Guarantee Funds. — The Act has provided for specific funds for unhampared running of the programme both at central and state level.
6. *Transparency and Accountability.* — For ensuring these elements, in the working of the scheme made under NREGA, the Act contains some special provisions. It makes District Programme Coordinator and all other implementing agencies in the district responsible for the proper utilization and management of funds, which is placed at their disposal for the purpose of successful implementation of the scheme.
7. *Audit of Accounts.* — Central government is to prescribe appropriate arrangement of audit of accounts at all levels. This provision tries to put a check on corruption by mandating to keep and maintain the proper books of accounts.
8. *Social Audit.* — This is a new kind of provision, which empowers the gram sabhas to undertake the social audit of the works done under the EGS.
9. *Penalty for Non-Compliance.* — The Act lays down penalty, which may extend to Rs 1000 for anyone who contravenes the provisions of the Act.
10. *Minimum Features of NREGS.* — Schedule I of the Act prescribes some important features, which every EGS have to have in it. For instance the type of works the EGS is to focus, non-engagement of any contractor or machine, and most importantly people’s right on the access of information regarding the scheme after payment of the specified fees.
11. *Conditions for the Guaranteed Rural Employment and Minimum Entitlement of the Labours.* — Schedule II of the Act prescribes the procedure and the conditions for the applications to be made to get the work under the scheme. Moreover it gives certain entitlements to the labours. Few important ones of those are as follows:
a) Employment shall be provided within a radius of 5 km. from the applicant’s village and in case it is not possible the labours shall be paid 10% extra of the wage rate.
b) Medical assistance facilities for injury happened in the course of employment.
c) Compensation of Rs 25,000 to be provided in case of death or disablement happened during the work.
d) Some basic amenities like safe drinking water, shade, period of rest, first aid etc. at the work places.
e) The work shall be provided within 15 days of application for it.
f) In case the payment of the wage is not made within the specified period, the labours shall be entitled to receive compensation.
**C. Demerits of the Act**
Instead of being a laudable piece of legislation the Act has a number of striking demerits. Some of them are mentioned below:
1. Unfortunately, the Act has been extensively reworked from the point of view of a bureaucrat who is anxious to minimize the responsibility of the state. All sorts of safeguards have been put in to ensure that the government can modify the rule of the game at any time it wishes to do so.
2. For unknown measures, the Act dispenses with the minimum wage requirement. In the Act until the central government specifies a wage rate, the wage rate shall be the wage rate fixed by the state for the agricultural labours. This would create certain discrimination among the states as the wage rate in the states varies from Rs. 45 in Maharashtra to Rs. 91 in Kerala.
3. The tendency to make the Act ‘safe’ for the state can also be seen in many other provisions of the Act. For instance, the transparency provisions have been severely diluted. In the draft bill, all the records were to be made available to public scrutiny, either free of cost or at cost price. By contrast, the Act states that any document shall be made available to the public on demand and after ‘paying such fees as specified.’ Thus nothing prevents embarrassing records from being priced out of the public view. This provision too has not been provided in the Act itself but in the schedule, which can be amended by the will of the central government at any point of time.
4. The basic feature of an EGS and the entitlements of the labours have been shifted from the body of the Act to a pair of appended schedules, which can be, as said earlier, modified by the central government without amending the Act itself. This gives
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13 Dreze, *supra* note 1.
14 MIHIR SHAH, *National Rural Employment Guarantee Act-A Historic Opportunity*, EPW, 8287-8290 (Dec. 11, 2004).
15 Dreze, *supra* note 1.
16 Supra note 19, § 29.
the central government sweeping power to derail the scheme, or to reduce the entitlements of the labours.\textsuperscript{38}
5. The definition of the household\textsuperscript{39} in the Act is too wide, as it covers more than a family sharing the same roof and considers them as one household and thus eliminating many eligibles out of the purview of the Act.
6. The law could lead to friction within the family over selection of the member to be provided with the work under the EGS.
7. It is feared that in the process women and physically challenged could be left out.
8. The decision to provide Rs. 60 per day for a guaranteed hundred days of work translates to only Rs six thousand in a year or Rs. 500 in a month, which by any means is not sufficient to run a family.
9. The penalty for the contravention of the Act is only Rs. 1,000 that is too low to actually deter any person.
10. The intention to empower the panchayats is barely reflected in the Act. While panchayats can prepare a list of projects that they would like to be taken up, the crucial decisions on which they are to be implemented will be decided by a programme officer appointed by the state government. And thus the state government will continue to play the dominant role that it now plays\textsuperscript{40}.
XI. SUGGESTIONS
If implemented properly the programme has the potential to rid India of the poverty. But for it to be implemented properly all the demerits discussed earlier should be made good. Certain suggestions to make the implementation of the programme really effective, are listed below:
1. Experience has shown that if wage employment on public works is to result in poverty reduction, it is necessary that —
a) Employment is made available on a scale that meets demand,
b) It is provided at a minimum wage rate for the adequate number of days to ensure minimum income,
c) There is a good public distribution system to ensure workers access to the foodgrains,
d) Distribution of the benefits from the assets is equitable,
e) The assets created are owned and maintained by the workers/community.
2. If the use of surplus labour under such employment programme has to result in capital formation, that is, generation of productive assets that create employment in the short and long term (by expanding the labour absorption capacity of the mainstream economy), it is necessary that selection and sequencing of the work is done systematically. The assets selected are labour intensive during their construction phase and they generate sustainable employment in the mainstream economy subsequently.
3. In order to ensure that the assets are used productively to generate employment in the mainstream economy it is necessary that —
a) Appropriate support measures are provided in terms of finance/credit, institutions and infrastructure etc. and,
b) Skill training and capacity building of workforce is undertaken, that will also improve labour productivity and wage income of workers.
It is important to ensure that the programme does not end up generating a large army of unskilled workers on a permanent basis, as it will create an unaffordable liability on the government exchequer\textsuperscript{41}.
4. If the works undertaken can cover socially useful services like health care, child nutrition, empowerment of women, creation of saving groups in villages, then there is a scope for utilizing the educated unemployed labour force in the programme, which has been neglected in the Act.
5. Effective monitoring system by the community over the government spending must be established. This could be a combination of an effective right to information and social audit.
XII. CONCLUSION
The NREGA represents a historic opportunity for socio-economic transformation of rural India. It is good to see that the government is making some efforts to empower the rural folk of India. This programme also has strong capacity to become a major instrument for galvanizing \textit{panchayati raj} institutions in India, but how far this actually happens depends a great deal upon the mobilization of the disadvantaged in the society like women, dalits, tribes and poor. In most parts of India these sections have virtually no voice in the gram sabhas, which have been reduced to farce. Without their mobilization and empowerment, the full socio-economic and political potential of the Act will not be realized.
The benefits of an effective NREGA are many. It is a great opportunity to generate employment and create productive assets. In a country where we do not have unemployment insurance and social security, there is no better alternative than the public work programme for the unorganized sector workers\textsuperscript{42}. NREGA is a new path — an Indian path of growth, with simultaneous growth of jobs and thereby reduction of poverty. It will introduce a new path under globalization of industry, commerce, and services to seriously think about agriculture, which combined with animal husbandry, fishery etc. can create so many jobs! Once the government pays full attention to agriculture and millions of youth are geared to production, 8-10% of GDP growth will become quite possible. This sort of programme would pay back the nation with increased efficiency. The return of investment on the EGS would be of a magnitude higher than any other conceivable project\textsuperscript{43}. The EGS will empower the weakest sections of our society and further broadbase and deepen the foundations of our democracy.
\textsuperscript{38} \textit{Id.}
\textsuperscript{39} \textit{Id.} § 2 (f).
\textsuperscript{40} L. C. JAIN, \textit{Putting Panchayats in Charge}, EPW, 3646-3648 (Aug. 13, 2005).
\textsuperscript{41} Hirway, \textit{supra} note 2.
\textsuperscript{42} S. DEV MAHIENDRA, \textit{Agriculture and Rural Employment in the Budget}, EPW, 1410-1413 (Apr. 2, 2005).
\textsuperscript{43} Mishra, \textit{supra} note 13.
stressed, “motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and protection” and referred to the family as “the natural and fundamental group unit of society.” After protracted debates, the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959\(^1\) came into force “recognizing that mankind owes to the child the best that it has to give”, wherein ten basic principles were adopted:
1. Entitlement to the rights without distinction or discrimination
2. Provision of special protection, opportunities and facilities, by law and by other means, to enable the child to develop physically, mentally, morally, spiritually and socially in a healthy and normal manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity
3. Entitlement from birth to a name and a nationality
4. Enjoyment of benefits of social security, right to adequate nutrition, housing, recreation and medical services
5. Right to special treatment, education and care as required by the child’s particular condition
6. Love and understanding for the full and harmonious development of the child’s personality, right to grow up in the care and under the responsibility of his parents, in an atmosphere of affection and of moral and material security
7. Entitlement to free and compulsory elementary education
8. Right to be among the first to receive protection and relief
9. Protection against all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation
10. Protection from practices which may foster racial, religious and any other form of discrimination
The year 1979 was designated as International Year of the Child, and attempts were made to draft text for a proposed convention recognising the child as a legal person entitled to the protection of law. The text of the Convention on the Rights of the Child\(^2\) adopted on November 20, 1989 drew heavily upon Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It was based on the basic premise that children too are born with fundamental freedoms and the inherent rights of all human beings.
**II. THE CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD, 1989**
The Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as “every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.”\(^3\) The Convention is the first international human rights treaty to bring together the universal set of standards concerning children into a unique and legally binding instrument incorporating the full range of human rights — civil, cultural, economic, political and social. The Convention sets out these rights in 54 Articles and two Optional Protocols. The four core principles of the Convention are
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\(^1\) General Assembly Resolution 1386 (XIV) of November 20, 1959.
\(^2\) General Assembly Resolution 44/25, came into force on September 2, 1990 after ratification by twenty States.
\(^3\) Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 1.
non-discrimination\textsuperscript{8}; devotion to the best interests of the child\textsuperscript{9}; the right to life, survival and development\textsuperscript{10}; and respect for the views of the child\textsuperscript{11}. Every right spelt out in the Convention is inherent to the human dignity and harmonious development of the child. The Convention protects children’s rights by setting standards in health care, education, legal, civil and social services. The rights under the Convention can be broadly categorised as:
A. \textit{Right to Survival which also includes} —
1. Right to life\textsuperscript{12}
2. Right to enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health\textsuperscript{13}
3. Right to standard of living adequate for child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development\textsuperscript{14}
B. \textit{Right to Protection which also includes} —
1. Protection from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse\textsuperscript{15}
2. Protection from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous\textsuperscript{16}
3. Protection from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse\textsuperscript{17}
4. Prevention of abduction, sale or traffic\textsuperscript{18}
5. Protection form all other forms of exploitation prejudicial to any aspects of the child’s welfare\textsuperscript{19}
6. Right to special protection in situations of emergency and armed conflicts\textsuperscript{20}
C. \textit{Right to Development which also includes} —
1. Right to education\textsuperscript{21}
2. Right to benefit from social security, including social insurance\textsuperscript{22}
3. Right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities\textsuperscript{23}
D. \textit{Right to Participation which also includes} —
1. Right to form his or her own views, the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child\textsuperscript{24}
2. Right to freedom of expression\textsuperscript{25}
3. Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion\textsuperscript{26}
4. Right to freedom of association and to freedom of peaceful assembly\textsuperscript{27}
To help stem the growing abuse and exploitation of children worldwide, the United Nations General Assembly in 2000 additionally adopted two Optional Protocols to the Convention. Children are often used by armed groups and in some cases by government forces as war soldiers because they prove easier than adults to condition into fearless killing and unthinking obedience.\textsuperscript{28} However such involvement alters their lives in many ways directly and indirectly, leaving deep emotional scars and psychosocial trauma from exposure to violence, dislocation and poverty. In this regard the first Optional Protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflicts was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 25 May 2000\textsuperscript{29}, which increased the minimum age for compulsory recruitment into the forces from fifteen to eighteen years and required States to do everything they could, to prevent individuals under the age of eighteen from taking direct part in hostilities.
The other Optional Protocol adopted is on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography and it draws special attention to the criminalization of these serious violations of children’s rights and emphasizes the importance of fostering increased public awareness and international cooperation in efforts to combat these gruesome acts.\textsuperscript{30} The States must strive to provide legal and other support services to such child victims and wipe out evils like sex tourist trade.
Article 4 of the Convention makes it mandatory for the governments to “undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative and other measures for the implementation of the rights recognized in the present Convention”. It places a pro-active obligation on governments to introduce the measures needed to turn the principles of the Convention into practical realities. The Convention also requires governments to provide regular reports to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, a body of independent experts that meets thrice a year in Geneva to monitor implementation of the Convention and the Optional Protocols by the States. The States are obliged to submit regular reports to the Committee on how the rights are being implemented, initially two years after acceding to the Convention and then every five years. The reporting process is a special occasion for nations to conduct a comprehensive review of the various measures they have adopted and presents an opportunity to evaluate the impact, identify problems, design new solutions, and set new targets. The Committee also
\textsuperscript{8} \textit{Id.} art. 2.
\textsuperscript{9} \textit{Id.} art. 3.
\textsuperscript{10} \textit{Id.} art. 6.
\textsuperscript{11} \textit{Id.} art. 12-art.15.
\textsuperscript{12} \textit{Id.} art. 6 (1).
\textsuperscript{13} \textit{Id.} art. 24 (1).
\textsuperscript{14} \textit{Id.} art. 27 (1).
\textsuperscript{15} \textit{Id.} art. 19.
\textsuperscript{16} \textit{Id.} art. 32 (1).
\textsuperscript{17} \textit{Id.} art. 34.
\textsuperscript{18} \textit{Id.} art. 35.
\textsuperscript{19} \textit{Id.} art. 36.
\textsuperscript{20} \textit{Id.} art. 38.
\textsuperscript{21} \textit{Id.} art. 28 (1).
\textsuperscript{22} \textit{Id.} art. 26 (1).
\textsuperscript{23} \textit{Id.} art. 31 (1).
\textsuperscript{24} \textit{Id.} art. 12 (1).
\textsuperscript{25} \textit{Id.} art. 13 (1).
\textsuperscript{26} \textit{Id.} art. 14 (1).
\textsuperscript{27} \textit{Id.} art. 15 (1).
\textsuperscript{28} \textit{The State of the World’s Children 2005: Childhood Under Threat}, 44 (2004, UNICEF).
\textsuperscript{29} Adoption and entry into force in 2002, ratified by 82 States as of September 2004.
\textsuperscript{30} Available at http://www.unicef.org/crc/index_30202.html.
publishes its interpretation of the content of human rights provisions, known as general comments on thematic issues and organizes days of general discussion. It ensures continuous action and progress in the realization of children’s rights; however it cannot consider individual complaints.
The Convention is the first human rights treaty that grants a role in its implementation to a specialized United Nations agency—UNICEF. Under the Convention, UNICEF has a legal obligation to promote and protect child rights by supporting the work of the Committee on the Rights of the Child and to facilitate consultations within States to maximize the accuracy and impact of reports to the Committee.
The World Conference on Human Rights, (June 14-25, 1993), Vienna Declaration reiterated the principle of “First Call for Children”, and underlined the importance of major national and international efforts, especially those of the United Nations Children’s Fund, “for promoting respect for the rights of the child to survival, protection, development and participation”. In addition the UN Commission on Human Rights adopted the Programme of Action for Elimination of Exploitation of Child Labour in 1993 that advocated measures like awareness campaigns, vocational training, stipulation and application of labor standards etc. for protection of child labourers. The 190 Governments that convened at the UN General Assembly Special Session on Children, May 2002, pledged to accelerate progress on child development. World leaders unanimously embraced a set of time-bound goals; promoting the best start and healthy lives for children, providing quality education, protecting children against abuse, exploitation and violence and combating HIV/AIDS.\(^{31}\)
### III. THE INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
There are 400 million children who are 18 years or less in India, which is around 40% of the total population.\(^{32}\)
As per age-old traditions, in India children are considered a gift of the God that must be nurtured with care and affection, within the family and the society. However, consequent to huge socio-economic and cultural changes, children today face neglect, abuse deprivation and poverty. The earliest initiatives towards care and protection of children were by voluntary organizations such as Indian Red Cross Society, All India Women’s Conference, Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust and Children’s Aid Society way back in the mid 1920s. Balkanji Bari, set up in 1920, was the first children’s organization with child membership.\(^{33}\)
Independence brought about a new wave of child development. The Articles of the Constitution enshrine basic rights of the child. Article 14 gives a right to equality before law, that is equal treatment and protection of law, and if any child is discriminated against arbitrarily, it can be challenged. Article 15(3) permits the State to make special enactments for children and women. Article 21 provides the right to life, which has been interpreted to include right to food, clothing, adequate shelter and basic necessities. Article 22 ensures that a minor when arrested is presented before Competent Authority under Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) Act, 2000, within 24 hours. Article 23 makes traffic of human beings and forced labour punishable under law. Article 24 prohibits employment of a child below 14 years of age in factories, mines and other hazardous employment. Article 39 (e) and (f) ensure protection of children of a tender age from abuse, and entering vocations unsuitable to their health and strength. The State is required to ensure that youth is protected against exploitation and moral & material abandonment. Article 41 provides for the State to take effective steps to secure the right to education. Article 44, which puts forward the concept of a uniform civil code, implies a uniform legal framework for adoption of children across all religions. Article 45 requires the State to provide for early childhood care and free education up to age of 14 years. The Supreme Court in *Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh*\(^{34}\) emphasized the importance of education and included it as a fundamental right under Article 21. The Court observed ‘education is a preparation for a living and for life’. Article 47 states it to be the duty of the State to raise level of nutrition and standard of living.
Additionally Section 83 of the India Penal Code, 1860 (IPC), holds nothing done by a child below seven years of age to be an offence because of lack of understanding the consequences of the act. The IPC does not have any special provision with regard to child pornography but sections 292 and 293 make selling, distribution, publishing or circulating obscene material a punishable offence. Section 317 makes it punishable if a child under twelve years of age is exposed and abandoned by parent or person having care of him. Section 361 defines the offence of kidnapping of a male under sixteen or a female under eighteen from lawful guardianship. Section 366A makes procuring a minor girl an offence punishable with up to ten years imprisonment. Section 363A makes kidnapping and maiming of a minor for begging an offence.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, was enacted to restrain the solemnization of child marriages; however it does not render the marriage illegal or void. The Courts have the power to restrain an intended child marriage by an injunction.
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, makes punishment stringent for a person who is found with a child in a brothel or has procured or is attempting to procure children (person below sixteen years of age) for prostitution. The Government has launched a scheme called *Swadhar* in December 2001 for recovery and reintegration of trafficked victims.
\(^{31}\) *The State of the World’s Children 2005: Childhood Under Threat*, 7 (2004, UNICEF).
\(^{32}\) *The Indian Child: Profile*, 2002, (Department of Women & Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Development).
\(^{33}\) Available at http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/r/6E/FE/6EFE0101.htm.
\(^{34}\) AIR 1993 SC 2178.
In absence of a uniform civil code there is no uniform law for adoptions. The Hindus, Buddhists, Jain and Sikhs are governed by the provisions of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956. The Central Adoption Research Agency (CARA) is an autonomous body established under Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment dealing with matters concerned with inter-country and in-country adoptions in India. It acts as a clearing house of information and also regulates and develops programmes for rehabilitation of children through adoptions. In the case of *Manuel Theodore D'Souza* the Bombay High Court held that it was a fundamental right to life of an orphaned, abandoned, destitute or similarly situated child to be adopted by willing parents and to have a home, name and nationality.
One of the important developments of the 1950s was the establishment of the Central Social Welfare Board in 1953, which was set up to assist voluntary organizations and mobilize their support and cooperation in the development of social welfare services, especially for women and children. The Board launched the Welfare Extension Projects (WEP) in 1954 to provide maternal and child care services, preschool education, social education and craft training to women in rural areas. In 1974, the Government of India adopted a National Policy for Children, declaring the nation’s children as ‘supremely important assets’. Various measures like a comprehensive health programme, supplementary nutrition for mothers and children, nutrition education of mothers, non-formal pre-school education, prevention of exploitation of children etc were undertaken. Further The National Children’s Fund was instituted by the Government to provide financial assistance to voluntary organizations for undertaking innovative child welfare programmes. In 1975 an Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme covering children less than six years and nursing and expectant mothers was launched. The programme has benefited over eighteen million children and around five million pregnant and nursing mothers. Another landmark in 1975 was the setting up of the National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development (NIPCCD), an autonomous body, for training of workers in child welfare and providing the Government with technical assistance. The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in the Ministry of Human Resource Development, in 1985, to implement the policies and programmes like the National Plan of Action. At the summit meeting of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1986, it was declared that children should be given the highest priority in national development planning. The SAARC member nations committed themselves to goals like universal child immunization, universal primary education, adequate maternal and child nutrition and safe drinking water.
