Split (1)

train · 101k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	date string	file_path string	offset int64	token_count int64	language string	page_average_lid string	page_average_lid_score float64	full_doc_lid string	full_doc_lid_score float64	per_page_languages list	is_truncated bool	extractor string	page_ends list	fw_edu_scores list	minhash_cluster_size int64	duplicate_count int64
MODULE 1: CRASH PREVENTION LESSON 4: TRAFFIC CONGESTION GRADE LEVEL: 6 - 8 When a roadway crash occurs, normal traffic routes can be disrupted, leading to delay, congestion, frustration, and potentially other secondary crashes. The time it takes to clear incidents relates to the ability of first responders, medics, and other emergency service providers to access the incident site and remove debris, vehicles, and those who were injured. The types of technologies currently used to inform drivers of upcoming road conditions and instruct road users to take specific precautions are introduced to students in this lesson plan. Created By: NanoSonic, Inc. Giles County Public Schools Leidos Lesson 4 – Traffic Congestion Using Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) to Improve Incident Response Time Contributed by: Nanosonic, Leidos, Giles County Public Schools Grade Level: 6 - 8 Lesson in this Module: 4 of 4 Time Required: 60 minutes Lesson Dependency: None Keywords: transportation engineering; intelligent transportation systems; crash avoidance; congestion Related Curriculum Educational Standards This lesson plan and its associated activities are correlated to the national standards in the each of the core discipline areas of STEM: Next Generation Science Standards, American Association for the Advancement of Science Standards, Standards for Technological Literacy, International Society for Technology in Education Standards, Common Core Mathematics Standards, and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards. Pre-Requisite Knowledge Lessons 1 through 3 of this Module. Learning Objectives * Students will understand the causes of congestion as it relates to motor-vehicle crashes. * Students will learn how this congestion affects emergency medical services. * Students will understand how ITS and connected vehicle (CV) systems improve traffic flow after a crash occurs allowing EMS to arrive in a timely manner. * Students will work together in cooperative learning groups to simulate real-world problems and solutions. Introduction/Motivation As drivers, we have come to expect direct and immediate access to our frequently-visited locations. Most times, this expectation is met; however, disruptions can occur that impede this ability. When a roadway crash occurs, normal traffic routes can be disrupted, leading to delay, congestion, frustration, and potentially other secondary crashes. The time it takes to clear incidents and corresponding congestion relates to the ability of first responders, medics, and other emergency service providers to access the incident site and remove debris, vehicles, and those who were injured. The types of technologies currently used to inform drivers of upcoming road conditions and instruct road users to take specific precautions are introduced to students in this lesson plan. Lesson Background & Concepts for Teachers Crashes, stalled vehicles, debris or spilled loads in the roadway are all examples of traffic incidents that contribute to traffic congestion on the highways. Traffic congestion caused by incidents affects the mobility and safety of all travelers. Imagine the effect of a traffic crash occurring on an interstate with three lanes, blocking one or two of the lanes, or even worse, all three lanes. Major incidents can very quickly cause traffic back-ups for miles. Problems multiply when the first incident causes other secondary incidents such as crashes, stalled vehicles, overheating, and running out of fuel. On some major roads in the United States, there are permanent signs installed along ITS Detection Equipment (Image courtesy of: pspc.harris.com/market/Transportation/ITS.aspx) the highway designating a diversion route to help motorists navigate around and cut back on congestion in the event of an incident. As you can imagine, the longer lanes are blocked and traffic is not moving freely, the likelihood of additional crashes increases, so it is important to have quick response to the incidents in order to clear the roadway. Law enforcement, emergency medical services (EMS), and fire and rescue are typically the first to respond to traffic incidents, although transportation agencies and the towing industry also play an important supportive role. Transportation Management Center (TMC) (Image courtesy of: www.itsinternational.com) Besides someone calling 911 to report a crash, there are ways that technology can play a role in helping to quickly alert the first responders to an incident. One way is a system that is installed in some vehicles that can detect whether a crash or other malfunction has occurred and can automatically send notification to emergency personnel. Transportation agencies may also have ITS cameras or other detection equipment set up along the roadway which can help them identify traffic congestion and incidents. If a crash is identified, their traffic management centers (TMC) can then quickly report to emergency management agencies, such as law enforcement and EMS. TMCs can also adjust variable message signs to alert drivers of an incident and offer alternate routes, as well as changing variable speed limit signs to slow traffic in advance of the incident. Variable speed limits can reduce crash frequency, severity and the likelihood of secondary crashes by reducing the speed of vehicles as the approach an incident, traffic queue, or stopped traffic. More consistent speeds improve safety by helping to prevent rear-end and lane–changing collisions due to sudden stops. Once notification has been sent to the emergency management agencies, getting to the scene of the incident can be a challenge. Traffic is probably already starting to back up and picking the fastest route is imperative. Traveler information systems that show the flow of traffic on different roadways can be beneficial to determining a quick route. There are currently many mobile applications available as well as some being offered directly through the State DOT. Coordination between emergency responders, transportation agencies, and even private industry such as towing, is vital to managing and limiting the congestion and safety effects of traffic incidents. Technology can assist in providing accurate and timely information to help identify congested routes or incidents ahead and prepare motorists to slow down or take alternate routes. Vocabulary/Definitions \| \| Vocabulary Word \| Definition \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) \| \| \| \| Traffic Management Center (TMC) \| \| \| \| Variable message sign \| \| \| \| Variable speed limit \| \| \| \| Traveler Information System \| \| \| Associated Activities * Activity 1 – Pre-class Activity * Teacher simulates traffic congestion by going out into the hallway during class-change times. By "accidentally" blocking their door while students are waiting to enter, a queue forms and grows as students make their way toward the classroom. This acts as an introduction to the lesson. * Activity 2 – Discussion on Hallway Congestion o Why was there extra congestion during this class change? (Teacher blocked door) o How does this make you feel? o What would've happened if there had been an emergency in the classroom and the nurse had to get into the classroom quickly? o How can you relate this experience to transportation? Specifically, what happens when there is a crash on the highway and emergency vehicles need to get through? * Activity 2 – Congestion Role Play Activity o Pre-assign the role of the emergency medical services (1-3 students pushing a desk), the changeable message sign holder (1 student), the roadside device (1 student), the crashed vehicles (2 students), optional videographer (1 student) o Consider recording this activity with a video recording device so the students can observe the "traffic flow" in each scenario. o Full-page images of the classroom setup are included in the appendix of this lesson plan. o Scenario 1: Congestion with no ITS [x] Place tape on the ground to simulate a roadway that is two and a half chairwidths wide. [x] Pretend that there is a crash at the front of the road. (this blocks 1.5 chair widths) [x] Each student sits in their chair (facing forward). [x] Without communicating (no talking or gesturing), students need to make way for "emergency vehicle" personnel. o Scenario 2: Congestion with Intelligent Transportation Systems [x] Same scene (car crash at the front of the road) [x] Hold up a sign that says "Crash Ahead" and allow students to choose a route that will get them to the finish line the fastest. [x] This will demonstrate changeable message signs and their ability to reroute traffic in the case of a crash. o Scenario 3: Congestion with Connected Vehicle Technology [x] Same scene (car crash at the front of the road) [x] One student is designated as the connected vehicle roadside device. This student is tasked with notifying students that a crash has occurred and that an emergency service vehicle is approaching from behind. The student indicates which way vehicles should move in order to make way for the emergency vehicle to pass by and assist the crashed car. o Discussion on Outcomes [x] Which way allowed the EMS to arrive fastest? [x] Can you brainstorm any other methods for helping the EMS to arrive sooner? [x] Summarize your findings and post them on the educational social media site called Edmodo. Lesson Closure * Students should conclude that the CV system and ITS technologies aid in reducing congestion after a crash and permits EMS to arrive on the scene in a timely manner. Extensions/Multimedia * Contact your local traffic management center and arrange a field trip * Sample websites with live traffic information: o Google Maps: https://support.google.com/maps/answer/3093389?hl=en o Mapquest: http://www.mapquest.com/traffic/ o Waze: https://www.waze.com/livemap o INRIX traffic app for mobile devices: http://www.inrix.com/inrix-traffic-app/ o Or search your state or neighboring states to find out if they have a live traffic map specific to your area. * Utilize Edmodo (www.edmodo.com) to provide further questioning and discussion between students and teacher. Edmodo is safe social learning website made specifically for teachers and students. It is a way to collaborate on assignments, homework, projects, and after-school STEM programs and is used as a communication tool to provide additional questioning and feedback from teachers and students. Appendix – Full Images of Classroom Setup for Congestion Activity	<urn:uuid:0c692bbc-0871-4322-9a97-f39b881479eb>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.nanosonic.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Module-1_Lesson-4_Traffic-Congestion_Lesson-Plan_MS.pdf	2018-10-15T11:29:55Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00058.warc.gz	494,136,326	2,096	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.972241	eng_Latn	0.997125	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 698, 1556, 3850, 6421, 7037, 8388, 9644, 10533, 10600 ]	[ 4.875 ]	2	1
Patient information Mild hearing loss – information pack You have been given this leaflet because a hearing test has shown that your child has a mild hearing loss. This leaflet will tell you about what mild hearing loss means and what help is available. What is mild hearing loss? Children with a mild hearing loss have hearing that is slightly below the level that is considered normal. They may have difficulty hearing quieter sounds. Around 0.4 per 1000 children are born with a permanent mild hearing loss in both ears. Mild hearing loss can be present from birth. It may have been inherited or may be caused by problems during the pregnancy or birth. A mild hearing loss may also occur later in childhood as a result of an infection, for example mumps or meningitis, or because of a head injury. In many cases the actual cause of the mild hearing loss may not be identified. Over time, children born with mild hearing loss can progressively acquire more severe losses. Facts about mild hearing loss * A mild hearing loss can affect speech and language development, educational attainment and social interaction. Although children with a mild hearing loss may appear to respond appropriately to sounds, their listening experience on which learning is based will not be complete. * With a mild hearing loss, a child may experience difficulties with: o Hearing quiet sounds and subtle speech differences o Hearing words clearly out of context o Following fast paced discussions o Speech and language difficulties o Hearing speech when there is background noise o Difficulties at school including slower progress and behavioural problems o More difficulty interacting with others * In situations where there is background noise, for example at school, a child with mild hearing loss may be more easily distracted. In order to participate fully in the tasks o Road safety he/she will have to maintain good levels of concentration that may increase their tiredness. * When speech is not heard clearly this can affect a child's own speech production causing a reduction in speech intelligibility. Language development may also be delayed. * A child with a hearing loss relies more on visual information than a child with normal hearing. It is important that your child's eyesight is regularly checked. What help is available? Fitting a hearing aid The introduction of hearing aids helps to stimulate the hearing pathway so that it can be used to its maximum potential as soon as possible. A hearing aid is a special type of small amplifier. Its job is to make the sounds we hear louder. The signal will not be perfect as the hearing aid does not make the hearing become normal, but amplifies sounds so that your child can hear them. Using a hearing aid can give the wearer a lot of useful information about speech and environmental sound. Types of hearing aid There are many different models of hearing aid available in various shapes, sizes, colours and ways in which they process the sound. Your audiology team will discuss with you the most appropriate options to suit individual needs and preferences. Most hearing aids fit behind the ear. All behind the ear hearing aids basically consist of a microphone and an amplifier and are powered by a small battery. Special earmoulds are manufactured to carry the sound into the ear canal. Radio aid systems Many children with mild hearing loss will also benefit from a radio aid or FM system attached to their hearing aids. The speaker wears an FM transmitter, and the radio signal is received in the child's hearing aids. This can give a better quality sound in situations where there is background noise, for example, when a hearing aid alone does not maximise a child's access to the most important speech sounds for example in the classroom, in restaurants, on car journeys and on bike rides as well as at after school clubs. Earmoulds Earmoulds are made from an impression of the ear taken by your audiologist. To do this they will usually place a small sponge in the ear and then insert a specially mixed plasticine-type material to fill the ear completely. Once this has hardened after 1-2 minutes it can gently be removed. Soundfield systems Using a soundfield system may be an alternative solution to fitting a hearing aid depending on your child's hearing difficulty. This is generally used to help listening in the classroom situation as it ensures the child can hear the teacher's voice at a constant volume wherever he/she is sat and in whichever direction he/she is facing. The system comprises of a microphone and speaker. The microphone is worn by the teacher and the sound is transmitted to a loud-speaker. This is most commonly a portable speaker that sits on the child's desk but may also be speakers that are fitted around the classroom. Since the microphone is close to the teacher's mouth the speech sounds it detects and transmits to the child's speaker are clear and have less background noise interference. Hints to help with a mild hearing loss Communication * Keep background noise to a minimum as much as possible. * Get your child's attention before speaking to them. * In background noise, speak to your child at close range. * Re-phrase sentences rather than repeating them if they have not been understood. At school * Make the teacher aware that your child has a hearing loss. * Ask for your child to be seated as near to the teacher as possible. Road and personal safety * Teach your child to look around them to be sure of where a sound is coming from. * Before crossing the road it is particularly important that your child looks around to visually check for traffic. * You may wish to install rear-view mirrors to your child's bicycle so that they can visually locate where traffic is behind them. Protecting your child's hearing * Your child should avoid listening to loud sounds for long periods of time, for example personal stereos, music concerts, and when older if out in pubs, bars or night-clubs. It is important that your child wears ear-protection when necessary. * See your GP as soon as possible if your child has an ear-infection as this may cause his/her hearing to temporarily deteriorate. Furthermore if the infection is severe and left untreated it may permanently reduce the hearing levels. Our commitment to you * To provide you with an excellent service to meet your individual needs and those of your child. * To give you and your child individual attention. * To be available to you should you or your child need advice or reassurance. * To provide support when you are coming to terms with a hearing loss. * To offer help if a hearing loss causes problems when yours or your child's lifestyle changes. * To ensure you and your child feel confident and happy using a hearing aid. * To offer you a suitable date and time for appointments. * To make every effort to see you for an appointment on time. Your commitment to us * To make every effort to attend and be punctual at the appointments made for you. * To inform us as soon as you know that you will be unable to attend an appointment. * To help staff assigned to you or your child's care to help you by cooperating with them. For further information about the Trust, visit www.royalberkshire.nhs.uk Department of Audiology Telephone 0118 322 7238 Fax 0118 322 7075 Email: email@example.com Website: http://www.royalberkshire.nhs.uk/wards-and-services/audiology.htm If you would like this leaflet in other languages or formats (e.g. large print, Braille or audio), please contact the Audiology Department. Reviewed: March 2018 Review due: March 2020	<urn:uuid:cfa20351-5792-4cb5-9b08-670db6ed1608>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.royalberkshire.nhs.uk/patient-information-leaflets/audiology%20mild%20hearing%20loss	2018-10-15T11:42:17Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00059.warc.gz	521,076,599	1,552	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997303	eng_Latn	0.998515	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1878, 4197, 6324, 7669 ]	[ 3.125 ]	5	3
Consumer attitudes and perceptions on electronic waste: An assessment Saritha, V. * , Sunil Kumar, K.A. and Srikanth, V.N. Department of Environmental Studies, GITAM University, Rushikonda, Visakhapatnam – 530 045, Andhra Pradesh, India Received: 27 Aug. 2014 Accepted: 4Oct. 2014 ABSTRACT: The electronics industry is one of fastest growing manufacturing industries in India. However, the increase in the sales of electronic goods and their rapid obsolescence has resulted in the large-scale generation of electronic waste, popularly known as e-waste. E-waste has become a matter of concern due to the presence of toxic and hazardous substances present in electronic goods which, if not properly managed, can have adverse effects on the environment and human health. In India, the e-waste market remains largely unorganized, with companies being neither registered nor authorized and typically operating on an informal basis. In many instances, e-waste is treated as municipal waste, because India does not have dedicated legislation for the management of e-waste. It is therefore necessary to review the public health risks and strategies in a bid to addressthis growing hazard. There is the strong need for adopting sustainability practices in order to tackle the growing threat of e-waste. In the present work, we attempt to identify the various sources and reasons for e-waste generation, in addition to understanding the perception of the public towards e-waste management. This study aims to induce an awareness of sustainability practices and sustainability issues in the management of E-waste, especially waste related to personal computers (PCs) and mobile phones. From the results of the study, we concluded that the majority (90%) of the public is ignorant about e-waste and its issues; hence, there is a strong requirement for spreading awareness about the growing hazard of E-waste. Key words: Developing countries, Electronic waste, Hazardous substances, Personal computer (PC), Upgrading INTRODUCTION all types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) that has or could enter the waste stream. The improper disposal of these items affects human and environmental health, as many of these products contain toxic substances. E-waste that includes iron, aluminium, gold and other metals make up over 60% of these products, while plastics account for about 30% and hazardous pollutants comprise 2.70% (Kurian Joseph, 2007). The growing quantity of e-waste from the electronic industry is starting to reach disastrous proportions. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation Electronics is the world's largest and fastest growing manufacturing industry. Development in this area has significantly assisted the human race; however, its mismanagement has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess society has acquired during the pastcentury has creatednew challenges in terms ofwastemanagement. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) refers to electronic waste as ―electronic products that are discarded by consumers‖. This definition covers almost * Corresponding author E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org and Development (OECD), any appliance fitted with an electric power supply that has reached its end-of-life is included in theWaste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) (EU, 2002; Sushant et al., 2010). The primary materials found in electric and electronic waste are ferrous material (38%), nonferrous material (28%), plastic (19%), glass (4%) and others, including wood, rubber, ceramics, etc. (11%) (Sushant et al., 2011). The management of electronic waste (or E-waste) is one of the most rapidly growing areas for curbing pollution problems worldwide. New technologies are fast superseding millions of analogue appliances, leading to their disposal in prescribed landfills despite their potentially adverse impacts on the environment. The consistent advent of new designs and ‗‗smart'' functions and technology during the past 20 years has led to the rapid obsolescence of many electronic items. The lifespan of many electronic goods has been substantially shortened (less than two years for computers and cell phones) due to advancements in electronics, attractive consumer designs and marketing and compatibility issues (Peeranart et al., 2013; Denga, 2006; Macauley, 2003). Consequently, the volume of WEEE grows rapidly every year and is also believed to be one of the most critical waste disposal issues of the 21 st century. To be precise, the United Nation University estimates that 20 to 50 tons of e-waste is being generated per year worldwide (UNEP, 2005) and suggests the urgent need for developing an estimation technique (UNEP, 2009). Compared to conventional municipal waste, certain components of electronic products contain toxic substances that can generate threats to the environment as well as to human health (Woodell, 2008). For example, television and computer monitors generally contain hazardous materials such as lead, mercury and cadmium, while nickel, beryllium, and zinc can often be found in circuit boards. Due to the presence of these substances, recycling and the disposal of e-waste has developed into an important issue. The physical composition of e-waste is diverse and contains over 1000 different substances that can be categorized as belonging to either organic or inorganic fractions. Heavy metals form a significant part of inorganic fraction, accounting for 20% to 50%. E-waste consists of hazardous metallic elements like lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, arsenic, selenium and precious metals like silver, gold, copper and platinum. An overview indicates that manufacturing of mobile phones and personal computers consumes 3% of gold and silver mined worldwide each year, as well as 13% of palladium and 15% of cobalt. Both hazardous and precious heavy metals are non-renewable and are therefore finite resources that will eventually become extremely valuable. Moreover, managing ewaste is a difficult task due to the various challenges it presents including technical, financial, strategic, information failures, etc. As such, there is an urgent need for managing e-waste in a formal, systematic and eco-friendly manner by way of recycling precious metals from waste streams. In emerging economies like that of India, current e-waste management practices are followed in a disorganized manner, which may cause deleterious impacts on human health and ecology. It is thought that if an efficient system for removal/recovery could be proposed and developed, precious metals could be conserved, which in the authors' opinions would be a novel approach toward resource recovery (Viraja et al., 2012). Generally, exposure to the hazardous components of e-waste is most likely to arise through inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact. In addition to direct occupational (formal or informal) exposure, people can come into contact with e-waste materials and associated pollutants through contact with contaminated soil, dust, air, water and through food sources, including meat (Robinson, 2009; ATSDR, 1995; 1998; 1999; 2000; 2002;2004; 2005; 2007; 2012). Children, foetuses, pregnant women, elderly people, people with disabilities, workers in the informal e-waste recycling sector and other vulnerable populations face additional exposure risks. Children are a particularly sensitive group, due to the presence of additional routes of exposure (e.g., breastfeeding and placental exposure), high-risk behaviours (e.g., hand-to-mouth activities in early years and high risktaking behaviours in adolescence) and their changing physiology (e.g., high intakes of air, water and food, and low rates of toxin elimination) (Pronczuk de Garbino, 2004). The children of e-waste recycling workers also face take-home contamination from their parents' clothes and skin, and direct high-level exposure if recycling is taking place in their homes (Kristen et al., 2013). televisions. When these products are placed in landfills or incinerated, they pose health risks due to the hazardous materials they contain. The improper disposal of electronic products leads to the possibility of damaging the environment. As more ewaste is placed in landfills, exposure to environmental toxins is likely to increase, resulting in elevated risks of cancer and developmental and neurological disorders (Khurrum, 2011). MATERIALS & METHODS Study area Most people are unaware of the potential negative impact of the rapidly increasing use of computers, monitors and Visakhapatnam is the second fastest 'emerging city' in India (Fig. 1). The city is plagued by a large variety of pollution types. There is air pollution, the groundwater is polluted and plastic abuse is rampant; more recently, e-waste has seen a significant increase, too. With over 70 software companies and numerous schools and corporate offices in the city, e-waste has the potential to be the next big form of pollution within the city in the coming years. Study design The study aimed to obtain information about the knowledge, awareness and disposal methods of e-waste as practiced by the urban population of Visakhapatnam. Each subject participated in a face-to-face interview. The questionnaire was designed to obtain information with respect to the above-mentioned parameters. The structured interview and questionnaire During the face-to-face interview, questions consisted of five parts: I) Demographic profile: information included age, gender, marital status, occupation, income and education. II) Information regarding the use of electronic devices: to understand the various types of devices used, period of use, methods of storage, etc. III) Awareness regarding e-waste: to better understand the awareness of e-waste among the public. IV) E-waste disposal practices: included to evaluate individual perceptions and methods of e-waste disposal. V) Consumer behaviour: to comprehend the readiness of the consumer concerning various disposal options provided by the manufacturer. Face-to-face interviews were thought to be more reliable for obtaining accurate information from respondents, as they hailed from a wide range of backgrounds and had different educational levels. This also helped to ensure that all questions were answered and that the answers were recorded in a consistent manner. Most of the questions utilized the checklist approach in order to reduce ambiguity and to facilitate quantitative analysis. RESULTS & DISCUSSION Figure 2 illustrates the demographic profile of the respondents. The larger percentage of respondents was male (77.6%). The majority of respondents belonged to the age group of 26 to 35 (48.8%). The majority of respondents in the age group 26 to 45 were married (67.2%). Among the respondents, 88.4% had 4 to 6 persons per family only. The occupational trends of the respondents was observed as follow: 47.2% served in the government sector, while respondents in business made up 22%; 19.2% were students and 7.6% and 4% were housewives and private employees, respectively. The majority of respondents earned 10000 to 20000 per month; 58.8% of them were graduates and only 15.2% were postgraduates. Figure 3 depicts information regarding the ownership of various devices among the respondents. Among them, 90% to 100% used common electrical goods like fans or televisions. Surprisingly, cell phones and earphones also were included in this list. Among the respondents, 80% to 90% had VCD/DVD/CD players, washing machines, fluorescent light bulbs and Mp3/Mp4 players; 40% to 80% registered ownership of air conditioners, refrigerators, computer /laptops, cameras and telephones. Only 10% to 30% of respondents used advanced electrical goods like printers, microwaves, etc. Figure 4 represents the usage patterns of the above-mentioned devices. The hierarchy of the most frequently used devices was television, cell phone, washing machine, VCD player, air conditioner and computer. Among the respondents, 81.6% of them articulated that the primary reason for replacing devices was to keep up with the latest technology, technology became obsolete or to upgrade features, whereas 14.8% of respondents replaced devices due to technical failures. Only 4% replaced devices for eco-friendly reasons (Fig. 5). Of the respondents, 55.6% replaced their gadgets within one to two years, 35.2% after three to four years and 0.8% within five to six years; 84% of respondents stored broken, unused devices for one to three years, while 16% stored them for four to six years. Furthermore, 50.4% of respondents sold these devices as scrap once they stopped using them, 41.2% exchanged them, 7.2% of respondents kept them at home and only 1.2% gave devices away or donated them (Fig. 6). Figure 7 expresses the current e-waste disposal patterns adopted by respondents. Among them, 53.2% of respondents recycled with an electronics recycler (specifically, commercial outlets), 16.8% sent devices away for reuse, while 6.8% disposed of these devices. Furthermore, 70.8% replaced desktop computers every one to two years and 22.8% did so whenever required, irrespective of the age of the device; 53.2% replaced depending on attributes such as cost, ease of donation, limited choices for responsible recyclers, data security and convenience. Among participants, 40.4% attributed a lack of convenience as one of the hurdles for recycling, while 23.6% admitted a lack of awareness about e-waste recycling, 22% highlighted the cost of doing so and 14% stated that they did not find it secure to recycle e-waste. Among the respondents, 88% took into consideration the end of life requirements when purchasing a new device. Flat screen monitors, large office printers, DVD players, CPU's, computer mice and other accessories, netbooks, tablet PCs, keyboards and television sets were noted as the major devices regularly being disposed of or recycled;60% of respondents owned two cell phones. Furthermore, 36% preferred to take their e-waste to a recycling centre, 22.4% to donate it to a local charity and 18.4% offered it to a retailer for sale, with only 13.6% getting rid of it on events such as eDay, etc. Figure 8 represents the consumer behaviour of the respondents. Among them, 41.2% would consider disposing of old products in an eco-friendly manner, while 94% agreed to return it to the manufacturer for free if the latter claimed to recycle products in an eco-friendly manner. Furthermore, 78.8% approved of paying extra as included in the price of a product as part of the product purchase price for recycling. Among the respondents, 41.6% were willing to pay 5% to 10% of the product cost, 24% would pay 1% to 5% of the cost and 18.4% would pay more than 10% of the product cost. Electronic and electrical equipment cannot be avoided in today's world. The same therefore holds true for electronic and electrical waste equipment. As long as we use electronic devices, minimizing its adverse impacts on environment has to be managed. Through innovative changes