India ratified the Convention on Rights of the Child on January 11, 1993, with the following Declaration:
While fully subscribing to the objectives and purposes of the Convention, realizing that certain of the rights of child, namely those pertaining to the economic, social and cultural rights can only be progressively implemented in the developing countries, subject to the extent of available resources and within the framework of international co-operation; recognising that the child has to be protected from exploitation of all forms including economic exploitation; noting that for several reasons children of different ages do work in India; having prescribed minimum ages for employment in hazardous occupations and in certain other areas; having made regulatory provisions regarding hours and conditions of employment; and being aware that it is not practical immediately to prescribe minimum ages for admission to each and every area of employment in India—the Government of India undertakes to take measures to progressively implement the provisions of Article 32, particularly paragraph 2 (a), in accordance with its national legislation and relevant international instruments to which it is a State Party.
However India has only signed the Optional Protocols to the Convention and is yet to ratify them.
Seventeen million children in India work as per official estimates. Child labour is especially rampant in industries like bangle/glass industry, silk industry, lock industry, stone-quarries, brick kiln, diamond cutting, ship-breaking, construction-work, carpet-weaving to name a few. Indian law provides no blanket ban on child labour, the prohibition exists only for factories, mines and other hazardous employment. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, was enacted to prohibit engagement of children in certain employments and to regulate the conditions of work in others. The Court in *M.C.Mehra v. State of Tamil Nadu* observed the various reasons for child labour being, poverty; low wages of adults; unemployment; absence of schemes of family allowance; migration to urban areas; large families; children being cheaply available; non existence of provisions of compulsory education; illiteracy and ignorance of parents and traditional attitudes. Substantial efforts are being made by the National Human Rights Commission which monitors the child labour situation in the country through its Special Rapporteurs, visits by members, sensitization programmes and workshops, launching projects, interaction with the industry, associations and other concerned agencies and coordination with the state Governments and NGOs. While child labour is generally viewed as an economic resource in the short run, in practice it perpetuates poverty. Child labour is just not the result but also a cause of poverty since
---
38 Article 32(2)(a) — States Parties shall in particular: (a) Provide for a minimum age or minimum ages for admission to employment.
39 On November 15, 2004.
40 Available at http://www.cry.org/crypage.asp.
41 AIR 1997 SC 699.
42 Available at http://www.nhrc.nic.in.
it imposes many hidden costs, the most important being the deprivation of access to education. Children are prevented from developing intellectual and social skills that are linked to higher earning and job security in adulthood. By undermining participation and performance in education, child labour also impedes national economic development.\textsuperscript{43}
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000, was enacted to consolidate and amend the provisions relating to juveniles in conflict with law and to bring them in conformity with the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Act requires Child Welfare Committees to be constituted to deal with matters relating to a child in need of protection. Observation Homes, Special Homes, Children Homes are to provide facilities of care, treatment, education, training, development and rehabilitation. The Act envisages “Sponsorship Programmes” for providing support to families to meet medical, nutritional and educational needs of children so as to improve their standard of living. The Act makes punishable unnecessary mental or physical suffering caused to a child by a person having a charge or control over him by assault, abandon, exposure or neglect.
Despite all policy measures the ground realities leave much to be desired: 50% of Indian children aged six-eighteen do not go to school; two million children are commercial sex workers between the age of five and fifteen years and about three million between fifteen and eighteen years; Poor and bonded families often “sell” their children to contractors, who end up working in brothels, hotels and as domestic help;\textsuperscript{44} eighty-seven of every hundred children born have the probability of dying between birth and exactly five years of age; one in every three malnourished children in the world lives in India; a child below sixteen years is raped every 155th minute, a child below ten every 13th hour, and one in every ten child is sexually abused at any point of time;\textsuperscript{45} 50% of the children between the age of twelve-twenty three months are not fully immunized and it is estimated that there are one-two lakh HIV infected pregnancies annually and about thirty thousand infected babies are born.\textsuperscript{46}
As suggested by Prof. Upendra Baxi, a few essentials in the right direction are, firstly widespread awareness about child rights should be ensured among policymakers, intellectuals, ideologues, opinion makers (media) etc.; root causes of exploitation and abuse of the children must be recognized and attempts should be made to tackle these and participation of children should be encouraged by creating forums empowering their opinion.\textsuperscript{47}
\textsuperscript{43} \textit{Implementing the Convention on the Rights of the Child: Resource mobilization in Low Income Countries}, 29 (UNICEF).
\textsuperscript{44} Available at http://www.cry.org/crypage.asp.
\textsuperscript{45} \textit{Status of India’s Children in India}, available at http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1350959.cms.
\textsuperscript{46} \textit{The Indian Child: Profile, 2002}, The Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of HRD.
\textsuperscript{47} Upendra Baxi, \textit{Reclaiming our Common Future in The Child and Law}, Papers from International Conference on Shaping the Future by Law: Children, Environment and Human Health, 12-14 (1994).
\section*{IV. CONCLUSION}
Unfortunately, the widespread endorsement of the human rights of children has rarely been matched by corresponding action in law, policy and practice. There still exists a gulf between the rights rhetoric and the realities of children’s lives.
Here it would be pertinent to reiterate the following imperatives, put forth by UNICEF\textsuperscript{48} for these should be the guiding force of all our endeavors:
1. Put children first. In all undertakings, the best interests of the child should always be the primary consideration.
2. Leave no child behind. Because every girl and boy is born free and equal in dignity and rights, all forms of discrimination based on sex, colour, race, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic and social origin, property, disability, birth or other status must end. Creating an environment where children are respected and cared for equally in early childhood is the first step towards breaking cycles of discrimination and disadvantage in the society.
3. Care for every child. The survival and development of children is the essential foundation of human development. No effort should be spared to ensure that children get the best possible start in life. Childhood diseases, malnutrition and starvation should be done away with completely.
4. Educate every child. All girls and boys must receive a compulsory, free basic education of good quality. Five key elements of the Education Revolution are —
a. Learning for life
b. Accessibility, quality and flexibility
c. Gender sensitivity and girl’s education
d. The State as a key partner
e. Care for the young child
5. Stop harming and exploiting children. Any acts of violence, exploitation and abuse against children should be met with strict action. Child abuse or maltreatment takes into account all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power. To check exploitation of children for labour, a minimum age should be provided for admission to employment;
\textsuperscript{48} \textit{The 10 Imperatives For Children}, UN Special Session on Children, UNICEF Newsletter, No. 1, 2 (April/May 2001), available at http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/documentation/documents/newsletter-nol.pdf.
the hours and conditions of work should be regulated and strictly adhered to.
6. Protect children from war. Children must be protected from the horrors of armed conflict. Two fold measures are required, one to prevent the recruitment and participation of children in armed forces and second to ensure the psychological recovery and social reintegration of child victims of armed conflict.
7. Combat HIV/AIDS. Children and their families must be protected from the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS. There must be attempts to raise public awareness about the disease and steps must be taken to remove the social stigma related with it.
8. Fight poverty: Invest in children and break the cycle of poverty with the conviction that poverty reduction must begin with children and the realization of their rights. The UN’s concept of poverty is — “a human condition, characterized by the sustained or chronic deprivation of the resources, capabilities, choices, security and power necessary for the enjoyment of adequate civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights.” While it encompasses deprivation of basic goods and services, it also includes deficiencies in other vital elements of human rights, which expand people’s choices and enable them to fulfill their potential. Poverty as an environment hampers the mental, physical, emotional and spiritual development of the child.\(^{49}\) Hence it implies impoverishment of the person and his personality.
9. Listen to children. Children should be regarded as resourceful citizens capable of helping to build a better future for all. Their rights to express themselves and to participate in decisions that affect them must be respected. Participation is often defined as “the process of sharing decisions which affect one’s life and the life of the community in which one lives. It is the means by which democracy is built and it is a standard against which democracies should be measured.” Participation, in the context of the Convention entails the act of encouraging and enabling children to make their views known on the issues that affect them. Promoting meaningful and quality participation of children is essential to ensure their growth and development.\(^{50}\)
10. Protect the Earth for children. We must preserve our planet in order to nurture our children; equally, we must nurture our children if we are to preserve our planet.
---
\(^{49}\) *The State of the World’s Children 1999*, 3 (UNICEF).
\(^{50}\) *The State of the World’s Children 2005: Childhood under Threat*, 16 (2004, UNICEF).
\(^{51}\) *The State of the World’s Children 2003* (2002, UNICEF).
---
**LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED**
1. A.2D – ATLANTIC REPORTER, SECOND SERIES
2. AC – APPEAL CASES
3. AIR – ALL INDIA REPORTER
4. AJCL – AMERICAN JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE LAW
5. ALL ER – ALL ENGLAND LAW REPORTS
6. AM. J. INT’L L. – AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
7. ANGLOAMERICAN L. REV. – ANGLOAMERICAN LAW REVIEW
8. ARCH. INTERN. MED. – ARCHIVES OF INTERNAL MEDICINE
9. ARIZ. L. REV. – ARIZONA LAW REVIEW
10. CA- CANCER JOURNAL FOR CLINICIANS
11. CAL. RPTR. – CALIFORNIA REPORTER
12. CM & R- CROMPTON, MEESON & ROSCOE’S EXCHEQUER REPORTS
13. CONN. J. INT’L L.– CONNECTICUT JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
14. DUESQUENE L. REV. – DUESQUENE LAW REVIEW
15. EPW – ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY
16. EUR. J. INT’L L. – EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
17. F.C. – FEDERAL COURT
18. F. SUPP. – FEDERAL SUPPLEMENT
19. FCLJ - FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS LAW JOURNAL
20. FSC – FEDERAL SHARIAT COURT
21. GAL.REV. – GEORGIA LAW REVIEW
22. GEO. WASH. J. INT’L L. & ECON – GEORGE WASHINGTON JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW & ECONOMICS
23. HASTINGS CENTER RPT. – HASTINGS CENTER REPORT
24. HLR – HARVARD LAW REVIEW
25. HUM RIGHTS Q. – HUMAN RIGHTS QUARTERLY
26. INT’L. J. MAR. & COASTAL L. – INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MARINE AND COASTAL LAW
| | Title |
|---|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 27.| INT. ILR - INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE LAW REVIEW |
| 28.| INT'L & COMP. L.Q. - INTERNATIONAL & COMPARATIVE LAW QUARTERLY |
| 29.| I.R.V. - INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGY |
| 30.| JETS - JOURNAL OF EVANGELICAL THEOLOGICAL SOCIETY |
| 31.| J. REL. & HEALTH - JOURNAL OF RELIGION AND HEALTH |
| 32.| J. PALLIATIVE CARE - JOURNAL OF PALLIATIVE CARE |
| 33.| J.A.M.A - JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION |
| 34.| JILT - JOURNAL OF INFORMATION LAW AND TECHNOLOGY |
| 35.| LAW, MED. & HEALTH CARE - LAW, MEDICINE & HEALTH CARE (CONTINUED BY JOURNAL OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS) |
| 36.| LEIDEN J. INT'L L. - LEIDEN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW |
| 37.| MLR - MODERN LAW REVIEW |
| 38.| N.E. & N.E.2D - NORTHEASTERN REPORTER, FIRST SERIES AND SECOND SERIES |
| 39.| NEW ENG. J. MED - NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE |
| 40.| N.Y.S. 2D - NEW YORK SUPPLEMENT, SECOND SERIES |
| 41.| OCEAN DEV. & INT'L L. - OCEAN DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL LAW |
| 42.| P.2D - PACIFIC REPORTER, SECOND SERIES |
| 43.| PLD - PAKISTAN LEGAL DECISIONS |
| 44.| S.E.2D - SOUTH EASTERN REPORTER, SECOND SERIES |
| 45.| S.W.2D - SOUTHWESTERN REPORTER, SECOND SERIES |
| 46.| SAYIL - SOUTH AFRICAN YEARBOOK OF INTERNATIONAL LAW |
| 47.| SCC - SUPREME COURT CASES |
| 48.| SO.2D - SOUTHERN REPORTER, SECOND SERIES |
| 49.| SOC. PHIL. & POL. - SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY AND POLICY |
| 50.| ST. LOUIS PUB. L. REV. - SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY PUBLIC LAW REVIEW |
| 51.| STAN. L.R. - STANFORD LAW REVIEW |
| 52.| VAND J. TRANSNAT'LL - VANDERBILT JOURNAL OF TRANSNATIONAL LAW |
| 53.| YLR - YEARLY LAW REVIEW |
FORM IV
Statement of Ownership and other particulars about the DELHI LAW REVIEW (Students' Edition)
| Place of Publication | Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007. |
|----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
| Language | English |
| Periodicity | Annual |
| Printer's Name, Nationality and Address | Nomita Aggarwal, Indian, Head and Dean, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007. |
| Publisher's Name, Nationality and Address | Nomita Aggarwal, Indian, Head and Dean, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007. |
| Editor-in-Chief, Name, Nationality and Address | Nomita Aggarwal, Indian, Head and Dean, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007. |
| Owner's Name | Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007. |
I, Nomita Aggarwal, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.
Sd/-
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Homework Helpers
Grade 4
Module 6
1. Shade the bottle to show the correct amount. Write the total amount of water in fraction form.
The bottle has a vertical number line, partitioning 1 liter into 10 tenths liter.
\[
\frac{4}{10} \quad L = 0.4 \text{ L}
\]
This is a decimal number. I read it just as I read the fraction: four tenths liter.
2. Write the weight of the pineapple on the scale in fraction form.
I can read the weight of the pineapple two ways: zero point nine kilograms or nine tenths kilogram.
\[
\frac{9}{10} \text{ kg}
\]
3. Fill in the blank to make the sentence true in both fraction form and decimal form.
\[
\frac{3}{10} \text{ cm} + \frac{7}{10} \text{ cm} = 1 \text{ cm}
\]
\[
0.3 \text{ cm} + \frac{0.7}{10} \text{ cm} = 1.0 \text{ cm}
\]
\[
\frac{10}{10} \text{ cm is equal to 1 cm.}
\]
To find pairs of tenths that make 1.0 cm, I think of partners to 10, like 3 and 7, and 9 and 1.
1. For the length given below, draw a line segment to match. Express the measurement as an equivalent mixed number.
\[ 2.7 \text{ cm} = 2 \frac{7}{10} \text{ cm} \]
I can express a decimal as a mixed number. The decimal and fractional part for this number have the unit *tenths*.
I draw a 2 cm line, then extend it \( \frac{7}{10} \) cm.
2. Write the following in decimal form. Then, model and rename the number.
a. 1 one and 7 tenths = 1.7
Each rectangle represents 1. There are 10 tenths in 1.
I shade 17 tenths to show 1.7.
\[ 1 \frac{7}{10} = 1 + \frac{7}{10} = 1 + 0.7 = 1.7 \]
b. \( \frac{22}{10} = 2.2 \)
There are 5 rectangles representing 5 ones in all.
I use a number bond to decompose the whole and the fraction. 20 tenths is equal to 2 ones.
\[ \frac{22}{10} = 2 \frac{2}{10} = 2 + \frac{2}{10} = 2 + 0.2 = 2.2 \]
How much more is needed to get to 5? 2 ones 8 tenths.
1. Circle groups of tenths to make as many ones as possible.
How many tenths in all?
There are 27 tenths.
Write and draw the same number using ones and tenths.
Just like 10 dimes makes 1 dollar, I bundle 10 tenths to make 1 one.
Arranging my disks into 5-groups helps me quickly know how many more to make ten tenths.
Decimal Form: 2.7
How much more is needed to get to 3? 0.3
2. Draw disks to represent 2 tens 3 ones 5 tenths using tens, ones, and tenths. Then, show the expanded form of the number in fraction form and decimal form.
\[(2 \times 10) + (3 \times 1) + \left(5 \times \frac{1}{10}\right) = 23 \frac{5}{10}\]
I write a multiplication expression for the value of each digit in \(23 \frac{5}{10}\).
\[(2 \times 10) + (3 \times 1) + (5 \times 0.1) = 23.5\]
I can write in decimal form. Zero point one is another way to write 1 tenth.
3. Complete the chart.
| Number Line | Decimal Form | Mixed Number (ones and fraction form) | Expanded Form (fraction or decimal form) | How much to get to the next one? |
|-------------|--------------|--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| 19 | 20 | 19.3 | $19\frac{3}{10}$ | $(1 \times 10) + (9 \times 1) + \left(3 \times \frac{1}{10}\right)$ | $\frac{7}{10}$ |
The number line is partitioned into 10 equal parts. To find the endpoints, I ask myself, “Between what two whole numbers is $19\frac{3}{10}$?”
1. a. What is the length of the shaded part of the meter stick in centimeters?
40 centimeters
b. What fraction of a meter is 4 centimeters?
\[
\frac{4}{100} \text{ meter}
\]
c. What fraction of a meter is 40 centimeters?
\[
\frac{4}{10} \text{ meter or } \frac{40}{100} \text{ meter}
\]
2. Fill in the blank.
\[
\frac{3}{10} \text{ m} = \frac{30}{100} \text{ m}
\]
1 out of 100 centimeters is 1 hundredth centimeter.
3. On the meter stick, shade in the amount shown. Then, write the equivalent decimal.
\[
\frac{51}{100} \text{ m} = 0.51 \text{ m}
\]
I shade 5 tenths of a meter. After partitioning the next tenth meter into 10 equal parts, I shade 1 hundredth meter more.
4. Draw a number bond, pulling out the tenths from the hundredths. Write the total as the equivalent decimal.
8 tenths is the same as 80 hundredths.
I can decompose a fraction like I decompose a whole number. I break 87 hundredths into 80 hundredths and 7 hundredths.
1. Find the equivalent fraction using multiplication or division. Shade the area models to show the equivalency. Record it as a decimal.
a. \[ \frac{1 \times 10}{10 \times 10} = \frac{10}{100} \]
I multiply the number of tenths by 10 to get the number of hundredths.
b. \[ \frac{70 \div 10}{100 \div 10} = \frac{7}{10} \]
I divide the number of hundredths by 10 to get the number of tenths.
2. Complete the number sentence. Shade the equivalent amount on the area model, drawing horizontal lines to make hundredths.
a. 25 hundredths = 2 tenths + 5 hundredths
b. Decimal Form: 0.25
c. Fraction Form: \[ \frac{25}{100} \]
3. Circle hundredths to compose as many tenths as you can. Complete the number sentence. Represent the composition with a number bond.
\[
\begin{align*}
0.28 \\
\frac{2}{10} + \frac{8}{100}
\end{align*}
\]
28 hundredths = 2 tenths + 8 hundredths
I compose 10 hundredths to make 1 tenth because \(\frac{1}{10} = \frac{10}{100}\).
4. Use both tenths and hundredths place value disks to represent each number. Write the equivalent number in decimal, fraction, and unit form.
a. \(\frac{54}{100} = 0.54\)
54 hundredths
b. \(\frac{60}{100} = 0.60\)
60 hundredths
Since I know that \(\frac{6}{10} = \frac{60}{100}\), it is more efficient to show 6 tenths than 60 hundredths.
1. Shade the area models to represent the number, drawing horizontal lines to make hundredths as needed. Locate the corresponding point on the number line. Label with a point, and record the mixed number as a decimal.
\[ 3 \frac{42}{100} = 3.42 \]
There are 3 ones in \( 3 \frac{42}{100} \). I shade 3 area models completely.
I shade 42 hundredths after drawing horizontal lines to decompose tenths into hundredths.
To find 3.42 on the number line, I begin with the largest unit. I start at 3 ones. I slide 4 tenths. Then, I estimate where 2 hundredths would be.
2. Write the equivalent fraction and decimal for the following number.
9 ones 7 hundredths
\[ 9 \frac{7}{100} \]
There are no tenths in this number! I show that with a zero as a placeholder.
To write a decimal number, I place a decimal point between the ones and the fraction.
1. Write a decimal number sentence to identify the total value of the place value disks.
2 tens 1 one 5 tenths 4 hundredths
\[ 20 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.04 = 21.54 \]
I write the expanded form.
2. Use the place value chart to answer the following questions. Express the value of the digit in unit form.
| hundreds | tens | ones | . | tenths | hundredths |
|----------|------|------|---|--------|------------|
| 3 | 5 | 1 | | 8 | 2 |
a. The digit 3 is in the hundreds place. It has a value of 3 hundreds.
b. The digit 5 is in the tens place. It has a value of 5 tens.
3. Write the decimal as an equivalent fraction. Then, write the number in expanded form, using both decimal and fraction notation.
| Decimal and Fraction Form | Expanded Form |
|---------------------------|---------------|
| \( 27.03 = 27 \frac{3}{100} \) | \((2 \times 10) + (7 \times 1) + \left(3 \times \frac{1}{100}\right)\) |
| | \(20 + 7 + \frac{3}{100}\) |
| \( 400.80 = 400 \frac{80}{100} \) | \((4 \times 100) + \left(8 \times \frac{1}{10}\right)\) |
| | \(400 + \frac{8}{10}\) |
This number has many zeros! There are values in the hundreds and tenths place that I show as addends in the expressions.
Expanded form can be written two ways. Using parentheses, I show how the value of each digit is a multiple of a base-ten unit (e.g., \(4 \times 100\)). Or, I show the value of each digit (e.g., 400).
1. Use the area model to represent $\frac{140}{100}$. Complete the number sentence.
$$\frac{140}{100} = 14 \text{ tenths} = 1 \text{ one } 4 \text{ tenths} = 1.4$$
I can draw horizontal lines to show hundredths. 1 one equals 10 tenths or 100 hundredths. 4 tenths equals 40 hundredths.
I shade 14 tenths. My model shows that 14 tenths is the same as 1 one and 4 tenths.
2. Draw place value disks to represent the following decomposition:
2 tenths 3 hundredths = 23 hundredths
I decompose 2 tenths as 20 hundredths.
I start by showing 2 tenths 3 hundredths.
3. Decompose the units to represent each number as tenths.
a. $1.3 = \underline{13}$ tenths
b. $18.3 = \underline{183}$ tenths
4. Decompose the units to represent each number as hundredths.
a. $1.3 = \underline{130}$ hundredths
b. $18.3 = \underline{1,830}$ hundredths
I notice a pattern! There are 10 times as many hundredths as tenths.
5. Complete the chart.
| Decimal | Mixed Number | Tenths | Hundredths |
|---------|-------------|--------|------------|
| 8.2 | $8\frac{2}{10}$ | $\frac{82}{10}$ tenths | $\frac{820}{100}$ hundredths |
I write tenths and hundredths in both fraction and unit form.
1. Express the lengths of the shaded parts in decimal form. Write a sentence that compares the two lengths. Use the expression shorter than or longer than in your sentence.
0.47 meter is longer than 0.4 meter.
Both numbers have 4 tenths. 0.47 meter is longer because it has an additional 7 hundredths. I can see that by looking at the tape diagrams.
2. Examine the mass of each item as shown below on the 1-kilogram scales. Put an X over the items that are lighter than the bananas.
I compare by looking at the largest place value unit in the mass of each item. The largest unit in each item is tenths. The avocado and the apple have fewer tenths than the bananas. The grapes have the same number of tenths, but they also have 1 more hundredth. The grapes are heavier than the bananas.
3. Record the volume of water in each graduated cylinder on the place value chart below.
| Cylinder | ones | tenths | hundredths |
|----------|------|--------|------------|
| A | 0 | 7 | 4 |
| B | 0 | 8 | 0 |
| C | 0 | 3 | 2 |
Compare the values using $>, <, \text{ or } =$.
a. $0.74 \text{ L} > 0.32 \text{ L}$
b. $0.32 \text{ L} < 0.8 \text{ L}$
c. $0.8 \text{ L} > 0.74 \text{ L}$
d. Write the volume of water in each graduated cylinder in order from least to greatest.
$0.32 \text{ L}, 0.74 \text{ L}, 0.8 \text{ L}$
1. Shade the area models below, decomposing tenths as needed, to represent the pair of decimal numbers. Fill in the blank with $<$, $>$, or $=$ to compare the decimal numbers.
0.4 $\_\_\_ 0.37$
At first, I thought, “37 is greater than 4.” But then I remembered the units of these numbers must be the same in order to compare. 4 tenths is equal to 40 hundredths, and 40 hundredths is greater than 37 hundredths.
2. Locate and label the points for each of the decimal numbers on the number line. Fill in the blank with $<$, $>$, or $=$ to compare the decimal numbers.
11.02 $\_\_\_ 11.21$
Each tick mark represents 1 hundredth. 11.0 equals 11 and 0 hundredths. 11.02 equals 11 and 2 hundredths. 11.21 equals 11 and 21 hundredths. I use this information to help me to locate and label the points.
3. Use the symbols $<$, $>$, or $=$ to compare.
1.7 $\_\_\_ 1.17$
I know that 1.7 is greater than 1.17 because $1.7 = 1.70$ and $1.70 > 1.17$.
4. Use the symbols $<$, $>$, or $=$ to compare. Use a picture as needed to solve.
47 tenths $\_\_\_ 4.6$
I rename 47 tenths as 4 and 7 tenths. $4.7 > 4.6$
1. Plot the following points on the number line.
\[ 1.56, 1 \frac{6}{10}, \frac{163}{100}, \frac{17}{10}, 1.62, 1 \text{ one and } 75 \text{ hundredths} \]
I rename all of the numbers to fractions with like units—hundredths. I know that each tick mark represents 1 hundredth.
\[
1 \frac{56}{100}, 1 \frac{60}{100}, 1 \frac{63}{100}, 1 \frac{70}{100}, 1 \frac{62}{100}, 1 \frac{75}{100}
\]
I think of 1.5 as \( 1 \frac{50}{100} \)
2. Arrange the following numbers in order from greatest to least using decimal form. Use the > symbol between each number.
\[ 7 \text{ ones and } 23 \text{ hundredths}, \frac{725}{100}, 7.4, 7 \frac{52}{100}, 8 \frac{2}{10}, 7 \frac{4}{100} \]
I rename all of the numbers to decimal form. To help me order the numbers, I think of \( 8 \frac{2}{10} \) as 8.20 and 7.4 as 7.40.
\[ 8.2 > 7.52 > 7.4 > 7.25 > 7.23 > 7.04 \]
3. In a frog-jumping contest, Mary’s frog jumped 1.04 meters. Kelly’s frog jumped 1.4 meters, and Katrina’s frog jumped 1.14 meters. Whose frog jumped the farthest distance? Whose frog jumped the shortest distance?
Mary’s Frog
\[ 1.04 \text{ m} \]
Kelly’s Frog
\[ 1.40 \text{ m} \]
Katrina’s Frog
\[ 1.14 \text{ m} \]
I rename 1.4 to 1.40 to be able to compare hundredths.
Kelly’s frog jumped the farthest distance. Mary’s frog jumped the shortest distance. I know because they all jumped at least 1 meter, but Kelly’s frog jumped an additional 40 hundredths meter, and Mary’s frog only jumped an additional 4 hundredths meter.
1. Complete the number sentence by expressing each part using hundredths. Model using the place value chart.
\[
\begin{array}{c|c|c}
\text{ones} & \text{tenths} & \text{hundredths} \\
\hline
& 1 & 22 \\
\end{array}
\]
1 tenth + 12 hundredths = 22 hundredths
10 hundredths + 12 hundredths = 22 hundredths
To make like units, I change 1 tenth to 10 hundredths.
10 hundredths + 12 hundredths = 22 hundredths.
2. Solve by converting all addends to hundredths before solving.
a. 6 tenths + 21 hundredths = 60 hundredths + 21 hundredths = 81 hundredths
This is just like Problem 1. Instead of drawing place value disks, I change the tenths to hundredths in my mind. Each tenth equals 10 hundredths.
b. 27 hundredths + 3 tenths = 27 hundredths + 30 hundredths = 57 hundredths
I can’t add because the units are not alike. I can’t add 1 cat plus 2 dogs; I have to rename with like units. I can add 1 animal plus 2 animals.
3. Solve. Write your answer as a decimal.
a. \(\frac{3}{10} + \frac{21}{100}\)
\[
\frac{30}{100} + \frac{21}{100} = \frac{51}{100} = 0.51
\]
b. \(\frac{14}{100} + \frac{7}{10}\)
\[
\frac{14}{100} + \frac{70}{100} = \frac{84}{100} = 0.84
\]
To solve, I make like units of hundredths. I add, and then I change the answer from fraction form to decimal form.
Lesson Notes
In Grade 4, students add decimals by first writing the addends in fraction form and then adding the fractions to find the total. This strengthens student understanding of the fraction and decimal relationship, increases their ability to think flexibly, and prepares them for greater success with fractions and decimals in Grade 5.
1. Solve. Convert tenths to hundredths before finding the sum. Rewrite the complete number sentence in decimal form.
a. \(2 \frac{31}{100} + \frac{4}{10}\)
\[2 \frac{31}{100} + \frac{4}{10} = 2 \frac{31}{100} + \frac{40}{100} = 2 \frac{71}{100}\]
I convert 4 tenths to 40 hundredths.
I add like units.
Decimal form is another way to express the numbers.
\[2.31 + 0.40 = 2.71\]
b. \(4 \frac{42}{100} + 2 \frac{7}{10}\)
\[4 \frac{42}{100} + 2 \frac{7}{10} = 4 \frac{42}{100} + 2 \frac{70}{100} = 6 \frac{112}{100} = 7 \frac{12}{100}\]
I add ones to ones and hundredths to hundredths.
I use a number bond to show
\[\frac{112}{100} = 1 + \frac{12}{100} \text{ since } \frac{100}{100} = 1.\]
\[4.42 + 2.70 = 7.12\]
2. Solve by rewriting the expression in fraction form. After solving, rewrite the complete number sentence in decimal form.
\[4.4 + 1.74\]
\[4 \frac{4}{10} + 1 \frac{74}{100} = 4 \frac{40}{100} + 1 \frac{74}{100} = 5 \frac{114}{100} = 6 \frac{14}{100}\]
To add decimal numbers, I solve by relating this problem to adding fractions.
\[4.4 + 1.74 = 6.14\]
1. At the beginning of 2014, Jordan’s height was 1.3 meters. If Jordan grew a total of 0.04 meter in 2014, what was his height at the end of the year?
\[ H = 1.3 \text{ m} + 0.04 \text{ m} \]
\[ = 1 \frac{30}{100} \text{ m} + \frac{4}{100} \text{ m} \]
\[ = 1 \frac{34}{100} \text{ m} \]
\[ = 1.34 \text{ m} \]
Jordan’s height at the end of the year was 1.34 meters.
The tape diagram helps me to see that I need to add to solve for \( H \), Jordan’s height at the end of the year. I write the decimal numbers in fraction form using like units and then solve.
2. Tyler finished the math problem in 20.74 seconds. He beat his mom’s time by 10.03 seconds. What was their combined time?
\[ T = 20.74 \text{ sec} + 20.74 \text{ sec} + 10.03 \text{ sec} \]
\[ = 20 \frac{74}{100} \text{ sec} + 20 \frac{74}{100} \text{ sec} + 10 \frac{3}{100} \text{ sec} \]
\[ = 50 \frac{151}{100} \text{ sec} \]
\[ 1 \text{ sec} \quad \frac{51}{100} \text{ sec} \]
\[ = 51 \frac{51}{100} \text{ sec} \]
\[ T = 51.51 \text{ sec} \]
Their combined time was 51.51 seconds.
Lesson Notes
In Grade 4, students find the sum of money amounts by expressing the amounts in unit form, adding like units (i.e., dollars + dollars and cents + cents), and then writing the answer in decimal form with a dollar sign. Writing money amounts in unit form and fraction form builds a strong conceptual foundation for decimal notation. Students are introduced to adding decimal numbers in Grade 5.
1. 4 pennies = $0.04 \quad 4\text{¢} = \frac{4}{100} \text{ dollar}$
2. 8 dimes = $0.80 \quad 80\text{¢} = \frac{8}{10} \text{ dollar}$
3. 2 quarters = $0.50 \quad 50\text{¢} = \frac{50}{100} \text{ dollar}$
Solve. Give the total amount of money in fraction and decimal form.
4. 7 dimes and 23 pennies
$$(7 \times 10\text{¢}) + (23 \times 1\text{¢}) = 70\text{¢} + 23\text{¢} = 93\text{¢}$$
$$93\text{¢} = \frac{93}{100} \text{ dollar}$$
$$\frac{93}{100} \text{ dollar} = \$0.93$$
93 cents is 93 hundredths of a dollar. Thinking of that value as a fraction helps me to write it as a decimal number.
5. 1 quarter 3 dimes and 6 pennies
$$(1 \times 25\text{¢}) + (3 \times 10\text{¢}) + (6 \times 1\text{¢}) = 25\text{¢} + 30\text{¢} + 6\text{¢} = 61\text{¢}$$
$$61\text{¢} = \frac{61}{100} \text{ dollar}$$
$$\frac{61}{100} \text{ dollar} = \$0.61$$
6. 173 cents is what fraction of a dollar?
\[
\frac{173}{100} \text{ dollars}
\]
I know that 1 cent = \(\frac{1}{100}\) dollar.
Solve. Express the answer in decimal form.
7. 2 dollars 3 dimes 24 pennies + 3 dollars 1 quarter
\[
2 \text{ dollars } 54 \text{ cents} + 3 \text{ dollars } 25 \text{ cents} = 5 \text{ dollars } 79 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
5 \text{ dollars } 79 \text{ cents} = 5 \frac{79}{100} \text{ dollars} = \$5.79
\]
I rewrite each addend as dollars and cents. I add like units and then express the amount in decimal form.
8. 7 dollars 5 dimes 2 pennies + 1 dollar 3 quarters
\[
7 \text{ dollars } 52 \text{ cents} + 1 \text{ dollar } 75 \text{ cents} = 8 \text{ dollars } 127 \text{ cents} = 9 \text{ dollars } 27 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
9 \text{ dollars } 27 \text{ cents} = 9 \frac{27}{100} \text{ dollars} = \$9.27
\]
Use the RDW process to solve. Write your answer as a decimal.
1. Soo Jin needs 4 dollars 15 cents to buy a school lunch. At the bottom of her backpack, she finds 2 dollar bills, 5 quarters, and 4 pennies. How much more money does Soo Jin need to buy a school lunch?
\[
M = 4 \text{ dollars } 15 \text{ cents} - 3 \text{ dollars } 29 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
= 1 \text{ dollar } 15 \text{ cents} - 29 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
100 \text{ cents} \quad 15 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
= 86 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
= \$0.86
\]
Soo Jin needs $0.86 more to buy a school lunch.
Another way to solve 115 cents – 29 cents is to add 1 to each number and then solve 116 – 30.
11 tens 6 ones – 3 tens = 8 tens 6 ones.
2. Kelly has 2 quarters and 3 dimes. Jack has 5 dollars, 4 dimes, and 7 pennies. Emma has 3 dollars, 1 quarter, and 1 dime. They want to put their money together to buy a pizza that costs $11.00. Do they have enough? If not, how much more do they need?
\[
T = 80 \text{ cents} + 5 \text{ dollars } 47 \text{ cents} + 3 \text{ dollars } 35 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
= 8 \text{ dollars } 162 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
1 \text{ dollar } 62 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
= 9 \text{ dollars } 62 \text{ cents}
\]
Kelly, Jack, and Emma have $9.62.
I determine how much money Kelly, Jack, and Emma each have. I add to find out how much money they have together. Then, I subtract that amount from the cost of the pizza to find out how much more money they need, \( M \).
\[
M = 11 \text{ dollars} - 9 \text{ dollars } 62 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
10 \text{ dollars} \quad 100 \text{ cents}
\]
\[
= 1 \text{ dollar } 38 \text{ cents}
\]
They do not have enough money to buy the pizza. They need $1.38 more.
3. A pint of ice cream costs $2.49. A box of ice cream cup sundaes costs twice as much as the pint of ice cream. Brandon buys a pint of ice cream and a box of ice cream cup sundaes. How much money does he spend?
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{Pint} \\
\$2.49 \\
\end{array}
\]
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{Box} \\
M \\
\end{array}
\]
\[
\begin{array}{c}
2 & 4 & 9 & \text{cents} \\
\times & 1 & 2 & 3 \\
7 & 4 & 7 & \text{cents} \\
\end{array}
\]
Brandon spends $7.47.
I see that there are 3 units of $2.49. I rename $2.49 as 249 cents and then multiply by 3. I write my answer in decimal form.
4. Katrina has 3 dollars 28 cents. Gail has 7 dollars 52 cents. How much money does Gail need to give Katrina so that each of them has the same amount of money?
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{Katrina} \\
\$3.28 \\
\end{array}
\]
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{Gail} \\
\$7.52 \\
\end{array}
\]
The tape diagram helps me to solve. I see that if Gail gives Katrina half of the difference, they will have the same amount. I subtract to find the difference, and then I divide by 2.
7 dollars 52 cents – 3 dollars 28 cents = 4 dollars 24 cents
= 424 cents
\[
\begin{array}{c}
2 & 1 & 2 \\
4 & 2 & 4 \\
- & 4 & 0 \\
- & 2 & 0 \\
- & 4 & 0 \\
\end{array}
\]
212 cents = $2.12
\[ M = \$2.12 \]
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Bermuda Meteorological Office
Technical Note No. 6
The Humidity of the Air in Bermuda
By
W. A. MACKY
| Contents | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| 1. Introduction | 5 |
| 2. Modes of Expressing Humidity | 5 |
| 3. Method of Measuring Humidity | 6 |
| 4. How Humidity affects human senses | 6 |
| 5. Observation Sites | 7 |
| 6. Annual Mean Humidity | 8 |
| 7. Relative Humidity — Mean Monthly | 8 |
| 8. Relative Humidity — Extremes in each month | 11 |
| 9. Relative Humidity — Frequency of Daily Maximum | 12 |
| 10. Relative Humidity — Frequency of Daily Minimum | 14 |
| 11. Relative Humidity — Hourly Frequencies | 16 |
| 12. Relative Humidity — Diurnal Variation | 18 |
| 13. Wet Bulb Temperature — Mean Monthly | 22 |
| 14. Wet Bulb Temperature — Highest in each month | 24 |
| 15. Wet Bulb Temperature — Lowest in each month | 26 |
| 16. Wet Bulb Temperature — Frequency of Daily Mean | 26 |
| 17. Wet Bulb Temperature — Frequency of Daily Maximum | 28 |
| 18. Wet Bulb Temperature — Frequency of Daily Minimum | 28 |
| 19. Wet Bulb Temperature — Hourly Frequencies | 31 |
| 20. Vapour Pressure and Dew Point — Mean Monthly | 33 |
| 21. Vapour Pressure and Dew Point — Extremes in each month | 34 |
| 22. Vapour Pressure and Dew Point — Frequency of Daily Maximum | 34 |
| 23. Vapour Pressure and Dew Point — Frequency of Daily Minimum | 36 |
| 24. Vapour Pressure and Dew Point — Hourly Frequencies | 38 |
| 25. Moisture Content | 40 |
| 26. Variation of Humidity with Wind Direction | 42 |
| 27. Comparison of Stations | 43 |
| Appendix 1. Monthly Mean Relative Humidity at Fort George each month 1932-1933 | 44 |
| Appendix 2. Diurnal variation and monthly Mean Relative Humidity at Belmont 1941-1944 | 45 |
| Appendix 3. Extremes of Humidity observed at Prospect 1891-1932 | 45 |
| Appendix 4. Dew Point Equivalents in Degrees Fahrenheit of Vapour Pressures in millibars and inches | 46 |
1. INTRODUCTION
Of all the elements which enter into climate, humidity is probably the most important in its effect on human comfort although its influences on our senses depends on the temperature and wind.
There would be general agreement that Humidity refers to moisture in the air but there is often misunderstanding of the terms used to describe the state of humidity as it is a rather complicated subject. The air is a mixture of gases one of which is water vapour, and in considering humidity we are concerned only with this vapour present as an integral part of the air mixture and not with the other water which is sometimes present as liquid or solid in the form of rain, hail or snow.
Of all the constituents of the air at the earth's surface water vapour is the only one whose amount shows appreciable variations from day to day and even hour to hour at a given place. In Bermuda the highest water vapour content on record is about 8 times the smallest. In the British Isles there is a range of about 20 times between the highest and lowest while in the centre of some of the continents where very low temperatures occur in winter the corresponding water content is so low that the summer values are several hundred times as great.
It is the purpose of this paper to summarise the humidity data which has been recorded since the official meteorological service was opened in 1932.
2. MODES OF EXPRESSING HUMIDITY
There is not, unfortunately, one single mode of expressing humidity which meets all needs and the data in this paper is presented in the 5 most usual forms. These are 1. Relative Humidity, 2. Wet Bulb Temperature, 3. Vapour Pressure 4. Dew Point and 5. Moisture Content.