in product design under EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility), the use of environmentally friendly substitutes for hazardous substances can help mitigate these impacts. The demographic profile of the respondents revealed most of them hailed from social classes less fortunate than middle class, yet they nonetheless owned a number of devices, particularly mobile phones. As stated by Vinod Kumar et al. (2011), computers and mobile phones have different estimated life spans. The average life span of a computer is three to five years and in case of mobile phones, this is only two to three years. Due to innovative products and offers, the life cycles of products are getting shorter. Attractive market offers push customers into buying new products rather than upgrading their existing devices. Consumers who like to replace their computer or mobile phone when they see a new product with improved and innovative features (known as early adopters of technology) contribute to more e-waste generation (Mundada et al., 2004; Cairns, 2005; Williams et al., 2008). Indian people generally use pirated operating systems and software. A new computer is purchased, sometimes not because of improper functioning but for upgrading systems and software (Williams et al., 2008). Customers today tend not to upgrade a computer; instead, they prefer to simply replace it; very few customers like to send products away for repair and service. From the study, it is evident that the above factors tend to concern younger and middle-aged generations who like have their technology constantly upgraded. The ownership of devices has increased tremendously in the past two decades. The most frequently used gadgets were reported to be televisions, cell phones, computers, VCD/DVD players and washing machines. Reasons for this can be found in Sushant et al. (2010), who state that the problems associated with e-waste in India began surfacing after the country's first phase of economic liberalization, after 1990. Due to strong competition in the market concerning brand, quality, price and services offered between various Indian and foreign companies, the electronic and consumables industry in India grew significantly. The use of electronics has indicated the remarkable trend of replacing existing devices with newer and more advanced alternatives within a very short span of three to four years for various reasons such as the upgrading of features and following the latest trends. The average lifespan of electric and electronic equipment is getting shorter, while the amount of related waste is increasing (Saroj Gupta, 2004). E-waste has become pervasive due to rapidly updated technology and changes in fashion, style and status. It was also noted by participants that they had reserves of stored broken, unused equipment at home. In India, most waste eitems are stored at households, as people do not know how to discard them. It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to the uncertainty of how to manage them correctly. This electronic junk lies unattended in houses, offices and warehouses, usually mixed in with other household waste, and eventually disposed of at landfills. These actions have necessitated the need for implementable ewaste management measures. Within industries, e-waste management should start at the point of generation. This can be done by implementing waste minimization techniques and through sustainable product design (Freeman, 1989). The majority of respondents articulated that they would exchange their old devices for newer ones every time they wanted to upgrade. This was especially true in the case of mobile phones. The components of mobile phones and computers are costly, so much so that customers prefer to simply buy new products; for example, the cost of a battery for mobile phones and laptops, and the cost of print cartridges in case of printers. Thus, customers do not consider buying a component,but simply to replace it with a new product (Cairns, 2005; Vinod Kumar et al., 2011). Using the understanding that respondents were only concerned about updating their technology, we wanted to discern the knowledge and awareness of the respondents. The reason for 91.6% of respondents' ignorance regarding e-waste was that it was a relatively new type of waste, albeit increasing in an incremental fashion. For this reason, 72.8% of respondents simply threw their e-waste away and 92.2% of them were unaware that they generated e-waste. Problems related to ewaste are therefore likely to become serious in India in the near future. Whenever a customer replaces a computer or mobile phone, the product may go away from the customer, but it never goes away from the environment. Regular improvements in this area should therefore be implemented through the research and development of products to enhance their reuse and recycling properties. Moreover, there is the need for a framework that can assist in the management of e-waste (Vinod Kumar et al., 2011). Among the respondents, 97.6% were ignorant about the hazardous nature of the ewaste. Furthermore, 96.4% of respondents were ignorant about the health effects of ewaste. Nickel (Ni), which is present in ewaste and enters the environment through the air, causes skin damage, asthma and lung damage, and is also a carcinogen. Antimony (Sb) causes skin irritation, hair loss, lung and heart damage and fertility problems. This element is better absorbed in soil containing steel, magnesium or aluminium. Polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDE) cause anaemia, damages the skin, liver, stomach and thyroid and contaminate water and the food production chains of some foods. Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) can cause some mutation and carcinogenic effects, and can damage the endocrine system. Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) can be passed along the food chain and can damage the kidneys, the liver and the thyroid. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) damages the ozone layer. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) damages animal kidneys and is soluble in water, while arsenic is a carcinogenic that can cause skin and lung cancer. Barium causes gastrointestinal disorders and muscle weakness, changes heart rate, causes paralysis and accumulates in the aquatic system. Beryllium inhalation causes pneumonia, respiratory inflammation and lung cancer. Cadmium and mercury are carcinogenic and can causelung damage. It is clear therefore that treatment technologies need to be developed for cleaning upe-waste from the environment (Sharma et al., 2012). Among the respondents, 34.6% and 34.4% claimed that the responsibility of ewaste should be taken up by government and manufacturers, respectively. In many countries, there is no dedicated legislation for dealing with e-waste. At best, the problem of e-waste management is confused by disparate laws pertaining to the environment, water, air, health and safety, municipal waste and hazardous waste. The government is ultimately responsible for enforcement through mandatory regulations that serve the purpose of controlling and monitoring, setting goals and establishing enforcement rules (itunews.itu.int). As quoted by a majority of the respondents, many devices can be recycled, as most of the components can be recovered and reused. Components like CD's, DVD's, toasters, refrigerators and televisions are rated best for recycling. A study conducted by Guillermo and Zhang (2012) determined compact disk drives (CDD) to be the most efficient components from an economic and environmental perspective. The methodology used indicates that the CDD clearly outranks the other four PC components in all three criteria. HDD and FDD also presented good general performance, but the preference functions used determined that they are not as good as for CDD. The study presents the conflict of incomparability between these two components (FDD and HDD) in that the criteria weight and the actual performance scores showed that no clear preference difference could be elicited for either component according to the overall evaluation. More than 95% of the respondents lacked the personal perception or awareness of e-waste and its related issues. Even the compulsory labelling of such products as hazardous was hardly ever observed. The consequence of this is that a large amount of toxic materials enter the waste stream with no special precautions taken to avoid their known adverse effects on the environment and human health (Alake and Ighalo, 2012). India is currently in a very interesting position. The immediate need is an urgent approach to e-waste hazards through technical and policy-level interventions, implementation and capacity building, as well as increasing public awareness to convert this challenge into an opportunity for show the world that India is ready to deal with future problems, and can set global credible standards concerning environmental and occupational health (Violet, 2008). Among the respondents, 80% were ready to accept additional charges on products if the producer claims responsibility for recycling the product. In an effort to make users aware of the recycling of e-waste, many electronic companies such as Apple, Dell and HP have started various recycling schemes (Raymond, 2007). Nokia India has also announced its ―recycling campaign‖ for the Indian region. The programme encourages mobile phone users to dispose of their used handsets and accessories, irrespective of brand, at any of 1300 green recycling bins at priority dealers and care centres. Nokia also plans to launch an electronic waste management programme (Sushant, 2011). Public awareness of the e-waste problem is only the beginning; the public has to be willing to support companies that help to properly dispose of e-waste, even if the cost of their products become slightly higher as a result. Consumers hold the power, but need to be educated about the facts and the fact is that recycling starts with the individual. With a little effort and an Internet connection, the average individual can learn where to recycle their electronic products (Saroj Gupta, 2004). CONCLUSION Problems due to e-waste are likely to become serious in India in the near future. Whenever a customer replaces a computer or mobile phone, the replaced product may leave the customer, but it remains within the environment. There should therefore be regular improvements through research and development to enhance the reuse and recycling of products. India is undoubtedly at present being dominated by the informal sector concerning the management of e-waste. However, the country has also started thinking about the sustainable management of e-waste. There exists an urgent need for the detailed assessment of the current and future scenarios, including quantification, characteristics, existing disposal practices and environmental impacts. Moreover, there is a need for a framework that can help in the management of e-waste. A draft has been prepared for e-waste handling and the rules related there to, which is available on the website of the Ministry of Environment and Forests of India. The responsibilities of collection centres, producers, recyclers, dismantlers and consumers have been included in the draft. The present study showed that e-waste is going to become a significant challenge for environmentalists and technologists, as its rate of growth is much higher than the rate at which it is being disposed of, recycled or reused. There is an urgent need for the improvement of all aspects of ewaste management, as well as the rules and policies for those who work in e-waste disposal. Above all, education regarding this activity as it concerns the environment and public health should be explained properly. REFERENCES Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1995). Toxicological profile for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1998). Toxicological profile for chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs). Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1999). Toxicological profile for mercury. Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2002). Toxicological profile for beryllium. Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2004). Toxicological profile for polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2005). Toxicological profile for nickel. Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2007). Toxicological profile for lead. Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2012). Toxicological profile for cadmium. Atlanta, GA (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service). Alake, T.J and Ighalo, G. I. (2012). End of Life Strategies For Effective Electronic Waste Management In Nigeria. Int. Jr. of Sci. and Techn. Res., 1 (7), 73 -76. Cairns, C.N. (2005). E-waste and the consumer: Improving options to reduce recycle and reuse, Proceedings of International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, New Orleans, US. Denga, W. J., Louieb, P. K. K., Liuc, W. K., Bid, X. H., Fud, J. M. and Wonga, M. H. (2006). Atmospheric levels and cytotoxicity of PAHs and heavy metals in TSP and PM2.5 at an electronic waste recycling site in southeast China. Atm. Env., 40 (36), 6945–6955. EU (2002). European Union Waste Electronic Electrical Waste (WEEE) Directive. Brussels: EU Freeman, M.H. (1989). Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal. (McGraw-Hill Company). Guillermo Fernández, S. and Zhang, K. (2012). Evaluation of most Suitable Electronic Waste Recycling Components from Economic and Environmental Point of View. Inter. Jr. of Res. in Bus., 1(11), 1- 10. Khurrum, M., Bhutta, S., Adnan, O. and Xiaozhe, Y. (2011). Electronic Waste: A Growing Concern in Today's Environment. Eco. Res. Inter. Article ID 474230, 8 pages. Kristen, G., Fiona, C.G., Peter D.S., Marie-Noel, B., Maria, N., Martin V. B. and Rosana, E.N. (2013). Health consequences of exposure to ewaste: a systematic review. Lancet Glob. Health, 1: 35–61. Macauley, M., Palmer, K. and Shih, J. S. (2003). Dealing with electronic waste: modeling the costs and environmental benefits of computer monitor disposal. Jr. of Env. Mng., 68 (1), 13–22. Mundada, M. N., Kumar, S. and Shekdar, A. V. (2004). E-waste: A new challenge for waste management in India. Int. Jr. of Env. Stud. 61(3), 265 – 279. Peeranart, K., Ravi, N. and Ming, H. (2013). Electronic waste management approaches: An overview. Waste Mng., 33, 1237–1250 Pronczuk de Garbino, J. (2004). Children's health and the environment: a global perspective. A resource manual for the health sector. (In: Pronczuk de Garbino J, ed. New York: World Health Organization). Raymond, J. (2007). Environment: Easy to be green. Newsweek, Jan 8. Robinson, B.H. (2009). E-waste: an assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci. Total Environ., 408, 183–191. Saroj, G. (2004). E-waste Management: Teaching how to Reduce, Reuse and Recycle for Sustainable Development- Need of Some Educational strategies. Jr. of Educ. and Prac., 2(3), 74-86. Sharma, P., Fulekar, M.H. and Pathak, B. (2012). EWaste - A Challenge for Tomorrow. Res. Jr. of Recent Sci., 1(3), 86-93. Sushant, B., Wath, P., Dutt, S. and Chakrabarti, T. (2011). E-waste scenario in India, its management and implications. Environ. Monit. Assess., 172, 249–262. UNEP (2005). E-waste: The Hidden Side of IT Equipment's Manufacturing and Use: Early Pollution, 1(1): 31-43, Winter 2015 Warnings on Emerging Environmental Threats No. 5. (United Nations Environment Programme). UNEP (2009). Recycling— From e-Waste to Resources: Sustainable Innovation and Technology Transfer Industrial Sector Studies. (United Nations Environment Programme). Viraja, B., Prakash R. and Yogesh, P. (2012). Development of an integrated model to recover precious metals from electronic scrap - A novel strategy for e-waste management. International Conference on Emerging Economies – Prospects and Challenges (ICEE-2012). Procedia – Soc. and Behav. Sci., 37, 397 – 406. Vinod, K., Ruchi, G., Zillur, R. and Kazmi, A. A. (2011). Sustainability and E-waste Management Scenario in India. The First International Conference on Interdisciplinary Research and Development, 31, 43.1 – 43.5. Violet Pinto, N. (2008). E-waste hazard: The impending challenge. Indi. Jr. of Occu. and Env. Med., 12 (2), 65 -70. Williams, E., Kahhat, R., Allenby, B., Kavazanjian, E., Kim, J. and Xu, M. (2008). Environmental, Social and Economic Implications of Reuse and Recycling of Personal Computers. Env. Sci. and Tech., 42(17), 6446-6454. Woodell, D. (2008). High-tech trash. Nat. Geo., 72– 73.	<urn:uuid:e52562b8-2741-44ec-9d26-c3218a5d0b3d>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	https://jpoll.ut.ac.ir/article_52178_5fd631841e2fcbb91c13964dd1ab750f.pdf	2018-10-15T11:23:19Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00057.warc.gz	730,923,378	7,072	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.900128	eng_Latn	0.992395	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3166, 7019, 9037, 10810, 12345, 12815, 13634, 15499, 19294, 23163, 26853, 31232, 32442 ]	[ 1.5234375, 2.0625 ]	2	7
2002 iGeo - Durban, South Africa Multimedia Test Questions 1. Which language group has the highest population in South Africa? (1) 2. Name six countries which border South Africa (1) 3. In what countries are the following rivers mainly found? 1. Seine in: _____________________ (1) 2. Amazon in: _____________________ (1) 3. Gariep in: _____________________ (1) 4. Indus in: _____________________ (1) 5. Ganges in: _____________________ (1) 4. What is the name of the country? 1. This Asian country has a population of 47 million people. When it received independence from Britain in 1948, it was one of the few countries not to join the Commonwealth. Buddhism is the main religion of the population. (1) 2. What is the name of a landlocked country with 11 million people. Tabacco was its major product and export until very recently. The name of its capital has changed. (1) 5. Name three countries that are founder members of the United Nations. (3) 6. Name one African country that is not a member of the Organisation of African Unity, but is a member of the Arab League. (1) 7. On which continent would you find the following mountains: Huascaran, Sajama and Chimborazo. (1) 8. What is the name of the river in Africa which was explored by Dr David Livingstone and today forms a border between two countries? (1) 9. Which Israeli seaport is at the foot of Mount Carmel? (1) 10. The chief port of Tanzania has a name which, in Arabic, means 'Haven of peace'. What is its name? (1) 11. Which country has the largest population in the world? (1) 12. Which country has the highest density of population in the world? (1) 13. Which is the largest inland sea area in the world? (1) 14. Which is the largest city in Africa by size of population? (1) 15. Give the name of the most significant floristic region found in South Africa. (1) 16. Name the warm current flowing along the west coast of Africa. (1) 17. Name a South American country where the probability of drought is likely to 100%. (1) 18. Which African country was colonized by Belgium? (1) 19. In which country would you find Timbuktu? (1) 20. Name three present day West African countries that were once export centres of African slaves. (1) 21. Which city would you find at 29o 51' S 31o 03' E ? (1) 22. Sub-saharan Africans are utterly dependent on two drought- and heat-resistant cereals that thrive on dry, withered soils. One of the cereals is millet. The other is its cousin... (1) 1. sorghum 2. wheat 3. rye 4. oats 23. The most densely populated agricultural country in the world is: (1) 1. Belguim 2. The Netherlands 3. Bangladesh 4. Japan 24. Half the agricultural output of the western African nation of Senegal is (1) 1. corn 2. peanuts 3. cotton 4. grapes 25. There are more species of plant and animals in _____________________ than in any other place on the planet. (1) 1. Africa 2. The Amazon rain forest 3. Central America 4. Micronesia 26. The world's oldest continuously inhabited city is (1) 1. Bombay 2. Addis Ababa 3. Damascus 4. Baghdad 27. Urumqui, one of the most exotic cities in the People's Republic of China, is (1) 1. the eastern terminus of the Lido Road 2. located farther from the oceans than any other city in the world 3. the highest city in Asia 4. the first Asian city with a population of 2 million 28. The Middle Eastern city that is the Holy City of 3 major religions is (1) 1. Istanbul 2. Damascus 3. Nazareth 4. Jerusalem 29. Stalingrad, a city in the Russian Federation, has changed its name to: (1) 1. Volgograd 2. Leningrad 3. Gorbachevgrad 4. Minsk 30. The important seaport of Dakar on the western tip of Africa is the capital of (1) 1. Senegal 2. The Ivory Coast 3. Sierra Leone 4. Mauritania 31. In a Mediterranean climate, it rains often in (1) 1. spring 2. summer 3. autumn 4. winter 32. The hot wind that blows northward from the Sahara desert to the northern Mediterranean coasts is called the (1) 1. Chinook 2. Sirocco 3. Xerophyte 4. Zenithal 33. The horse latitudes are (1) 1. Subtropical belts of high atmospheric pressure over the oceans 2. Skies covered with cirrocumulus clouds 3. Lava flows 4. Cold waves, or busters, in western Australia 34. In which cities would you find the following famous landmarks 1. St Basil's Cathedral in: _____________________ (1) 2. The Hermitage Palace in: _____________________ (1) 3. The Taj Mahal in: _____________________ (1) 4. The Golden Gate Bridge in: _____________________ (1) 5. Table Mountain in: _____________________ (1) 35. What is the approximate straight line distance from Durban to Esikhawini in kilometres? See page 32 of the atlas. (1) 36. How is the El Nino effect likely to impact on southern Africa? (1) 37. What is the main cause of soil degradation (soil loss) in Africa? (1) 38. Give 3 pieces of evidence to show that children living in Africa are more at risk to disease and childhood death than most other continents. 1. _____________________ (1) 2. _____________________ (1) 3. _____________________ (1) 39. Give 2 pieces of evidence to show why gender inequality in Libya is one of the highest in Africa. 1. _____________________ (1) 2. _____________________ (1) 40. Give 2 pieces of evidence to show why the Namib desert has formed on the west coast of southern Africa (Namibia). 1. _____________________ (1) 2. _____________________ (1) Total: 60 points	<urn:uuid:eba63fa8-f135-44a0-b23d-cd4c337559f0>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.geoolympiad.org/fass/geoolympiad/2002/2002MMTquestions.pdf	2018-10-15T10:09:48Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00058.warc.gz	448,109,769	1,393	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.989467	eng_Latn	0.994175	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2288, 3873, 5445 ]	[ 3.171875 ]	1	3
An Urban-Wildland Interface in Claremont Canyon, Berkeley, CA: Change in Avian Species Richness Over Time Brooke C. Harding ABSTRACT The urban/wildland interface is a problem for wildland species. The urban area creates barriers and disturbances for wildlife species, as well as converts previously habitable land, with food and shelter, into a maze of streets and buildings. Some species have adapted to this new landscape and can feed on the discards and yards of humans. The urban/wildland interface is a transition zone where species from urban and wildland areas intermix and find a balance. To study the intricacies of this unique ecosystem, I performed a census of avian species in a 32-acre site of the 208-acre Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve during the winter months of 2014 and 2015. Finding the balance between the urban and wildland species can take a long time so I compared the results to a similar study performed in the years of 1991 and 1992, to identify if any significant changes had occurred during the 22-year time interval. Both censuses resulted in a similar number of species, 36 species in 1991-1992 and 34 in 2014-2015, but the actual species differ between the two censuses. In the 1991-1992 census there were more avian species in the Acciptriformes order and less in the Passeriformes order than was found in 2014-2015 census. There are many possible factors for the decrease in observations like changes in climate, increased competition amongst members of the same species, species that stay away from trails and humans due to their noise pollution, or observer bias. After looking at data on precipitation, temperature, and changing vegetation, it is likely that avian species populations are diminished due to the 2012 drought or human access to trails. KEYWORDS Urban/Wildland Interface, Species Richness, Ecosystem, Transition zone, Species Accumulation INTRODUCTION Urbanization disrupts wildland areas, changes landscapes, and limits habitat availability for avian species. Urban areas change landscapes from forests with canopies, foliage, and shrubs into cityscapes with buildings, telephone poles, and concrete, all of which decrease habitat available for avian species to forage and hide from predators (Beissinger and Osbourne 1982). Disruption of wildland areas fragments bird populations and makes it more difficult for birds to breed (Crooks et al. 2004). Species with omnivorous and granivorous feeding habits, and cavity nesting species (Chace and Walsh 2006), have an advantage in urban areas over bird species with select diets and specific nesting sites. Where wildland areas are fragmented, urban-wildland interfaces form at the borders creating a transition zone from urban to wildland. The fragmentation of wildland diminishes habitat area available for wildland species (Beissinger and Osbourne 1982). Monitoring the number of species and their distribution in an area over time is critical to understanding how habitat disruption and fragmentation impacts bird species. Short-term experiments examining species responses to habitat fragmentation are limited in their ability to understand larger impacts of human manipulations and changes in the environment (Schmiegelow et al. 1997). A year-long study on habitat fragmentation in boreal forests observed little change in bird diversity (Schmiegelow 1997). The same study noted that fragments connected by corridors had higher bird density but less diversity: because fragments with more connections received higher traffic than those with limited or no connections, more social birds could thrive there and had a competitive edge over territorial, solitary birds. If the study had continued for another five or ten years, it may have been possible to determine if there were long term effects of habitat fragmentation on avian species and test their resiliency to change. Similarly, in urban areas, there is higher bird density, but less diversity; there are more birds of the same species in urban areas and fewer birds, but more species in wildlife areas. Urban environments provide nourishment for generalist species of birds that are able to consume trash, but specialist species are not able to digest certain types of food making them unable to adjust to urban environments (Beissinger and Osbourne 1982). Because generalist species reproduce offspring at a higher rate than specialist species and are able to live in more places, generalist species have outcompeted specialists in urban environments. Urban-wildland interfaces allow for generalist and specialist species of birds to live in close proximity to one another, which applies direct competition between the two categories of birds. Every urban-wildland interface has a different mix of generalists and specialists, which creates new interactions amongst species and their surrounding environment (Debinski and Holt 2000). Claremont Canyon is a wildland area, connecting the cities of Berkeley and Oakland, California, with a rich management history. In the 1850's, American settlers originally used the canyon as a communication and transportation route which included transcontinental telegraph cables connecting the east and west coasts (EBRPD 2014). By 1903, the canyon was closed to major transportation. Instead, the canyon was used for herding and grazing cattle, eucalyptus plantations, and residential housing, taking advantage of the view of San Francisco Bay. In the 1970's, Claremont Canyon was added to the East Bay Regional Parks District. In October 1991, Claremont Canyon had an intense fire (Claremont Canyon Conservancy) that created a new vegetative mosaic (Eagen 1992). The fire altered the landscape of Claremont Canyon by burning eucalyptus and Monterey pine groves, which are highly flammable. An early study of Claremont Canyon birds was in 1992 (Dreher 1992) and included observations of resident winter species. Most of the species were found in the coastal scrub habitat, with old growth eucalyptus in second and all other habitats tied. The most common bird species were Melozone crissalis, Junco hyemalis, Colaptes auratus and Cyanocitta stelleri (Dreher 1992), which are all generalist species. Amongst the species list there are only a few specialist species like Accipiter cooperii and Buteo jamaicensis. Changes in bird diversity and distribution could demonstrate changes in the environment and indicate useful management applications. In this study, I ask: How has bird diversity changed in Claremont Canyon since the initial survey in 1992 in terms of species richness? What factors in the surrounding landscape have changed? If urbanization is altering habitat suitability for birds, I expect that birds will disperse farther into the hillsides away from trails and roadways. It is difficult to quantify urbanization and all of the impacts on nearby wildlands because of the multitude of possible interactions and feedback loops. I examine how the vegetation, precipitation, temperature, and management of Claremont Canyon have changed and how those events could impact species richness. If no significant changes have occurred in the landscape and climate of Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve, then I expect that avian species richness and species present to remain the same in the 2014-2015 census when compared to the 1991-1992 census. METHODS Study site Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve is a 208-acre park maintained by the East Bay Regional Park District. Its boundaries are the University of California, Berkeley Clark Kerr campus to the west, Claremont Ave. to the South, Grizzly Peak Rd. to the east, and Strawberry creek to the north. Four main species of vegetation are found in the study area; Eucalyptus globulus, Heteromeles arbutifolia, Quercus douglasii, and Pinus radiata. Within Claremont Canyon, there is a 32-acre plot in the preserve, which is where I conducted field surveys of avian species. I parked in a small dirt lot on the side of Claremont Ave. at GPS location 37 52'18''N 122 13'26''W. From this parking lot, I accessed the fire trails of Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve and collected data on avian species from these trails. Figure 1 depicts a map of these trails and where the main species of vegetation are located. Data Collection Model To survey the plot for birds, I surveyed the area 5 times in November and 10 times in January and February by following the methods of Dreher (1992). Each morning, I walked the transect at dawn for two hours to identify and record observations of birds. Along each transect, I walked on the trail for 10 minutes and then stopped and watched for 10 minutes. I made 6 of these observations for each survey over a 2-hour period. For each bird I saw or heard, I recorded the size, shape, and tone and pitch of the call. I wrote down the type of vegetation the bird was found in. I used a bird identification guidebook (Whitman et al. 1986) to identify birds and their calls. For the birds that I was uncertain about their identity, I checked my observations against websites with local naturalist information, such as nhwildlife.net (NHWL), and noted my level of uncertainty. Data Analysis To compare current biodiversity of Claremont Canyon with past biodiversity, I used R to compare the data collected in 2014-2015 with the data collected in 1991-1992. To avoid observer bias by two amateur birders in both censuses, I compared both censuses to the NHWL species list, which uses more experienced birders for their surveys. However, these surveys were done for the 4 whole of Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve and were not limited to the study site in the censuses. Species richness was used to analyze variation amongst the 2014-2015 census and the 1991-1992 census. I used life history information of the identified species to understand their diversity and natural habitat preference. I also compared the number of species seen and the overall total number of observations in the 2014-2015 census to the 1991-1992 census. The number of species observed gives some indication of the species richness at the study site and the total number of observations is the observed population size. To further show species richness, I made a species accumulation curve of the number of new species seen each week. The species accumulation curve was made using R, specifically BiodiversityR. RESULTS Avian Census During the 30 hours of field surveys from November to mid-March. I observed 242 birds; of those birds I identified 34 different species, however I could not identify 61 of my observations (Table 1). In comparison, the 1992 dataset reported 36 different species out of 455 birds total bird observations, and 104 observations were not identified. To focus on resident avian species the censuses were conducted in the winter months. Then, I compared the two censuses to the NHWL data for December 2014. Table 1: Species richness and number. The number of birds seen and identified in the field survey from November 2014 through mid-March 2015. * Some of the species identified in the 1991-1992 data do not have ranges in California and thus were changed to a more appropriate species of the same family. \| Species name \| Common Name \| 2014- 2015 \| 1991-1992 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Accipiter cooperii \| Cooper's Hawk \| 0 \| 4 \| \| Accipiter striatus \| Sharp-shinned Hawk \| 0 \| 2 \| \| Aegolius acadicus \| Northern Saw-whet owl \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Aeronautes saxatalis \| White throated swift \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Aimophila ruficeps \| Rufous-crowned Sparrow \| 1 \| 0 \| \| Aphelocoma californica \| Western Scrub-Jay \| 1 \| 27 \| 1 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Baelophus iornatus \| Oak Titmouse \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Bombycilla cedrorum \| Cedar Waxwing \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Bubo virgianus \| Great Horned Owl \| 2 \| 4 \| 1 \| \| Buteo jamaicensis \| Red-tailed Hawk \| 2 \| 7 \| 1 \| \| Buteo lineatus \| Red-shouldered Hawk \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Buteo swainsoni \| Swainson's Hawk \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| \| Calipepla californica \| California Quail \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Calypte anna \| Anna's Hummingbird \| 4 \| 6 \| 1 \| \| Carduelis pinus \| Pine Siskin \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Cathartes aura \| Turkey Vulture \| 0 \| 7 \| 1 \| \| Catharus guttatus \| Hermit Thrush \| 0 \| 4 \| 1 \| \| Certhia americana \| Brown Creeper \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Chamaea fasciata \| Wrentit \| 1 \| 23 \| 1 \| \| Colaptes auratus \| Northern Flicker \| 0 \| 37 \| 1 \| \| Columba livia \| Rock Pigeon \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Corvus corax \| Common Raven \| 4 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Cyanositta stelleri \| Steller's Jay \| 23 \| 53 \| 1 \| \| Elanus leucurus * \| White-tailed kite \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| \| Empidonax difficllis \| Pacific-slope flycatcher \| 6 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Eupahgus cyanocephalus \| Brewer's Blackbird \| 1 \| 8 \| 0 \| \| Falco sparverius \| American Kestral \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Haemorhous mexicanus \| House Finch \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Haemorhous purpureus \| Purple Finch \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Ixorus naevius \| Varied Thrush \| 2 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Junco hyemalis \| Dark-eyed Junco \| 18 \| 26 \| 1 \| \| Megascops kennicottii \| Western Screech Owl \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Melanerpes formicivorus \| Acorn woodpecker \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Melazone crissalis \| California Towhee \| 4 \| 22 \| 1 \| \| Meleagris gallopavo \| Wild Turkey \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Melospiza lincolnii \| Lincoln's Sparrow \| 2 \| 2 \| 1 \| Mimus polygottos Northern 0 0 1 \| Molathrus ater \| Brown-headed cowbird \| 2 \| 0 \| 0 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Passerella iliaca \| Fox Sparrow \| 8 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Patagioenas fasciata \| Band-tailed Pigeon \| 0 \| 2 \| 1 \| \| Pheucticus melanocephalus \| Black-headed Grosbeak \| 10 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Picoides nuttallii \| Nuttall's woodpecker \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Picoides pubescens \| Downy woodpecker \| 2 \| 2 \| 1 \| \| Picoides villosus \| Hairy woodpecker \| 2 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Pipilo erythrophthalmus \| Eastern Towhee \| 3 \| 9 \| 0 \| \| Pipilo maculatus \| Spotted Towhee \| 6 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Poecile gambeli \| Mountain chickadee \| 20 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Poecile rufescens * \| Chestnut-backed chickadee \| 17 \| 13 \| 1 \| \| Polioptila caerula \| Blue-gray gnatcatcher \| 2 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Psaltriparus minimus \| Bustit \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Regulus calendula \| Ruby-crowned Kinglet \| 0 \| 8 \| 1 \| \| Regulus satrapa \| Golden-crowned kinglet \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Sayonoris nigricans \| Black Pheobe \| 3 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Selasphorus rufus \| Rufous Hummingbird \| 2 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Selasphorus sasin \| Allen's Hummingbird \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| \| Setophaga coronata \| Yellow-rumped Warbler \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Setophaga townsendi \| Townsend's Warbler \| 0 \| 4 \| 1 \| \| Sialia mexicana \| Western Bluebird \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Sitta canadensis \| Red-breasted Nuthatch \| 3 \| 11 \| 1 \| \| Sitta carolinensis \| White-breasted Nuthatch \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Sitta pygmaea \| Pygmy Nuthatch \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| \| Sphyrapicus ruber \| Red-breasted sapsucker \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Sphyrapicus varius \| Yellow-bellied sapsucker \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Spinus psaltria \| Lesser Goldfinch \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Sturnus vulgaris \| European starling \| 0 \| 3 \| 0 \| \| Thryomanes bewickii \| Bewick's Wren \| 11 \| 23 \| 1 \| \| Total \| \| 242 \| 455 \| 60 species \| \| Toxostoma redivivum \| California Trasher \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Troglodytes aedon \| House wren \| 1 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Troglodytes pacificus \| Pacific wren \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| \| Turdus migratorius \| American Robin \| 7 \| 5 \| 1 \| \| Tyto alba \| Barn Owl \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| \| Unknown \| \| 61 \| 104 \| \| \| Vireo gilvus \| Warbling vireo \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Vireo huttoni \| Hutton's vireo \| 0 \| 9 \| 1 \| \| Vireo solitarius \| Blue-headed Vireo \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| \| Zenaida macroura \| Mourning Dove \| 8 \| 1 \| 1 \| \| Zonotrichia atricapilla \| Golden-crowned Sparrow \| 1 \| 8 \| 1 \| \| Zonotrichia leucophrys \| White-crowned sparrow \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| Compared to the 1991-1992 census, there is a decrease in the number of birds from the 2014-2015 census. Table 1 compares the species in the field surveys in 1992 and 2015. Based off Table 1, it is clear that the number of observations have decreased. The bird species observed in the 19911992 census that were not seen in 2014-2015 census are Elanus leucarus, Accipiter cooperii, Accipiter striatus, Buteo swainsonii, Tyto alba, Selasphorus sasin, Colaptes auratus, Vireo solitarius, Vireo huttoni, Sitta pygmaea, Regulus calendula, Sturnus vulgaris, and Setophaga townsendi. There were some species identified only in the 2014-2015 census: Selasphorus rufus, Picoides villosus, Corvus corax, Poecile gambeli, Pipilo maculatus, Spizella passerine, Passerella iliaca, and Pheucticus melanocephalus. There were a number of species found only in the NHWL data: Buteo lineatus, Falco sparverius, Meleagris gallopavo, Columba livia, Megascops kennicottii, Aegolius acadicus, Aeronautes saxatalis, Melanerpes formicivorus, Sphyrapicus ruber, Sphyrapicus varius, Picoides nuttallii, Calipepla californica, Vireo gilvus, Baelophus iornatus, Sitta carolinensis, Certhia americana, Troglodytes pacificus, Regulus satrapa, Sialia mexicana, Mimus polygottos, Toxostoma redivivum, Bombycilla cedrorum, Setophaga coronata, Zonotrichia leucophrys, Haemorhous purpureus, Haemorhous mexicanus, Spinus psaltria, Carduelis pinus. Figure 1 shows the species accumulation curve for the 2014-2015 census. The first data point is the date of the first field survey and the number of new species seen that day, the next data point increase is the number of new species seen on that date and so on. Table 2 organizes the avian species seen during the 2014-2015 census by their taxonomic order and details significant traits of each species: their preferred habitat, type of food, how many eggs laid, and any unique behaviors. Table 2. 2014-2015 census species traits. (http://www.allaboutbirds.org) Accipitriformes Buteo jamaicensis open fields mammals and 1-5 eggs per territorial, mate Passeriformes Thryomanes bushy areas eggs, larvae, 3-8 eggs per uses twig perch Vegetation and Avian Species Of the four vegetation types, coastal scrub/chaparral was the site with the highest number of observations, followed closely by eucalyptus, and less so by oak/bay woodland and Monterey pine (Table 3). In the 1991-1992 census, eucalyptus was the site with the highest number of observations, followed closely by coastal scrub, and less so by oak/bay woodland and Monterey pine. Table 3. Number of sightings per vegetation type in the 1991-1992 census and 2014-2015 census. * In the 19911992 study, old and new eucalyptus were separate categories and to make the results closer to my own study I combined the two numbers. \| Eucalyptus \| 74 \| 163* \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Coastal scrub \| 81 \| 153 \| \| Oak/Bay woodland \| 24 \| 76 \| \| Monterey Pine \| 21 \| 63 \| Changes in Vegetation In images from Google Earth (retrieved 2/17/15 at 9:30pm), the vegetation in my study area appeared to increase since the 1992 study. In 1993, vegetation was scarcer than all the other images indicated by the lighter coloring (Figure 2a). In 2014, vegetation was denser than in 1993 as indicated by the darker coloring (Figure 2b). From the field surveys, the vegetation preference did not shift from the 1992 study, and birds (2015) were seen most often in the Coastal Sage/Scrub area. The second most common vegetation type to see birds in is the Eucalyptus groves, third is the Oak/Bay landscape, and fourth is Monterey Pine. DISCUSSION Proximity to urban environments and increasing temperatures alters avian species composition and behavior (Anderies et al. 2007) and habitat structures (Tingley et al. 2012). To further understand the effects and impacts of the urban/wildland interface, I conducted a field study in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve, which is in close proximity to the urbanized spaces of Berkeley and Oakland in Alameda County, CA. I hypothesized that no significant changes occurred in avian species richness from the 1991-1992 census to the 2014-2015 census. In the 1991-1992 census 36 species were observed of 455 bird sightings, while in the 2014-2015 census I observed 34 species out of 242 bird sightings. There was little variation observed in the number of species, but the species composition and the number of individuals observed over the 22-year interval between surveys. These subtle observations show little change to avian species richness suggesting that Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve is a stable habitat. Avian Diversity & Ecology In the 1991-1992 and the 2014-2015 censuses, 36 and 34 species were observed, respectively, however these species counts are below the 60 species observed and recorded on NHWL for the winter of 2014 and 40 species in the winter of 2005. Although the 1991-1992 and 2014-2015 censuses were each performed by single amateur observers, the website includes observations from a group of avid bird watchers to record, take pictures, and observe the wildlife found in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve. In addition, NHWL observes avian species over the whole 208-acre preserve, eight times larger than the study site. The 1991-1992 census also observed 217 more birds than the 2014-2015 census. The larger amount of observations in the 1991-1992 census suggests that birds were either easier to spot or they were more abundant. It is difficult to know the abundance of the bird population at the time of either census because they are both based solely on observational methods, not using a mark-recapture method. The richness from the current study is clearly an underestimate of the resident avian species richness. The Species Accumulation Curve (Figure 1) does not have a clear asymptote suggesting that 34 species is an underestimate of the true species richness. In addition, more observations are required to estimate the total avian species richness. Although there isn't a clear asymptote, the rarefaction curve has an inflection point at around 30 avian species, indicating a trend in the species richness data (Gotelli and Colwell 2001). Based off of the NHWL data, I expect the asymptote is close to 60 species. To confirm this more surveys and more experienced birders would be needed. Of the 34 species I observed, 66% were from the Passeriformes order, an increase of 16% over the 1991-1992 census. Table 2 shows species traits for the avian species observed in the 20142015 census. The NHWL data has 64% of their species in the Passeriformes order. Passeriformes, commonly called "perching birds," is a diverse group of birds that contains small to medium sized birds, which typically feed on seeds, fruits, and grains. Their variety and smaller range size, enables them to adapt to changes on a small scale and exploit every niche available to them (Rotenberry et al. 1980). Many Passeriformes can also thrive in urban environments (Anderies et al. 2007), providing that there are nutritional resources available to them. These species in Claremont Canyon may have the ability to adapt and forage elsewhere (Crooks 2004). Unlike the Passeriformes, Accipitriformes species richness has decreased since the 19911992 census from 5 species: Elanus leucarus, Accipiter cooperii, Accipiter striatus, Buteo swainsonii, down to the 1 species: Buteo jamaicensis, observed in the 2014-2015 census. In the NHWL data, 10% of their species were Acciptriformes: Accipiter cooperii, Accipiter striatus, Buteo jamaicensis, Buteo lineatus, Falco sparverius and Cathartes aura. In general, Accpitriformes are predatory birds that require abundant prey and occupy large ranges. Avian species can be sensitive to any kind of change in their habitat and are able to move from habitat to habitat more freely than any other animal (Schmiegelow et al. 1997). Anthropogenic alterations to the landscape, vegetative composition, and air pollution could be responsible for the decreased number of observations in the 2014-2015 census. Links between habitat and avian diversity Changes in temperature and precipitation have been linked with decreasing bird density in the nearby Coyote Hills Regional Park and an overall trend of decreasing bird density with increasing temperatures (Riensche et al. 2010). Changes in temperature and precipitation can have large impacts on the amount and quality of vegetation. Avian species depend upon the vegetation for their food and shelter, and stressed plants produce less seed and leaf cover for species nutrition and habitat then fewer numbers of birds will be able to live in the changing habitat. Precipitation during the 1991-1992 census was only 50.8mm less than that the 2014-2015 census, bit it is prone to cyclical fluctuations due to the Mediterranean climate, however the mean temperature of 1991 was 60.1 Fahrenheit and 63.4 in 2014. California has been in a drought since 2012, which could be negatively impacting vegetation and the presence of seeds and berries. The type of vegetation also has a big impact on avian species. The 1991-1992 census had the highest number of observations in the eucalyptus groves and the lowest in Monterey pine. In the 2014-2015 census, the highest number of observations was in chaparral and the lowest in Monterey pine. The Monterey pine area is located at the highest elevation point of Claremont Canyon and receives higher wind speeds than the rest of the canyon. It is also much easier to observe avian species when they are nearer to the ground in bushes, like in a chaparral ecosystem. Eagen (1992) found a correlation between eucalyptus removal and vegetation diversification, which could create more varied habitat structures for avian species. Further study on the impacts of eucalyptus trees on avian species is necessary before any management occurs. Eucalyptus has often been a topic of concern for the human residents of Claremont Canyon. Many residents are concerned with the flammability of eucalyptus trees and call for the removal of the eucalyptus. Any changes to the landscape must first be approved by the East Bay Regional Park District, and then implemented by maintenance staff. Trail management is another source of disturbance in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve. When a tree falls across the trail or into a roadway, the EBRPD clears the pathway of any debris in the way of park visitors. This means that a maintenance crew drives up in a vehicle, to pick up the debris. Although this disturbance appears to be a small event to a human being, a bird may be alarmed by the noise of the vehicle and confused by the clearing of habitat resources (Rheindt 2003). Human presence, alone, can disrupt and alter species composition near trails (Miller et al.). The trails in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve are a popular site for nature and exercise enthusiasts (EBRPD). The humans hiking and biking on the trails are out enjoying nature, but their presence has a negative impact on birds and their habitat structure (Reed et al. 2014). When I was out in the field, I saw an average of 10 hikers and 2 dogs on each trip and this was early in the morning and one of the less popular trails in Claremont Canyon regional Preserve. People should enjoy hiking and being outdoors, but there are negative impacts to the wildlife along the trail systems. Just as hikers and vehicles in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve are disturbances to avian species, so are the homes, businesses, and roadways that border the preserve. The proximity of Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve to the urban areas of Berkeley and Oakland, CA creates areas where many avian species are not able to survive. This limits the number of species that can live in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve because they cannot forage everywhere in the nearby vicinity. Also, cars and people can harm avian species in accidents by running over or hitting birds. In addition, avian species are dependent on calls and songs to communicate with one another, however the loud noises of construction and cars on roadways make it difficult for avian species to hear (Rheindt 2003). These noises can have an effect on mating rituals dependent on song, especially for the "song birds" of passeriformes. Urban areas and wildland areas both have their dangers, but avian species have been experiencing the dangers of predation and starvation for centuries whereas the dangers of car accidents are unknown to them. Limitations Both the 1991-1992 census and the 2014-2015 census were conducted by amateur birders, and the species identifications may have been limited by our limited experience level (Kremen 2011). By comparing the two censuses with observations made by NHWL, there were more species in the total area of Claremont Canyon than in either study. Observer bias and the amount of time given to complete the study limited the number of identifications and the number of observations. In addition, both censuses were conducted during the winter months, from November to February, and were thus focusing the resident bird species. Some disadvantages are that birds tend to be less active in the winter due to decreasing temperatures and less abundant resources. Birds are also more vocal during the spring for mating rituals, which can make them easier to identify. One advantage of a winter census is not worrying about identifying migratory birds, which could make the resident species richness appear higher and thus skew the resident estimates. Future Directions Understanding the impacts of urbanization and climate change on avian species in this area would require a larger scale census at different times of the year. The census could cover all 208 acres of Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve and possibly include Strawberry Creek as a comparison site, which likely has a similar composition of avian species. It would also be helpful to know more about the management of trails and vegetation of Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve from the people who maintain the trails and the administrative board. Many people in the community want to remove the eucalyptus trees due to fire and safety concerns. More information on the number of visitors to the trails could point to how big of an impact human presence is on avian species. Broader Implications and Conclusion The effects and impacts of the urban/wildland interface on species richness and diversity is a relevant topic, as more densely populated cities become a necessity with growing human populations. Less of the natural landscape lays intact, which leaves many species vulnerable in new anthropogenic environments (Beissinger and Osbourne 1982). As humans change the landscape and climate, we need to consider how these changes affect other species and learn how to manage landscapes to protect other species (Chace and Walsh 2006). Avian species are one of the few taxonomic groups that have an increased capacity for migration and change, by observing how they respond to changes we can more easily see growing trends in range shifts and species movement (Tingley et al. 2012). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Patina Mendez, my professor and mentor, for helping me create and understand this project. I would, also, like to thank Kay Loughman, who helped come up with the idea for this project and is the creator of the NHWL. Thank you to the entire ESPM 175 20142015 cohort for all of their support. I also thank my parents and friends for patiently listening to my petty complaints and helped boost my spirit. I couldn't have gotten through this project without all of your love and support. REFERENCES Anderies, J., M. Katti, and E. Shochat. 2007. Living in the city: Resource availability, predation, and bird population dynamics. Journal of Theoretical Biology 247:36– 49. Beissinger, S. and D. Osbourne. 1982. Effects of Urbanization on Avian Community Organization. The Condor 84:75–83. Chace, J. F. and J. J. Walsh. 2006. Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landscape and Urban Planning 74:46–69. Crooks, K. R., A. V. Suarez, and D. T. Bolger. 2004. Avian assemblages along a gradient of urbanization in a highly fragmented landscape. Biological Conservation 115:451–462. Debinski, D., and R. Holt. 2000. A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation experiments. Conservation Biology 14:342-355. Dreher, D. 1992. A study of avian habitat relationships in Claremont Canyon. ES Thesis, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA. Eagen, N. 1992. Vegetative growth in cleared eucalyptus groves. ES Thesis, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA. EBRPD (East Bay Regional Parks District). 2014. Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve. website http://www.ebparks.org/parks/claremont_canyon. Fitzpatrick, J. 2015. http://www.allaboutbirds.org. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Gotelli, N.J. and R.K. Colwell. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters 4:4 p.379-391. Kremen C., K.S. Ullman, and R.W. Thorp. 2011. Evaluating the quality of citizen-scientist data on pollinator communities. Conservational Biology 25:3 p.607-617. Loughman, K. 2014. Wild Life in the Northern Hills. www.nhwildlife.net. Miller, S. G., R. L. Knight, and C. K. Miller. Influence of recreational trails on breeding bird communities. Ecological Applications 8:162–169. Reed, S.E., C.L. Larson, K.R. Crooks, and A.D. Merenlender. 2014. Wildlife response to human recreation on NCCP Reserves in San Diego County. Wildlife Conservation Society Report. Rheindt, F.E. 2003. The impact of roads on birds: Does song frequency play a role in determining susceptibility to noise pollution? Journal fur Ornithologie 144:3 p.295-396. Riensche, et al. 2010. Monitoring Trends in a Breeding Bird Assemblage with implications for riparian conservation. TRANS.WEST.SECT.WILDL.SOC. 46:2010. Rotenberry, J.T and J.A. Weins. 1980. Habitat structure, patchiness, and avian communities in North American steppe vegetation: a multivariate analysis. Ecology 6:5, p. 1228-50. Schmiegelow, F. K. A., C. S. Machtans, and S. J. Hannon. 1997. Are boreal birds resilient to forest fragmentation? An experimental study of short-term community responses. Ecology 78:1914–1932. Tingley et al. 2012. The push and pull of climate change causes heterogeneous shifts in avian elevational ranges. Global Change Biology 18:11 p.3279-90. Wallace, T. Claremont Canyon Conservancy at <http://claremontcanyon.org/index.php> Whitman et al. 1986. "The Audubon Society Pocket Guides: Familiar Birds of North America". Chanticleer Press, Inc., New York.	<urn:uuid:ca75969d-e15f-4319-9f5a-8a2551086832>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://nhwildlife.net/HardingB_2015.pdf	2018-10-15T11:06:36Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00059.warc.gz	240,220,500	8,697	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.914796	eng_Latn	0.992988	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1897, 4908, 7364, 9574, 11558, 13200, 14652, 16842, 17510, 17603, 17687, 19122, 21184, 23598, 26924, 28798, 30708, 32860, 34249 ]	[ 1.828125, 2.1875 ]	2	2
NCTA – OSU Winter 2006 Barbara Wookey Chinese Lesson Plan Culture Sharing: History, Politics, Government Background: This is an open-enrollment ESOL class for adults. It is free, non-graded and the students are intermediate to low-advanced level from many different countries and cultures. They meet twice a week for two hours. Their objective is to learn English skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. There are about 20 students representing 14 or so countries; the majority is Asian. Purpose: This lesson will give students an opportunity to share their unique culture with others in the class and to also learn about different cultures from others. They will use their English skills to work with other students from the same, or nearby, country. They will prepare and do a class presentation. Rational: Students come to this class to learn English, but they learn much more. They represent their native country; they are like ambassadors. They will have the opportunity to present aspects of their culture so that others will understand, respect and appreciate them. Materials: Provided by instructor: handouts of instructions, presentation schedule. Available to the students: whiteboard and markers, overhead projector and transparencies. Students can use paper, poster board, photographs, books and any other supplies needed for their presentation. Activities: 1. Introduce the lesson with questions and discussion of different kinds of governments and different political systems and how length of histories varies from country to country. Have students talk to their partner about the political system in their home country and share a little of their country's history. 2. Give students the handout explaining the lesson. Go over the directions. (See handout.) 3. Put students in groups: 5 Japanese, 2 Koreans, 2 Chinese, 2 from Thailand, 3 from Europe (Poland, Ukraine), 2 from the Middle East (Iran, Jordan), 3 from Africa (Sierra Leone, Somalia, Ethiopia), 3 from South America (Chili, Columbia) and 2 from Mexico. 4. Students will work together to begin to plan for their presentation. 5. Groups will choose a day to present, and add the date to the Presentation Schedule (attached). 6. Students will be given some class time to work on their presentation and they are encouraged to meet before or after class to plan. Assessment: Students will write a response to these questions: * What did you learn about this country's holidays? * What similarities or differences did you see between your country's holiday and the holidays of the country presented? Grade Adaptation: These students are not given letter grades. They do, however, take standardize pre- and post-tests when they begin the program and when they exit. They will be given feedback on the answers to the above questions. They will edit grammar errors. They will also share their writings with other students. Winter 2006 Barbara Wookey Handout for students Getting To Know You…. Do you know about your classmates? Do you know about the country they came from? Do you know where it is, what the weather is like, what their flag looks like? Do you know its history? Do you know about their holidays and special days? Well, here's your opportunity to find out. Each continent, each country, each region is unique, and yet they all have similarities and differences. You are all ambassadors for your home countries. You have a right and an obligation to enlighten others about your country, to promote it and to spread understanding and appreciation to help eliminate preconceived notions. This is your opportunity to teach your classmates about where you are from. Some of you are from the same country; others are from the same continent. You will work in groups to plan and prepare a class presentation to teach us about your countries' history, political system or government. * You may include information about any of these topics. * If you are in a mixed-country group each member of the group should have equal time to present information about his/her country. * Your group will have from 10 – 20 minutes for your presentation. * You can use the whiteboard, the overhead projector and transparencies. * Your presentation can include pictures, photographs, posters, maps, information from the Internet, etc. * You can get provide handouts for the class. Decide with your group when you want to present and sign up on the Presentation Schedule. You will have time to work some in class, and you should also set up times to get together before or after class to prepare. Presentation Schedule History, Politics, Government Mon. June 5 Mon. June 12 Wed. June 14 Mon. June 19 Wed. June 21 Wed. June 28 An Example of a Chinese Presentation Chinese students may wish to present to the class, information about the inventions and discoveries that have come from China. The website www.computersmiths.com/chineseinventions/index.html presents inventions and discoveries in a timeline format. Chinese students get together and 1. talk about the inventions that they know have come from China (some of these are decimal place system, iron plow, lacquer, the kite, natural gas as fuel, a place for zero in math, the crossbow, paper, parachute, wheelbarrow, stirrups, porcelain, umbrella, chess, paper money, gunpowder) 2. students then do research to find information about inventions from China 3. students decide which ones they want to talk about and who will do the presenting so that each member of the group will contribute. 4. students will prepare information about the inventions and possibly show the items or explain how they are used. One of the great secrets of history is the immense contribution of Chinese society, including technology, to the Western world. Equally interesting, is the failure of some discoveries in China to cross over to Western civilization, or even to survive into modern times. Bibliography of references consulted. History of Chinese Invention and Discovery The West's Debt to China? Timeline adapted from Robert Temple and Joseph Needham 1.6 Million BC YuanMou Man 700,000 - 500,000 20,000 BC 5,000 Yuanmou Man, Lantian Man, Peking Man Upper Cave Man YangShao Culture Earliest human findings in China Stone tools and use of fire. Farming villages in the Yellow River valleys, painted pottery. -221 BC Row cultivation of crops and intensive hoeing - 2200 years later in Western civilization Iron plow -about 2000 years later in Western civilization Blood circulation studied 1800 years later in Western civilization The large tuned bell developed 2500 years later in Western civilization 5th century BC Spouting bowls and standing waves experimentation. Geobotanical prospecting 2100 years later in Western civilization The kite -about 2000 years later in Western civilization 4th century BC The trace efficient horse harness - 500 years later in Western civilization Double-acting piston bellows, air and liquid - 1900-2100 years later in Western civilization Petroleum and natural gas as fuel-2300 years later in Western civilization A place for zero in math - 1400 years later in Western civilization The first compass- 1500 years later in Western civilization The First Law of Motion- 1300 years later in Western civilization (but 2000 to Newton) Manned flight with kites - 1650 years later in Western civilization War technology Chemical warfare: poison gas, smoke bombs, tear gas - 2300 years later in Western civilization The crossbow- Centuries later in Western civilization 220280 265317 San Kuo (Three Kingdoms) Wei, ShuHan, Wu Western Chin (Jin) West Wheelbarrow - 1300 years later in the West Sliding calipers - 1700 years later in the West Hermetically sealed labs - bout 2000 years later in the West 1st century AD Water power - 1200 years later in the West Chain pump - 1400 years later in the West Suspension bridge - 1800 years later in the West The rudder - 1100 years later in the West Seismograph (130 AD) - 1400 years later in the West Han generals divide empire. This period is romanticized as a time of chivalry and heroism in later literature. 2nd century AD Recognition of sunspots as solar phenomena - 1300 years later in Western civilization The "magic lantern" - 1800 years later in Western civilization "Modern" geology - 1500 years later in Western civilization Batten sails - staggered masts - not adopted in Western civilization Multiple masts - fore and aft rigs -1200 years later in Western civilization Watertight compartments in ships - 1700 years later in Western civilization China briefly united under one Emperor. Capitals at Luoyang, Changan. 3rd century AD Cybernetic machine - 1600 years later in 317420 420- 479 479581 Western civilization \| \| Golden Age of China and unites China. Th The capital is establi 6th century AD Discovery of the s later in Western civil Segmental arch br in Western civilizatio Matches - 1000 ye civilization Chess - 500 years civilization Land sailing - 105 civilization Diabetes discovere 1000 years later in t The Heavenly Khan Arts flourish. Mechanical clock - \| \|---\|---\| \| Sui \| \| \| Dynasty \| \| \| Tang \| \| \| Dynasty \| \| 907960 9601279 9601127 11271279 Western civilization As I collect information and resources on Chinese invention and discovery, I would be happy to collaborate with other authors. Send e-mail to firstname.lastname@example.org or email@example.com Back to the Home page	<urn:uuid:da475d60-78d5-4c21-992b-5ee008ff78bb>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://archives.lessoncorner.com/9143a901279384ea0.pdf	2018-10-15T11:48:31Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00058.warc.gz	24,417,704	2,116	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.979171	eng_Latn	0.997376	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1277, 2935, 2964, 4401, 4685, 4741, 5699, 6404, 7613, 8795, 8844, 9264, 9321, 9535 ]	[ 4.1875 ]	1	0