The pressure of the air is made up of the sum of the separate pressures exerted by the various gases and the water vapour exerts its share which in Bermuda is usually from 1-3% of the total. This is called the vapour pressure and is measured in the same units as the pressure.
At any temperature there is a maximum amount of water vapour which the air can contain and this amount increases with temperature. Thus in a room ten feet in each dimension there can be a maximum of approximately half pound of water vapour at $45^\circ$ F., one pound at $70^\circ$ F., and two pounds at $85^\circ$ F. The air can contain any smaller amounts than these and the comparison of the actual amount to the maximum which could be contained at the temperature is known as the Relative Humidity. This is usually expressed as a percentage. Thus if the air in the room contains one-half pound of water vapour its relative Humidity would be 100% at $45^\circ$ F, 50% at $70^\circ$ F., and 25% at $85^\circ$ F. When the air contains the maximum possible and the Relative Humidity is 100% it is said to be saturated.
If we now consider our room containing one pound of water vapour at $85^\circ$ F., the Relative Humidity will be 50%. If the air is cooled the Relative
Humidity will increase until when 70° F. is reached the air will contain the maximum possible for the temperature and the Relative Humidity will be 100%. If the air is cooled any more there will be more water vapour than the air can contain and consequently some of it will condense on the walls. The temperature at which this occurs, 70° F., is called the Dew Point of the air.
The Moisture Content is the actual mass of water vapour present in a specified volume of air. In this paper the value is given in grams per cubic metre, a figure which owing to the relation between metric and English units is also, to a close approximation, the value in ounces per 1,000 cubic feet.
3. THE METHOD OF MEASURING HUMIDITY
The usual method of measuring humidity depends on the well known fact that a wet body is cooled as the water evaporates. This cooling occurs because a definite amount of heat is needed to convert any mass of water into vapour and when water evaporates it absorbs the necessary heat from its immediate surroundings. The rate at which water evaporates depends on the degree of saturation of the air, the drier the air the more rapid the rate of evaporation and consequently the greater the cooling effect.
The rate of cooling is determined by taking two identical thermometers and fitting a muslin sleeve round the bulb of one with a wick leading to a water reservoir. As soon as the cloth is wetted the recorded temperature begins to fall until after a few minutes it reaches a steady value at which the heat being absorbed from the bulb by the water is replaced by conduction from the rest of the thermometer which in turn is obtaining heat from the air. This steady temperature is known as the Wet Bulb temperature and the difference between the wet bulb and the similar thermometer without a wet sheath is the depression of the wet bulb.
For many purposes the wet bulb temperature is an adequate measure of the humidity and it has the great advantage of being read directly from the instrument whereas some calculation is necessary to derive the humidity in the other forms. Tables are available which were drawn up as a result of a large number of experiments in which the actual mass of water vapour was determined by weighing and the simultaneous readings of dry and wet bulb were observed. Hence the Relative Humidity, Vapour Pressure, Dew Point and Moisture Content may be deduced from the tables when the values of dry and wet bulb temperatures are known.
The tables used in Bermuda are the standard ones of the British Meteorological Service.
4. HOW HUMIDITY AFFECTS OUR SENSES
Mankind is conscious of humidity because the amount of water vapour in the air has a great effect on the loss of heat from the body. Even when we lie still the body mechanism generates a certain amount of heat, and the amount of heat generated increases rapidly with strenuous activity. This must be dissipated if the body temperature is to remain steady.
The mechanism by which this heat loss is achieved is complicated but the main processes are direct radiation and conduction to the air from the skin and loss by evaporation of water in the lungs and from the skin. When activity is high the loss by evaporation is much the most important process. Even when a normal person is lying at rest a quart of water is evaporated daily, partly in the lungs but the larger part by insensible perspiration from the skin. When the
rate of activity is increased and more heat has to be dissipated the sweat glands function and more water is spread on the skin. The amount evaporated can be ten times as great as under conditions of rest.
When the Relative Humidity is low, this moisture evaporates from the skin as rapidly as it comes through the pores, thus removing heat from the skin and the body temperature is controlled. Under these conditions the skin temperature can be $4^\circ$ or $5^\circ$ cooler than the interior of the body. If, however, the air is saturated the water cannot evaporate and accumulates on the skin giving the characteristic feeling of discomfort and as heat is not lost the body temperature will rise. Even when the air is not saturated the layer of air next to the skin can become quickly saturated if we remain still and evaporation will stop with resultant discomfort. If then the air layer next to the skin is continually changed by a fan or moving through the air, evaporation can continue and we are comfortable again.
In all cases it is the degree of saturation of the air which primarily determines the rate of evaporation and hence the Relative Humidity is the index which is most significant.
In summer when temperatures are around 80°F. we prefer a low Relative Humidity because it enables heat to be lost readily but in the coldest days of winter when the temperature is 50°F. we wish to conserve body heat and in these conditions a low humidity makes the cold feel more intense and we are more comfortable with a higher humidity which reduces evaporation.
5. OBSERVATION SITES
The data which is discussed in this paper was taken mainly at two sites, Fort George and Hamilton, but reference is made also to Belmont, Darrell's Island and Prospect.
The Fort George site was the main meteorological office from 1932 to 1941 and the instrument enclosure is on the South West slope of Fort George hill with the thermometers at an altitude of 169 feet above M.S.L. The instrument enclosure was originally surrounded by cedar trees which were kept cut to about 8 feet in height and provided considerable protection. These trees were infested by insects in the war years but little effect was noticed up to the end of 1947. However, defoliation proceeded at an increasing rate in 1948, most trees died early in 1949 and the entire plantation was dead by 1950. The exposure thus became more open during this time and this may be the reason why the lowest monthly means since 1932 have almost all been recorded in 1949, 1950 and 1951.
Observations were made at 8 a.m., 3 p.m. and 8 p.m. until 1st January, 1937, since when the times have been 8 a.m., 2 p.m. and 8 p.m. A hair hygrometer was in use for much of the time and from its records corrections have been deducted to give the 24 hour means from the three daily observations. Bermuda standard time is approximately 19 minutes fast on local mean time.
The Hamilton site is on the roof of the former Hamilton Hotel in which the meteorological office is now housed. The thermometer screen is mounted on a plat form which is freely exposed above the ridges of the roof and the thermometers are 92 feet above ground level and 131 feet above M.S.L. Hourly observation have been made here since August, 1947 except for a few periods when the office was closed for several hours at night. On these occasions the hourly values were deduced from a mercury in steel recording hygrograph with bulbs in another screen on the roof platform.
The Belmont observations were taken in the grounds of the Belmont Manor Hotel in Warwick. The thermometer screen was on open ground 100 yards
South of the hotel, to the East side of the main entrance drive where the land had a small slope to the South West. The site was slightly below the hill crest and protected from the North, North East and East, by hotel buildings, one of which, Manor Cottage housed the meteorological office during the 3-year period September, 1941 to August, 1944. Observations were made at three hourly intervals.
The Darrell's Island site was on a small peninsula at the South East point of the Island. The thermometers were approximately 15 feet above M.S.L. and little more than 50 feet from the water in most directions. Observations were taken hourly during the 20 months the site was in use.
6. ANNUAL MEAN HUMIDITY
Table 1 gives the annual mean humidities at Fort George over the period and the highest and lowest annual means observed. Comparison with values for the United Kingdom shows that the annual mean Relative Humidity of 76.9% in Bermuda is slightly less than that in Great Britain where typical averages are:—London 79.2%, Glasgow 80.5% and Falmouth 82.5%. The absolute water vapour content in Bermuda of 14 ounces per 1,000 cubic feet is, however, almost twice as great as in Britain. At London at Kew Observatory, the mean vapour
| | Average | Highest 1936 | Lowest 1952 |
|----------------|---------|--------------|-------------|
| Relative Humidity | Percentage | 76.9 | 79.7 | 71.9 |
| Dew Point | Degree Fahrenheit | 62.8 | 63.8 | 61.2 |
| Vapour Pressure | Millibar | 19.6 | 20.3 | 18.5 |
| Wet Bulb | Degree Fahrenheit | 65.8 | 66.3 | 65.0 |
| Moisture Content | Ounces/1000 cu. ft. | 14.4 | 15.1 | 13.6 |
TABLE 1. Annual Mean Humidities. Fort George.
pressure is only 9.9 millibars and moisture content 7.4 ounces per 1,000 cubic feet while the mean Dew Point of 43.5°F. is nearly 20°F. below that in Bermuda. These differences reflect the inadequacy of Relative Humidity alone as an index of humidity because of its dependence on the temperature. The mean temperature is about 20°F. higher in Bermuda than in London and consequently the much higher water content in Bermuda gives much the same Relative Humidity as in London.
At Washington, D.C., with a continental climate the mean Relative Humidity of 65.9% is less than in Bermuda while the mean Dew Point is very close to that in London being 19°F. lower than in Bermuda.
7. MONTHLY MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The Mean Relative Humidity each month at Fort George is given in Table 2. The table gives the means at the 3 hours of observation, 8 a.m., 2 p.m. and 8 p.m. and the mean for 24 hours as determined from these three and the diurnal variation.
The Relative Humidity is lowest in February with 72.6% and highest in June with 81.8%. The minimum is not sharply marked and from November to March the average values are not very different from that in February. The summer maximum, however, is quite sharp with a steep rise through April and May to the June maximum followed by a slower fall through July to November.
| Month | Average at 08 | Average at 14 | Average at 20 | Monthly 24 Hour Mean |
|---------|---------------|---------------|---------------|----------------------|
| | | | | Average | Highest | Lowest |
| January | 77.4 | 69.6 | 77.1 | 75.4 | 82.0 | 1947 | 67.7 | 1953 |
| February| 74.5 | 67.1 | 75.2 | 72.6 | 78.4 | 1936 | 65.8 | 1952 |
| March | 75.5 | 67.9 | 77.4 | 74.5 | 79.6 | 1934 | 64.3 | 1951 |
| April | 76.9 | 68.2 | 79.9 | 76.5 | 83.7 | 1934 | 71.3 | 1950 |
| May | 79.2 | 71.8 | 84.0 | 79.9 | 83.7 | 1937 | 73.2 | 1952 |
| June | 81.4 | 74.2 | 85.7 | 81.8 | 86.9 | 1936 | 77.0 | 1939 |
| | | | | | 1944 | | | |
| July | 78.5 | 70.6 | 83.7 | 79.7 | 84.2 | 1946 | 72.8 | 1950 |
| August | 78.0 | 69.0 | 82.1 | 78.4 | 85.9 | 1935 | 72.7 | 1952 |
| September| 78.2 | 70.9 | 81.8 | 78.3 | 82.0 | 1935 | 72.4 | 1952 |
| October | 77.9 | 71.3 | 79.7 | 77.0 | 82.4 | 1943 | 72.6 | 1949 |
| November| 75.0 | 68.9 | 76.6 | 74.3 | 81.3 | 1935 | 63.7 | 1952 |
| December| 75.0 | 69.3 | 76.0 | 73.7 | 78.7 | 1944 | 64.1 | 1952 |
| Year | 77.3 | 69.9 | 79.9 | 76.9 | 79.7 | 1936 | 71.9 | 1952 |
Table 2. Monthly Mean Relative Humidities. Fort George
Figure 1 gives the monthly mean values of Relative Humidity, Wet Bulb temperature, Dew Point and Moisture content for Fort George and also the mean Air Temperature for the same period. The Relative Humidity is discussed here and the other modes in later sections.
It will be noticed that the lowest Relative Humidities occur at the season of lowest temperatures but the highest Relative Humidities come in June, whereas highest temperatures are in August.
There is considerable variation in a given month from year to year, with the smallest range of 9.6% from 82.0% to 72.4% in September and the greatest of 17.6% from 81.3% to 63.7% in November.
No month from April to October has ever had an average under 70% and all months except February, March and December have had averages over 80%.
The lowest monthly mean of 63.7% was in November, 1952 and June had the highest mean of 86.9% in both 1936 and 1944. The lowest mean in June of 77.0% is appreciably higher than the lowest in any other month. It is to be
Fig. 1. Mean Humidity in each month of year at Fort George.
values occur most frequently on nights when there is little wind and a considerable fall in temperature.
Lowest values on the other hand are found with high daytime temperatures, especially after there has been an inflow of dry northern air.
The fluctuations often take place rapidly so that observations made only three times a day are likely to miss many of the extremes. This point is shown clearly by Table 3 which gives the lowest readings observed in each month from the 24 daily observations at Hamilton over 6 years and also from the 3 daily observations at Fort George over 21 years.
Except in June and July the average lowest is much lower in the 24-hour Hamilton records and only in June where 46% was observed at Fort George as against 47% at Hamilton was a lower absolute minimum recorded at Fort George.
The lowest humidity which has been observed is 37% which has occurred in March and December while February and November have also had readings below 40%. July has not had a Relative Humidity observed below 51% but every other month has had 46% or less.
On the average Relative Humidity falls below 45% sometime in each month from October to April but remains above 50% from June to September with the usual lowest in June and July just below 60%.
9. DAILY MAXIMUM RELATIVE HUMIDITY
For data on the frequency with which different values of Relative Humidity occur we have to rely on the Hamilton hourly observations and summaries are given in Tables 4 and 5 and Figs. 2 and 3.
Table 4 gives the average number of days in each month on which the highest Relative Humidity lay in each 5% range while Fig. 2 gives the percentage of days on which the Highest Relative Humidity was equal to or above 65%, 70% etc.
| Percentage | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year |
|------------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|
| 50-54.9 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.3 |
| 55-59.9 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 |
| 60-64.9 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 0.3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 10 |
| 65-69.9 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 2.2 | 1.8 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 2.3 | 3.3 | 19 | |
| 70-74.9 | 3.2 | 2.3 | 2.5 | 1.8 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 3.0 | 23 | |
| 75-79.9 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 2.7 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 2.7 | 27 |
| 80-84.9 | 2.5 | 3.3 | 3.3 | 2.3 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 6.7 | 6.0 | 4.8 | 4.0 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 43 |
| 85-89.9 | 6.0 | 3.2 | 3.5 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 2.8 | 10.8 | 10.5 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 67 |
| 90-94.9 | 4.3 | 5.3 | 4.2 | 6.2 | 7.0 | 9.0 | 7.2 | 7.7 | 7.0 | 6.7 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 73 |
| 95-100 | 8.0 | 7.5 | 9.0 | 10.8 | 15.5| 15.3 | 5.2 | 3.8 | 5.5 | 7.0 | 7.8 | 6.5 | 102 |
Table 4. Average number of days per month on which the highest hourly Relative Humidity was in the limits stated. Hamilton.
It is seen that except for one occasion each in September and December the Relative Humidity reaches at least 55% every day. A value of 70% occurs on more than 4 days out of 5 every month and with a very few exceptions on every day in June, July and August.
A value of 80% occurs on 2 days out of 3 in each month and on more than 9 days out of 10 in June, July and August.
A value of 90% is observed on 4 days out of 5 in June and on more than 1/3 of the days in every month.
Fig. 2. Percentage of days each month on which highest Relative Humidity rose to values stated or higher. — Hamilton.
In May and June a Relative Humidity of 95% or more is observed on more than half the days.
It is noted that the days with 85% and upward increase rapidly from a minimum in winter to a maximum in June but there is a sharp fall in July so that July and August have less days with 95% than any other month. July and August have, however, a greater percentage of days with Relative Humidity reaching 80%.
10. DAILY MINIMUM RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Table 5 and Fig. 3 give data regarding the frequency of days with low values of Relative Humidity at Hamilton and show the same annual variations as in section 9. The greatest frequency of days with minimum humidity, 65% and above, occurs in June with much lower frequencies in July and August but July has a slightly higher frequency than June of days with minimum Relative Humidity of 60% and less.
It is seen that on 1 day in April and 3 days in each May and June the Relative Humidity does not fall below 85% but in other months this occurs rarely while in August the Relative Humidity falls below 80% every day.
| Percentage | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | Jun. | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year |
|------------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|
| 35-39.9 | 0.3 | 0.5 | | | | | | | | | 0.2 | | 1 |
| 40-44.9 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 2.0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | | 0.3 | 0.7 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 12 | 35 |
| 45-49.9 | 5.2 | 3.7 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 2.0 | 3.8 | 6.7 | 44 | 37 |
| 50-54.9 | 4.8 | 7.0 | 5.3 | 2.5 | 1.7 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 3.5 | 4.3 | 4.8 | 37 | 50 |
| 55-59.9 | 5.3 | 4.8 | 5.7 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 2.8 | 4.3 | 5.8 | 44 | 50 |
| 60-64.9 | 5.3 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 1.9 | 7.8 | 7.0 | 5.7 | 4.2 | 3.7 | 3.8 | 50 |
| 65-69.9 | 3.7 | 3.2 | 2.5 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 3.8 | 8.8 | 12.7 | 6.7 | 3.5 | 4.7 | 4.0 | 50 |
| 70-74.9 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 3.9 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 7.5 | 6.3 | 8.2 | 6.8 | 2.8 | 1.2 | 53 |
| 75-79.9 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 3.0 | 6.7 | 8.3 | 4.0 | 2.3 | 3.5 | 3.3 | 3.0 | 1.8 | 41 |
| 80-84.9 | 2.0 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 3.0 | 4.3 | 6.2 | 1.0 | | 0.8 | 2.3 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 24 |
| 85-89.9 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 2.3 | 2.7 | 0.2 | | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 9 |
| 90-94.9 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | | | 0.2 | 0.2 | | | 2 |
| 95-100 | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | 0.2 |
Table 5. Average number of days per month on which the lowest hourly Relative Humidity was in the limits stated. Hamilton.
The Relative Humidity falls below 70% on more than 4 days out of 5 from December to March, but the proportion decreases to only 1 day out of 4 in June.
A minimum of 60% is observed in 3 days out of 5 in December, February and March and the frequency ranges from a maximum of 2 days out of 3 in March to a minimum of less than 1 day out of 10 in June, July and August.
Fig. 3. Percentage of days each month on which lowest Relative Humidity fell to values stated or lower. — Hamilton.
Values fall to 50% on more than 1 day in 4 in March and 1 day in 5 from November to April but on less than 1 day per month from June to September and Relative Humidity has not been recorded as low as 50% in July.
Relative Humidity has fallen below 40% once in every two years in February and March and once in the whole six years in November.
11. NUMBER OF HOURS IN EACH RANGE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Table 6 gives the average number of hours in each month with Relative Humidity in the 5% ranges from 35% to 100%. The same data given as percentage of days per month is plotted in Fig. 4 and the months are placed in 4 groups according to the most frequent range.
It is seen that in February and March, the most common Relative Humidity is 55-60% which occurs about 15% of the time, there being a rapid increase in occurrence from almost zero hours with 40-45% and a gradual decrease in frequency to 95-100% which occurs in only 1 hour out of 20. In the second group, November, December and January, the most common Relative Humidity is near 65% with 14½% of hours between 60-65% in December and 12½ to 15% of hours between 65-70% in November and January respectively. The peak is very flat in November and December. All three months rise from near zero frequency of 40-45% Relative Humidity to the highest frequency and show a slow decline with higher Relative Humidity with the lowest frequency of about 4% from 95-100%. The curves are similar to those for February and March but with the greatest frequency at a higher value of Relative Humidity.
| Percentage | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year |
|------------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|
| 35-39.9 | 0.3 | 0.5 | | | | | | | | | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1.2 |
| 40-44.9 | 2.0 | 2.8 | 5.0 | 4.8 | 0.2 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 4.7 | 3.8 | 27 | | | |
| 45-49.9 | 15 | 19 | 31 | 21 | 4.5 | 0.2 | 3.7 | 7.5 | 23 | 23 | 149 | | |
| 50-54.9 | 51 | 55 | 76 | 43 | 19 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 2.8 | 9.8 | 24 | 50 | 57 | 390 |
| 55-59.9 | 82 | 95 | 113 | 62 | 31 | 6.3 | 4.5 | 12 | 25 | 47 | 81 | 102 | 661 |
| 60-64.9 | 99 | 95 | 89 | 67 | 41 | 18 | 30 | 31 | 39 | 71 | 78 | 107 | 765 |
| 65-69.9 | 112 | 84 | 80 | 64 | 49 | 30 | 74 | 86 | 70 | 74 | 89 | 100 | 912 |
| 70-74.9 | 85 | 66 | 65 | 70 | 59 | 49 | 121 | 135 | 114 | 97 | 89 | 80 | 1029 |
| 75-79.9 | 75 | 61 | 63 | 75 | 79 | 95 | 154 | 171 | 150 | 105 | 83 | 70 | 1181 |
| 80-84.9 | 75 | 59 | 63 | 77 | 105 | 111 | 170 | 176 | 146 | 115 | 68 | 65 | 1231 |
| 85-89.9 | 65 | 63 | 57 | 89 | 123 | 161 | 113 | 92 | 95 | 111 | 77 | 67 | 1113 |
| 90-94.9 | 52 | 53 | 63 | 90 | 132 | 169 | 57 | 29 | 65 | 63 | 49 | 44 | 844 |
| 95-100 | 32 | 25 | 37 | 58 | 102 | 79 | 20 | 7.5 | 21 | 28 | 29 | 25 | 463 |
Table 6. Average number of hours per month and year with Relative Humidity in ranges given. Hamilton.