Sask Rivers - Prekindergarten: Information and Guidelines Prekindergarten Programs Prekindergarten is an early intervention, prevention program. Prekindergarten is a targeted program for our most vulnerable or at risk 3 and 4 year old children and families. Programs have been placed in schools where children living in the attendance area will benefit most significantly. Prekindergarten is not a universal program for all 3 and 4 year olds. Space is limited. Prekindergarten is play-based. Children who have the opportunity to socialize with same age peers in other settings, including child/day care, preschool, play groups, etc. already benefit and typically don't need to attend pre-kindergarten. The space should be for a child from a needy, less fortunate family. The Ministry suggests a ratio of 8 children to 1 adult. When space permits and/or attendance is irregular, SRPSD recommends a maximum of 10 children to 1 adult. See PK Brochure Prekindergarten Selection Process Research shows that vulnerable children benefit greatly from attending prekindergarten for two years. When selecting students, 3 year olds receive the same consideration as 4 year olds. See SRPSDs Administrative Procedure 345, Admission of Resident Students. Note in AP 345 (#7) that children need to be 3 before starting prekindergarten. The PK Application Form and the PK Selection Processes guide the selection process. Based on the information and knowledge of the family, a team of 2 or 3 school-based educators (teacher and administrator along with SLP or EST) review the application forms and select children to attend. Home visits serve to aid selection process. The prekindergarten selection process is finalized in fall so that late applicants and vulnerable families new to a community have opportunity to apply. By October 15 th , prekindergarten programs are full. When classroom space allows, or irregular attendance is anticipated, 20 children may be registered. By September 15 th , children are selected with the exception of 2 or 3 spots. Children do not need to be independent with toileting to attend prekindergarten. Toileting is included in the EA's role description. Because families are transient, prekindergarten is a continuous entry program. Therefore, a waiting list of 3 and 4 year olds is needed at each school. Waiting lists also help determine the need for additional prekindergarten programs. Prekindergarten Timeframes Prekindergarten is a 10 month, 12 to 15 hour a week program. Start and end dates for prekindergarten coincide with the regular school calendar. Home visits at the beginning of the year are part of the program. With travel time, home visits may take up to 1 hour. Based on this, teachers and EAs can make at least 5 home visits a day. A program starting with 15 children (for example) may require 3 days of home visits. Teachers with more children (2 classes) will require more time; teachers with fewer children will require less time. Home visits may be scheduled to begin on September 2nd. Following completion of the majority of home visits, prekindergarten begins. Schools will have different start dates depending on the number of home visits. Some teachers prefer to have a staggered entry with half of the children beginning on the first day, half the second day, and all of the children on the third day. The required time for prekindergarten is 3 hours per day or 12 to 15 hours a week which includes family engagement time. Prekindergarten has the same June end date as all elementary classrooms. Fridays (Urban Prekindergarten Programs) Prekindergarten children attend on Fridays when family events are planned. Fridays provide teachers with prep time and time for family events or PD. Rather than weekly, this time may be calculated and averaged throughout the year. Typically, prekindergarten teachers and EAs work together on Fridays assessing and organizing documentation of students' work, reflecting on documentation and subsequent planning, participating in home visits or family events, creating learning centres & invitations for learning, enhancing learning environment, or attending PD. Quality Prekindergarten Programming Prekindergarten is holistic and focuses on the physical, social/emotional, intellectual, and spiritual domains. Children need to socialize and play, to be creative and become problem solvers, to be immersed in language and literacy, and to curiously interact with nature. Essential Learning Experiences (ELEs) have been identified by the Ministry of Education in four domains: Intellectual, Social-Emotional Learning, Physical, and Spiritual. ELEs serve to assist early childhood educators in planning for, monitoring, facilitating, scaffolding, and documenting the child development in prekindergarten. Daily, three and four year olds need opportunity to run, dance, balance, climb, etc. to develop their gross motor skills. Scheduled gym time is important. Weather permitting, prekindergarten children need to play outside daily. To maximize play time and minimize dressing time, time outdoors may best be scheduled at the beginning or end of the morning or afternoon prekindergarten times. See prekindergarten documents Better Beginnings, Better Futures as well as Play and Exploration. Both teacher and administrator handbooks are in your schools or can be downloaded though the Ministry's website. New teachers receive documents. See Ministry website (www.education.gov.sk.ca/ELCC) for available resources, guides, supports, information, and professional learning opportunities. Help Me Tell My Story (HMTMS) implementation: Sept. 24/14 to Oct. 9/14 Early Years Evaluation (EYE) implementation dates: Nov. 3/14 to Nov. 28/14 For links and supports see the Prekindergarten info on the SRPSD website Family Engagement Engaging families in prekindergarten in positive ways is critical for learning success. A warm and welcoming space that draws parents into the classroom often includes a sitting area, books, culturally-diverse elements, documentation of children's work, and pictures of children and their families (at the children's eye level). Prekindergarten programs engage families through events that include home visits, family days or evenings, and family education events (literacy, nutrition, immunization, etc.). Prekindergarten teachers are expected to organize these family engagement events as part of the program. Three home visits per year for each child are recommended. Typically, family days/events occur monthly. Evening events, including gym nights and family literacy events, are gaining popularity. Family learning opportunities (e.g.; PA Literacy Network, School Nutritionist, Public Health Nurse, etc.) may be scheduled throughout the year. Parent/teacher/child interviews are required and may be held during home visits. See Family Engagement in Prekindergarten (2012) for Philosophical Background, Expectations, and Key Practices (e.g.; Communication, Respectful Partnership, Home Visits, Goal Setting, and Child Development ) that make a difference! Nutrition Prekindergarten programs provide a nutritious snack daily along with another opportunity for communication and socialization. Teachers or EAs typically do the nutrition shopping on Friday. Documentation of Students' Learning Documentation of student learning and portfolio assessment are the required methods of assessing the learning of prekindergarten children. Rather than a report card, documentation shows children actively engaged in the processes of learning, captures milestones, and supports reflection in determining next teaching/learning plans. Portfolio assessment is purposeful, guided by the Essential Learning Experiences (ELEs), and shows what children can do over the course of the year. The Ministry's Phase II Workshop: How Young Children Learn/ Using Documentation supports the documentation process. Teachers require quality classroom cameras/iPads for the documentation process. Cumulative folders are required for prekindergarten children. Professional Learning for the Early Years Workshops will be held on October 14 &21, January 30, and April 28 or May 5. All prekindergarten teachers and EAs are expected to attend and register online through the Professional Development link on SRPSDs Staff Room. Additional professional learning opportunities will be posted on the Ministry's website www.education.gov.sk.ca/ELCC throughout the year.	<urn:uuid:e4e8112c-07b4-42d4-883a-6e78413bab4e>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	https://www.srsd119.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/REG_PREK_RL_Prekindergarten_InformationandGuidelinesAug16.pdf	2018-10-15T11:50:26Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00060.warc.gz	1,063,443,149	1,773	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99652	eng_Latn	0.997074	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2868, 5826, 8502 ]	[ 2.109375 ]	1	4
Solution to Rubik's Cube in a few Seconds, using Group Theory Abel Prize 2008 From time to time Rubik's cube has a popularity peak. Many people get more or less addicted and spend a lot of time trying to find a solution. Most of us give up after some frustrating attempts. It seems impossible to collect all the blue fields on one side at the same time as the reds and the yellows are not spread all over. Having put the cube away, a young student ap pears on the Nine o'clock News, solving the problem in 20 seconds. "OK", we say, "students of today have bright minds", and we accept the situation without loosing our confidence. We might even accuse the student of spending too much time on this worthless activity instead of studying the curriculum. But the thought crosses our mind: How do they do it? Then a three-yearsold Chinese in his baby-chair shows us how to solve the cube with his tiny fingers and convinces us that there must be some sort of system. legal symmetries of Rubik's cube. These sym metries form a group structure which we call Ru bik's group. As to the Classification of Finite Sim ple Groups, we mention that Rubik´s group is not simple; it is built up of the simple groups A12, A8, 7 copies of Z3 and 12 copies of Z2. The solution is group theory. Rubik's cube contains a kernel on which the rest of the subcubes can be moved around in layers. The only visual part of the kernel is the six outer fields in the middle of each face of the cube. Each of these outer fields is surrounded by 8 subcubes which simultaneously is rotated around, and with, the central field. The cube contains 3 x 3 x 3 = 27 subcubes, of which 7 belongs to the kernel and 20 can be moved. The 20 movable subcubes are divided in 8 corner cubes and 12 edge cubes. The corners have three visual faces, the edge cubes have two. A symmetry of the cube has to map corners to corners and edge cubes to edge cubes. There are 8! permutations of the corners and 12! permutations of the edge cubes. The corners have three visual faces, increasing the possibilities by a factor 28, similar for the three faces of the cor ners. It turns out that not all theoretical possibili ties are possible to perform, and we have to di vide by a factor of 12. Thus there are all together ``` 1 12 8! 3 8 12!2 12 = 43 252 003 274 489 856 000 ``` The key to a quick solution of Rubik's cube is knowledge of certain subgroups of Rubik´s group. One single rotation changes 20 out of the 48 mov able fields and fixes the other 28. Composing several rotations in a clever manner increases the number of fixed fields. This is precisely the skill of the cube experts. They know, and remember, sequences of rotations that fix a huge number of fields, and they use these sequences to change more and more fields into the right position, with out disturbing the ones they have already placed. From a group theoretic point of view this is not so complicated. To remember and to accomplish the sequences is quite another business. Rubik´s cube is not only a nice example of applied group theory, it is definitely an evidence of the fact that theory is one thing, to put it into practice is quite another.	<urn:uuid:afbb1d41-e455-4d50-be5e-42b75c95563c>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.abelprisen.no/nedlastning/2008/Artikkel_3E.pdf	2018-10-15T11:00:36Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00060.warc.gz	395,073,640	753	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999332	eng_Latn	0.999332	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3188 ]	[ 2.484375 ]	1	4
Vol. 3, No. 3, July 2008, xx-xx Revising teacher candidates' views of science and self: Can accounts from the history of science help? Brian Lewthwaite John Murray Richard Hechter Received 21 March 2012; Accepted 9 June 2012 Our inquiry uses accounts from the history of science to develop teacher-candidate (student teacher) understanding of the nature of science (NOS) in a science teacher education methods course. This understanding of the NOS is then used as a foundation for developing teacher candidate appreciation of the attributes of authentic science lessons. Based upon their understanding of the nature of science, teacher candidates plan and teach lessons and critique the experiences provided for students using their own conceptual framework of authentic science learning experiences. The study uses an instrumental case study approach in which a case is examined mainly to provide insight into an issue or for refinement of a theory; that is, does the use of the nature of science have utility for supporting teachers of science in their planning and teaching, and, in particular, for assisting them in teaching science authentically and developing a more positive perception of self as a teacher of science. Implications of this inquiry in informing the development and utility of nature of science understandings in teacher education methods courses are also considered. Key Words: nature of science, teaching of science, transformational learning model Introduction The significance of the nature of science (NOS) in the science education literature and science literacy reform efforts internationally over the past two decades is not easily overlooked. The current consensus and emphasis on the NOS from a curricular viewpoint essentially dictates that it is a component of teacher education that cannot be set aside or cursorily examined. Despite this emphasis, there appears to be little justification pedagogically for NOS inclusion in teacher education programs leaving NOS inclusion as somewhat of a mythical ideal rather than a supportive construct for pre-service teachers of science. One area for the advocacy for NOS inclusion is in developing teacher candidates' understanding of the nature of science so that as teachers they will present science to their students as it "really is," or authentically, rather than as a contentdominated, textbook science (Martin, Kass, & Brouwer, 1990). If, as Hashweh (1996) suggests, teacher epistemological beliefs about the nature of science are strongly correlated with their science teaching strategies, developing a view of science as it really is, during pre-service teacher education, is both critically important and currently overlooked. Teaching authentic science is difficult to define, as the views of what constitutes authentic science or science grounded in the nature of science characteristics are diffuse and in need of considerable clarification (Martin et al, 1990). As Bencze and Hodson (1999) asserted, authenticity in science is an elusive and problematic notion, with diverse meanings and curriculum implications. It is rhetorically suggested that science instruction may be considered authentic if it is in accord with a commonly held agreement over what constitutes science (Martin et al, 1990). The literature on the NOS is well developed and testifies to the diverse views on what is perceived to be science's nature (Akerson, Abd-El-Khalick, & Lederman, 2000; Lederman, 1999). Despite this, there is some consensus that authentic school science should provide experiences that are more in line with the sorts of activities that scientists and technologists do in the real world of science and that such experiences should include student-directed tasks and more open enquiries (Braund & Reiss, 2006). Similar to Bensce and Hodson (1999), our interests were in assisting teacher candidates in both experiencing science and, subsequently, providing science learning experiences that acknowledge a more authentic or valid science. Compounding this dilemma of the NOS and specific to this study is the question of how best to prepare teachers to understand the NOS (Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Lederman, 1998). These authors have cautioned that the NOS cannot be taught implicitly by having students participate in science activities and assuming they will arrive at NOS knowledge through their participation. Instead, they have recommended explicit attention to the NOS in science teacher education. As Lederman and Zeidler (1987) and Abd-El-Khalick and Akerson (2004) suggest, facilitating teacher candidates' understanding of the nature of science is best done by using a conceptualchange model involving infusion of strategies into science methods courses that elicit, confront, and challenge one's understandings of the NOS. This was also suggested by Solomon, Duveen, Scot, and McCarthy (1992), who stated that explicit reflection instruction about the NOS, integrated within a conceptual-change approach, might serve better to enhance pre-service elementary teachers' NOS views. Despite these suggested strategies for promoting NOS understandings, science educators are a long way from having a shared set of assumptions for both the pedagogical reasons and the actual pedagogy for incorporating the NOS into science teacher education (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 1998), especially for pre-service candidates in elementary and middle-years programs who, quite typically, have had 'non- and mis-experiences' in school science (Lewthwaite, 2000). The literature is rife with accounts of how most pre-service teachers feel inordinately constrained by the degree to which they believe they have a firm grasp of the content and conceptual ideas that were considered the hallmarks of science for them as students (for example, Lewthwaite & Fisher, 2004; Lewthwaite & Fisher, 2005). Our hope in this study is to assist teacher candidates in developing a pedagogical framework for the teaching of science grounded in nature of science attributes. By so doing, we believe teacher candidate's will exchange anxiety over their perceived levels of content mastery with greater self-confidence in engaging their students by using a clear pedagogical framework for the teaching of science supported by the nature of science explicitly in their planning and instruction. This focus builds upon Kind's (2009) assertions that the most significant confidence for teacher candidates may be their ability to construct and deliver on effective science lessons focusing on the selection of appropriate classroom strategies based upon a pedagogical framework for guiding the planning and teaching of students' science learning experiences. Theoretical Framework of the Study Adult Education and Identity The study is located theoretically in the teacher and, the more often overlooked, adult education literature on professional identity; the perception that teachers as adults have of themselves (Cattley, 2007). Similar to the constructivist and conceptual-change tenets often touted in the science education and adult education literature, we believe the views of science and self that teacher candidates typically possess are durable, often miss-conceived, and actively developed as a result of an adaptive activity (von Glaserfield, 1995) through their own, often negative, school experiences. As suggested by Loughran (2006), it is thus likely that the core of their personally constructed belief system will impact the core of the professional belief system. In response to this, we believe that central to our work as teachers of science educators is the need to assist teacher candidates in developing a more positive and authentic view of science as a learning area, their role as teachers of science and, more significantly, their belief about their capability to teach science authentically. We see ourselves having the mandate of fostering teacher candidates in the interpretation and re-interpretation of their experiences in continually acquiring and redefining an identity that is a response to their beliefs about their role as teachers (Lamote and Engels, 2010). Mezirow's Transformational Learning Model We do not see this redefining as an easy task. Drawing upon the adult education literature (Mezirow, 1977, 2000), we believe that for our teacher candidates, who are adults, this redefining of science and their identity must be transformative in nature. We see our roles through the experiences we provide as critical in bringing about this transformation. We believe that our candidates view science as a curriculum area premised on science being, primarily, a body of knowledge, not a process of inquiry inextricably linked with a body of knowledge. We also believe they see themselves ill-prepared to teach science effectively. In their case, a new consensus of science and self is required. Lamote and Engels' writings on teacher identity, as that of Rots (200) and Canrinus et al (2008), suggest that there are various teacher 'sub-identities', one of which is teacher task orientation. This orientation refers to teachers' answers to questions such as: "What do I want to achieve with my students? How do I want to do this? What is my role as a teacher? What is their role as students?" Denessen (1999) points out that task orientation focuses on aspects such as the (1) pedagogical relation between teacher and students; (2) the educational goals motivating the teaching; and (3) the instructional emphasis. As Lortie (1975) asserts, preservice teachers already have developed representations, whether accurate or not, of teaching and the kind of teacher they want to be through their own lived experience of apprenticeship of observation. Of importance to this inquiry is the suggestion by Denessen (1999) that the task orientations are primarily associated with two major ideologies – a less frequently identified student-centered approach in contrast to a more commonly identified content-centered approach. A pupil-oriented ideology will focus on a pedagogical relation that fosters involvement, educational goals that are social and personal and an instructional emphasis that is more process-oriented. In contrast, a content-oriented ideology will focus on a pedagogical relation focused on discipline, educational goals that are geared towards career development and an instructional emphasis that focuses on product. A shift in orientation, as Denessen (1999) suggests, requires a restructuring in one's identity. As Mezirow asserts, transformative learning involves a cognitive restructuring involving change in habits of mind, points of view and behavioral practices (1997) and thus our theoretical premise moves beyond a conceptual-change model (Posner et al., 1982). In contrast to conceptual-change, in transformational learning one's line of action is altered. Learning is initiated through triggered or 'disorienting dilemmas' that set the learning process in motion. Mezirow suggests that for the adult learner, the disorienting experiences prompt reflection; that is, the examining of long-held, socially constructed assumptions, beliefs and values. Brookfield (2000) concurs that this critical assessment of assumptions is central to transformative learning. The disorientation, although a trigger for prompting change, in itself, does not bring about change. Mezirow asserts that a critical assessment of assumptions then needs to become the forum for discussion. Ongoing rational discourse, subsequently, provides the setting for pre-existing and new meanings to be discussed and evaluated. In rational discourse, bias [may be] set aside in order to arrive at a new consensus. Mezirow suggests that this critical discourse allows opportunity for 'resolutions' that in turn need to be, provisionally, acted upon and, in turn, evaluated. It is through this trial, evaluation and reflective discourse cycle, that new perspectives have the opportunity to be reintegrated into one's life. We believe Mezirow's transformational learning model underpins the learning required to be central and of first-order to science teacher education. If teacher candidates experience transformation in their views of science and self, we have assisted candidates in their most significant learning. This revising of science and self is the heart of pre-service and in-service science teacher education. But, how can this transformation be accomplished? Our view is that the nature of science has the potential to serve as a pedagogical framework for assisting teacher candidates in developing a more authentic view of science as a curriculum area, especially in regards to transforming candidates' views of science as a mythic, textbook science (Martin, Kass, & Brouwer, 1990) and their role, solely, as content-deliverers. More importantly, we believe it has the potential to assist teacher candidates in developing a positive self-image of themselves as teachers of science because their role is focused more on an understanding of the pedagogical processes to be employed in science instruction rather than, simply, their content knowledge. Methodology Introduction This study builds upon the first author's previous efforts to develop teacher candidate understanding of the nature of science in order to foster teacher candidate capability in planning and teaching authentic science (Lewthwaite, 2007). Although this previous study provided evidence that an understanding of NOS influenced candidates' ability to evaluate science lessons for their authenticity, the intervention questionably gave evidence that this understanding is actually translated into practice through candidate ability to plan and teach authentic science. It examines the theory asserted by Hashweh (1996) that teacher epistemological beliefs about the nature of science are strongly correlated with their science teaching strategies and practices. In response to the tenuous nature of this previous outcome, this study seeks to look for evidence that a teacher's understanding of the nature of science influences their planning and teaching of science and views of themselves as teachers of science. This focus is our puzzlement. The context of this intervention a cohort of teacher candidates in their final year of a twoyear Bachelor of Education (after degree) program preparing generalist rather than specialist teachers for the teaching of grades five through eight, the study focuses on one case, Annette. As described by Stake (1995) this qualitative study is best categorized as an instrumental case study where a particular case is of interest, in all its particularity. It, in itself, reveals a story. The instrumental case study is best utilized in a situation where there is a research question similar to ours that seeks answer to a puzzlement; a need for general understanding; and feeling that we may get insight into the question by studying a particular case (Stake, 1995). In instrumental case study what is most important is the identification of the revealing case rather than the typical case. In a combined class of 70 teacher candidates, a variety of cases might provide insight into how the course design influenced teacher candidate understanding of the nature of science, its application to the planning and teaching of science lessons, teachers' post-teaching reflection of the authenticity of their science teaching and their views of self as teachers of science. Rather than examining trends in data (Lewthwaite & Wiebe, 2011, 2012) and multiple cases, we choose but one 'rich' case. Through the sheer volume of her writing, inherent within Annette's account was multiple evidence elicited through questionnaire completion, daily journaling, large group discussions, personal conversation, direct observation of teaching, lesson planning and postteaching personal critique of her rich insight into her own development as both a teacher who comes to understand and teaches authentic science. Overall, we sought to make sense of Annette's story about her learning as a teacher of science. As purported by Glesne & Peshkin (1992), as researchers we sought to understand her experience from her own frame of reference, specifically in regards to her thinking about the nature of science and how this informed her approach to the planning and teaching of science. Using her submitted diary as a form of expressed experience, we identified independently and then collaboratively those aspects that emerged to illustrate her story (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). For the purpose of this journal, we then abbreviated this story into the narrative form that follows which was verified by Annette and, where necessary, altered to be consistent with her perspective. Because this instrumental case focuses upon one candidate's account, the study presented here lacks generality, notwithstanding that it does provide science teacher educators with considerable insight into a program intervention and the outcome of this intervention in the response of a single participant. As Stake (1995) asserts, a good instrumental case does not have to defend its typicality. Context of the Study The course intent was to explicitly introduce the teacher candidates to the principles and practices of science education relevant to grades five through eight of schooling within a social constructivist framework. The focus was on developing the planning skills and teaching strategies, through practical experience, necessary to implement a range of science topics relevant to those grades. Particular emphasis was placed on portraying science as a process of inquiry that leads to an evolving body of knowledge (Ministry of Education, 1993). Although the teacher candidates developed some understanding of scientific phenomena, the courses were implicitly intended to address the negative preconceptions that teacher candidates commonly have towards science and their own teaching capabilities as a teaching and learning area in the national curriculum within a reflective orientation (Abell & Bryan, 1997; Lewthwaite, 2007). Also, epistemological features pertaining to the nature of science were explicitly (as suggested by AbdEl-Khalick & Lederman, 2000) developed within the context of the science methods class. This was done believing that, as Hashweh (1996) suggested, teacher epistemological beliefs about the nature of science would strongly correlate with their science teaching strategies in developing and presenting authentic science lessons as future teachers of science. The methods course spanned over a full northern hemisphere academic year; that is, from September, 2008 through to April, 2009 and involved twenty, two-hour classes held each week. Three concurrent sessions (classes 15, 16 & 17) in February were devoted to teaching with a peer, a series of three lessons with the same group of six to eight Middle Years students at a local school. The topics to be taught were negotiated by the teachers of the school and the authors. This negotiation revolved around a central idea, that being, what topic do you find as a middleyears teacher find difficult to teach and, equally, what topic do your students find difficult to learn? It is not surprising that the identified areas were in conceptual areas such as seasonal change and lunar cycles, earth structure and dynamics, simple machines and physical and chemical changes, topics often identified as difficult in the middle-years program. These topics became the context for one-hour presentations during sessions 1, 5, 9, 13. In these sessions, one of one of the authors would present an historical account of the development of understanding associated with Lewthwaite et al. the topic under consideration. Following the presentation, teacher candidates were asked to consider the NOS attributes embodied within the historical vignette, and, further, suggest implications of these NOS attributes to the teaching of science (TOS). It is noteworthy that the Manitoba provincial curriculum in which these topics are embedded commonly requires teachers to expose students to the historical events that contributed to current scientific thinking in these domains. As an example, in the Grade 7 unit on the Earth's Crust students are to: 7-4-12 Describe evidence to support the continental drift theory and explain why this theory was not generally accepted by scientists (italics ours) 7-4-13 Describe evidence to support the theory of plate tectonics, the role technology has played in the development of this theory and reasons why it is generally accepted by scientists (again, italics ours) In the section that follows we describe the content of one of the four vignette lecture HOS presentations. Using Historical Accounts for Developing NOS Understandings Example 1: Alfred Wegener & Continental Drift Theory: Tensions & Frictions As an example of how the nature of science can be revealed to teacher candidates through the historical lens of a major shift in thinking about Earth's history, we took hold of the experiences of Alfred Wegener and the notion of continental displacement, as mentioned above, a central idea to be investigated in the Grade 7 curriculum. This particular story line was developed into a 30 minute interactive lecture supported by Power Point and other visual formats such as a reading biography, computer-based simulations and physical models. The unfortunate manner in which Alfred Wegener's ideas about moving continents and opening ocean basins were met historically by his contemporaries requires more richness than simply developing a brief vignette. This episode in the history of ideas in the geological sciences was quite revolutionary, shaking the very foundations of modern geology a century ago. To us, the entire inclination of exploring Wegener's efforts to convince an institutionalized opposition, for the purposes here, is grounded in establishing a kind of "triggered experience" for the teacher candidates. Each candidate will be drawn to different aspects of Wegener's story, and the entirety of the class experiences then becomes the multivariate window on the nature of science in a particular instance of revolutionary change. From a NOS perspective, it was important for students to experience the inevitable tensions and friction that occur when one discipline is calling upon another to begin thinking radically about altering its fundamentals. For instance, geology has a particular epistemological manner in which it views the world, and its narrative/historical approach complements and contrasts with other ways in which scientific knowledge is developed and organized in other disciplines such as physics. In the Wegener story, the collision was between the principles of geology on the one side with the fundamental mathematical physics on the other. It is almost as simple as this: Wegener challenged the physical view by saying that the evidence in favour of shifting continents was undeniable, and so it had to have occurred. The physics community steadfastly claimed that it was a geophysical impossibility, and so could not have occurred. Hence, the tension. This tension was further accentuated by the fact he was a German climatologist and the adversarial response was primarily from the British geological community. As well, the means by which he 'poorly' communicated his ideas, both in terms of language and visual communication strategies, were likely further impediments for the scientific community in, psychologically, 'coming to terms' or in experiencing 'cognitive resolution' with these ideas. This sort of frictional, heated exchange of ideas is an important contrast for teacher candidates to foster in their classrooms. It provides their students with an opportunity to gain experience in the NOS through sensing important tensions by personally experiencing the varied interpretations of discrepant events or outcomes of student-generated investigations as a key purposeful strategy in their science teaching. By designing a curriculum experience in areas such as geology that presents students with differing, if not completely opposing, sets of arguments (e.g. about the permanence of ocean basins on the one hand, and the impermanence of oceans in the Wegener model; a contracting Earth versus an expanding Earth) there may be enhanced potential to see the rhetoric of science in action first hand (Erduran et al., 2001). It is argued in this instance that such pointcounterpoint features in the delivered science curriculum will equip students well to formulate their first impressions of how scientific communities behave, how individuals respond to novel facts that erode cherished systems of belief, to understand the role of critical tests, evaluating the behaviour of individuals during a crisis period, and having a realistic opportunity to personally assess how the evidence was indeed validated, evaluated, and subsequently codified historically (Glen, 1994). We have, then, aligned our position with respect to the NOS somewhat with that of Monk and Osborne (1997) who indicated: "…in our model, the final review will require an opportunity for students to reflect on the products of the resolution of conflict, which have now become the products of the context of discovery, and compare them with their own thinking. Hopefully, such a phase will enable them to note that historical thought cannot be considered ignorant or stupid, for they too have had similar ideas. It may also become apparent that the ideas of science are not often based on what seems self-evidently salient. Rather, that it has taken imaginative and creative leaps of thought to transcend the limitations of commonsense thinking, and scientific ideas are the contingent product of a socio-historical and geopolitical context and culture. However, most importantly, this approach does focus on what we think now – that is, the science concept that is in the curriculum, whose knowledge and understanding by [students] is the main aim of the science teacher." Monk & Osborne, 1997 p. 420 The manner in which the Wegener storyline was presented to the teacher candidates was, initially, to provide that humanistic "door opener" to the important ideas and personalities that were at the centre of this "debate about the Earth". As Clough (2006; cited in Metz et al., 2007) has recommended, this satisfies four recommended guidelines for effective use of science stories as pedagogical content strategies: 1) A tight link should exist between the fundamental science content and the targeted NOS ideas; 2) [stories] should address both historical and contemporary instances so that students cannot easily dismiss past events as wrong thinking; 3) the actual voice of the scientist provides authenticity to the NOS point(s) being emphasized by drawing students' attention to more accurate ideas regarding the NOS; and 4) the focus of the vignette's content is a required area of learning within the provincial curriculum. The early 20 th century conflict over continental drift, with Alfred Wegener at the center, provides a particularly accessible instance of a science story that has abundant connections to the NOS, the appropriate geological content, contributes the voices of the actual protagonists, and provides for scaffolds with which teacher candidates can construct science lessons having enhanced authenticity. Although we anticipated teacher candidates would construct their own ideas of what NOS attributes were evident in this vignette and, equally, how these NOS attributes related to the teaching of science (TOS), we anticipated that several connections would be made. These included providing a tangible example to teacher candidates of the importance of (1) students gathering evidence to support theoretical claims, (2) providing students with the time and opportunity to process their findings and come to a point of resolution in their thinking, and (3) using effective communication models to assist students in learning and communicating their ideas. Data Collection At the start of the course, prior to the candidates having any formal classroom-based science teaching experience, we decided collectively to use a variety of methods to assist candidates in selfexamining their current beliefs regarding the teaching of science. As identified by Dennison (1999), we were committed to providing means by which we could capture students' beliefs about science as a learning area, their perceived role in the teaching of science, and their beliefs about self as teachers of science. To do this we used a variety of self-evaluation procedures that would allow them to monitor their own learning development, an asserted essentiality of adult transformational learning (Kegan, 2000). In the first session of the course before any course information was provided, teacher candidates completed three tasks. First they completed a questionnaire, the Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument for prospective teachers (STEBI-B), a 23item instrument to gauge aspects of their science teaching self-efficacy. Each item was scored on a 1 to 5 range of "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". The instrument, as designed for science teaching efficacy by Enoch and Riggs (1990), is grounded on two sub-constructs of Bandura's psychosocial construct of self-efficacy (1977), namely: personal efficacy and outcome expectancy. Bandura (1986) distinguished between self-efficacy and outcome expectations in that they are differentiated because individuals can believe that a particular course of action will produce certain outcomes, but they do not act on that outcome belief because they question whether they can actually execute the necessary activities (p. 392). The personal science teaching efficacy (PSTE) subscale, consisting of 13 of the 23 items of the instrument, measures personal efficacy (Bleicher & Lindgren, 2005). High scores in PSTE indicate a strong personal perception in one's ability to teach science effectively. The science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE) subscale, consisting of 10 of the 23 items of the instrument, measures outcome expectancy (Bleicher & Lindgren, 2005). A high score on the STOE indicates high expectations that future students will effectively learn science as a result of one's science teaching. In our study, teacher candidates completed the STEBI-B on the initial and second-to-final session. In their post-course analysis they were asked to select only those items they believed were indicators of their development over the duration of the course. Although the STEBI-B is a popular research instrument associated with measuring pre-service teachers science teaching self-efficacy (Bleicher, 2007, Bleicher & Lindgren, 2009; Cantrell & Young, 2003), there are no known examples of it being used as a means of pre-service teachers self-evaluating their own perceptions of self-efficacy. Second, they were asked to 'visualize' their ideal science teaching classroom and write a descriptive passage that described the activity of both students and teacher in the classroom, the content of the instruction, the purpose or intent of the activity and, finally, their feelings associated with their role. In reference to Denessen's (1999) claims, we were interested in the preservice teachers' task orientations to the teaching of science. Third, candidates were asked to provide in their descriptive passage a brief justification for the role taken by students and teachers and the intent of the activity. These three data sources were kept in their journals. The same tasks were then completed at the end of the course and became the focus of a final assignment where candidates critically examined their development during the course. In each of the four presentation sessions (sessions 1, 5, 9, 13), an open grid with four headings but no further content (see Table 1) was provided for candidates to make individual recorded responses during the presentation. At the end of each presentation, candidates were asked to consider what they learned about science's nature as a result of the presentation. Often, an initial discussion would, as a starting point, identify an example of a NOS attribute and its applicability to the teaching of science. As an example, after the first presentation on Alex Wegener's suggestion of a continental drift theory, candidates were asked what NOS characteristics were evident. One of the teacher candidate's (Annette (pseudonym) – to be introduced later) open class response focused on 'serendipity'. In asking her to expand on this idea of serendipity, she remarked that Wegener's own inquiry into Earth's geological history was influenced by happenchance because of his curiosity and a series of life events including an accident that confined him to bed. There was no pre-calculated agenda to his life history as a scientist and certainly no systematically arranged process by which he arrived at his theory. As a class, we considered how this nature of science attribute challenged the view of their being a 'one-style-fits-all' scientific method, subsequently linked to the teaching of science, and how this attribute might be enacted by them as teachers of science. The collectively constructed outcomes of this initial application based upon Annette's initial NOS suggestion are presented in Table 1 below. Table 1. Annette's Initial Response to the Presentation on Alex Wegener \| Nature of Science \| How and Where this \| How does this Attribute \| Practical Example of \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Characteristics \| Characteristic is \| Link to the Teaching of \| how I might ensure this \| \| evidenced in the Narra- \| Evidenced \| Science? \| attribute might be \| \| tive \| \| \| enacted? \| \| The development of \| Wegener’s arrival at a \| Students are likely to be \| I need my investigati- \| \| scientific ideas often \| Continental drift theory \| curious as they are \| ons to provide some \| \| occurs serendipitously. \| was a product of obser- \| investigating and may \| opportunity for open- \| \| \| vations from his field \| ask questions or seek \| endedness. I need to be \| \| \| explorations as a \| explanations that are \| open and prepared to \| \| \| meteorologist, but his \| only obtusely or \| allow for alternative \| \| \| ideas developed \| tangentially related to \| questions to be \| \| \| seriously only while \| the topic of study. They \| explored as a result of \| \| \| convalescing from a \| may also have a variety \| student curiosity. I also \| \| \| serious wartime leg \| of valid procedures for \| need to encourage \| \| \| injury. He re-read earlier \| pursuing answers to \| students to explore \| \| \| 19th century speculations \| questions. \| their own investigative \| \| \| on the issue as he \| \| procedures rather than \| \| \| healed. \| \| falling into the trap of \| \| \| \| \| doing brainless expe- \| \| \| \| \| riments. \| After a few further NOS examples were considered collectively as a class from the geological storyline, candidates considered in groups independently other NOS attributes and their applicability to their teaching and entered these in their grids. This collaborative, co-generative strategy encouraged a social constructivist perspective in which learning is regarded as a social activity. They were engaged in constructing meaning through discussions and negotiations among peers, students, and teachers as a valuable method in developing the teacher candidates' understanding of the nature of science and its applicability to the teaching of science (Abell & Bryan, 1997). This critical discourse approach as exhorted by Mezirow (1981) allowed the teacher candidates the opportunity to compare, debate, explore, and reinforce their ideas in a social setting, with each teacher candidate having the opportunity to recognize his or her ideas through talk and listening (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994; Solomon et al., 1992). Through social interactions, the teacher candidates were likely to become aware of others' ideas, seek confirmation of their own ideas, and reinforce or reject their personal constructions. Further Attributes of the Course The two or three sessions (that is, sessions 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14) interrupting the NOS presentation sessions focused upon activities that introduced students in the two individual cohorts to the science conceptual areas that they would be teaching with a peer a small group of Middle Years students. That is, after the combined session on the historical development of Continental Drift theory, each cohort was exposed to activities specific to the Earth's Crust cluster. Thus, by lesson 14, candidates had been exposed to three history of science combined presentations and, also, associated activities supporting the teaching of the more difficult learning outcomes associated with the topics of Earth in Space, Earth's Crust and Changes to Materials. School-based Teaching Experiences As the course progressed, teaching options for the three sessions devoted to school-based experiences identified by the schools' teachers were presented to teacher candidates. Candidates, in pairs, selected a teaching option and were required to collaboratively plan three linked authentic science lessons that addressed the phenomena and provided some reasoning and justification as to why these lessons were perceived to be authentic science learning experiences. Candidates were required to use their developing understanding of the Nature of Science and its application to the teaching of science in their justification. As an example, one classroom teacher suggested that the focus of her class's three linked lessons would be day and night, seasonal changes and lunar cycles. As the candidates co-taught their lessons, they were expected to document in their journals a critique of their teaching and the perceived quality of the lessons based upon student response to the lessons and their teaching. At the end of the course and based upon these peer reflections, candidates were asked to make modifications to the lessons and submit them for formal assessment. Correspondingly, candidates provided a post-teaching reflection of their teaching experience and identified why they perceived their lessons were authentic. The candidates were expected to identify at least five nature of science characteristics that they believed were of consequence in informing the development of their lessons and their teaching of science. Candidates were asked to critique their lessons based upon the shared experience they had had in teaching the lessons to their group of students. Specifically, how did students respond to the lessons? How well did the nature of science attributes selected assist teacher candidates in developing their lessons? Did the application of these attributes to their lesson planning assist in developing positive learning experiences for their students? Although there were other requirements for the teacher candidates in their post-teaching reflection, these questions focus specifically on the intent of this paper. That is, does the application of NOS attributes to lesson planning and teaching contribute positively to the development of a pedagogical framework that supports candidates in offering authentic science learning experiences for students? Results As mentioned earlier, this study because of its complex qualitative nature and variety of data sources emphasizes the results from one case, Annette. Again, selecting Annette as the case is primarily based upon the suggestion that in an instrumental case study what is most important is the identification of the revealing case rather than the typical case. Because we are seeking to determine whether the use of the NOS is a valid foundation upon which to support our teacher candidates in developing a pedagogical framework for the teaching of science and a positive perception of self, we are addressing our own professional puzzlement, and to seek a general understanding, we seek insight into the question by studying a particular case (Stake, 1995). For this reason, through our examination of the professional journals, we independently identified the teacher candidate that we felt best answered our puzzlement. We agreed upon Annette's selection because of the exceptional degree of consideration that Annette had presented in her diary in a variety of forms (for example, questionnaire completion and post-completion reflection, lesson planning detail and accompanying justification, evaluation and reflective consideration of her teaching and development during the course). Similar to most teacher candidates in this university's teacher education program, Annette held an undergraduate degree in an area other than science. At 29, she is the average age of our education candidates. Annette's reference to 'serendipity' regarding a NOS attribute from the initiating full group presentation on the first session of the course based upon Wegener's life story and her willingness to elaborate on this response, provided the first two authors an initial, and soon to be noticed, ongoing awareness of how she, as an individual case, provided a richness of insight into how NOS understandings can serve to assist teacher candidates in formulating a heuristic for developing authenticity in their science planning and teaching. What follows are a variety of personal responses she makes that serve as data entries in revealing details of her case. Although the entries we present are her responses to the questions posed during the course to direct their diary entries and assignment requirements, we present some of her responses as data in the form of narrative of her journey through the academic year. We, then, use these data to answer our puzzlement in the discussion that thereafter follows. Annette's Initial Perceptions of Science and Herself as a Teacher of Science In the first entry to her journal at the commencement of the course in September, she was required to describe her ideal science classroom, her activity as a teacher in that classroom, and the activity of her students. My Initial Entry: I am providing students with an activity that they carry out to find an answer to a problem. I have set the materials out and we have focused on the question. They know what is required of them and they work in groups, record results and come to a conclusion. We discuss the conclusion and make sure we have the same outcome and write it down. They work together collaboratively and by following instructions we have a foundation for moving on to another idea. Students' responsibility is to stay on task and complete activities and respect each other and the teacher. My role is to direct and instruct students. I will be preparing them for next year and beyond. There is uncertainty about my general knowledge. I see myself as an average student who never saw myself as a good science student. I wasn't good at science and really never enjoyed it. I have some doubts about my ability, but, overall, know I can manage what is required. My Justification: My desire is to have students learning the necessary knowledge and a classroom where experimentation is important. As a teacher, I must provide accurate information to 390 Lewthwaite et al. students during the learning process. A teacher must direct students through the curriculum and clear up any potential misconceptions. I see students doing experiments following the scientific method after we have discussed the topic in class. Students are engaged and actively doing science and coming to conclusions. They will be writing up their results and seeing that these results are consistent with what they read in texts and the notes that have been given previously. The authors would suggest there isn't anything unique about Annette's responses in comparison to other teacher candidates in our program or teacher candidates internationally. Typical of many pre-service candidates, her emphasis is on a teacher directed classroom learning culture where emphasis is on theory acquisition, that is, her task orientation as Denessen (1999) would suggest, is content-oriented. For Annette, experimentation is seen to be useful for only engaging students and, to a lesser extent, verifying the theory taught didactically. More importantly, her views of science and the teaching of science are embedded within primarily a 'doing of science' that verifies knowledge claims previously asserted through a didactic mode of teacher delivery. As Bencze and Hewson (1999) suggest, her approach focuses on processes where the knowledge acquisition is seen to be unproblematic leading unambiguously to 'proven science'. Table 2. Annette's Initial and Final STEBI Responses Similar to most of our teacher candidates and candidates internationally in elementary and middle-years teacher education programs, she has anxieties of her science background knowledge and, consequently, as she implies, her overall science-teaching efficacy. Although there are 23 items on the STEBI, we choose to examine those items that Annette herself chose to use in her end-of-course post-reflection analysis. In Table 2 that follows, the items she chose to analyze are listed along with her level of agreement on a Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD) response scale. The items chosen are those of importance to her in providing some evidence to her in her own self-study of her own professional development as a teacher of science. Even though her post-analysis (to be discussed later) will draw into consideration these statements in more detail, what is evident to the authors is her initial uncertainty (U) in most of the items. As well, she does not perceive that teachers strongly influence the success of their students as science learners. She questions the role of the teacher in influencing student achievement, her ability to turn students on to science and her science conceptual knowledge background. Also noteworthy is her tentative perception of herself as a teacher of science. It is noteworthy that the statements selected primarily relate to her perceptions of a teacher's role in influencing student learning and her perceptions of self and her science teaching capability. Annette's Journal Entries as Responses to the Nature of Science Sessions What we present here only some of the entries Annette has recorded in her diary throughout the course. We collectively choose these entries because they provide answers to our puzzlement regarding the use of accounts from the history of science to assist students in developing new views of self and science. It is noteworthy that although the majority of these attributes were recorded through discussion in her journal after the four vignette discussions, some may have arisen from the discussions occurring within the non-combined sessions as well. Again, these items are primarily derived as her personal response to the vignettes or from discussion in small groups with her colleagues. Although her diary, in its entirety, lists at least 29 Nature of Science attribute applications to the teaching of science, we have identified those which she ultimately selects as being of utility in the planning and teaching of her three-linked science lessons in the topic of material changes. In her analysis of the presentation, Alfred Wegener & Continental Drift Theory: Tensions & Frictions, Annette made the following entries: Annette's entries give indication of the identification of NOS attributes and application to the teaching of science. Annette's Lessons and Teaching Experiences Annette and her teaching partner, Jason, chose to teach a Grade 5 topic related to Properties of and Changes to Materials. Specifically, the learning outcomes they were required to teach focused on (1) selected properties of materials, (2) how these properties were related to their use and (3) how these materials changed (permanently or temporarily, physically or chemically) as a result of environmental influences. Again, this topic was selected by one of the school-based teachers as a valid context for our teacher candidates to work because the topic was both a topic difficult for teachers to teach and students to learn. Using their understanding of Nature of Science attributes and their application to the teaching of science, Annette and Jason developed a series of three-linked lessons revolving around the properties and use of kitchen materials that would cover, three one-hour instructional sessions with a group of eight Grade 5 students. As well, they were encouraged to use a planning template (presented in a completed form in Figure 1) used during the course. Table 3. Annette's Initial Reponses to the Presentation on Alex Wegener \| Nature of Science \| How and Where this \| How does this Attribute \| Practical Example of \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Characteristics \| Characteristic is \| Link to the Teaching of \| how I might ensure this \| \| evidenced in the Narra- \| Evidenced \| Science? \| attribute might be \| \| tive \| \| \| enacted? \| The completed lesson template requires the candidates to list the curriculum connections and assessment methods in column A; the actual teaching sequence in column B; and the materials, safety issues and how their planning was informed by Nature of Science Attributes in column C. In the lower right hand of the template, the guiding principles derived from the Nature of Science attributes they were using as a foundation for their lesson planning are listed. As well, they were required to provide a one-two page justification for why they perceived their lessons were 'authentic' science lessons based upon how well they captured the Nature of Science attributes. Annette and Jason taught the lessons to a small group of seven students. An open-grid was supplied by the authors to assist the teacher candidates in evaluating each of the lessons in terms of student response and learning. The grid is presented below and contains Annette's first two entries. Table 4. Annette's Evaluation of Her Teaching Experiences Following the teaching of the lessons, Annette and Jason individually made modifications to their lessons based upon their perceptions of what they believed needed to be changed in their preliminary planning in response to their actual teaching experience with the students and ongoing evaluation of the success of their teaching. Annette's post-teaching submitted second lesson of three is shown in Figure 1. Again, what is noteworthy is her inclusion of several NOS attributes that she perceives underpinned her lessons. As well, accompanying the three lessons was a descriptive account of her teaching experience. Although there were several requirements in this submission, what is central to the intent of this paper was the requirement that the candidates evaluate the value of using the Nature of Science attributes in formulating their planning and teaching successfully in terms of fostering student engagement and learning. Annette's Response to Using the Nature of Science Attributes to Inform Her Teaching Annette provided a description of the nature of science attributes she used in her lessons. These guiding principles underpin her statements made on the lower, right hand section of the planning grid. My lessons are authentic because they are mindful of several Nature of Science characteristics. First, they take into consideration that just as scientists seek to make sense of their world, students should be engaged in contexts relevant to them. The use of kitchen materials and processes was an appropriate selection. Instead of using words like 'materials' and 'substances', we started by using words meaningful for them like 'ingredients'. Just as scientists gather evidence, the lessons start with an experiential phase where students encounter scientific phenomena first-hand. These tangible, observable and measurable experiences are often associated with occurrences [like the frothing of the baking soda in syrup] that are not expected or discrepancies that foster student dissonance and curiosity. It is here we move into a psychological phase where there is a need to satisfy curiosity, seek answers to questions and wrestle with the implications of these experiences. During this time, we endeavor to provide space for all students to ask and answer questions, especially those 'what-if' type questions that lead to further investigations. In seeking answers to these questions, like scientists, we use systematic processes to answer our questions with validity. We ultimately want students to come into a final lesson phase where there is equilibrium, a theoretical phase, where they have made sense of their experiences. Coming to this resolution often required us as teachers, like scientists, to communicate their understanding of abstract ideas [like the formation of a gas while a substance is heated] using models and illustrations. Just as scientists need and take time to come to a point of resolution based upon making sense of their experience, we provided time for students to make sense of their experiences, especially through what they were trialing as modifications to their recipes. We wanted students to realize that there are implications of what is learned, especially in regards to understanding that in all recipes, what is in a recipe has purpose and intent. Further, she provided a critique of the value of the nature of science attributes in informing her science planning and teaching. What tests the value of the Nature of Science Attributes is simply the response we received from our students. They were not only engaged in science, they were learning science both in terms of the process and knowledge. The nature of science attributes provided me with a conceptual framework to organize my science teaching experience. During the course we frequently made reference to these attributes and applied them to the experiences we were having in class. When we looked at examples of science lessons [from other sources such as textbooks], this developing framework was applied. I began to believe it held so much more virtue than the common 'word on the street message' that science teaching needs to be, simply, hands-on. This framework made sense and added some substance to what planning should be like. It is a challenge to incorporate these [NOS] attributes into your lessons, but when you do and you see how effective they are in making science lessons engaging for students. Annette's Final Journal Entries At the end of the course in April, Annette was required to write a further description of her ideal science teaching classroom and accompany this with a justification for this approach. As well she was required to give consideration to her own development as a teacher of science based upon a variety of sources. These included examining her initial ideal science teaching description and justification for such an approach. As well, she was to compare this to her final description and justification. As well, she was to, again, complete the STEBI and by comparing to her initial completion identify several items or statements for consideration in supporting her claims about her science teaching development. Finally, she was to identify what factors had influenced her development. We present below an account of these responses starting with her final teaching of science description and justification. My final entry: I am providing students with every opportunity to experience science as it relates to their world. I want them to be engaged with their world and learn to