Fig. 4. Percentage of hours each month in which Relative Humidity was 35-39.9%, 40-44.9%, etc. — Hamilton.
In the next group, July, August and September, are very similar and October is classed with them because all four have their most frequent Relative Humidity 80-85%. October has, however, greater frequency of Relative Humidity below 65% and above 90%, its curve showing a much flatter peak than the other three months.
In July, August and September more than two-fifths of all hours have Relative Humidity from 75-85% and the curves show relatively little skew with steady rises from almost zero hours of 45-50% to the maximum frequency followed by falls to a frequency of only 1 or 2 hours per hundred with 95-100% Relative Humidity.
In the top group in Fig. 4 are April, May and June in each of which the most frequent Relative Humidity is 90-95%. June has a much sharper peak than the other two and almost half the hours in the month have Relative Humidity between 85% and 95%. April has about half this number in this high range and a corresponding greater percentage of hours with values below 75% than do May and June.
In each case the curves are very skew, in the reverse way to February and March, with a gradual rise from near zero in the 40-45% range to the 90-95% maximum followed by a sharp fall in the 95-100% range.
Fig. 5 shows the distribution of Relative Humidity by giving the values reached or exceeded in from 2% to 98% of hours each month. It is seen that the curves show a marked peak in June and a much smaller one about October. In the highest 20% of hours the Relative Humidity is close in May and June with July appreciably less. As the percentage of hours is increased, the June peak becomes more marked with lower values in May but July rising nearer to the June value. It is noticeable that in the most humid 10% of hours, a lower Relative Humidity is observed in August than any other month and even in the most humid 20% of hours only December has a lower Relative Humidity than August.
12. DIURNAL VARIATION OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY
As was shown earlier Relative Humidity is a ratio between the amount of water vapour present in the air and the maximum amount which the air could contain at the existing temperature.
The general humidity of the air mass over Bermuda at any time depends on its history and mainly on the length of time it has been over the ocean and the changes of temperature to which it has been subjected. Normally only a thin layer close to the water surface is saturated and the air over the adjacent land has a Relative Humidity well below 100%. When the air temperature
Fig. 5. Values of Relative Humidity reached or exceeded in 2, 5, 10, etc. per cent of hours each month. — Hamilton.
Table 7. Diurnal Variation of Relative Humidity at Hamilton. Table gives the departure of average at each hour from the monthly mean.
rises during the day although there is some evaporation and the water vapour content increases this increase is not usually sufficient to maintain the previously existing degree of saturation and the Relative Humidity falls. As temperature falls in the evening the Relative Humidity increases again.
To determine this diurnal variation, observations at each hour are required and the longest series of these is the 6 years at Hamilton. Table 7 gives for each month the average departure at each hour from the days mean. It is seen that the lowest reading occurs in the early afternoon at 1 or 2 p.m. with a fairly sharp peak and the highest is in the early morning, being shortly before sunrise in the summer but earlier in the night in winter. In all months Relative Humidity remains fairly steady for a large part of the night. The daily range is greatest in summer and lowest in winter with 12-13% variation in summer and 6-7% in winter.
The relationship between Relative Humidity and temperature is shown in Fig. 6 which gives the mean hourly values of Relative Humidity in February and June, the months which have respectively the lowest and highest mean Relative
Fig. 6. Diurnal variation of Humidity in February and June at Hamilton.
Humidities. The hourly values of Air Temperature, Wet Bulb and Dew Point are also given being plotted with scale reversed from Relative Humidity.
It is seen how closely the air temperature and Relative Humidity agree with high humidity and low temperature in the early morning and low humidity and high temperature in the early afternoon.
The figure shows also how the wet bulb temperature and Dew Point move in step with the air temperature but with a diurnal change of less than half that of air temperature.
Because of this close dependence on temperature the Relative Humidity can vary considerably within short distances when there are differences in location which make for greater daily variation of temperature at one site than another.
This is shown in Fig. 7 which shows by months the average highest and average lowest daily values as departures from the daily mean at the 4 sites for which the data is available.
It is seen that the variation is least on Darrell's Island where the closeness of the ocean kept temperature variations smaller and greatest at Belmont which was the most enclosed location. The variation is also less at Hamilton Roof site than at Fort George. Fig. 8 summarises in one diagram the data on mean values and diurnal variation already given for Hamilton. It shows clearly how the overall mean range is from about 65% to 90% and shows the marked maximum in June with the two minima in March and December.
13. MONTHLY MEAN WET BULB TEMPERATURE
The average wet bulb readings each month at Fort George are given in Table 8. The values given for 08, 14 and 20 hours are direct averages of the observed readings and the mean 24 hour values were calculated from the mean 24 hour temperatures and relative humidities.
| Month | Average at 08 | Average at 14 | Average at 20 | 24 Hour Mean |
|-----------|---------------|---------------|---------------|--------------|
| January | 58.3 | 60.6 | 58.2 | 59.0 |
| February | 56.0 | 58.8 | 56.3 | 56.8 |
| March | 57.7 | 60.1 | 57.3 | 58.1 |
| April | 61.1 | 63.3 | 60.2 | 61.2 |
| May | 66.5 | 68.5 | 65.2 | 66.2 |
| June | 71.7 | 73.4 | 70.7 | 71.5 |
| July | 74.9 | 76.7 | 74.1 | 74.9 |
| August | 75.2 | 77.3 | 74.3 | 75.3 |
| September | 73.3 | 75.6 | 73.4 | 73.4 |
| October | 69.2 | 71.3 | 68.4 | 69.2 |
| November | 64.0 | 65.9 | 63.5 | 64.2 |
| December | 59.7 | 61.8 | 59.7 | 60.1 |
Table 8. Average Wet Bulb Temperature — Fort George at 08, 14, 20 and 24 hour mean computed from Temperature and Relative Humidity.
Fig. 7 Departure from daily mean of (a) average daily highest and (b) average daily lowest Relative Humidity at each station.
The annual variation is similar to that of temperature with the lowest mean of 56.8°F. in February and the highest of 75.3°F. in August. The mean is below 60°F. in January, February and March and above 70°F. in June, July, August and September with 75°F. in both July and August.
These values are 22°F. higher than in London in winter and 17°F. in summer, but Washington, D.C., which has a mean over 25°F. lower than Bermuda in winter is only 6°F. lower in summer.
14. HIGHEST WET BULB TEMPERATURE OBSERVED IN EACH MONTH
Table 9 gives the highest wet bulb readings observed at any hour at each site since 1932. Values observed at Prospect prior to this are given in appendix 3 but there is reason to doubt the validity of these extreme Prospect readings and they have therefore been omitted from Table 9. The table shows that
| Month | Fort George | Hamilton | Belmont | Darrell's | All Sites | Date |
|---------|-------------|----------|---------|-----------|-----------|--------|
| January | 70.0 | 69.3 | 70.7 | 70.5 | 70.7 | 4/42 |
| February| 68.7 | 68.4 | 68.3 | 68.0 | 68.7 | 13/41 |
| March | 68.0 | 69.0 | 70.2 | 69.0 | 70.2 | 20/44 |
| April | 73.5 | 70.5 | 72.8 | 72.6 | 73.5 | 27/37 |
| May | 76.2 | 73.8 | 74.5 | 74.2 | 76.2 | 29/34 |
| June | 79.4 | 77.2 | 78.8 | 77.8 | 79.4 | 19/44 |
| July | 81.8 | 79.1 | 81.7 | 78.5 | 81.8 | 28/37 |
| August | 82.0 | 80.0 | 81.9 | 79.6 | 82.0 | 20/37 |
| September| 83.5 | 79.0 | 84.6 | 80.5 | 84.6 | 7/41 |
| October | 79.0 | 77.9 | 80.7 | 78.0 | 80.7 | 9/41 |
| November| 76.0 | 74.8 | 78.0 | 74.3 | 78.0 | 3/41 |
| December| 72.1 | 73.2 | 72.8 | 70.8 | 73.2 | 10/48 |
| Year | 83.5 | 80.0 | 84.6 | 80.5 | 84.6 | 7/9/41 |
TABLE 9. Highest Wet Bulb Temperature observed at any hour.
each month except February has had a wet bulb over 70°F. and the 4 months, July to October, have each had over 80°F. The highest at any time was 84.6°F. observed at 2 p.m. on the 7th September, 1941, at Belmont. The air temperature was 86.0°F. with a Relative Humidity of 94% and a Dew Point of 84.1°F., the latter being the highest Dew Point on record. The wind at the time was WNW. 8 m.p.h. and the sky was half covered with cloud.
Fig. 8. Average Relative Humidity at Hamilton at each hour of the year.
15. LOWEST WET BULB TEMPERATURE OBSERVED IN EACH MONTH
Table 10 gives the lowest Wet Bulb Temperatures which have been observed at any hour at each site since 1932. Values below 60°F. have not been observed in July or August, nor below 55°F. in the 5 months June to October. Wet bulbs below 40°F. have not been observed at any time, the lowest readings being 41.0°F.
| | Fort George | Hamilton | Belmont | Darrell's | All Sites | Date |
|-------|-------------|----------|---------|-----------|-----------|--------|
| January | 46.6 | 46.0 | 47.0 | 47.8 | 46.0 | 12/48 |
| February | 41.6 | 42.3 | 44.6 | 45.7 | 41.6 | 24/36 |
| March | 46.2 | 41.0 | 45.1 | 50.7 | 41.0 | 6/48 |
| April | 47.9 | 48.8 | 46.0 | 51.0 | 46.0 | 4/42 |
| May | 52.5 | 53.7 | 51.5 | 57.2 | 51.5 | 7/43 |
| June | 58.8 | 59.9 | 60.3 | 60.4 | 58.8 | 7/39 |
| July | 64.1 | 62.0 | 62.8 | 72.4 | 62.0 | 11/48 |
| August | 64.8 | 63.2 | 61.9 | 72.5 | 61.9 | 29/44 |
| September | 58.0 | 58.5 | 61.0 | 64.6 | 58.0 | 17/48 |
| October | 55.2 | 55.6 | 59.2 | 56.4 | 55.2 | 26/35 |
| November | 52.4 | 51.0 | 51.0 | 53.9 | 51.0 | 23/49 |
| December | 48.1 | 44.2 | 43.8 | 49.3 | 43.8 | 18/42 |
| Year | 41.6 | 41.0 | 43.8 | 45.7 | 41.0 | 6/3/48 |
Table 10. Lowest Wet Bulb Temperature observed at any hour.
in March and 41.6°F. in February. The extreme 41.0°F. was observed in Hamilton at 6 a.m. on the 6th March, 1948. A northerly gale was blowing at the time with rain squalls. The dry bulb was 48.0°F. which gave a Dew Point of 30.2°F., Vapour Pressure 5.7 millibars, and Relative Humidity of 50%.
16. DAILY MEAN WET BULB
Table 11 gives for Hamilton the average number of days per month in which the mean wet bulb lies in each two degree range, while Fig. 9 gives the percentage of days in which the mean wet bulb has values of 45, 50°F. etc., or above.
There is a larger range of daily mean in winter than in summer with the greatest range from 43°F. to 68°F. in March and the smallest in August from 66°F. to 79°F. The highest values in winter just overlap the lowest in summer. There was only one day (March) with a mean wet bulb below 45°F. and only few from December to March with less than 50°F. There is a rapid increase in the lower limit from March to July with no means below 50°F. in April, 55°F. in May, 61°F. in June or 65°F. in July. August has none below 66°F. and then
Fig. 9. Percentage of days each month with mean Wet Bulb Temperature at value given or above. — Hamilton.
| | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
|-------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-------|------|------|------|
| 43-43.9 | | | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | |
| 44-45.9 | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 46-47.9 | 0.2 | 0.4 | | | | | | | | | | |
| 48-49.9 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 1.5 | | | | | | | | | |
| 50-51.9 | 1.0 | 2.2 | 4.2 | 1.0 | | | | | | | | |
| 52-53.9 | 2.9 | 2.9 | 2.5 | 1.8 | | | | | | | | |
| 54-55.9 | 3.5 | 3.6 | 4.0 | 2.9 | 0.3 | | | | | | | |
| 56-57.9 | 4.5 | 6.4 | 4.0 | 2.4 | 0.6 | | | | | | | |
| 58-59.9 | 5.5 | 3.7 | 3.9 | 3.6 | 1.2 | | | | | | | |
| 60-61.9 | 5.2 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 4.0 | 2.0 | 0.2 | | 0.2 | 0.8 | 2.8 | 3.2 | |
| 62-63.9 | 4.4 | 3.4 | 3.2 | 6.2 | 3.0 | 1.0 | | 0.2 | 1.5 | 4.6 | 4.7 | |
| 64-65.9 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 2.6 | 4.0 | 2.8 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 3.7 | 4.1 | 3.7 | |
| 66-67.9 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 1.2 | 3.8 | 7.5 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 5.4 | 3.5 | 2.0 |
| 68-69.9 | | | 0.5 | 9.3 | 3.4 | | 0.8 | 3.2 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 1.0 | |
| 70-71.9 | | | | 4.0 | 8.2 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 3.3 | 4.2 | 3.0 | 0.2 | |
| 72-73.9 | | | 0.2 | 8.8 | 9.0 | 3.3 | 8.0 | 6.1 | 0.9 | | | |
| 74-75.9 | | | | 6.3 | 15.5 | 16.5 | 9.5 | 4.1 | | | | |
| 76-77.9 | | | | 0.3 | 4.7 | 9.2 | 4.5 | 0.5 | | | | |
| 78-78.9 | | | | 0.5 | 0.2 | | | | | | | |
Table 11. Average number of days per month with mean wet bulb temperature in limits given. Hamilton.
there are falls to 61°F. in September, 58°F. in October, 52°F. in November and 47°F. in December.
From June to September there are very few days with means below 65°F. and in these months and in October there are a number of days above 75°F. with the greatest frequency in August where nearly 2 days out of 3 have mean wet bulbs above 75°F.
17. DAILY MAXIMUM WET BULB
Fig. 10 gives the frequency of days each month on which the highest hourly wet bulb rose to given values. It is seen that readings of 65°F. are recorded at all seasons of the year, on one quarter of the days in winter and on almost every day in summer.
Values of 80°F. are observed only in July and August about once in three years but 75°F. occurs on occasion from June to October with the greatest frequency in August where it is reached on 9 days out of 10.
Values of 55°F. are reached every day from May to October and on 4 days out of 5 in March which has the lowest values.
A wet bulb of 50°F. is reached every day except about once in three years in February and March.
18. DAILY MINIMUM WET BULB
Fig. 11 gives for each month the frequency of days on which the wet bulb fell to the values given or lower.
The figure shows that the wet bulb falls below 75°F. on every day from November to May and even in August on 4 days out of 5. It falls below 65°F. on occasions in every month although in July and August it happens only once in 3 or 5 years.
Fig. 10. Percentage of days each month on which highest wet bulb temperature rose to value given or higher. — Hamilton.
Fig. 11. Percentage of days each month on which lowest wet bulb temperature fell to value given or lower. — Hamilton.
did so on one-third of the days from December to April and occurred on 3 days out of 5 in February and March.
Wet bulb does not fall below 45°F. except on one day per month in March and once in 3 or 4 years in December and February.
19. HOURLY VALUES OF WET BULB
Table 12 gives the average number of hours each month with the wet bulb in each two degree range while in Fig. 12 a series of curves give the values of wet bulb reached in from 2% to 98% of the hours each month.
| Degrees | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
|---------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|-------|------|------|------|
| 41- | | | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | 0.3 |
| 42- | 0.2 | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | | |
| 43- | 1.0 | 3.2 | | | | | | | | | | |
| 44- | 0.7 | 3.8 | | | | | | | | | | |
| 45- | 1.0 | 2.5 | | | | | | | | | | |
| 46- | 0.7 | 2.7 | 4.7 | | | | | | | | | |
| 47- | 3.8 | 3.8 | 8.0 | | | | | | | | | |
| 48- | 7.5 | 8.3 | 15 | 0.7 | | | | | | | | |
| 49- | 17 | 12 | 25 | 3.3 | | | | | | | | |
| 50- | 16 | 20 | 42 | 13 | | | | | | | | 7.2 |
| 51- | 19 | 35 | 45 | 15 | | | | | | | | 2.7 |
| 52- | 21 | 38 | 44 | 22 | | | | | | | | 4.7 |
| 53- | 31 | 46 | 42 | 27 | 0.5 | | | | | | | 5.2 |
| 54- | 41 | 44 | 43 | 31 | 4.0 | | | | | | | 11 |
| 55- | 54 | 49 | 43 | 28 | 3.0 | | | | | | | 0.2 |
| 56- | 61 | 44 | 44 | 31 | 8.2 | | | | | | | 0.8 |
| 57- | 49 | 43 | 39 | 36 | 9.5 | | | | | | | 4.3 |
| 58- | 52 | 47 | 35 | 29 | 17 | | | | | | | 0.2 |
| 59- | 57 | 47 | 33 | 43 | 22 | 0.2 | | | | | | 0.5 |
| 60- | 54 | 40 | 45 | 41 | 25 | 2.5 | | | | | | 1.5 |
| 61- | 54 | 35 | 32 | 50 | 28 | 5.2 | | | | | | 1.3 |
| 62- | 45 | 30 | 35 | 54 | 25 | 9.5 | 0.3 | | | | | 2.3 |
| 63- | 50 | 36 | 40 | 56 | 32 | 10 | 1.0 | 0.5 | | | | 5.0 |
| 64- | 35 | 37 | 40 | 57 | 41 | 11 | 0.5 | 0.7 | | | | 6.7 |
| 65- | 30 | 31 | 36 | 46 | 43 | 12 | 1.8 | 1.3 | 6.5 | | | 50 |
| 66- | 27 | 20 | 24 | 45 | 60 | 13 | 5.5 | 3.0 | 11 | | | 56 |
| 67- | 15 | 7.2 | 15 | 50 | 76 | 17 | 4.7 | 3.3 | 18 | | | 51 |
| 68- | 4.7 | 0.8 | 3.2 | 31 | 104 | 30 | 3.5 | 5.5 | 23 | | | 47 |
| 69- | 1.2 | 0.2 | 9.8 | 106 | 56 | 6.0 | 8.2 | 33 | 52 | | | 51 |
| 70- | | | 2.0 | 87 | 84 | 7.3 | 9.8 | 37 | 55 | | | 4.0 |
| 71- | | | 38 | 88 | 29 | 20 | 53 | 51 | 34 | | | 2.3 |
| 72- | | | 10 | 101 | 60 | 37 | 79 | 54 | 23 | | | 1.0 |
| 73- | | | 3.8 | 96 | 115 | 64 | 91 | 74 | 7.7 | | | 0.2 |
| 74- | | | 94 | 175 | 115 | 107 | 61 | 1.5 | | | | |
| 75- | | | 70 | 158 | 195 | 109 | 44 | | | | | |
| 76- | | | 18 | 112 | 165 | 74 | 21 | | | | | |
| 77- | | | 1.7 | 45 | 85 | 47 | 5.7 | | | | | |
| 78- | | | 18 | 25 | 13 | | | | | | | |
| 79- | | | 1.5 | 4.5 | 0.7 | | | | | | | |
| 80- | | | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | |
Table 12. Average number of hours per month with Wet Bulb Temperature in range from value given to 0.9 degrees higher. Hamilton.
Fig. 12. Values of Wet Bulb Temperature reached or exceeded in 2, 5, 10, etc. per cent of hours each month. — Hamilton.
Both table and graph show that in summer there is a much greater concentration in a few values than in winter. Thus the central 20% of hours have a range of 3.8°F. in March from 55.4°F. to 59.2°F. but in July and August the range is only 0.8°F. from 74.4°F. to 75.2°F. and 75.1°F. to 75.9°F. respectively. In July and August 560 hours or approximately 78% of the time the wet bulb lies within 4°, 73°-77° in July and 74°-78° in August, while in August half the hours lie in the two degree range from 75°-77°F. In March the central 50% of hours cover a range of 9°, 50°-59°F. and the middle 80% a range of 15° from 50°-65°F.