understand their world through the experiences we have. We will spend time making sense of difficult concepts, by using models, simulations and other supports. I will gauge students' interest and engagement as a measure of my success as a teacher. If they are not asking questions and explaining answers through the result of the investigations we conduct then I am not doing my job. My students will learn about science stories and history from a broad cultural basis and learn to appreciate the contribution of 'others' and that there is bias in the ideas we celebrate. As much as possible, I want to introduce and awaken their sense of the science occurring right under their noses –in the kitchen, at the water treatment plant, in our farming practices – the good and bad of the science occurring right under our noses. I want them to smell its power and mystery as well as have a healthy respect for its potential to do a lot of damage if wielded carelessly. I know there is uncertainty rather than clear direction in what is expected of me. This will be challenging and I can be responsive to this. My anxiety is not in knowing the answers but being responsive to their interests and being able to assist them in answering questions of interest. But, this is what is required of me. I know it because that's what I know students want. They want to be engaged and I am the one that can make or not make this happen. I choose the former. My Justification: I see science as a human activity, precipitated primarily as a means of seeking understanding of our world through the questions that arise from our own encounters with it. My role is to assist students in encountering their world in a way that prompts their inquisitiveness and then provides them with the skills and attitudes that are necessary to seek resolution to these questions. My role is more of a facilitator. I need not know all the answer, but I do need to know how to respond to the questions they ask and make the initial experiences of interest to them. I want them to see that others [other than European scientists] have and continue to contribute to science, especially within the area I live [in proximity to Aboriginal Canadians]. Finally, looking at the initial and final STEBI results (see Table 2), her initial and final orientations and, finally, her reflective considerations of her overall experience, Annette provided the following summation. This course provided me with a very useful conceptual model for developing and critiquing quality science lessons as well as tools to build an interesting and engaging science classroom in a confident and competent manner. I felt quite comfortable teaching science before this course but only if it was in a prescribed manner with the teacher in charge. I definitely lacked a deep conceptual understanding of what makes for meaningful science experiences for students. I see myself now operating on a different level. I have undoubtedly developed as a teacher of science, and the evidence lies in my descriptions of an ideal class. It's weird how you think your views are solid and justifiable one day, and a year later, think that they are a bunch of useless jargon. Not that my initial views were wrong, they are just so superficial and, I believe, misinformed. I didn't seem to ever identify the real core of teaching science in my description. I described my specific Lewthwaite et al. role and my students' specific role – basically I teach, you learn- that explained how and what my students would do and learn, but I never identified the processes that would contribute to my students' learning. When I look at the STEBI [Items 1, 4 & 15], I am amazed I did not appreciate the influence I have as teacher on student learning. I saw learning as a passive process and limited to the theoretical level. I now see teaching as a dirty job, a fight in the trenches if you will. Our job is to provide those initial experiences that probe and make them begin to wrestle with answers and ideas. My job is to help THEM build connections to pre-existing schema. I need to patient and purposeful in how I assist them in making those connections. It isn't all about me, as I originally thought, it's about facilitating student learning through experiences, supported reasoning and coming to an understanding. It's in understanding the processes scientists experience helps me to understand the levels of experience I need to support student learning. Before I saw the experiential side (demonstrations and experiments) as just an add-on to get students engaged. It had no purpose. Now I see it as part of an amalgam of experience that needs to occur in science lessons. I can see why I now see [from items 5, 19 & 23of the STEBI] why I have a much more positive view of my ability to teach effectively. The Nature of Science attributes provide me with a mind-map for putting lessons together and teaching. They don't tell me directly HOW to engage students, but it does make it clear I MUST engage my students and foster initial disequilibrium. I used to think there shouldn't be questions asked and if a student was asking questions, it was a sign of my ineffectiveness. Now I see it as a positiveReal [authentic] science learning occurs when students are intimately interacting with science –first-hand. The sustained emphasis on the Nature of Science and authentic science teaching challenged me. Every teacher is tempted to grab a prepared activity and run with it. Or, maybe just provide some notes, do a little activity to verify what's been said, and then do some book problems. However, knowing what I know now, this will be harder to do without feeling guilty. Students deserve better and now I know better. Anything less is a compromise. Analysis and Discussion – Answering Our Puzzlement In this section, we use Annette's responses from the previous section as a source of evidence in coming to some resolution concerning our puzzlement (Stake, 1995); that is, are teacher candidates' beliefs about science as a learning area and themselves as teachers of science changed as a result of using vignettes from the history of science as triggering experiences for challenging their perceptions of science and self? Although there are several perspectives we could take in responding to Annette's narrative and believe that her narrative, in itself, testifies to changed views of science and self, we have decided to focus on only those aspects identified as central to our initial puzzlement. Is there value in using historical accounts pertaining to scientific developments pertinent to the science curriculum to foster student understanding of the nature of science? In turn, is this understanding then transferable and applicable to developing a personalized pedagogical framework for science planning and teaching? As such, does it contribute to an epistemological change rather than, more simply, knowledge of the often-stated list in science education of NOS attributes? Revising Views of Science Annette's account presents compelling evidence of a teacher candidate who has revised her views of science and her teaching orientation from a content-oriented view to a pupil-oriented ideology that focuses on involvement, educational goals that are social and personal and an instructional emphasis that is more process-oriented (Denessen 1981). As she states, I see science as a human activity, precipitated primarily as a means of seeking understanding of our world through the questions that arise from our own encounters with it. Coupled with this is a clear awareness of her role in facilitating this experience. My role is to assist students in encountering their world in a way that prompts their inquisitiveness and then provides them with the skills and attitudes that are necessary to seek resolution to these questions. This view of science and her role as a teacher of science from her initial course considerations, Students' responsibility is to stay on task and complete activities and respect each other and the teacher. My role is to direct and instruct students. I will be preparing them for next year and beyond. Her comments reflect a revised orientation towards student-centered science learning rather than content-dominated experiences with her role now as a facilitator rather than knowledge disseminator. Most apparent is the development of a pedagogical framework that is embedded within the nature of science attributes she has experienced. She states, "The Nature of Science attributes provide me with a mind-map for putting lessons together and teaching". She acknowledges in her summation that her exposure to the vignettes has been significant in bringing about this reorientation in her role as a teacher in fostering student learning, "It's in understanding of the processes scientists experience that helps me to understand the levels of experience [experiential, psychological, theoretical] I need to support student learning". She identifies the inextricable link between process and knowledge. As she states, I didn't seem to ever identify the real core of teaching science in my description. I described my specific role and my students' specific role – basically I teach, you learnthat explained how and what my students would do and learn, but I never identified the processes that would contribute to my students' learning. Embedded within her account is a developing knowledge of what processes are inherent within authentic science lessons, especially at the psychological level in assisting students in making sense of experiences. My job is to help THEM build connections to pre-existing schema. I need to patient and purposeful in how I assist them in making those connections. It isn't all about me, as I originally thought, it's about facilitating student learning through experiences, supported reasoning and coming to an understanding. Within her commentary is a revised understanding of science teaching authenticity. [It is] a very useful conceptual model for developing and critiquing quality science lessons as well as tools to build an interesting and engaging science classroom in a confident and competent manner. Before I saw the experiential side (demonstrations and experiments) as just an add-on to get students engaged. It had no purpose. Now I see it as part of an amalgam of experience that needs to occur in science lessons. This framework has become personal to her – it is the foundation of a new epistemology (Kegan, 2000) for her teaching of science. As Mezirow (2000) asserts in regards to evidence of adult learning, Annette's values, beliefs and assumptions are viewed through a new lens. Personal experiences are discriminated by a greater autonomy enabled by the establishment of a new interpretation and understanding. As she states, However, knowing what I know now, this will be harder to do without feeling guilty. Students deserve better and now I know better. Anything less is a compromise. It's in understanding the processes scientists experience helps me to understand the levels of experience I need to support student learning. Revising Views of Self Annette's narrative journey is punctuated with both overt and subtle references to her changing perception of self as a teacher of science. Annette opens her journal with an honest selfevaluation of her prior experiences in science in writing: I see myself as an average student who never saw myself as a good science student. I wasn't good at science and really never enjoyed it. I have some doubts about my ability, but, overall, know I can manage what is required. The items she chooses to address in her STEBI analysis affirm this initial perceived questionable capability as a teacher of science. As well, she locates the source of this uncertainty. First, she doubts her knowledge of steps necessary to teach science concepts effectively (Item 5). Interestingly, despite her concerns about her science content knowledge (Item 12), she reports a confidence in that she will manage (Item 8). This was a pivotal introduction to Annette's thoughts and identity as she acknowledges the perceived existence of two distinct and independent entities; pedagogical content knowledge and content area knowledge. Her sense of being able to overcome any challenges or limitations as a subsequence of her science content knowledge is significant. In fact, her poor perception of self is initially located in both her limited and uncertain knowledge of pedagogy and content. Bandura (1986) identified that the theoretical center of the social cognitive theory are self-efficacy beliefs, which manifests as, "people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances" (p. 391). People who believe in their abilities to accomplish tasks and prosper through challenges are the source from which continued effort and perseverance arise. If Annette believes she can succeed in being a science teacher, it is that confidence that becomes part of the motivation necessary to act to succeed. However, an absence of such belief, in the face of challenge and resistance, will result in minimal incentive to persevere or alter behavior as a mechanism to find personal accomplishment. In her summarizing STEBI results (Table 2), she continues to be uncertain about her perceived content knowledge (Item 12), but she has made significant shifts in her perceptions of her pedagogical content knowledge (Item 5). She sees herself as confident in being able to engage students and plan lessons effectively (Item 8), aspects she was uncertain with initially. In the arena of science teaching, Annette believes she has the pedagogical knowledge to teach science effectively, and she will likely carry this forward do so in real classrooms outside of the teacher education program. This evidence appears in Annette's journey not only in her writing, but also from her responses to questions from the STEBI. Specifically, Item 15, 'Student achievement in science is directly related to their teacher's effectiveness in teaching science", which was a relationship that Annette initially disagreed. Annette modified her thinking with a Strongly Agree response in the final STEBI. Annette acknowledges that her initial thoughts reflected a passive and solely theoretical level of science teaching and learning. This transformation of thought is significant as it illuminates her growth and integration of her teacher identity, pedagogical foundations, and efficacious perspectives. Again, despite her uncertain regard for her content knowledge, her knowledge of an appropriate pedagogical approach is now deemed more important. What is of great interest in Annette's transformative journey in revising her view of self is her comments regarding her idea of what will be happening in her future classroom. Annette scribes, "We will explore areas of interest to them within the framework of the curriculum, but we will be guided primarily by their interests not by a curriculum." Again, her focus is on classroom process rather than content. The notion of being able to move away from traditional teaching and learning of science and progress to a more responsive approach reflects a high level of self-efficacy. Bandura (1997) described the role of self-efficacy beliefs in the human agency in suggesting, "people's level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true" (p. 2). Bandura (1997) contends that people with confidence can sometimes outperform those with advanced skill sets who suffer from self-doubt. Unfortunately, even an enormous amount of confidence in one's ability can result in success when the background information, knowledge and skills are absent. For teaching, this means that people with a good, but perhaps not superior, sense and understanding of science content knowledge and, instead, pedagogic knowledge can embrace their energies to design, organize and implement effective science teaching as long as they have the confidence that they can do so. Annette is uncertain, yet comfortable with her content knowledge. However, her improved pedagogic knowledge provides her the confidence to see herself effectively teaching science. For Annette, she has heightened her sense of science teaching self-efficacy. It is refreshing to see that Annette turns her attention away from her own efficacious positions and focuses on the efficacy on the students. This is very significant. "Clearly, I need more tools to appropriately structure my lessons in such a way that students have the time and confidence, with my support, to think through their science experiences and to come to deep understanding of their learning". Self-efficacy is a context driven social cognitive theory that evolves over time and experience. Annette has begun her progression. There is a sense of an underlying orderliness and set of principles that now guide her pedagogical decisions and actions (Kegan, 2000) as a teacher of science. She is able to identify and clarify the movement she, herself, is making and contributors to this development. As Mezirow (2004) asserts, this is the heart of adult transformational learning. Judging by her journey presented in this paper, she will continue strengthening her efficacious positions and behaviors to best become an effective science teacher. Summary As middle-years teacher educators, we believe our primary role is to assist teacher candidates in developing a positive perception of science as a learning area, and, with more challenge, teacher candidates' perceptions of their capabilities as teachers of science. Our hope and ongoing practice as science teacher educators is to assist teacher candidates in developing a revised view of self and science as a teaching area. Our focus is on the narrative of the transformative story; providing our candidates with opportunities that foster their self-development and means by which they can see their evolving self-development (Kegan, 2000) We see that this revision can be supported by assisting teacher candidates in developing a pedagogical framework for the teaching of science grounded in nature of science attributes. By so doing and as evidenced in Annette's narrative, we believe teacher candidates' attributes exchange anxiety over their perceived levels of content mastery with greater self-confidence in engaging their students with a clear pedagogical framework for the teaching of science supported by the nature of science. Various authors (for example, Lederman & Zeidler, 1987) suggest that facilitating teacher candidates' understanding of the nature of science is best done by infusing strategies into science methods courses that elicit, confront, and challenge one's understandings of the NOS. We would suggest that infusion is an understatement. NOS needs to be the foundation upon which teacher education science courses should be premised, especially in using the human story of science as vignettes for teacher candidates to come to an appreciation of what science is. But, we are not endorsing NOS understanding for simply knowledge's sake or for some other mythical reason. We believe that using vignettes of historical accounts to elucidate NOS characteristics and, subsequently, teaching of science ramifications have the potential when accompanied by associated planning, teaching and evaluation experiences to assist teacher candidates in a transformational learning experience. We believe teacher candidates' views of science and self are likely to change dramatically as a result of the triggered disequilibrium and critical dialogue that can ensue from the use of historical narratives. The key is to ensure that these accounts are prepared and presented in a manner that ensures that science is presented as a human endeavor, transcending race, motivated by an innate motivation to seek understanding and address human needs and concern. As a human endeavor, it is fraught with frailty, influenced by the social context and, rarely, is a solo enterprise. Certainly the use of historical narratives may be of value in elucidating NOS attributes, but to see these become an integrated perception of science and self requires a well-developed, coherent and purposeful effort on behalf of the science teacher educator facilitating the learning process for our teacher candidates as adults. The vignettes become the context for disorienting initial preconceptions of science. Reflective discourse provides opportunity for candidates to seek resolution through discussion and evaluation of these new orientations through classroom-based experiences. A revising of their assumptions needs to be applied to new courses of action (Mezirow, 2000) and, as evidenced in Annette's case, provides the opportunity to apply this acquired knowledge in teaching and validate its provisional status (Mezirow, 1981). Through this experience, they are able to build confidence and competence in a new 'role' (Mezirow, 2000) that is grounded in their newly generated perceptions of what it means to be an effective teacher of authentic science. We emphasize here that in light of what Mezirow regards as the 'common phases' or 'steps' associated with adult learning, the use of the historical accounts are likely to be only the instruments that serve to provide the disorienting dilemma for teacher candidates. They, in themselves, do not create the learning. Instead, they, like discrepant events commonly used in science instruction, create the initial conditions for contributing to learning by provoking their views of science and self. It is the purposeful, articulated subsequent activities including the critical discourse, collaborative planning, field-based experiences and evaluation, which combine to create a transformational experience for teacher candidates. Central to the learning process is ensuring that the learning that occurs through these experiences is from a self-authored frame (Erickson, 2007). It focuses upon teacher candidates understanding their evolving self and the epistemological changes they identify in science and self over their science teacher education experience. We are confident that the learning our students have experienced will, at least as Annette claims, make subscription to such orthodox practices "harder to do without feeling guilty". References Abd-El-Khalick, F. S., & Akerson, V. L. (2004). Learning about Nature of Science as conceptual change: Factors that mediate the development of preservice elementary teachers' views of nature of science. Science Education, 88, 785-810. Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L, & Lederman, N. G. (1998). The nature of science and instructional practice: Making the unnatural natural. Science Education, 82, 417436. S.K. Abell, L.S. Bryan (1997). Reconceptualizing the elementary science methods course using a reflection orientation, Journal of Science Teacher Education, 8, 153 - 166. Akerson, V. L., Abd-El-Khalick, F., & Lederman, N. G. (2000). Influence of a reflective explicit activity-based approach on elementary teachers' conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(4), 295-317. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bencze, L. and D. Hodson. (1999). Changing practice by changing practice: Toward more authentic science and science curriculum development. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36, 521–539. Bleicher, R. E. (2004). Revisiting the STEBI-B: Measuring self-efficacy in preservice elementary teachers. School Science and Mathematics, 104(8), 383-391. Bleicher, R. E. (2007). Nurturing confidence in preservice elementary science teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 18(6), 841-860. Bleicher, R. E., & Lindgren, J. (2005). Success in learning science and preservice science teaching self-efficacy. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 16, 205-225. Bleicher, R. E., & Lindgren, J. (2009). Variable relationships among different science learners in elementary science-methods courses. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 7, 293–313. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Braund, M., & Reiss, M. (2006). Towards a more authentic science curriculum. Retrieved from http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/454/1/Reiss2006Towards1373.pdf. Cantrell, P., Young, S., & Moore, A. (2003). Factors affecting science teaching efficacy of preservice elementary teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 14, 177-192. Cattley, G. (2007). Emergence of professional identity for the pre-service teacher. International Education Journal 8(2), 3337-47. Clough, M. P. (2006); Learners' responses to the demands of conceptual change: Considerations for effective nature of science instruction. Science and Education, 15(5), 463-494. Denessen, E. (1999). Beliefs about education: Content- and pupil-orientedness in the Netherlands. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant. Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S. (2000), Introduction: the discipline and practice of qualitative research, in Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research. (pp.128). London: Sage. Enochs, L., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90, 694-706. Erduran, S., Osborne, J. Simon, S. and Monk, M. (2001); Enhancing the quality of argument in school science. Paper presented at the Sixth International History, Philosophy & Science Teaching Conference, Denver, Colorado, November 7-11, 2001. Erickson, D. (2007). A developmental re-forming of the phases of meaning in transformational learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 58, 61-80. Glen, William (ed.) (1994); The Mass Extinction Debates: How Science Works in a Crisis. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press. Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman. Hashweh, M. Z. (1996). Effects of science teachers' epistemological beliefs in teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 47-63. Hechter, R.P. (in press). Changes in preservice elementary teachers' personal science teaching efficacy and science teaching outcome expectancies: The influence of context. Journal of Elementary Science Education. Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kegan, R. (2000). What form transforms? A constructive-developmental approach to transformative learning. In J. Mezirow and Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation (pp. 3569). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kind, V. (2009). A Conflict in Your Head: An exploration of trainee science teachers' subject matter knowledge development and its impact on teacher self-confidence. International Journal of Science Education, 31(11). 1529 – 1562. Lamote, C., and Engels, N. (2010). The development of student teachers' professional identity. European Journal of Teacher Education, 33(1), 3-18. Lederman, N, G., (1999). Teachers' understanding of the nature of science and classroom practice: Factors that facilitate or impede the relationship. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(8), 916-929. Lederman, N. G., & Zeidler, D. L. (1987) Science teachers' conceptions of the nature of science: Do they really influence teaching behavior? Science Education, 71(5), 721-734. Lewthwaite, B.E. (2000). Implementing Science in the New Zealand Curriculum: How teachers see the problems. In G. Haisman (Ed.) Exploring Issues in Science Education (pp.11-23). Wellington, New Zealand. Lewthwaite, B.E. & Fisher, D.L. (2004). The application of a primary science curriculum evaluation questionnaire. Research in Science Education, 34(1), 55-70. Lewthwaite, B.E. & Fisher, D.L. (2005). The development and validation of a primary science curriculum delivery evaluation questionnaire. International Journal of Science Education 27(5), 593-606. Lewthwaite, B.E. (2007). Critiquing science lessons for their authenticity as a means of evaluating teacher-candidate understanding of the nature of science. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 18(1), 109-124. Lewthwaite, B.E., & Wiebe, R. (2011) Fostering teacher development towards a tetrahedral orientation in the teaching of chemistry. Research in Science Education, 40(11), 667-689. Lewthwaite, B.E., & Wiebe, R. (2012) Fostering the development of chemistry teacher candidates: A bio-ecological approach. Canadian Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 12(1) 36-61. Lortie, D.C. (1975). Schoolteacher. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education. Understanding teaching and learning about teaching. New York: Routledge. MacKeracher, D. (1998). Making sense of adult learning. Toronto: Culture Concepts. Martin, B., Kass, H., & Brouwer, W. (1990). Authentic science: A diversity of meanings. Science Education, 74, 541-554. Metz, D., Klassen, K., McMillan, B., Clough, M., and Olson, J. (2007). Building a foundation for the use of historical narratives. Science and Education, 16 (3-5), 313-334. Mezirow, J. (1981). A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education Quarterly, 32 (1), 3-24. Mezirow, J. (Ed.). (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (2004). Forum comment on Merriam's "The role of cognitive development in Mezirow's transformational learning theory". Adult Education Quarterly, 55(1), 69-70. Ministry of Education (1993). Science in New Zealand curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media. Monk, M. and Osborne, J. (1997); Placing the history and philosophy of science on the curriculum: A model for the development of pedagogy. Science Education, 81, 405-424. Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Towards a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66 (2), 211-227. Rots. I. (2007). An exploratory study on the relationship between teacher education graduates' professional identify and their views on teacher education. Paper presented at the ISATT Conference. St. Catherines Ontario, Canada. Smith, M., & Scharmann, L. (2008) A multi-year program developing an explicit reflective pedagogy for teaching pre-service teachers the nature of science by ostention. Science & Education 17(2-3), 219-248. Solomon, J., Duveen, J., Scot, L., & McCarthy, S. (1992). Teaching about the nature of science through history: Action research in the classroom. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(4), 409-421. Stake, R. (1995). The art of case research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Stinner, A.: 1996, 'Science textbooks: Their proper role and future form', in Shawn Glyn and. Reinders Duit (eds.), Learning Science in the Schools (pp. 275-298). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Rotterdam. von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning. London: The Falmer Press. Witz, K. G., and Lee, H. (2009). Science as an ideal: teachers' orientations to science and science education reform. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41(3), 409 — 431. Authors Brian Lewthwaite is an Associate Professor in teacher education at the School of Education at James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. His research interests are in teacher education, science education, Indigenous education and Learning Environment Research. Contact Correspondence: School of Education, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia, 4811. E-mail: email@example.com John Murray is a PhD student and science teacher educator at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. He is the Director of the Industrial Research Consortium for Manitoba Innovation, Energy and Mines. His research interests are in curriculum, especially in earth science and astronomy education. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org Richard P. Hechter is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Education at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. His research interests are in science education, especially in physics education and science and technology education. Contact Details: RichE-mail: email@example.com Öğretmen adaylarının fen hakkındaki görüşlerinin ve (öğretmen olarak) kendilerinin değerlendirilmesi: Bilim tarihinden hikayeler yardım edebilirmi? Bu çalışmada fen bilgisi öğretimi dersi içerisinde öğretmen adaylarının bilimin doğasına yönelik anlayışlarını geliştirmek için bilim tarihinden hikayeler kullanılmıştır. Bilimin doğasına yönelik bu anlayış öğretmen adayları için gerçek fen derslerinin niteliklerini anlamada temel olarak kullanılacaktır. Bilimin doğasına yönelik anlayışlarını kullanarak, öğretmen adayları ders planı hazırlar ve uygularlar. Aynı zamanda gerçek fen öğretimi derslerinde öğrencilere sağladıkları deneyimler hakkında kavramsal yapılarını kullanarak kritikler yaparlar. Bu çalışmada araçsal durum çalışması yaklaşımı benimsenmiştir. Bu yaklaşım bir olgunun ya da bir teorinin derinlemesine incelenmesini sağlar. Bu çalışmada bilimin doğasının kullanımının öğretmen adaylarının fen derslerini planlama ve öğretme süreçlerinde özellikle doğru bir şekilde fen öğretmelerine yardımcı olup olmadığı ve fen öğretmeni olarak kendilerinde olumlu bir algı geliştirip geliştirmediğine bakılmıştır. Bu çalışmanın bilgilendirici etkileri öğretmen adaylarının bilimin doğası anlayışlarının gelişmesi ve bunların kullanılmasında ve ayrıca öğretmen eğitiminde yöntem derslerinde de dikkate alınacaktır. Anahtar kelimeler: bilimin doğası, fen öğretimi, dönüşümsel öğrenme modeli Appendix. Implementing; Observing, Measuring & Recording Make observations relevant to the question at hand Use tools and materials appropriately Record and organize observations Analysing & Interpreting Interpret patterns and trends in data and infer and explain relationships. B. STSE Issues/ Design Process/ Concluding & Applying Draw a conclusion based upon investigation results Decision Making: Value honesty, perseverance, precision as scientific habits of mind. C. Essential Science Knowledge Summary: Students will be exposed to common household substances. Each substance has properties and each property makes the substance useful with purpose. Substances may change when heated and these changes as well can be useful Will you assess? If so, what? Student understanding of these properties and how the properties relate to use. Can students associate properties with uses? Can they explain the uses, how the changes are useful How will you assess it? Oral responses during lessons and completion at end of lesson of a list of ingredients, their properties and their uses. Application of these properties and changes to recipes. transparency, powders, crystal. 2. Extending Activity: Get students to consider why we use these ingredients are in the kitchen. What properties do each have that makes them useful. Consider the sweetness of sugars and syrups and how this can be used in food items, sourness of citric acid and how this can be used in food items. Extend the conversation to more difficult ingredients such as baking soda. Focus on its bitter taste. Allow students to experience how the mixture of small amounts of citric acid and sugar can make a sweet and sour taste as is found in crystal drinks such as Kool-Aid. Extend this to see the result of mixing citric acid and baking soda which results in fizzing sensation because of the interplay between the two and the production of carbon dioxide as a byproduct of the mixing. Consider 'fizzy' candies students likely have had experience with. Add these ingredients to the list and their properties and suggested uses.Follow-up by demonstrating to students what happens when some of these substances are heated. Show students how sugar melts and then caramelizes when heated. Repeat with corn syrup. Show students how baking soda dissolves only in cold water but begins to effervesce when placed in hot water (because it decomposes to produce carbon dioxide). Talk about the use of baking soda as a rising agent because of the gas release when heated or mixed with an acid. Add these details to the chart. 3. Investigating: Demonstrate to students the addition of 1 tsp corn syrup with 2 tsp sugar. Bring to boil and then after 30s of boiling. Get students to consider and justify what will happen if baking soda is added. Note changes to boiling syrup and sugar and then add ¼ tsp baking soda. Stir the frothing mixture and pour out on wax paper. Allow time for students to consider the reasons for the change. Get students to review the reason for each ingredient in the sponge toffee. Get students to consider how the process might be changes to produce different results. How could it be made more brittle? How could it be fluffier? Use the fair-testing planning sheet with students to plan an investigation to determine how a recipe adjustment of one ingredient may influence the final recipe product. Suggest boiling time as a means by which the brittleness might be changed. Consider how boiling time could be altered and how brittleness might be measured. Emphasize the importance of changing and controlling for variables to make the trial test fair. Students carry out the investigation making two or three batches by altering the boiling time. Share and discuss outcomes. Carry out other investigations altering other variables if time permits. 4. Lesson Closure: Draw lesson to end by giving attention to the focus of the lesson. Properties of materials relate to their use. Provide students with a recipe for pancakes Safety Considerations: Safety focus on hot plates & food hygiene What NOS attributes are embedded in my lessons? Change these for you! 1. Scientists make sense of their world. Is there a context for the lesson that is applicable to students' lives. 2. Curiosity can drive the scientific process. Does the initial phase of the lesson foster student engagement possibly by creating disequilibrium? 3. Is there an emphasis on first-hand experiences – an evidential phase? 4. Am I helping students to make sense of these experiences – a psychological phase? Am I using methods such as models and illustrations to help their learning? 5. Is there a phase for them to ask questions and pursue answers to their questions through investigating? 6. Do they carry out the investigation systematically but with opportunity to be creative? 7. Is their a theoretical phase where the essential science knowledge is articulated and consolidated? 8. Does the lesson require collaborati- on both in doing activities and shaRevising Teacher Candidates' Views of Science and Self 407	<urn:uuid:f3122aac-4a3f-40d3-8f07-6147a9435640>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://ijese.net/makale_indir/1523	2018-10-15T11:01:53Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00061.warc.gz	176,055,888	18,905	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.933101	eng_Latn	0.997736	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Lat...	false	docling	[ 4033, 8163, 11294, 17185, 19749, 24093, 28145, 33476, 35659, 40735, 43400, 44896, 48854, 49601, 53568, 55638, 59218, 63221, 66262, 70588, 73974, 78336, 81572, 84996, 87436, 89889, 89900, 94927, 94984 ]	[ 1.015625, 4 ]	2	2