20. MONTHLY MEAN VAPOUR PRESSURE AND DEW POINT
As any Dew Point has an exactly equivalent Vapour Pressure the two are considered together. Table 13 gives the average Vapour Pressure and Dew Point each month over the period at Fort George. The Vapour Pressure in
| | VAPOUR PRESSURE | DEW POINT |
|----------------|-----------------|-----------|
| | Average at | |
| | 08 | 14 | 20 | 24 Hour Mean | Average at | 08 | 14 | 20 | 24 Hour Mean |
| January | 14.9 | 15.5 | 14.8 | 15.1 | 55.2 | 56.2 | 55.0 | 55.6 |
| February | 13.4 | 14.2 | 13.6 | 13.6 | 52.3 | 53.8 | 52.7 | 52.7 |
| March | 14.4 | 15.0 | 14.3 | 14.5 | 54.3 | 55.4 | 54.2 | 54.5 |
| April | 16.5 | 17.0 | 16.2 | 16.5 | 57.9 | 58.8 | 57.5 | 58.0 |
| May | 20.4 | 21.1 | 19.9 | 20.2 | 64.0 | 64.9 | 63.3 | 63.7 |
| June | 24.8 | 25.5 | 24.4 | 24.6 | 69.7 | 70.5 | 69.2 | 69.4 |
| July | 27.4 | 28.2 | 27.2 | 27.5 | 72.6 | 73.5 | 72.4 | 72.7 |
| August | 27.6 | 28.6 | 27.2 | 27.7 | 72.8 | 73.9 | 72.4 | 72.9 |
| September | 25.9 | 27.1 | 25.4 | 25.9 | 70.9 | 72.3 | 70.3 | 70.9 |
| October | 22.3 | 23.3 | 21.9 | 22.2 | 66.5 | 67.8 | 66.0 | 66.4 |
| November | 18.2 | 18.9 | 18.0 | 18.2 | 60.7 | 61.8 | 60.4 | 60.8 |
| December | 15.5 | 16.2 | 15.6 | 15.6 | 56.3 | 57.5 | 56.4 | 56.5 |
Table 13. Average Vapour Pressure and Dew Point at 08, 14 and 20 and 24 hour means at Fort George. Millibars and Degrees Fahrenheit.
summer is more than twice that in winter with the lowest monthly average of 3.6 millibars and 52.7°F. Dew Point in February and highest of 27.7 millibars and 72.9°F. Dew Point in August. The average in July is very close to that in August and September also averages over 25 millibars and 70°F. Dew Point while June is only slightly less. The average Dew Point is below 60°F. in the
5 winter months, December to April, and below 55°F. in February and March with Vapour Pressure below 15 millibars.
21. HIGHEST AND LOWEST VAPOUR PRESSURE AND DEW POINT OBSERVED IN EACH MONTH
The extremes observed at each separate station are given in Tables 14 and 15. It is seen that Vapour Pressure of 23 millibars (D.P. 68°F.) or more has been observed every month of the year, while in each of the 4 months, June to September, over 33 millibars (D.P. 78°F.) has occurred with the highest of 40 millibars (D.P. 84°F.) in September.
| Month | Ft. George | Hamilton | Belmont | Darrell's | Highest Vapour Pressure | Highest at All Stations |
|-------|------------|----------|---------|-----------|-------------------------|------------------------|
| | | | | | Vapour Pressure | Dew Point | Date |
| January | 24.1 | 23.7 | 25.0 | 24.6 | 25.0 | 69.9 | 5/42 |
| February | 23.6 | 23.4 | 22.6 | 22.6 | 23.6 | 68.2 | 13/41 |
| March | 23.2 | 23.6 | 24.3 | 23.4 | 24.3 | 69.1 | 21/44 |
| April | 26.7 | 24.8 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.7 | 71.8 | 27/37 |
| May | 29.1 | 27.9 | 27.8 | 26.9 | 29.1 | 74.4 | 29/34 |
| June | 33.1 | 31.1 | 31.7 | 31.7 | 33.1 | 78.3 | 19/44 |
| July | 33.9 | 32.9 | 35.7 | 31.7 | 35.7 | 80.6 | 23/42 |
| August | 33.7 | 33.3 | 34.7 | 32.8 | 34.7 | 79.7 | 3/42 |
| September | 36.8 | 32.3 | 40.0 | 33.9 | 40.0 | 84.1 | 7/41 |
| October | 31.7 | 31.2 | 35.5 | 31.7 | 35.5 | 80.4 | 7/41 |
| November | 29.6 | 28.0 | 32.4 | 27.8 | 32.4 | 77.6 | 3/41 |
| December | 25.3 | 27.2 | 26.9 | 25.1 | 27.2 | 72.4 | 10/48 |
Table 14. Highest Vapour Pressure and Dew Point observed at any hour. Millibars and Degrees Fahrenheit.
This occurred at Belmont with a temperature of 86.0°F. and the highest recorded wet bulb of 84.6°F. at 2 p.m. on the 7th September, 1941. At the other extreme we see in Table 15 that Vapour Pressure below 15 millibars (D.P. 55°F.) has not been observed in July and August while less than 8 millibars (D.P. 38°F.) has been recorded in every month from November to April, with the lowest of 5.2 millibars (D.P. 28.5°F.) on February 24th, 1936, at Fort George.
22. DAILY MAXIMUM VAPOUR PRESSURE AND DEW POINT
Fig. 13 gives the percentage of days in each month on which the daily maximum Vapour Pressure reached specified values at Hamilton. The figure shows that in August a Vapour Pressure of 20 millibars is reached every day,
Fig. 13. Percentage of days each month on which highest vapour pressure rose to value given or higher in millibars. — Hamilton.
| Month | Ft. George | Hamilton | Belmont | Darrell's | Vapour Pressure | Dew Point | Date |
|--------|------------|----------|---------|-----------|-----------------|-----------|--------|
| January| 7.3 | 6.6 | 8.1 | 7.8 | 6.6 | 34.0 | 12/48 |
| February| 5.2 | 6.2 | 7.2 | 6.7 | 5.2 | 28.5 | 24/36 |
| March | 6.4 | 5.4 | 7.2 | 8.8 | 5.4 | 29.1 | 9/53 |
| April | 7.8 | 7.1 | 8.1 | 8.8 | 7.1 | 35.4 | 10/50 |
| May | 9.5 | 10.1 | 11.0 | 11.9 | 9.5 | 43.1 | 9/50 |
| June | 12.9 | 13.0 | 14.8 | 14.3 | 12.9 | 51.2 | 7/39 |
| July | 17.3 | 15.1 | 19.0 | 24.3 | 15.1 | 55.6 | 11/48 |
| August | 16.5 | 15.4 | 15.3 | 22.6 | 15.3 | 55.8 | 28/44 |
| September| 12.2 | 12.1 | 13.3 | 15.9 | 12.1 | 49.6 | 17/48 |
| October| 10.6 | 9.9 | 14.3 | 11.4 | 9.9 | 44.1 | 31/52 |
| November| 9.6 | 7.9 | 10.2 | 9.8 | 7.9 | 38.3 | 23/49 |
| December| 7.0 | 6.1 | 6.9 | 8.8 | 6.1 | 31.9 | 27/48 |
**Table 15.** Lowest Vapour Pressure and Dew Point observed at any hour. Millibars and Degrees Fahrenheit.
24 millibars every day except once in three years, 26 millibars on all but 2 days a month, 28 millibars on 4 days out of 5, 30 millibars on 1 day in 4 and 32 millibars on 1 or 2 days per month. In July and September the frequencies are only a little less than in August.
In March Vapour Pressure rises to 10 millibars on all but 1 day a month, reaches 12 millibars on 4 days out of 5, 16 millibars on 3 days out of 5, 20 millibars on 1 day in 4 and does not reach 24 millibars on any day. In January and February Vapour Pressures up to 16 millibars occur more frequently than in March but the frequency of 20 and 24 millibars is about the same in all three months.
**23. DAILY MINIMUM VAPOUR PRESSURE AND DEW POINT**
Fig. 14 gives the percentage of days in each month on which the minimum Vapour Pressure observed was in specified values at Hamilton.
The figure shows that the Vapour Pressure falls below 28 millibars every day in the seven months, November to May, and even in July and August on 9 days out of 10.
At the other extreme a Vapour Pressure of 8 millibars has not been observed in the six months, May to October, and at its greatest frequency in March it occurs only on 1 day in 6.
Fig. 14. Percentage of days each month on which lowest vapour pressure fell to value given or lower in millibars. — Hamilton.
At the height of the summer the Vapour Pressure fell to 16 millibars only once in the 6 years, to 20 millibars about once a month, to 24 millibars on one day in five and to 26 millibars on more than half the days.
In winter the Vapour Pressure falls below 20 millibars every day except once in 2 or 3 years. Less than 16 millibars occurs on nearly 9 days out of 10, 12 millibars on 3 days out of 5 and 10 millibars on 2 days out of 5.
24. FREQUENCY OF HOURS WITH GIVEN VAPOUR PRESSURE
Table 16 gives the average number of hours per month with the Vapour Pressure in each millibar range while Fig. 15 gives the average percentage of hours. In Fig. 15 the months are plotted in 5 groups which show similar characteristics.
In February and March which are the lowest point of winter the greatest frequency is of 9 to 10 millibars which occur about 10% of the time. There is a steep fall to near zero frequency for 5 millibars on the one side and a more gradual fall to 24 millibars on the other.
| Millibars | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
|-----------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|-------|------|------|------|
| 5.0- | 0.5 | 1 | 5 | 0.5 | | | | | | | | 0.7 |
| 6.0- | 4 | 8 | 21 | 1 | | | | | | | | 0.2 |
| 7.0- | 27 | 25 | 53 | 13 | | | | | | | | 4 |
| 8.0- | 40 | 57 | 76 | 29 | | | | | | | | 10 |
| 9.0- | 47 | 79 | 75 | 47 | 3 | | | | | | | 52 |
| 10.0- | 61 | 70 | 67 | 55 | 12 | | | | | | | 72 |
| 11.0- | 77 | 61 | 60 | 41 | 19 | | | | | | | 77 |
| 12.0- | 80 | 50 | 51 | 37 | 23 | 0.7 | | | | | | 67 |
| 13.0- | 72 | 55 | 41 | 37 | 26 | 3 | | | | | | 61 |
| 14.0- | 60 | 50 | 43 | 45 | 30 | 10 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 5 | 24 | 47 | 51 |
| 15.0- | 49 | 44 | 46 | 60 | 30 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 28 | 39 | 53 |
| 16.0- | 53 | 38 | 41 | 59 | 32 | 14 | 1 | 3 | 8 | 37 | 39 | 47 |
| 17.0- | 57 | 37 | 38 | 64 | 41 | 12 | 5 | 3 | 11 | 52 | 41 | 53 |
| 18.0- | 44 | 45 | 48 | 47 | 39 | 10 | 3 | 3 | 15 | 53 | 54 | 39 |
| 19.0- | 35 | 37 | 37 | 55 | 53 | 20 | 4 | 5 | 23 | 46 | 49 | 43 |
| 20.0- | 21 | 16 | 29 | 49 | 74 | 30 | 6 | 7 | 29 | 51 | 39 | 38 |
| 21.0- | 15 | 7 | 10 | 53 | 95 | 37 | 8 | 11 | 36 | 45 | 51 | 25 |
| 22.0- | 3 | 0.8 | 2 | 24 | 117 | 55 | 17 | 17 | 36 | 50 | 47 | 14 |
| 23.0- | 39 | 95 | 105 | 50 | 84 | 48 | 27 | 71 | 102 | 57 | 25 | 3 |
| 24.0- | 8 | 120 | 149 | 110 | 95 | 70 | 1 | 94 | 154 | 165 | 111 | 60 | 4 | 0.2 |
| 25.0- | 1 | 93 | 109 | 169 | 91 | 53 | 27 | 71 | 102 | 57 | 25 | 0.2 |
| 26.0- | 4 | 36 | 42 | 33 | 8 | | | | | | | 0.2 |
| 27.0- | 0.2 | 23 | 17 | 13 | 0.2 | | | | | | | 0.2 |
| 28.0- | 1/3 | 4 | 1 | | | | | | | | | |
TABLE 16. Average number of hours per month with Vapour Pressure at Hamilton in limits from values stated to 0.9 millibars higher.
Fig. 15. Percentage of hours each month with vapour pressure from 5-5.9, 6-6.9 millibars, etc. — Hamilton.
December and January show a similar distribution but the maximum lies about 12 and 13 millibars and the extremes are slightly higher than in February and March.
April and November are transition months where the winter distribution is changing to the summer type and conversely. There is no well marked maximum and values from 11 to 23 millibars are about equally frequent, each occurring in 6 to 8% of the hours. There are sharp decreases in frequency at each end giving a total range from 7 to 28 millibars in November and 7 to 24 millibars in April.
The remaining months all show a distribution the reverse of that in winter. There is a maximum frequency in high values of Vapour Pressure with a rapid fall to the highest Vapour Pressure observed and a much more gradual decrease to the lowest. At the height of summer, in July and August, a large percentage of hours have Vapour Pressure in a very limited range. Almost half the hours in August have Vapour Pressure between 27.0 and 28.9 millibars while three-quarters of the hours in both July and August are included in a range of 4 millibars.
June and September have a similar distribution to July and August but the peak of frequency is not so marked with the greatest frequency of 15 to 16% of occasions at 26 and 27 millibars respectively.
October has its maximum frequency at 26 millibars with 9% of the hours but the maximum is not sharp and each interval from 18 to 28 millibars occurs in about 7% of the hours so that October shows perhaps most similarity to April and November.
May is rather an isolated month with a fairly sharp maximum frequency of 15% of hours at 23 millibars the slope being similar to June and September but the peak an appreciably lower value than these other two months.
Fig. 16 gives the frequency distribution by curves which show the values of Vapour Pressure and Dew Point reached or exceeded in 2, 5, 10, 20, etc. per cent of the hours in each month. The curves show that in July and August 98% of hours have Vapour Pressure of 20 millibars or above while only 2% have 31 millibars or above. In March 98% have 7 millibars or above and 2% have 22 millibars or above. The curves show that while the lowest values are more frequent in March than other winter months the top 40% of hours has slightly higher values in March than in February.
25. MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE AIR
Table 17 gives the average moisture content at Fort George calculated from the Daily 24 hour Mean Vapour Pressure and temperature for each month. The values as calculated are in grams per cubic metre but owing to the relation between the English and metric units it so happens that one gram per cubic metre is closely equivalent to one ounce per 1000 cubic feet.
We see that there is twice as much water vapour in the air in summer as in winter with a range from 10 ounces per 1,000 cu. ft. in February to 20 ounces in July and August. From June to October the average is over one pound.
There has been over one pound on individual occasions in every month of the year and a content of over 20 ounces has been observed in each month from May to November with the greatest of 26.2 ounces in September.
Fig. 16. Values of Vapour Pressure reached or exceeded in 2, 5, 10, etc. per cent of hours each month. — Hamilton.
| | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
|----------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-------|------|------|------|
| Monthly Mean | 11.3 | 10.2 | 10.8 | 12.3 | 15.0 | 17.9 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 18.8 | 16.2 | 13.4 | 11.6 |
| Highest observed | 17.8 | 17.0 | 17.2 | 19.4 | 20.9 | 23.8 | 24.1 | 23.9 | 26.2 | 22.8 | 21.5 | 18.6 |
| Lowest observed | 5.5 | 4.1 | 4.8 | 5.9 | 7.1 | 9.5 | 12.7 | 9.9 | 9.0 | 7.9 | 7.2 | 5.3 |
**Table 17.** Moisture content in grams per cubic metre and ounces per 1000 cu. ft. at Fort George.
A content of less than 8 ounces per 1,000 cu. ft. has been observed in each month from October to May with less than 5 ounces in February and March. The lowest content recorded is 4.1 ounces per 1,000 cu.ft. on 24th February, 1936. In July the lowest content is 12.7 ounces, more than the average winter value.
All these values are high by comparison with England where the water vapour content at each season is about half that in Bermuda. Thus although the average Relative Humidity of 75% in January in Bermuda is 10% less than that in London there is more than twice as much water vapour in Bermuda with 11.3 ounces per 1000 cubic feet compared with 5.3 in London. Similarly in July there are 20 ounces in Bermuda and only 10.6 in London.
**26. VARIATION OF HUMIDITY WITH WIND DIRECTION**
Table 18 gives the wind directions which have, on the average, the highest and lowest relative humidity and Dew Point. The table is based on 8 a.m. observations at Fort George during the last five years and gives the average values from the particular directions.
In general highest humidities occur with winds between South East and South West and lowest with North East to North West. The greatest differences with wind direction are in March where the Northerly wind has a Dew Point 14°F. and a Relative Humidity 19% less than the Southerly.
| | Relative Humidity | Dew Point |
|----------------|-------------------|-----------|
| | Highest | Lowest | Difference | Highest | Lowest | Difference |
| January | S 79 | N 67 | 12 | S 58 | N 50 | 8 |
| February | S 79 | W 66 | 13 | S 58 | NW 45 | 13 |
| March | S, SW 80| N 61 | 19 | S 59 | N 45 | 14 |
| April | S 81 | N 64 | 17 | S 62 | NW 50 | 12 |
| May | SE, S 82| N 66 | 16 | S 67 | N 56 | 11 |
| June | SE 87 | N 69 | 18 | SW 70 | N, NE 64| 6 |
| July | S 79 | NE 66 | 13 | N, E, S 72 | NE 67 | 5 |
| August | SW 78 | NE 68 | 10 | S, SW, W 73 | NE 68 | 5 |
| September | SW 79 | N 72 | 7 | SE, S 72 | N 66 | 6 |
| October | W 83 | NW 68 | 15 | S 71 | NW 60 | 11 |
| November | S 84 | N 65 | 19 | SE, S 66 | N, NW 55 | 11 |
| December | S 80 | NW 62 | 18 | S 61 | NW 50 | 11 |
**Table 18.** Wind Directions which give the highest and lowest Relative Humidities and Dew Point and average humidities at these directions at 8 a.m. 1948-1953 at Fort George.
September shows the smallest differences with only 6°F. in Dew Point and 7% in Relative Humidity between the extremes.
In July and August there is very little variation of Dew Point with wind direction except for the small drop with North East wind. The largest differences are in February, March and April where there is 12-14°F. between the Dew Points with Southerly and with Northerly or North Westerly winds.
The wind with the highest Relative Humidity is Southerly from November to May and also in July while the lowest Relative Humidity is with Northerly winds in 7 months and in no month is the Relative Humidity with Northerly much above the lowest for the month.
The summer months do not show the steady high values of Relative Humidity over a wide band of wind directions as is the case with Dew Point. In June the Relative Humidity rises to a sharp maximum with South East winds and has an almost equally sharp minimum with Northerly. From March to June and October to December there is a difference of at least 15% Relative Humidity between the wettest and driest winds in each month.
27. COMPARISON OF FORT GEORGE AND HAMILTON
Table 19 compares the two stations at which most of the observations discussed in this paper were taken. It gives the differences Hamilton minus Fort George of the average Relative Humidity and Dew Point for each of the three hours of observation at Fort George over the six-year period when both stations were in operation.
| | Relative Humidity | Dew Point |
|-------|-------------------|-----------|
| | 0800 | 1400 | 2000 | Mean | 0800 | 1400 | 2000 | Mean |
| January | -0.4 | +0.3 | +0.2 | 0.0 | +0.8 | -0.1 | +1.3 | +0.7 |
| February | -0.6 | -0.2 | +0.2 | -0.2 | +0.9 | -0.4 | +1.4 | +0.6 |
| March | -0.7 | +0.7 | +0.4 | +0.1 | +0.7 | -0.4 | +1.4 | +0.6 |
| April | +1.7 | +2.0 | +1.3 | +1.7 | +1.0 | -0.2 | +1.7 | +0.8 |
| May | +3.2 | +3.9 | +3.0 | +3.4 | +1.0 | +0.2 | +2.3 | +1.2 |
| June | +4.0 | +3.3 | +2.7 | +3.3 | +1.1 | 0.0 | +1.8 | +1.0 |
| July | +3.1 | +2.7 | +0.3 | +2.0 | +0.8 | -0.5 | +1.3 | +0.5 |
| August | +1.7 | +1.4 | +0.1 | +1.1 | +0.5 | -0.5 | +1.3 | +0.4 |
| September | +1.3 | +1.4 | -1.0 | +0.6 | +0.5 | -0.8 | +0.9 | +0.2 |
| October | -0.6 | -0.4 | -0.4 | -0.5 | +0.2 | -1.2 | +1.1 | +0.1 |
| November | -0.8 | -0.4 | -0.3 | -0.5 | +0.4 | -0.6 | +1.0 | +0.3 |
| December | -0.5 | -0.7 | -0.7 | -0.6 | +0.8 | -0.2 | +1.0 | +0.5 |
Table 19. Comparison of Fort George and Hamilton, September, 1947-August, 1953. Figures give the difference, Hamilton average minus Fort George average.
In all months the mean Dew Point is higher at Hamilton but the differences are small and reach one degree in only two months, May and June. Hamilton usually the higher at both 8 a.m. and 8 p.m., the difference being larger at 8 p.m. but at 2 p.m. Hamilton has slightly lower values than Fort George, except in May and June.
In the case of Relative Humidity there is very close agreement in January, February and March. Values rise more in Hamilton than Fort George in April and May and the five months April to August each show a difference of at least one per cent with over 3% in May and June. The difference decreases in September, changes sign in October and in the last three months of the year the Relative Humidity is higher at Fort George but only by less than one per cent.
It is seen therefore that with regard to absolute water vapour content, as indicated by the Dew Point, observations at the two stations are in close agreement.
The stations are also closely comparable in regard to Relative Humidity from September to March and only in early summer are noticeable differences at all likely.
I have to thank my wife and Mr. S. G. Hirst for assistance in extracting and checking the data on which this note is based.
Meteorological Office,
Hamilton,
Bermuda.
February, 1954.
APPENDIX 1
Monthly Mean Relative Humidity — Fort George
| | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Years Mean |
|-------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------------|
| 1932 | | | | 80.7 | 79.7| 84.3 | 82.1 | 79.5 | 69.1 | 74.1 | 78.6 | 75.2 | |
| 1933 | 78.6 | 73.2 | 73.6 | 77.7 | 80.2| 81.1 | 81.1 | 84.6 | 80.5 | 77.3 | 73.9 | 76.2 | 78.2 |
| 1934 | 80.0 | 74.4 | 79.6 | 83.7 | 83.5| 80.6 | 81.4 | 82.1 | 79.5 | 76.2 | 72.0 | 73.6 | 78.9 |
| 1935 | 73.4 | 77.6 | 75.0 | 76.8 | 81.3| 81.6 | 82.1 | 85.9 | 82.0 | 80.5 | 81.3 | 72.2 | 79.2 |
| 1936 | 77.2 | 78.4 | 76.3 | 80.3 | 82.6| 86.9 | 81.6 | 78.5 | 81.7 | 79.9 | 75.4 | 77.5 | 79.7 |
| 1937 | 81.1 | 73.8 | 77.9 | 78.2 | 83.7| 83.9 | 80.6 | 76.4 | 81.7 | 74.4 | 72.0 | 77.8 | 78.5 |
| 1938 | 79.7 | 74.0 | 75.5 | 79.3 | 82.2| 83.3 | 82.6 | 75.8 | 80.6 | 78.3 | 77.8 | 72.9 | 78.5 |
| 1939 | 72.0 | 70.9 | 77.0 | 77.2 | 79.5| 77.0 | 80.7 | 79.0 | 78.7 | 75.9 | 73.8 | 72.2 | 76.2 |
| 1940 | 71.5 | 71.5 | 74.7 | 72.3 | 83.2| 81.5 | 80.7 | 75.9 | 79.5 | 77.4 | 72.5 | 78.4 | 76.6 |
| 1941 | 73.8 | 75.7 | 73.0 | 75.1 | 77.2| 81.7 | 76.1 | 79.4 | 76.0 | 72.7 | 79.7 | 72.6 | 76.1 |
| 1942 | 76.6 | 73.1 | 73.6 | 75.2 | 82.2| 84.2 | 83.0 | 77.1 | 79.4 | 81.5 | 73.6 | 73.2 | 77.7 |
| 1943 | 79.0 | 73.5 | 77.4 | 77.3 | 78.4| 78.9 | 77.5 | 81.3 | 81.1 | 82.4 | 73.8 | 76.5 | 78.1 |
| 1944 | 75.2 | 75.8 | 79.4 | 76.9 | 80.0| 86.9 | 84.1 | 77.5 | 78.0 | 72.7 | 72.1 | 78.7 | 78.1 |
| 1945 | 74.6 | 72.6 | 78.0 | 80.1 | 75.8| 79.8 | 76.7 | 76.6 | 78.9 | 78.9 | 74.8 | 72.9 | 76.6 |
| 1946 | 77.4 | 68.9 | 78.0 | 74.0 | 81.5| 77.6 | 84.2 | 82.2 | 78.7 | 77.5 | 72.9 | 75.6 | 77.4 |
| 1947 | 82.0 | 69.9 | 73.0 | 78.3 | 79.4| 85.1 | 77.5 | 77.9 | 76.1 | 77.3 | 74.6 | 74.5 | 77.1 |
| 1948 | 77.4 | 74.4 | 78.1 | 74.7 | 83.2| 83.3 | 80.8 | 80.9 | 77.8 | 76.9 | 79.8 | 74.6 | 78.5 |
| 1949 | 72.9 | 74.3 | 72.3 | 73.9 | 78.3| 79.6 | 75.6 | 76.1 | 78.6 | 72.6 | 72.6 | 69.4 | 74.7 |
| 1950 | 72.3 | 68.3 | 70.1 | 71.3 | 77.1| 80.3 | 72.8 | 75.3 | 77.8 | 77.2 | 70.4 | 69.3 | 73.5 |
| 1951 | 71.1 | 70.0 | 64.3 | 72.4 | 79.9| 79.0 | 78.6 | 73.9 | 76.1 | 75.3 | 74.1 | 71.3 | 73.3 |
| 1952 | 69.0 | 65.8 | 70.5 | 75.4 | 73.2| 81.4 | 76.7 | 72.7 | 72.4 | 77.4 | 63.7 | 64.1 | 71.9 |
| 1953 | 67.7 | 69.1 | 66.5 | 72.4 | 76.3| 81.4 | 76.0 | 76.7 | 77.2 | 73.7 | 68.6 | 71.2 | 73.1 |
## APPENDIX 2
**Mean Relative Humidity — Belmont Manor — 1941-1944**
| Time | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
|------|------|------|------|------|-----|------|------|------|-------|------|------|------|
| 0200 | 81.2 | 76.0 | 80.5 | 83.6 | 87.0 | 91.4 | 89.2 | 87.4 | 90.2 | 86.2 | 82.3 | 78.8 |
| 0500 | 80.6 | 75.4 | 78.9 | 83.6 | 87.9 | 91.7 | 89.2 | 88.0 | 89.6 | 86.3 | 83.4 | 77.6 |
| 0800 | 80.2 | 76.1 | 76.6 | 77.1 | 78.6 | 82.4 | 80.8 | 78.5 | 82.5 | 82.7 | 82.6 | 77.6 |
| 1100 | 72.5 | 70.2 | 70.4 | 70.7 | 73.9 | 77.8 | 76.4 | 73.4 | 77.4 | 76.6 | 73.4 | 70.2 |
| 1400 | 70.8 | 67.8 | 70.3 | 70.4 | 72.8 | 76.1 | 75.0 | 71.6 | 75.5 | 76.0 | 72.9 | 69.9 |
| 1700 | 76.2 | 71.6 | 74.1 | 72.9 | 74.7 | 78.4 | 75.9 | 74.3 | 78.8 | 80.0 | 78.2 | 74.0 |
| 2000 | 80.6 | 76.8 | 80.3 | 81.6 | 85.0 | 86.9 | 86.0 | 85.2 | 86.9 | 84.3 | 82.7 | 77.7 |
| 300 | 80.6 | 76.8 | 80.7 | 83.0 | 87.0 | 90.7 | 88.3 | 87.5 | 89.5 | 85.5 | 82.5 | 78.8 |
## APPENDIX 3
**Extreme Observations at Prospect Camp, 1891-1932, Except for 1921**
Observations of humidity were made at Prospect Camp from 1891 to 1932 but it has not been possible to check the readings and computations.
However, the extreme values in the records have been extracted and the individual calculations checked. These extremes are given in the table below.
| Month | Wet Bulb | Relative Humidity | Vapour Pressure | Dew Point |
|---------|----------|-------------------|-----------------|-----------|
| | Max. Year| Min. Year | Min. Year | Max. Year | Min. Year | Max. | Min. |
| January | 75.8 | 1930 | 46 | 1925 | 30.0 | 1930 | 7.3 | 1892 | 75 | 36 |
| February| 73.5 | 1932 | 35 | 1923 | 27.9 | 1932 | 5.5 | 1923 | 73 | 29 |
| March | 71.9 | 1932 | 41 | 1910 | 26.3 | 1932 | 7.3 | 1893 | 71 | 36 |
| April | 75.7 | 1914 | 41 | 1910 | 29.9 | 1914 | 7.4 | 1922 | 75 | 36 |
| May | 79.4 | 1929 | 43 | 1920 | 33.6 | 1929 | 8.9 | 1897 | 79 | 41 |
| June | 82.6 | 1928 | 52 | 1926 | 37.4 | 1928 | 12.1 | 1902 | 82 | 49 |
| July | 86.4 | 1931 | 59 | 1900 | 42.1 | 1931 | 15.8 | 1919 | 86 | 57 |
| August | 86.4 | 1931 | 50 | 1927 | 41.5 | 1930 | 16.9 | 1925 | 85 | 59 |
| September| 88.7 | 1931 | 53 | 1920 | 45.0 | 1931 | 14.1 | 1923 | 88 | 54 |
| October | 83.6 | 1929 | 50 | 1922 | 38.0 | 1929 | 11.5 | 1909 | 83 | 48 |
| November| 78.2 | 1929 | 46 | 1922 | 32.4 | 1929 | 8.9 | 1898 | 78 | 41 |
| December| 74.9 | 1929 | 42 | 1924 | 28.7 | 1929 | 7.5 | 1924 | 74 | 37 |
It will be seen that in all months the highest values are above those given in Table 10 for other stations and the differences are in some cases considerable especially in the summer months. It is thought that these high values are unreliable because:
(a) The records show that the apparently competent observer who was at the station for some years left early in 1929 and the records are unsigned after the latter part of the year. For 10 months of the year the highest observations in the record were taken by this new observer between 1929 and 1932.
(b) On many days in this period especially in the summer when there has been no indication of rain or frontal activity the recorded figures give a higher Relative Humidity in mid-afternoon than at morning or evening.
This was the case on 25th September, 1931, when the wet bulb of 88.7°F. was recorded at 3 p.m. giving with the dry bulb of 91.6°F. a vapour pressure of 45 millibars and a Relative Humidity of 89%. At 8 a.m. on that day the air temperature was 83.0°F., the wet bulb was 79.8°F., vapour pressure 33 millibars and the Relative Humidity 86%.
The change in vapour pressure is much greater than normal and the change in Relative Humidity is of opposite sign to the normal diurnal variation. There is nothing in the other elements to suggest any change of air mass.
Evaporation is rapid in summer and it is necessary to fill the wet bulb water container almost daily. It is possible that this was done at the afternoon reading at Prospect and the observer did not wait a sufficient time after wetting the bulb before taking his readings. The water being at air temperature would therefore give an unduly high reading on the wet bulb.
---
**APPENDIX 4**
**Dew Point Equivalents in Degrees Fahrenheit of Vapour Pressures in Millibars and Inches**
| Mbs. | Ins. | DP | Mbs. | Ins. | DP | Mbs. | Ins. | DP | Mbs. | Ins. | DP |
|------|------|----|------|------|----|------|------|----|------|------|----|
| 5 | .148 | 27.3 | 15 | .443 | 55.4 | 25 | .738 | 69.9 | 35 | 1.033 | 80.0 |
| 6 | .178 | 31.5 | 16 | .473 | 57.2 | 26 | .768 | 71.1 | 36 | 1.063 | 80.9 |
| 7 | .207 | 35.1 | 17 | .502 | 58.9 | 27 | .797 | 72.2 | 37 | 1.093 | 81.7 |
| 8 | .236 | 38.7 | 18 | .531 | 60.5 | 28 | .827 | 73.3 | 38 | 1.122 | 82.5 |
| 9 | .266 | 41.6 | 19 | .561 | 62.0 | 29 | .856 | 74.3 | 39 | 1.152 | 83.3 |
| 10 | .295 | 44.5 | 20 | .591 | 63.4 | 30 | .886 | 75.3 | 40 | 1.181 | 84.1 |
| 11 | .325 | 47.0 | 21 | .620 | 64.8 | 31 | .915 | 76.3 | 41 | 1.211 | 84.9 |
| 12 | .354 | 49.3 | 22 | .650 | 66.2 | 32 | .945 | 77.3 | 42 | 1.240 | 85.6 |
| 13 | .384 | 51.5 | 23 | .679 | 67.5 | 33 | .974 | 78.2 | 43 | 1.270 | 86.4 |
| 14 | .413 | 53.5 | 24 | .709 | 68.7 | 34 | 1.004 | 79.1 | 44 | 1.300 | 87.1 |
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The Bermuda Press, Limited
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A meeting of the board of supervisors of Polk Centre township, Pennington County, and the board of supervisors of Polk Centre township, Red Lake County, was held on May 18, 1911, for the purpose of dividing all assets of the township and to form new separate units of government. Previous to 1911, the entire township had been a part of Red Lake County. Red Lake got the short end of the split and the new Polk Centre, Red Lake County, was only two by six miles in area, a size shared by two other new townships to the east, Brown's Creek and River. Most of the board members present were residents of the Village of Wylie.
The following new officers were elected: Ferd Gother, chairman; Leon Huot and Charles Zutz, supervisors; Thor Smidesang, clerk; P. E. Smidesang, treasurer; Richard Gother, assessor; C. G. Gerlach and Anton Anderson, Justices of the Peace; C. G. Gerlach and Richard Gother, constables; Nick Mauer, overseer of the roads in District I; and Albert Landa, overseer of roads in District II. The judges were Charles Zutz, Leon Huot, and Ferd Gother. Later about 1913, the small township took the name of Wylie from the village.
At the turn of the century the community of Wylie was a hustling village and the center of all business and social activities of the township. It was located on the main line of the railroad from Crookston to Thief River Falls at a time when the latter was just another inland settlement.
Mr. and Mrs. Nick Eckstein established a store in 1890, and when fire destroyed it in 1902, it was replaced with a two-story structure stocked with dry goods, groceries and variety items. The upstairs of the store was used for a community hall where dances were often held.
Besides the Eckstein general merchandise store, there were two more grocery establishments, one operated by Mr. Smidesang and the other by the Rosmos Brothers. Smidesang had been in business since 1895 and Rosmos since 1904.
in St. Hilaire. In seeking a better location he had considered both Thief River Falls and Wylie, but it appeared to him that Wylie had the better possibilities and that is where he located.
The Rosmos store building was also used for a courtroom in 1902. The store was started in 1898 by the older Rosmos and in 1912, the younger brother became a partner. Pete Smidesang started his store in 1886. Later the name was expanded to Smidesang and Sons. Still later the business was taken over by the Gotherns. There was a harness and shoe store started by Chris Borgen. He also ran a successful cobblers business.
The Leppert Brothers, Sam and Fred, operated a hardware store and lumberyard and Fred Leppert was also the local barber. Wylie businesses seldom closed and were open seven days a week.
The town of Wylie boasted three elevators: Hanson and Barzen Elevator, the Wylie Cooperative, which also handled the Wylie Livestock Association, and a branch of the St. Anthony Milling Company run by S. J. Swanson. Peter Hansel was the village blacksmith, and was considered one of the ablest workmen of the area and county — nothing was too intricate for him, and he could engineer almost anything in his shop. Jack Swollanberg was the stonemason. There were two cream stations, one run by Anton Anderson, and another run by Richard Gother. The hotel was run by Maurice Dargon and Andrew Letvig was the well driller.
The bank was started as an experiment in the fall of 1901, but became a big success. C. N. Bourdon was the bank president. S. J. Swanson was an assistant cashier in addition to running the elevator, and he was also a Justice of the Peace and Judge in the courtroom at Rosmos Store. His name also crops up in relation to the Board of County Commissioners and the Wylie Town Board.
The cheese factory was owned by Ted Fournier and met with disaster on May 23, 1912 when it burned to the ground. The origin of the fire was thought to be in the boiler which had been fired up the previous day in preparation for the new season of cheesemaking. The factory was never rebuilt.
The train came through Wylie and service was provided for passengers and freight to and from Wylie twice each day. Mail was also carried by train and at various times the post offices were at the Rosmos Store or at Nick Ecksteins. The section boss was Tom Drielam. In 1903, rural mail service was established and a watchmaker, Anderson, became the first mail carrier. In 1904, Henry Schneider was appointed mail carrier and held that job until 1936. Several years later, the post office closed.
There were three schools in Wylie Township. The largest school, located in the village of Wylie, is still standing. In 1902 the school had over fifty students and the teacher was Professor Todd, a well-known educator in the area. There was also a school in Section 26, presently used as a township hall. The school in Section 29 is also still standing, though it is in poor condition.
Presently serving as board members in Wylie township are Victor Gaber as chairman; Donald Huot and Harvey Casavan as supervisors; Louis Zutz as clerk and Kenneth Wieland, treasurer.
School District #17 in the 1890's. Ida Koke, Mrs. Joe Salley, was the teacher.
Wylie School about 1900. Professor Todd was the teacher.
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The Des Moines River between Humboldt and Fort Dodge offers backwater (edaps, scenic bluffs, rock walls, and good fishing for smallmouth bass) and channel catfish. The stretch between Kalab and Dolive State Park is arguably the most scenic offering visitors views of its rugged sandstone cliffs and high wooded ridges deep within its narrow valley. Be sure to hike Woodman Hollow State Preserve’s Ivydale Trail.
As it meanders south toward Peck, County and Des Moines are reflected in the river’s surface. The region’s low-lying land is fringed with hardwoods, cattails, and reeds. The banks in Tipton and Boone Villages and channel catfish are also sought.
For those wanting to put their paddling skills to the test, Lizard Creek offers class II rapids after a rain. More like a small river, the Lizard has many riffles and rapids to keep you on your toes, but don’t forget to take in the beautiful surroundings. It flows through a narrow, winding valley and is lined with outcroppings, scenic bluffs, and private lands. Its last mile upstream of Highway 169 is the most challenging section of rapids—not for beginners.
The Des Moines River between Humboldt and Fort Dodge offers backwater (edaps, scenic bluffs, rock walls, and good fishing for smallmouth bass) and channel catfish. The stretch between Kalab and Dolive State Park is arguably the most scenic offering visitors views of its rugged sandstone cliffs and high wooded ridges deep within its narrow valley. Be sure to hike Woodman Hollow State Preserve’s Ivydale Trail.
As it meanders south toward Peck, County and Des Moines are reflected in the river’s surface. The region’s low-lying land is fringed with hardwoods, cattails, and reeds. The banks in Tipton and Boone Villages and channel catfish are also sought.
For those wanting to put their paddling skills to the test, Lizard Creek offers class II rapids after a rain. More like a small river, the Lizard has many riffles and rapids to keep you on your toes, but don’t forget to take in the beautiful surroundings. It flows through a narrow, winding valley and is lined with outcroppings, scenic bluffs, and private lands. Its last mile upstream of Highway 169 is the most challenging section of rapids—not for beginners.
The Boone River valley has natural beauty similar to that of the Des Moines River Valley in Webster County, but on a smaller scale. Above Webster City, infrequent access and the possibility of river-wide snags keep many off the river, but those who do visit will find heavily wooded banks and tranquil setting. The most popular section for paddlers, however, lies between Webster City and the confluence with the Des Moines River, where the river courses through a deep wooded valley and over fun riffles and a couple rock ledges. This stretch will also appeal to the historic minded because of the number of old mills which once lined its banks in the 1850s, and Vegors Cemetery where both Native Americans and early white settlers are buried.
Frequent riffle-pool areas provide excellent fishing for smallmouth bass, channel catfish and walleye.
Be safe out there!
Wear a life jacket!
They really do save lives. It won’t work if you don’t wear it.
Don’t boat under the influence
For your safety, don’t use alcohol or drugs on the water.
Watch for hazards
On rivers, hazards like dams, fences, snags, rocks, and bridge abutments may be present. Dams and snags in particular can be killers. Avoid them!
Plan to get wet!
You may capsize, so dress for the weather. When the water and/or weather get cold, warm-when-wet clothing and a wetsuit are needed.
Stay legal!
Camping on sandbars is allowed on the West Fork Des Moines River from Brushy Bayou Area to Humboldt, East Fork Des Moines River from Algona to Humboldt, and all of the Upper Des Moines River. Land along Lizard Creek, the Boone River, and areas upstream of Brushy Bayou and Algona is privately owned—these waters are navigable, but you must respect private property.