English sample unit: Let's talk! Stage 1 \| \| Focus: Language and communication \| \| Duration: 5 weeks \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Explanation of unit/overview In this unit students will learn about language and communication, including: • languages spoken in Australia and in their community • different forms of communication, including assistive technology • levels of formality in language according to audience and purpose • use of nonverbal communication. They will be provided with opportunities to engage with language in a variety of ways and to develop their skills in communicating verbally and nonverbally in different situations. The unit does not attempt to cover all aspects of literacy learning, and should be supplemented with teaching and learning experiences that further develop skills and strategies in viewing and responding to texts. \| \| Links to other KLAs History – students will consider present and past family life as they share their cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Science – students will learn about different information technologies as they consider assistive communication systems. Creative Arts – students will be provided with opportunities to engage in role-play and dramatic representation. \| \| Outcomes Assessment overview EN1-1A communicates with a range of people in informal and guided activities demonstrating interaction skills and considers how own communication is adjusted in different situations EN1-4A draws on an increasing range of skills and strategies to fluently read, view and comprehend a range of texts on less familiar topics in different media and technologies EN1-6B recognises a range of purposes and audiences for spoken language and recognises organisational patterns and features of predictable spoken texts EN1-7B identifies how language use in their own writing differs according to their purpose, audience and subject matter EN1-8B recognises that there are different kinds of texts when reading and viewing and shows an awareness of purpose, audience and subject matter * Students engage in a variety of observable learning experiences. Anecdotal notes and observational mechanisms (eg charts, video recordings) should be used to evaluate student progress throughout the unit. * Additionally, student understanding may be assessed through analysis of contributions to class discussions. * Students produce a summative assessment task. This should be assessed to determine the student's level of achievement and understanding. \| \| Content \| \| Teaching, learning and assessment \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| EN1-6B • make connections between different methods of communication, eg Standard Australian English, Aboriginal English, home language, sign language and body language \| \| Communication games • Engage in a variety of activities and games that use different types or aspects of communication, eg: – charades (using body and facial language) – coded messages (translating language into a number system) – blindfold walking (using verbal instructions to guide a blindfolded peer) – telephone whispers (meaning is lost with inaccurate repetition). How we talk at home • Pose a question: ‘What are five different ways that I could tell Mum that I love her?’ Have students act out their responses, eg: – verbally tell her in person or over the phone – write a letter or email – use sign or body language – have Mum ‘lip read’ – use another language or code to tell her. • Discuss the nature of communication (sending and receiving messages) and the different ways people can communicate. • Students share their use of language at home, eg: – use of one, two or multiple languages – use of Aboriginal English – use of sign and body language, Braille, assistive communication technology. Guest speaker • Invite a member of the local community to visit the class and share their cultural and language background and experiences, eg a person: – from a non-English speaking background – who uses sign language or assistive communication technology – of Aboriginal heritage, who speaks a community language and/or Aboriginal English – who is involved in translation services. \| \| EN1-6B Language and context * understand the use of vocabulary in everyday contexts as well as a growing number of school contexts, including appropriate use of formal and informal terms of address in different contexts (ACELA1454) EN1-1A * understand that language varies when people take on different roles in social and classroom interactions and how the use of key interpersonal language resources varies depending on context (ACELA1461) * Begin the lesson by addressing the students using a highly formalised manner of speech, eg 'Kind sirs and misses, please commence this learning experience by becoming seated on the floor'. * Develop a discussion out of student responses, leading to a definition of formal and informal language. * Discuss terms of address by having students share the names they use for different people in their lives, eg parents, grandparents, friends of the family, other relatives, school friends, teachers. Name labels * Provide each student with a pro forma for a name label. * Students write their name on the label. * Students add other names by which they may be called, eg nicknames, Mr/Miss Surname, names that indicate group membership ('boys and girls', 'children', 'Year Two'), informal terms of address ('mate', 'love', 'hey you', 'buddy'). * Share responses and jointly construct a two-column table indicating formal and informal terms of address. Discuss the contexts in which different levels of formality are appropriate, eg: Formal Informal Annabelle Singh Mr Wilson Doctor Morris Jonno Jonesy champ buddy darling * Discuss how the level of formality used in terms of address affects interactions, eg at home and at school. * Discuss different levels of formality (in language and terms of address) required at home and at school, and consider reasons for the difference. \| \| Content \| Teaching, learning and assessment \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| EN1-1A • use role-play and drama to represent familiar events and characters in texts • explore different ways of expressing emotions, including verbal, visual, body language and facial expressions (ACELA1787) • engage in conversations and discussions, using active listening behaviours, showing interest, and contributing ideas, information and questions (ACELY1656) EN1-4A • use comprehension strategies to build literal and inferred meaning and begin to analyse texts by drawing on growing knowledge of context, language and visual features and print and multimodal text structures (ACELY1660, ACELY1670) \| \| \| \| Content \| Teaching, learning and assessment \| \|---\|---\| Resources Print resources A Button in Her Ear by Ada Bassett Litchfield 'The Three Little Pigs' Informative texts on Braille (or another form of assistive technology) Let's Talk! worksheet Digital resources DVD or online media presentation about people using Braille Online visual or audiovisual guide to teach AUSLAN Text-to-speech technology (eg free online text-to-speech software) Existing software in most common computer operating systems for text-to-speech and voice command software The 'Three Little Pigs' animation – www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5hI9U19-m0/ Community resources Guest speakers Visiting storyteller	<urn:uuid:4cb3c9d3-ecf8-4d56-a8a4-cc2f7a77d9eb>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	https://syllabus.nesa.nsw.edu.au/assets/global/files/english_s1_sampleu1.pdf	2018-10-15T11:03:37Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00061.warc.gz	821,653,027	1,509	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.989848	eng_Latn	0.993421	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2499, 4145, 5980, 6664, 7358 ]	[ 4.3125 ]	1	1
UKCRC Briefing Document: Youth and Public Engagement Introduction This document is the third of three that articulates the message that the UK Computing Research Committee wishes to communicate to different audiences. This one is aimed at youth and public engagement. Briefly, the two key messages for these audiences are: * Computing is a young and exciting discipline, offering intellectual challenges, improvements to the quality of life and wealth creation opportunities. * Computational ideas now pervade every aspect of life. They are influencing the way we think, the kind of questions we ask and the kind of answers we accept. The following two sections flesh out these two key messages. 1. The Excitement of Computing The first general-purpose computers were built in the late 1940s 1 , making the discipline of computing under 60 years old: very young compared to other sciences and branches of engineering. In that brief time they have become pervasive throughout society. It has been estimated that each UK family owns about 100 computers. Most family members will know about the computers in their desktops and laptops, but will not realise that they have several in each mobile phone, even more in their car, and others in their televisions, washing machines, cookers — in fact, just about any electronic device they own 2 . Even the chip in your credit card has 30 times the processing power and 100 times the memory of the on-board computer that took the Apollo mission to the Moon. When people are aware of a computer, it is usually the hardware, i.e., the electronics that they think about. But the hardware is a general-purpose device that must be programmed to do a particular task, such as control the anti-lock braking in your car. The program, also called software, is invisible and intangible, but indispensable to the successful operation of the computer. The hardware is like a well-equipped kitchen. Just as it is the recipes that unlock the potential of the kitchen to produce a wide variety of delicious meals, so it is the software that unlocks the potential of the hardware to perform a wide variety of useful processes. Programming a computer is an exciting intellectual challenge. It is not just the challenge of mastering the capabilities of a programming language, but of thinking clearly and unambiguously about the processes to be automated. Consider the anti-lock braking. What signals are available, or required, in order that the computer can form a dynamic model of the car, it's wheels, it's brakes and their interactions? How can a bad situation be automatically detected before it gets out of control, and what actions must be performed to prevent this bad behaviour? A great deal of responsibility lies on the shoulders of the programmer. Can you guarantee that your program will always behave correctly? Lives depend on it. 1 The Manchester University 'Baby' ran the world's first computer program on June 21 st 1948. 2 Most of the computing power on the planet is based on designs licensed from the British company ARM. Ten million ARM microprocessors are shipped each day. By embedding computers in other devices we make them smarter: able to warn of and/or prevent hazards, able to offer a higher quality of performance, and to do so using less of a scarce resource. The world needs smarter energy production and consumption, to use it more wisely. We need smarter environmental sensing to provide early warning of natural disasters and ecological deterioration. We need smarter health monitoring and regulation to ensure our well-being. We need smarter educational aids to ensure that all the world's children maximise their opportunities. Realising these dreams of a better life for all requires smart computer scientists and software engineers. The combination of the dot com bubble of 2000 and the outsourcing of programming jobs to the developing world, convinced many people that there was little demand for computing expertise in the UK. This is not true. Demand remains high in all sectors of the UK economy, e.g., finance, entertainment, health care, education. The shortage of software engineers caused by this misconception, means that salaries are high. There are also many opportunities to start up new, hitech companies by recognising the previously unrealised potential of novel kinds of computer-based systems, services or devices. Most of these new companies are founded by people still in their twenties, whose fresh eyes see potential that their elders have overlooked. 2. The Pervasiveness of Computational Thinking A remarkable intellectual revolution is happening all around us, but few people are remarking on it. Computational ideas are influencing thinking in nearly all disciplines, both in the sciences and the humanities. Computational metaphors are being used to enrich theories as diverse as genetics and the mind-body problem. Computing has enabled researchers to ask new kinds of questions and to accept new kinds of answers, for instance, questions that require the processing of huge amounts of data. Of course, we all have computers on our desks nowadays. We all use them for email, web browsing, word processing, game playing, etc. But the computational thinking revolution goes much deeper than that; it is changing the way we think. Computational concepts provide a new language for describing hypotheses and theories. Computers provide an extension to our cognitive faculties. If you want to understand the 21 st Century then you must first understand computation. As one example among many, consider computer simulations of the climate, which are essential for first understanding and then controlling global warming. Early models of the climate were too simple to do justice to the complex interactions of the many different kinds of processes that constitute the climate. High-performance computer modelling has, for the first time, enabled researchers to do justice to this complexity and thus obtain a deeper and more accurate understanding. Climate observation, via a vast network of distributed smart sensors, including satellite-based monitoring, has provided the wealth of data needed to inform these climate models. This shear scale and complexity would be impossible for humans to handle without machine assistance. Climate modellers are now able to ask more specific questions about our environment and obtain more detailed and more accurate answers. Computational thinking is also infiltrating hypothesis and theory formation. Consider the apparent paradox between the fast feedback humans require for some simple manipulation tasks and the fact that our perceptual systems are not capable of giving such feedback fast enough. Cognitive scientists are proposing a computational explanation of this paradox: that humans have an emulator that predicts what the feedback ought to be. The emulator can be run ahead of the actual manipulation to provide the feedback that is needed. Of course, this sometimes produces errors. The characteristics of these errors provides evidence for the existence and the form of the emulator. This emulator also provides an internal representation of our bodily functions, which can also be used, for instance, for planning and hypothetical reasoning Alan Bundy, April 24, 2009 www.ukcrc.org.uk	<urn:uuid:49f0ee21-c891-4fe5-94ae-6fefdf7884dc>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.ukcrc.org.uk/resources/briefings/briefing-public09.cfm	2018-10-15T11:45:48Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00062.warc.gz	558,630,146	1,360	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998744	eng_Latn	0.998715	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	false	docling	[ 3130, 7298, 7343 ]	[ 2.046875 ]	1	1
Department 116 Natural Resource Premium: Blue 2.00, Red $1.50, White $1.00 - Bird Study-Please note if a birdhouse, feeder or nest box is completed as a wood science project, it should be entered into section 9. It will be evaluated wood working criteria. If it was as part of a natural resource project, it will be evaluated on use, appropriate construction, youth's knowledge on the item and how it is used Section 1-Enviromental Education 1. Nature Trails-Display of constructed nature trail or observation made along another trail 2. Geology-Simple collection must include the specimen's names, dates of collection, specific site(s) of collection (distance and direction to nearest town, county, state or providence) and collector's name for 10 specimens. Inclusion of field journals is strongly encouraged and identification criteria must be completely and clearly defined. Exhibits showing evolutionary histories adaptations of fossil organisms, vertical or horizontal studies of strata, or similar studies are encouraged 3. Field Identification Projects-Collections of preserved specimens, photographs or sketches properly labeled and showing identification criteria may be displayed for any habitat in New York, consult your local Department of Environmental Conservation for guidelines and permission in collecting specimens from the wild. Collection should have a 10 specimen minimum 4. County-or self initiated projects that relate to environmental education. Examples include but are not limited t interpretation of aerial photographs, vegetation, maps, plant adaptations, demonstrations of ecological principals; or computer models like GIS. Transfer of display ideas and concepts from other project area is encouraged Section 2 Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 1. Exhibits may be displayed or records of any fisheries and Aquatic Resources related activities including but not limited to fishing techniques, aquatic sampling methods, aquatic insect ecology, habitat improvement of fisheries management and biology. Dip nets, such dishes and aquatic food chair display 2. Fly tying: at least 2 different files tied by the exhibitor, mounted and labeled 3. Projects related to fish or fishing, including aquaculture, commercial fisheries, sport fisheries or related equipment skills or observation, fishing rod/poles, fishing lures, life cycle of fish, fish identification chart, fishing knots and fishing hook display fish prints Section 3 Forestry 1. Know your trees: a collection of leaves and twigs from at least 6 specimens; fruit may be included. Must be properly pressed, mounted, identified, and labeled 2. Backyard Maple Syrup: an example of maple syrup, maple sugar, or maple cream by exhibitor, bring 2 samples one for display and one for sample 3. Displays and presentations may be based upon, but are not limited to, the following projects: firewood identification of lumbar, common tree pests or diseases, forest management plan Section 4 Resource Based Education 1. Shooting Sports-any exhibit or record based upon content of an accredited shooting sport FIREARMS. program of any of the NYS DEC certificate program. Such as homemade bows, arrows, and a display on parts of a gun, safety. NO AMMUNITION OR ACTUAL FIREARMS. 2. Other Outdoor Recreation-Exhibits based upon related outdoor recreation activities, e.g. orienteering cross country skiing, snowboarding, wilderness camping, or outdoor cookery 3. Open Class-This class is on option for exhibits deemed to be worthwhile but fall outside the categories described above. This class is also expected to follow the project story requirement listed at the beginning of this section 1. Bird Study-Consult Bluebirds of N.Y. Society or any other bird materials for exhibit ideas. Nests or egg displays, different types of birdseed, how different beaks and bills or feet, migration, pathways, bird count dairy, bluebird, nest boxes, wood duck houses, nesting platforms 2. Trapping Furbearers-Exhibits based upon NYSDEC Trapper Training Program are acceptable, as are displays of equipment, pelt preparation, and discussions of the role of trapping in wildlife management 3. Mammals of Oswego County-display of 10 mammals of Oswego County highlighting either: 1) habitat and diet, 2) tracks, 3) scat. Can include photos (drawn, photographs or clippings from magazines) of the mammals. 4. Other Wildlife Projects-exhibits based upon New York's wildlife resources: bat houses, butterfly houses, invasive species, endanger species, animal lifecycles, and other wildlife projects Section 6 Solid Waste 1. Exhibits based on recycling or composing projects in the home or community 2. Clothing and other items created using post-consumer waste materials Section 7 Open Class 1. This class is an option for exhibits deemed to be worthwhile but fall outside the categories described above. This class is also expected to follow the project story requirement listed at the beginning of this section.	<urn:uuid:e1eff846-936f-47a0-aee3-712434b8a78f>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.oswegocountyfair.com/Department%20116%20Natural%20Resources.2018%20docx.pdf	2018-10-15T11:22:06Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00061.warc.gz	538,469,978	1,030	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992577	eng_Latn	0.991814	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3680, 4992 ]	[ 2.9375 ]	4	2
Get Ready to Teach Science! Science in the Preschool Day Each Early Science with Nico & Nor™ curriculum supplement is designed to take place over 3 weeks, with activities being done several days a week. However, the activities in each lesson can be completed in a time frame that works best for your classroom and schedule, whether all in one day or spread over several days. Each lesson organizes the activities by different times in the daily schedule. Circle Time: Introduction Circle Time (approximately 15 minutes) prepares and motivates children for upcoming activities. Circle Time activities include: whole group hands-on explorations and discussions, Shared Play with the digital game, read-aloud stories and related songs, and short video clips of other children doing related activities and sharing observations. The videos serve as springboards for your class to explore similar activities in the classroom and outdoors. Circle Time: Introduction is also a good time to introduce Learning Center materials. Guided Small Group We suggest that you organize your class into 4 groups for Guided Small Group work. During every lesson, you will meet with each group for about 15 minutes while the rest of the class engages with Learning Center activities. Each group will work together for the duration of each unit and document their explorations with the digital journal apps. Get Ready to Teach Science! Learning Centers Learning Centers (15 minutes each) are designed to encourage children to explore materials independently (or with light guidance) and in an open-ended way. Introduce each center by discussing or demonstrating ways that children can use the materials. Then, allow children to explore at their own pace and in their own way. Take the opportunity (along with other educators or adults in the classroom) to circulate among the centers and engage children in conversation about what they are doing and what they notice. During these activities, children may explore how materials can be used in multiple ways. Follow children's interests as you encourage them to describe, compare, predict, and explain. Use Science Talk strategies to enrich and deepen children's hands-on learning experiences. These conversations also give you valuable information about the level of children's understanding and the specific things that capture their interest. More information and examples of Science Talk strategies can be found in the "Get Ready to Teach Science" section of the Teachers Guide as well as in each activity's directions. Outdoors Each curriculum includes several 15-20 minute activities to do outdoors. You will need to find a safe and convenient area for your children to explore, one without traffic, glass and litter, thorny plants, poison ivy and other plants that can cause rashes. Also consider what the weather might be like during the weeks you plan to implement these lessons. Going outdoors offers great opportunities to help children expand their awareness and understanding of the natural world around them. We encourage you to include these outdoor learning activities in your curriculum, modifying the activities as needed to fit your particular setting. The world outside is filled with plants, large and small—even in small, paved areas you can find plants poking through cracks. In the Plants unit, lessons 4-6 include outdoor plant explorations. In the Ramps unit, lessons 1, 3, and 8 include outdoor explorations of force, movement, and how different surfaces affect how far and how fast a rolling object travels. The outdoors is a wonderful natural laboratory for exploring light and shadows with children. In the Shadows unit outdoor activities, children are often invited to document their observations and discoveries on the iPad in their digital Shadows Journal. Snacks Plants feed us! Each week (during the Plants unit only), Snacks with Seeds activities (5-10 minutes) encourage children to taste and examine various fruits and vegetables. Snack activities can be scheduled into any day that works for your schedule and classroom. You will want to check with parents and guardians in advance about children's food allergies and sensitivities. Circle Time: Wrap-Up In a closing Circle Time (approximately 15 minutes), the class reflects on questions and discoveries from the day. Photos and videos taken by children during the Guided Small Group and Outdoor activities can be projected or shared on an iPad to prompt discussion. The sessions also include read-aloud books, action songs, video viewing, and/or shared exploration of the digital games. Nico & Nor™/© 2017 WGBH Educational Foundation. All Rights Reserved.	<urn:uuid:04220148-2c25-456a-9972-cf7765942e80>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://first8studios.org/nicoandnor/guide/teach/pdf/science-preschool-day.pdf	2018-10-15T11:17:04Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00062.warc.gz	135,424,843	888	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998382	eng_Latn	0.998596	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1390, 4691 ]	[ 4.53125 ]	1	1