Littering is a crime – pack out everything you bring in. Report littering or dumping by calling 888-HOLITTR.
Resources
Water trails and recent listing of canoe/kayak liverys: www.iowadnr.gov/watertrails/
There are seven low-head dams along the West Fork Des Moines and Upper Des Moines River, indicated with the dam icon. Paddlers need to avoid these dams, landing well above and launching far below them. Dangers currently below these dams are capable of trapping and holding you underwater for extended periods of time. Orange bordered signs on Iowa’s rivers indicate the presence of a dangerous dam. However, signs are subject to high water events and may be absent.
West Fork Des Moines River, East Fork Des Moines River, Upper Des Moines River, Lizard Creek, Boone River
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Belize Turtle Watch Launches Adopt A Beach Program
The Belize Turtle Watch Program was launched in March 2011 with the goal of determining if climate change is impacting sea turtles in Belize. In order to monitor this change, a baseline data set on in-water abundance and nesting activity of sea turtles in Belize is needed. One part of this program is the 2011 Sea Turtle Census. The Sea Turtle Census consists of the In-Water and Nesting Beach Observation Programs where marine guides and coastal property owners record their observations of sea turtles. We are relying on interested businesses and individuals volunteer and report sightings of all sea turtles.
Adopt A Beach was launched in June 2011, along with ECOMAR’s Sea Turtle Census. The Adopt A Beach Program relies on coastal property owners and protected area managers to Adopt Beaches and monitor them for signs of sea turtle activity and keeping the beach ‘turtle friendly.’ June through September is peak nesting season and we need your help to monitor the 100s of miles of beach that we have in Belize! Even if you adopt only a mile or less of beach, this will add to our database so please sign up now!
Contact Us about Adopting A Beach Today!
www.ecomarbelize.org/adopt_a_beach
What’s Inside...........
Belize Turtle Watch..................................................1
Launch of Adopt A Beach
Adopt A Beach..........................................................2
Why Monitor Beaches?
How to Monitor Beaches for Nesting
Making Your Beach Turtle Friendly
Adopted Beaches......................................................3
PACT-Serenity Tagging.............................................4
Olive Tagging............................................................4
Climate Change Theory.............................................4
Belize Fisheries laws prohibit the harvest of sea turtles.
Why Monitor Beaches?
Sea turtles use beach front and littoral forest to lay their eggs. Any tracks or nests need to be reported so that we have an idea as to how many turtles are nesting in Belize and where they are nesting. Help is needed in the monitoring of changes in beach patterns throughout the seasons and over the years. Turtles return to their “natal” beaches of their births to lay their eggs. If the beaches are receding or are inaccessible to turtles, their populations may decline. We may be seeing the last sea turtles if we don’t act today and ‘Protect Turtles Today, for Tomorrow.’
How to Monitor Beaches For Nesting Turtles
To monitor a beach, you simply walk the length of the beach on a daily basis. Ideally, the beach should be monitored in the early morning because turtles nest at night and when they crawl up the beach, they leave tracks that lead to the nest that can be covered by a rising tide or by foot traffic.
If tracks are seen, then evidence of successful nesting should be looked for. If a nest is found, it is important to measure its distance from the high tide mark. If possible, a GPS point should also be taken. Nests typically take approximately 60 days to incubate, after which hatchlings will emerge. Emerging hatchlings is an exciting event and guests of hotels and resorts will be excited to hear about it! If the hatchlings are not seen, remember that they leave small tracks, as well. Anytime turtle activity is seen, whether it be nesting on beaches, underwater, or stranded, turtles should be reported!
Making Your Beach Turtle Friendly
Keep it Clean. Especially during peak nesting season, it is important to make sure that turtle nesting beaches are kept in a condition that promotes turtle nesting. Large items such as chairs, umbrellas and recreational vehicles left on the beach at night can obstruct a turtle crawling to nesting beach area and may prevent egg-laying, or the turtle may get stuck!
Picking up litter on the beach is also an important aspect of keeping the beach ‘turtle friendly.’ Litter left on the beach can cause harm to turtles crawling up on the beach and attempting to nest.
Lighting. Artificial lighting disorients turtles so it is important to keep beach lighting to a minimum. If possible, beach lights should be switched off at night or at least, turned upwards rather than down towards the beach.
Dogs. Dogs may harm or disturb nesting turtles. If you hear your dog barking at the beach, check it out. If there’s a turtle laying, tie up the dog to prevent it from disturbing the nesting turtle!
Do Not Approach. If a turtle is seen nesting, do not disturb it! Keep quiet and move around slowly to avoid frightening her off. Do not approach a turtle as they crawl on to the beach and or while it is trying to lay eggs. Never shine lights or take flash pictures of a turtle nesting.
Help Us Protect Turtles Today for Tomorrow!
Submit sea turtle observations online at ECOMAR’s website under “Submit Report.” www.ecomarbelize.org
If you can, be sure to submit pictures along with your report!
**Ambergris Caye**
**Athens Gate**
Rhonda Lawrence is on the beach early every morning and will monitor for nesting activity.
**Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve**
Belize’s northernmost protected area, which borders Mexico. There are roughly 8 miles of sandy beach that staff from Bacalar Chico and Hol Chan marine reserves regularly monitor for nesting activity.
**Casa Tortuga Villa**
Peggy Mason says that sea turtles have not nested on their beach for over 40 years, but will be more than happy to monitor the natural beach area that they have.
**El Pescador Lodge & Villas**
Alissa Flota has seen only one turtle nest on their beach in the past 15 years. The nest was laid on July 7th, 2007 and had over 100 eggs, but only a dozen or so hatched due to Hurricane Dean.
**The Turtledman’s House**
Rosemary Ingram Smith walks a mile of beach every day and has been monitoring sea turtle activity for years along with her husband, Greg Smith, who spearheaded research on important nesting beaches in Belize in the 90’s.
**SunBreeze Hotel & Suites**
Julia Edwards, located at the heart of town has seawall in front of their property, so has not seen any signs of turtles in these areas for 15 years but would like to help conserve turtles.
**Blue Tang Inn**
Fanny Herstig is excited to begin monitoring their beach for nesting activity.
**Hopkins**
**Lebeha Cabanas**
Dorothy Pettersson is unsure if turtles nest on their beach, but is excited to participate in monitoring for nesting activity!
**Jungle Jeanie by the Sea**
Jean Barkman knows that sea turtles have nested on their beach in the past but is unsure of the frequency.
**Placencia Peninsula**
**Robert’s Grove Beach Resort**
Jean-Marc Tasse knows that turtles have nested on this beach in the past, but is not sure of the frequency.
**Villa Typsy Gecko**
Javier Duenas adopted an area of Maya Beach and is not sure if sea turtles nest on the beach but will begin monitoring for nesting activity.
**Green Parrot Beach Houses**
David Allardice adopted an area of Maya Beach and is not sure if sea turtles nest on their beach.
**Colibri House**
Stefano Ragagnin has two properties, one in Placencia and one in Punta Negra. A few years ago, he found a small sea turtle on his beach that was injured and did not survive. He and his business partner will monitor their properties for sea turtle activity.
**Offshore Cayes**
**South Water Caye**
Jennifer McDougall of International Zoological Expeditions has adopted the beaches on South Water Caye which is the namesake for South Water Caye Marine Reserve. Jennifer reports that turtles nest regularly on the island.
**Royal Belize Reception**
Private caye with seawall surrounding the entire caye, so no beaches are available for nesting turtles however, they will assist with ECOMAR’s other monitoring programs such as Adopt-A-Reef and monitoring for turtles in-water!
**Miller’s Landing Resort**
Ms. Antionette Miller walks her dogs on the beach every day and has not seen any turtles on their property for the past 18 years and does not believe she has seen any tracks either.
**Lighthouse Reef Atoll**
Half Moon Caye was designated a National Monument in 1982 and later became part of the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System World Heritage Site. It’s sea turtle activity is being managed by the Belize Audubon Society. Sea Turtles regularly nest on this island.
**Reef’s End Lodge**
Located on Tobacco Caye, it has been years since they have seen sea turtles nesting on their property due to too much artificial lighting. However, one year in the past they had up to 13 nests on the caye!
**Corozal**
**Bayside Guest House**
Karen Heaps says that the area around their property is a permanently submerged rocky part of shoreline that reaches the town seawall, so turtles do not nest in that are, but will still monitor for turtles.
**Serenity Sands Bed & Breakfast**
They have never seen turtles nest on their property. However, they know that fisherman used to catch sea turtles in that area and have 2 dogs, which may deter turtles from coming onto the beach.
**Almond Tree Resort**
Lynn Carpenter reports that she does not believe turtles nest on their small beach in Corozal Bay but will monitor the surrounding water for any sea turtles.
---
Thank you to everyone for supporting the Adopt A Beach Program!
Tagging of PACT-Serenity At Turtle Shores
PACT- Serenity is the 3rd hawksbill that has been tagged by Marymount University and Hawksbill Hope in Belize in 2011. She was tagged and released at Turtle Shores Mission Base on August 20th, 2011. Present for the release was PACT - Protected Areas Conservation Trust who have funded a local training session in Gales Point that is being coordinated by Kevin Andrewin, of the Gales Point Wildlife Sanctuary and Hawksbill Hope. ECOMAR assisted by weighing and measuring PACT-Serenity, who had a straight carapace length of 65cm and weighed in at 170 pounds. Thus far, she is hugging the beach and lagoon areas in the Turtle Shores area as seen by her satellite signal pathway to the right.
Olive Tagging (contd. from page 1)
Olive is an olive ridley turtle that was found entangled discarded fishing net near San Pedro, Ambergris Caye. She had cuts on both front flippers, deforming the left front flipper and causing a puncture wound in her right front flipper upon her arrival at the Hol Chan Marine Reserve Office. She was unable to dive down when she was initially found but was rehabilitated by biologists and rangers from both Hol Chan and Bacalar Chico Marine Reserves. Hawksbill Hope recognized the importance of tagging this first observation of an olive ridley in Belize and donated a satellite tag to Olive on her release. Olive was released at Tres Cocos dive site on August 8th, 2011. Since that time, she has traveled over 635 miles and is in the middle of the Gulf of Mexico. Go Olive Go!
Climate Change Theory
Supporting our theory that climate change will impact sea turtles, we have received reports of olive ridley turtles in Mexico and Cuba. In 2007 and April 2011, two olives were found stranded on beaches in Mexico by Mr. Roberto Herrera. Felix Moncada from Cuba reported an olive ridley in 2009. In addition reports of turtles ‘with many shields on their shells’ have been reported in Isla Mujeres Quintana Roo, suggesting this may be a feeding ground for these turtles. Because olive ridley turtles have not previously known to be distributed to these areas or Belize, this is evidence that climate change may be impacting the range of these turtles! | 37c38311-90bf-49d7-b5a5-cf54630d683f | CC-MAIN-2024-26 | https://www.ecomarbelize.org/uploads/9/6/7/0/9670208/adoptabeachnewsletter.pdf | 2024-06-19T03:08:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-26/segments/1718198861797.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20240619025415-20240619055415-00239.warc.gz | 660,622,874 | 2,461 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.989388 | eng_Latn | 0.996952 | [
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DINOSAURS
Facts for Students
Dinosaurs are thought to have roamed the Earth for 150 million years, only to be wiped out in the Cretaceous period (146-65 million years ago). Today, fossils, bones and footprints from these amazing creatures give us an insight into what they might have looked like and how they may have lived.
Introduction to the early world
Have you heard of Pangaea (sometimes spelt Pangea)? It is the name for a single landmass that was thought to have existed about 300 million years ago. It incorporated North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Antarctica and Australia. The name comes from the Ancient Greek: *pan* meaning ‘entire’ and *gaia* meaning ‘earth’.
Pangaea began to break apart to eventually form the Earth’s major continents as we know them today. This process is called continental drift and was occurring at the same time as dinosaurs were thought to be roaming the earth.
Types of dinosaurs
Dinosaurs are very much like reptiles; they have tough scaly skin and most would have laid eggs. As well as their tough skin, many dinosaurs had built-in armour. Dinosaurs had four limbs.
All dinosaurs lived on land (see the ‘Dinosaurs fast facts’ section to find out more about prehistoric water and air animals). They either walked on two hind legs (this is called bipedal) or all four legs (this is called quadrupedal). Some dinosaurs were strictly plant eating (herbivores), others were meat eating (carnivores), and others ate both (omnivores).
Scientists have recognised from dinosaur skeletons that their pelvic (hip) bones resemble either those of lizards or of birds. Scientists divide dinosaurs into two categories based on these bones:
- Saurischia, for lizard-hipped dinosaurs.
- Ornithischia for bird-hipped dinosaurs.
Dinosaurs in the lizard-hipped Saurischia group are divided into two groups:
- **Theropoda** – fearsome, bipedal carnivores. Two well-known examples of Theropoda are the *Tyrannosaurus Rex* and the *Velociraptor*.
- **Sauropodomorpha** – quadrupedal herbivores. The *Brachiosaurus* is probably the best-known Sauropodomorpha.
The bird-hipped Ornithischia are divided into four groups:
- **Ornithopoda** – medium to large bird-footed herbivores. *Iguanodon* is an example of an Ornithopod.
- **Stegosauria** – plated lizards. The *Stegosaurus* is a famous member of this group.
- **Ankylosauria** – armoured lizards. Not surprisingly, the *Ankylosaurus* is an Ankylosauria.
- **Ceratopsia** – horned faces. Perhaps the most famous example of a horn-faced dinosaur is the *Triceratops*.
**Dinosaurs in Australia**
Although some dinosaur bones and fossils have been discovered in every Australian state and territory apart from Tasmania and the Northern Territory, Australia’s landscape is not suitable for preserving the remains of dinosaurs. Fossils usually occur in areas that have been built upon over time, for example in mountainous regions, so the flat, exposed landscape of Australia has not provided too many fossil finds.
Australia does, however, have a very good record of preserving the fossils of the ancient sea creatures that lived alongside the dinosaurs. This is because much of Australia used to be covered by an inland ocean.
**Queensland**
Most Australian dinosaur bones come from Queensland, where bones estimated to be from the Early Cretaceous Period (*around 140 million years ago*) have been found in rocks. The fossils found indicate that the following dinosaurs lived in Queensland:
Minmi the Ankylosaur
Minmi, as she was named, would have been two metres long, one metre tall, and covered in bony armour to protect her from predators. She was a herbivore who walked on all four legs.
Muttaburrasaurus the Iguanadont
Muttaburrasaurus was named after the place he was found – Muttaburra, Queensland. He was a huge herbivore, up to eight metres tall, with a beak and sharp teeth for eating plants.
Two Sauropods – *Rhoetosaurus browniei* and Elliot the *Austrosaurus mckillopi*
Even though the skeletons of these two dinosaurs were incomplete, scientists could tell that they were both large dinosaurs. *Rhoetosaurus browniei* is thought to have been up to 17 metres in length and to have weighed about 20 tonnes (an average-sized car weighs about 1.5 tonnes). Elliot’s thigh bone caused scientists to believe he would have been up to 21 metres in length. He weighed around 25 tonnes.
**Dinosaur stampede**
We are very fortunate to have an incredible moment in time preserved at Lark Quarry, Queensland.
Around 95 million years ago, during the Cretaceous period, a large dinosaur ran through a flock of 180 bird-sized carnivorous Theropods and herbivorous Ornithopods. The smaller dinosaurs fled the larger dinosaur, leaving thousands of footprints impressed on the Earth’s muddy surface. Over time the footprints filled with sand and became preserved beneath a lake. As the lake dried up, the footprints turned to rock.
The footprints remained, covered by sediment in the now dry landscape, until the 1960s, when a man named Glen Seymour came across what he believed were fossilised bird tracks while searching for opals. The real makers of the tracks were not confirmed as dinosaurs until scientists studied them in 1971. The footprints have been completely uncovered and are now enclosed in the Dinosaur Stampede National Monument.
Despite only their footprints remaining, scientists have garnered a surprising amount of information about the dinosaurs involved in the stampede. The small Theropods would have been fast-running, chicken-sized carnivores called Skartopus who ate insects, frogs and reptiles. The herbivorous Ornithopod would have been a Wintonopus, about the size of an emu. The larger dinosaur that caused the skirmish left behind huge 50cm footprints which gave scientists a good indication of its size – about eight metres long.
**New South Wales opalised fossils**
In the Lightning Ridge opal fields in New South Wales we can find something very special: opalised dinosaur bones. Opal is a beautiful gemstone which people often make into jewelry. Opals can be blue, green or pale, with sparkling fiery colours running through them when they catch the light.
The inland sea that previously existed in Australia retreated leaving behind something called silica. This seeped into the earth and hardened, forming opal. Ninety-six per cent of the world’s opal comes from Australia, so most opalised fossils are also found here.
Dinosaur bones become opalised when they are covered by rock and sediment. The bone then begins to rot away, allowing silica to creep into the cavity left behind. The silica hardens, creating an opal cast of the bone. In Australia, we can find opalised dinosaur bones, plants, turtles, mollusks, fish, sharks, snakes and all sorts of ancient life forms.
**South Australia**
During the Cretaceous period there was a group of dinosaurs called Hypsilodontids who lived in southern Australia. They were perfectly adapted for the cold weather and dark winters, with their large eyes allowing them to search for food such as ferns and moss, even in poor light. They would have been about the size of a wallaby and rather resembled one, running on their hind legs with a long tail.
**Victoria and Western Australia**
The remains of an Ozraptor were found near Geraldton in Western Australia. The Ozraptor was a bipedal, carnivorous Theropod that is thought to have been about three metres tall.
In Victoria, a large number of dinosaur bones have been found at various coastal locations, including a site called Dinosaur Cove and another called Flat Rocks. The most common dinosaurs found at these sites are called Hypsilophodontids.
What happened to the dinosaurs?
During the Cretaceous period something happened that caused the dinosaurs to disappear. The problem is that scientists are not actually sure what it was.
There are many theories as to what could have caused such huge creatures who had roamed the earth for so long to become extinct so rapidly. Theories include poisonous volcanic gases, a deadly virus, an asteroid, famine or climate change. Below are explanations of two of these theories.
Volcano theory
We already know that the Earth was undergoing major geographical change during the Cretaceous period. The land mass Pangaea had broken up into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, and then, 130 million years ago, these land masses were beginning to fragment to form our modern-day continents. All this moving and shifting could very well have resulted in volcanic eruptions and earthquakes which could have killed the dinosaur population.
Asteroid/Meteor theory
There is also evidence that this theory could be true, as, in Europe, scientists have found traces of iridium (a metal which is rare on Earth but common in meteorites). The asteroid theory suggests that asteroids entered the Earth’s atmosphere (becoming meteors) and hit the Earth. This caused the sky to fill with ash and dust which blocked the Sun and sent the Earth into a prolonged winter. This would have caused the temperature to fall and plants to die out, in turn killing the dinosaurs.
Dinosaur fast facts
- In Ancient Greek the word dinosaur translates as ‘terrible lizard’.
- Scientists who study fossils are called paleontologists.
- Oddly enough, birds actually evolved not from the bird-hipped dinosaurs as their name suggests, but from the lizard-hipped dinosaurs!
- Dinosaur names often describe characteristics that scientists think they might have had. For example, *Tyrannosaurus Rex* means ‘Tyrant Lizard King’ and *Velociraptor* means ‘Swift robber’.
- Dinosaurs lived only on land and could not swim or fly. However, they lived alongside prehistoric water reptiles called Plesiosaurs, which were much like modern-day dolphins, as well as flying reptiles called Pterosaurs.
- The first ever dinosaur to be given a name was the *Megalosaurus*. It was named by Reverend William Buckland in 1824.
- Possibly the longest dinosaur that we know of is called *Seismosaurus*. It was around 25m tall and an astounding 45m in length. Its name comes from the Latin *seismo* meaning ‘of an earthquake’ and the Greek *sauros* meaning ‘lizard’.
- Have you heard of the movie called *Jurassic Park*? It was all about dinosaurs. When it was released it became the highest grossing film in the world, making $80 million dollars in its first week.
- Possibly one of the smartest known dinosaurs is the *Troodon*, which translates to ‘wounding tooth’. The Troodon was a fast and carnivorous theropod. He was not very big (not even as big as an adult human), but had one of the largest brains (in comparison to his body size) of any known dinosaur group. | adb85eec-5f25-4494-8a51-f0378019f7fa | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://www.forteachersforstudents.com.au/site/wp-content/uploads/KidsMedia/Dinosaurs/pdfs/dinosaurs-facts.pdf | 2022-07-06T07:12:11+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104668059.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20220706060502-20220706090502-00772.warc.gz | 812,954,687 | 2,382 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998308 | eng_Latn | 0.998633 | [
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