Vol. 3, No. 3, July 2008, xx-xx The mediating role of scientific tools for elementary school students learning about the Everglades in the field and classroom Scott Lewis George E. O'Brien Received 14 March 2011; Accepted 13 May 2012 There has been an increased use of authentic practices in both science and environmental education in recent years. Such practices can utilize social constructivist frameworks to consider the learning that may be taking place as students become engaged in tool use. The current study focuses on a group of elementary school students studying the Everglades in the field and in a classroom setting during one academic year. In particular, we observed students' use of tools (identified as tool-conventions to include both artifacts and conventions) and compared their use in both settings. We found that in the field, students spent considerable amount of time engaged in data collection activity such as taking observations and measurements that resembled what scientists might be doing and included the invention of new tools to facilitate data gathering. In this context, students generally worked more independently from the teacher, collaborated in small work groups, and engaged in more self-directed inquiry. In the classroom, while some of the scientific field tools were practiced in anticipation of their use in the field, activity included more teacher direction, often resembling what might be found in other types of classroom work and the tools used there often supported this work. Models of tool use based on Yrjö Engeström's activity approach were constructed for both settings. Implications of the results include the importance of viewing tool use in authentic learning with a sociocultural and activity perspective to reflect the socially constructed nature of such learning. Keywords: authentic science, tool use, sociocultural approaches Introduction In recent years, authentic approaches to education have involved students in finding answers to questions that have real world implications. These efforts to make children's learning more "authentic", i.e. solving real problems such as making contributions to the recovery of ecosystems, have important advocates among contemporary science and environmental educators (Boyer & Roth, 2006; Braund & Reiss, 2006; Buxton, 2006; Krasny & Roth, 2010; Lieberman & Hoody, 1998; National Research Council, 2001; Sobel, 2004) and include "citizen science" programs that have been organized to permit data gathering by nonprofessionals for use in scientific studies (e.g.; BioBlitz, 2012; Project FeederWatch, 2012; The GLOBE Program, 2012). Such programs provide opportunities for the use of tools that scientists use. These include both artifacts (e.g. thermometers, notebooks) and conventions (e.g., how to use leaf characteristics to identify a species, how to take measurements of a plant) – identified here as "tool-conventions" to remind the reader of their links to tools. Students' use of tools in these types of contexts may come to mediate different kinds of learning than tools might in more traditional teaching contexts. In order to explore such potential learning differences, this study investigates the use of tools by elementary school students studying the Everglades using both authentic and traditional learning approaches. The use of authentic approaches in science education to impact student thinking has been the source of some discussion. For example, recognizing the potential of authentic inquiry tasks for stimulating scientific reasoning, Chinn & Malhotra (2002) developed a framework comparing cognitive aspects of authentic science inquiry tasks to inquiry tasks typically found in textbook-based science curricula. While the description of such features provides important goals for educators to consider while developing inquiry curriculum, it does not capture the socially constructed nature of learning that happens during authentic practice. Other researchers have underscored the importance of social exchange and how students may develop their thinking and reasoning and have developed approaches that situate authenticity in problems of concern to the students themselves (Rahm, Miller, Hartley, & Moore, 2003) or even how students may be limited in accessing practices and learning in authentic situations (Hogan, 2002). Although somewhat different, research approaches to authentic science education have not sufficiently considered the role of tools in mediating the learning that is taking place. In encouraging student participation in programs that involve authentic science learning, we may be shifting the learning context in important ways that highlight different kinds of tools and tool use than are found in traditional classroom settings that follow more didactic teaching practices. In both settings we expect that ways that students practice tool use with others to reach goals is an important factor in the way they learn to use them. To study such shifts, it is important to examine theoretical approaches that underline the role of social contexts in learning. Kirch (2009), for example, has written recently about the importance of cultural tools of discourse for students to learn about the role of uncertainty in science. Thus, in investigating student learning where more authentic practice is a goal, it is crucial to consider viewing learning with a sociocultural and activity based perspective, especially as it focuses on the use of tools to mediate such learning. Theoretical Framework Social constructivist approaches built on ideas from Vygotsky are generally widespread in science education and undergird popular approaches like Project Based Learning (Krajick & Czerniak, 2007). Vygotsky analyzed ways that individuals build cognitive structures during participation in practices that were linked to historically shaped goals. In Vygotsky's developmental constructivism, a sign form (such as a word) is initially shared between persons (adult and child) and then eventually becomes internalized by the child. This process is not straightforward, but undergoes a complex change as it moves from something external to the child to something that becomes part of the child's development (p. 11, Saxe, 1991). While Vygotsky described this primarily in terms of the speech sign form (see Vygotsky, 1986) the same process of internalization can be seen with other socially and historically created tools. Wertsch (1994) and Wertsch and Rupert (1993) extend Vygotsky's insights with an approach that is concerned with the way that mental action (including remembering and reasoning) is linked to the context in which it occurs, which has been shaped by culture, institutions, and history. In doing so, Wertsch and his colleagues focus on the importance of mediated action as a centerpiece for such study. Its essence entails what he characterizes as a tension between "the meditational means as provided in the sociocultural setting, and the unique contextualized use of these means in carrying out particular, concrete actions." (1994, p. 205). For Wertsch, there is a two-way street between individual action and the cultural tools, which can be seen in an individual's ability to creatively apply cultural tools. For purposes of this paper, we will focus on the use of tools as mediators in different educational contexts and how we might consider their role in transforming children's cognition. The use of tools to mediate the individual's work in science has been the subject of recent research work. Kirch (2009) highlights how science has developed a variety of tools including "specialized equipment, physical spaces, investigative methods, concepts, criteria, measures, models, and schema" to answer questions and solve problems. (p. 310). Kirch implies that the start of scientists' efforts to generate new knowledge involves interactions between scientists using mediation tools such as specialized equipment and investigation methods and that it would be important to heed Wertsch's call for studying the mediated action to understand what role these tools have provided. Kirch goes on to analyze how conversational tools allowed both scientists and children to identify and resolve uncertainty when solving scientific problems. The use of tools assists in structuring activities, saving mental work, avoiding errors, and serve to distribute intelligence across people, environments, and situations (Pea, 1993). Resnick describes tool use in work settings as extensive and playing a direct role in reasoning (1987). Rogoff (2003) views artifacts as social and historical objects, which are formed by their use in practice but are also shaped by that practice. In recent years, sociocultural approaches to studying learning and development have expanded these notions by investigating problem solving across a variety of practices (e.g., tailoring, navigating ships, calculating deliveries) (Greeno, 1998; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). A number of researchers have shown that such sign forms have critical roles in shaping thinking. The impact of tools on thinking has been studied extensively in domains such as literacy and mathematics that are important both inside and outside school. For example, studies in a variety of settings (candy sellers, dairy workers, abacus users) show that people readily utilize culturally constructed forms in their mathematical problem solving that can differ markedly from school mathematics. Mediating tools derived from school tool-conventions may lead to mental actions that have surprising consequences. For example, Rogoff (2003) describes how schooled children have better recall of lists of unrelated items than unschooled children. Rogoff attributes such differences to schooled children's practice on tasks where they are required to learn unrelated pieces of information- a traditional school learning tool-convention. Accordingly, this approach to studying cognitive development highlights how learners come to participate in practices including use of particular mediating tools as a central focus of learning (see Greeno, 1998). We highlight the research by two investigators, Saxe and Engeström, whose work places a premium on the role of two types of tools - artifacts and toolconventions - within their models. We find that their representations offer an important way to think about the roles of mediating tools in authentic science education in transforming student thinking. In the course of developing a sociocultural approach for studying ways that mathematics becomes used by children and adults in their attempts to solve problems within particular culturally shaped activities, Geoffrey Saxe (1994, 2002) provides a framework that has important implications for how we might view the learning of science as an interplay between cognitive development and culture and thus has critical implications for learning authentically where the learning environment contains important elements of the actual practice. Saxe studied a variety of contexts in which individuals show developmental changes in the use of mathematics that are linked to cultural practices. He developed a framework linking activity structures, tool-conventions and artifacts, prior knowledge, and social interactions to the creation of emergent goals that help guide the activity. To illustrate the use of this framework for studying mediating tools, Saxe investigated the developing mathematics that Brazilian child street vendors used to solve buying and pricing problems. Saxe found that the sellers used various pricing tool-conventions linked to the wholesale prices to help determine the prices they would charge customers. Their acquisition of tool-conventions to set appropriate pricing levels was most impressive in the face of serious economic inflation issues. By studying the practice of candy selling, Saxe was able to link specific mathematical forms that the children used to solve problems within their practice. He found additional evidence for the internalization of these forms by comparing how candy sellers and school children with no candy selling experience solved a set of problems. Saxe showed that school children resorted to school like algorithms (one type of mediating tool) when solving such problems, while the candy sellers resorted to other types of mediating tools they had learned in the course of their candy selling experiences. For Saxe, the use of mediating tools is a critical factor in how individuals develop and address emerging goals in an activity. In this model, tool-conventions become internalized over time by the learner as a result of participation in cultural practices, and thus come to mediate goal-directed activity in ways that are tied to that practice. When learners confront new problems, they draw upon these now internalized tools to solve them. The focus on the use of tools as serving socially mediated devices received additional attention in recent years through the study of Activity theory. This approach views thinking as emerging in the context of an activity that brings together artifacts and human actions in a way that also helps us think about how social participation can also be tied to individual action. Yrjö Engeström has contributed to this perspective by developing several models of important components that contribute to the activity. Engeström points out that the simplest model links a subject (individual, dyad, or group) using a tool (such as machines, writing, speaking, etc.) to effect an object/motive (1999). While focusing on the activity as the central unit of analysis, Engeström developed a model that included links between the nodes of mediating artifacts, subjects, rules, community, division of labor, and object (Shown in figure 1 below). MEDIATING ARTIFACT In Engeström's figure, mediating artifacts represents tools and signs, rules include norms and sanctions that regulate behavior, subject is the individual, community is a space comprised of individuals working together, division of labor includes the negotiation and distribution of tasks, powers, and responsibilities among the participants, and object is the goal of the activity. The following example of the analysis of a reciprocal reading program using this model may be helpful. Cole and Engeström (1993) created a small-group reading activity with elementary school children who were having reading difficulties. The mediating tools for the students included the texts and a set of role cards. During the early sessions of the activity, a leader gave students reasons for the importance of reading and then introduced the different roles they would play (e.g. questioner, identifier of the main idea) and the rules of how to participate. Over time, children increased their ability to carry out Question-Asking-Reading and showed improved performance in their classrooms. Together, Saxe and Engeström place socially situated tools in a crucial role in the development of thinking. They help us understand that as tools are used in practices, they come to mediate our thinking and problem solving. This perspective leads us to predict that as students work over time in different contexts and internalize tools associated with each practice, we would expect them to draw upon these tools as they solve novel problems. Thus, learners who have internalized tool use as a result of engaging in different practices might solve similar problems in different ways. We now move from a discussion of the research on the place of tools in a social constructivist framework to research done on their impacts in science and science education. At the paper's conclusion, we will return to a discussion of the use of a sociocultural framework using Engeström's model for analyzing tool use in the study of science and environmental education. Studies of Tools and Artifacts in Science and Science Education In the field of science, there are a tremendous number and variety of mediating tools that contribute to data gathering, constructing hypotheses, and writing journal articles. Research in the sociology of science (Latour & Woolgar, 1979) has shown that use of inscriptions such as graphing and drawings play an important role in communication and idea formulation in the work of scientists. Rogoff describes the affordances and constraints of the science journal article form for allowing scientists to reconstruct the scientific process while writing the article itself (Rogoff, 2003). Artifacts such as microscopes and electronic spreadsheets and tool-conventions such as use of placebos and random placement of quadrats in the field while studying plant populations can be viewed as sign forms that exist in a sociohistorical context that an individual can appropriate. For example, if a scientist learns to gather data about an endangered bird population using scientific tools such as charts for bird identification, recording numbers of birds using a data entry sheets, and making data comparisons at different locations over different seasons, we might expect her to suggest using similar tools when studying a different animal population. Thus, in future work, the tools associated with the practice of studying the bird populations have become internalized in the problem-solving repertoire of that scientist. A similar transformation of thinking may be taking place while students utilize tools in authentic practices to engage in scientific study. This approach gives us a greater appreciation for the interdependencies between development and social processes and represents a different way of thinking about learning science. If we accept the notion that science in general embodies a culture that, among other things, provides a set of important goals and contains mediating tools (most often associated with a particular scientific field) to assist in reaching those goals, then theories of how students develop scientific understandings as a result of being enculturated into the practice of science become paramount. The Use of Mediating Tools in School Science Learning The use of mediating tools is an important means by which children are initiated into cultural practices. In order to master the cultural knowledge they embody, students must use them in the activity in which the knowledge is used and must be assisted by more knowledgeable others in doing so (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Rogoff, 1990; Wells, 2001). The science classroom may also be seen as a cultural setting that comes with mediating tools that children use in accomplishing particular learning goals such as constructing experimental studies with the assistance of knowledgeable others. Specific science tool-conventions might include how to read a thermometer, how to focus a microscope, and how to create a bar graph to record the height of growing plants. Science classroom artifacts might include worksheets, use of calculators, and science texts. In recent years, a number of studies have emerged that examine the use of such mediating tools in the science classroom. For example, Windschitl (2001) traces the way that tool use and ideas can diffuse across a middle school classroom as students observed each other solving design problems. In a study of a high school science teacher using a project-based approach, Polman and Pea (2001) discussed the importance of teacher introduced tool-conventions critical in student project development. These included making claims only when backed up by references to data, using data representations such as graphs with two variables represented, and assembling a scientific paper in the process of doing the study. Educational researchers have focused on practices in the science classroom to investigate how both students and teachers utilize tools such as inscriptions when they are using more authentic based approaches. (Lunsford, Melear, Roth, Perkins, & Hickok, 2007; Roth & McGinn, 1998; Wu & Krajcik, 2006). Such a process is complex, however, and as shown by Roth and colleagues (1994, 1995, 1995, 1997) is very much imbedded within a social process. Roth and colleagues have written extensively on the use of a particular type of inscription – graphing – in science classrooms. For example, Roth and McGinn (1997) found that middle school students who were accustomed to using mathematical representations to convince peers and teachers of their arguments in studying real environmental problems, outperformed college students who typically did not use graphs to solve a representation problem. For Roth and McGinn, graphing data collected in more authentic based projects leads to the type of science talk which resembled what scientists actually do when they are engaged in scientific activity; graphs serve as representations which can be used to convince others of their knowledge claims. They become "tools for constructing facts and for mediating, in a reflexive relationship, the interactions during which facts are constructed." (p. 100) Some Caveats It is also important to keep in mind some limitations with this approach. For example, tool-linked mediation may not come automatically with use by students. In a study investigating the use of tools by middle school students studying electric circuits during a three week instruction unit, (Carter, Westbrook, & Thompkins, 1999), the authors found that providing tools for use in the classroom did not necessarily lead to their being useful as mediators of learning. However, the problems that students were asked to solve were typically school-like (e.g. making a bulb light, exploring the effect of adding additional batteries and bulbs to parallel and series circuits) and students were unfamiliar with the tools and concepts being explored. Thus, it is critical to consider the conditions under which such mediation does come about. It may be that situating learning in more authentic contexts is more likely to lead to different kinds of use of scientific tools than in more traditional science teaching contexts but this can be constrained by the nature of students' participation in such settings. Significance of the Study As interest grows in engaging students in citizen science projects and project based activities, a variety of contexts will be available for students to engage in authentic science work. It will be important to have appropriate theoretical models for studying such settings that can guide our inquiries and the methods we use to make sense of the learning taking place. The function of tools in mediating learning is a critical feature of the activity in settings and its study can yield important insights about learning in authentic approaches. In order to explore such potential learning differences, this study investigates the use of tools by elementary school students studying the Everglades using both authentic and traditional learning approaches. Hands-on-the-Land Program This study examined learning as elementary school students investigated habitats in the Everglades as part of the National Park Service Hand-on-the Land program. The national Handson-the-Land (HOL) network features "field classrooms connecting students, teachers, and parents to their public lands and waterways" (http://www.handsontheland.org/index.cfm). This particular HOL program represented a partnership between nonformal (Everglades National Park) and formal education settings (the local school district). The unique aspect of the Everglades Park HOL program was to involve students directly in projects that emulated scientists' data collection as they visited particular habitats during the year and noted changes in these habitats tied to seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature. Students from four elementary school classrooms in South Florida were involved in the Everglades HOL project under the direction of the educational division of Everglades National Park. Teachers were chosen for the program based on their commitment and previous work with the Park ranger in charge of education. The Park service selected habitat sites for each school group, provided teachers with benchmark lessons, activities, field guides, and scientific tools, involved scientists in developing data-gathering protocols, and assigned Park rangers to schools to assist in activity implementation and data gathering during the field trips. Teachers participating in the program were given several days of in-service training with scientists in using the protocols, field guides, and scientific tools. School groups were assigned to particular sites as a result of their proximity to various regions of Everglades National Park. Each school group visited a particular habitat site (pine rockland, cypress slough, sawgrass prairie, or hardwood hammock) four times over the year collecting data using a variety of scientific instruments. 1 The goal of the observations was for students to look at changes in their site across the year with respect to flora and fauna and to connect their data about such changes to changes in the wet and dry seasons. While public school students in the state of Florida regularly study the Everglades as a part of their 4 th grade curriculum and large numbers of students in south Florida visit the park annually as part of the Park's education program, the HOL project gave students opportunities to learn about the Everglades through authentic activity in ways that learning through the established visitor program and school-based Everglades programs do not. For example, the materials that are provided to students by the Park typically try to teach them concepts about the Everglades using more traditional lessons such as "Animal Olympics" where students make comparisons between different animals and humans and "Algae: It feeds, it kills, it's dying" where students study Everglades food chains and how contaminants such as fertilizers and chemicals can disrupt these chains (Everglades Activity Guide). These activities are generally focused upon answers that are known or provided. Many of the students also visit the Park and participate in day programs that consist of hikes along trails where they identify flora and fauna and discuss different environmental issues. As part of the HOL program, in contrast, students used scientific inquiry tools in order to gather and interpret their own information about changes in habitats across seasons. For example, the students used artifacts such as rulers to measure the height of plants, and used toolconventions to help them to decide which plant to measure and where to begin and end the measurement. If such tools are important for this purpose, then we might ask if there are differences in the types of tools that are used in solving authentic scientific inquiry problems vs. traditional classroom science problems. Such settings may provide opportunities to use different practicelinked tools in different ways. Thus, we might predict that different kinds of tool-conventions might be found in these settings than in contexts where students participate in traditional environmental educational programs through Everglades National Park or school-based studies of the Everglades. Therefore, during this program, students had opportunities to engage in both what might be characterized as a more authentic type of practice in the field as students conducted inquiries about the presence of flora as well as more traditional classroom practices in the classroom. Thus one goal is to describe any similarities and differences in use of tools that students might utilize while engaged in these practices. We were also interested whether students' use of such tools during this period might come to mediate their thinking about new problems. It is important to note that we identify tools in this study to include artifacts and tool-conventions used to solve scientific problems. Thus, tool-conventions such as use of the metric system for measuring are considered mediating tools for solving scientific problems, while conventions such as turn taking or sitting on the rug are not viewed as such. In order to help the reader link conventions to tools, we use the term tool-convention here instead of convention. In this paper, we use a sociocultural framework to explore tool use in the context of a program where students monitored habitat sites and studied about the Everglades over the course of an academic year. We were guided by these study questions: 1. What tools are being used in the HOL field and classroom settings? 2. Are these different or similar across these settings? 3. Can we characterize the tool use in both settings using an activity model that sheds light on how such use might mediate learning? Method In order to study students' uses of tools, we collected observation data on tool use during visits with the participating students as they worked in both the classroom and in the field. A naturalistic paradigm (McClintock, O'Brien, & Jiang, 2005; Moschkovitch & Brenner, 2000; Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993) was used for this study. The paradigm combines the linear structure of the traditional research design (i.e., define the research question, design the study, collect the data, and analyze the data) with a more circular qualitative research process. Extensive field notes were taken during the classroom visits and field trips and most were audiotaped for later transcription. We used an iterative process of identifying examples of tool use (artifacts and toolconventions), checking and rechecking these with the field notes and transcripts, and reviewing these with each other to confirm the interpretation. Participants/Setting For the study, we followed students at one of the four schools, which was responsible for monitoring a pine rockland habitat (Lodge, 2011) site. The location of the site is shown in the map in Figure 2. Figure 2. Map of Everglades National Park showing Pine Rocklands study site Pine Rocklands study site The researchers selected for convenience only one of four HOL program schools to be included in the study because only one school provided opportunities for the researchers to observe HOL sessions at a consistent time and on a regular basis during the academic year. The other three schools utilized class times which often varied during the day and thus were not as accessible to the researchers. At Grand Park 2 , where the study was conducted, the HOL program was held after school during the entire school year. Students were observed during most afterschool class meetings (29 in total). Researchers attended all four class trips where the students worked in the pine rockland habitat during the field component of the HOL program. Grand Park School had a predominantly Hispanic student population. Demographics indicated that the school population was 67% Hispanic, 19% White Non-Hispanic, 7% Black Non-Hispanic, and 7% Asian/Indian/Multiracial at the time of the study. There were about equal numbers of boys and girls in the group over the course of the year. Participants at the Grand Park School had been selected by the teacher, Mr. Graham, mostly from students he had the previous year as their 4 th grade teacher. While he taught his regular combination 4 th /5 th grade class during school hours, additionally he organized the HOL program into an after-school club - the "Herons"- with about 25 participants during the study period. (There was some variation through the year in group size). The "Herons" met after school from 0-3 times a week during the year from September until May, with two meetings a week being the most frequent occurrence. There were few meetings held in December (due to the approach and holding of school holidays) and in April (due to statewide testing which restricted after school events). Findings We examined observation notes from class and field for instances of use of tools and their possible impacts on student thinking. These are described below. First, in order to provide the reader with a general picture of typical activities in both settings, we give a general description of events in school and in the field. A typical at-school meeting for the Herons. Students met from 3-4 pm directly after school in Mr. Graham's classroom, which occupied a single portable classroom at the back of the school. Most of the students who were in the Herons group arrived at the classroom within a few minutes of the closing school bell and the others arrived soon after as they finished with various duties such as student patrol. Generally, students would come in and sit at an area rug located at one end of the classroom while Mr. Graham completed teaching duties for his regular class such as discussing homework assignments and talking with parents. After the majority of the Herons had arrived, Mr. Graham would start the HOL activity for the day. These activities varied and included planting a garden of native plants, discussions of problems that beset the Everglades, slide shows from the Park Ranger, use of the Internet to find data, and practice of data collection procedures. Meetings during the early part of the year provided opportunities to orient students and practice data gathering procedures. For example, on two occasions, students practiced the data recording tool-convention involving drawing a square meter and recording the plants in the plot (Sutherland, 1997). Mr. Graham often created competitive games or contests to facilitate the learning of facts or concepts and sometimes even data gathering procedures. For example, on one occasion, Mr. Graham had a contest between teams to see which could set up a quadrat the fastest, and on another, teams competed to see who could recall the most facts about the Everglades. Mr. Graham had an engaging interaction style with students, often joking with them and using nicknames with students. Activities such as those described above filled the hour and were sometimes continued in the next meeting. At a little before the four o'clock end of meeting time, Mr. Graham would get everyone's attention and give some final reminders about things to complete in the near future before dismissing the group. Typical field trip day. The Herons took four field trips during the year to their field site in Everglades National Park. A typical field day consisted of leaving the school early in the morning by school bus and arriving at the field site about 10 am. Pre-selected teams of four or five students assembled near the site and followed the Park ranger into the site single file. The teams carefully walked single file behind a Park ranger over rocky terrain a few hundred meters into the site avoiding poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum) along the way. Each team would then gather at its designated spot which had been flagged by a Park ranger along the transect line. The team would then deploy a flexible meter square (named here as a "quadrat marking tool") marking the boundaries of a study quadrat and then proceeded to record data in their journals (Sutherland, 1997). Students in a team who are measuring a plant specimen is shown in Figure 3. Student data gathering consisted of identifying plant species within the quadrat with a designation of T1, T2, T3, etc., drawing a map of the quadrat in a notebook, and recording measurements such as height and width in centimeters. A student notebook example is given in Figure 4. Because not every species was initially identified, students were asked to mark different species within the quadrat as T1, T2, T3, etc. with the notion that these would be identified later. Usually, one student (the team captain) would be responsible for designating which plant was T1, T2, etc. and either measuring the plant him or herself or asking others in the group to do so. The measurements were read off and the other team members would then record these measurements in their own notebooks. The groups spent about an hour at their first quadrat and then moved to a different transect line where each group was responsible for recording data at a second quadrat. Thus, all students participated in recording data from their quadrats. Data gathered at the site also included any records of fauna such as insects and birds observed. At the end of the second hour of gathering data at the two quadrat sites, students returned to the buses. During the few minutes that students boarded the bus, one or more students helped gather weather data using a thermometer, wind gauge, and hygrometer to record temperature, wind velocity and direction, and humidity. Sometimes soil samples or plant specimens were also collected. Students were then bussed to another locale for lunch and engaged in additional activities such as visiting with the Park rangers to learn about fire control or viewing a large-scale restoration project to remove Brazilian pepper (Shinus terebenthefolia) an invasive exotic - from the park. Such post-data gathering activities varied in focus across the four field trips. Instances of tool use in field and classroom. We began our analysis by identifying what tools were used in the program and how they were being used by examining our field note observations for instances of their use. This was done by reviewing notes identifying possible instances of tool use and then examined these instances together to reach agreement on whether these qualified as tools (i.e. artifacts and tool-conventions). We also noted that there were a number of rules used in the two settings. In the classroom for example, these included: sitting on rug, sitting in designated spots, use of stories by teacher to illustrate points (e.g. sea turtles and Australian pine), students take turns reading out loud, and the use of a signal so that students stopped talking. In the field, these consisted of: walking to field site in single file and avoiding stepping in the quadrat. While not the focus of our study, such rules are a critical node in Engeström's model. In order to illustrate some of the typical conversation that was carried on in both settings and the tools such talk was associated with, we give examples of talk in the classroom and field. We provide an example from the classroom where the teacher (T) is leading a discussion on things that might stress the Everglades. 22. T: Animals were encountering stress, why? 23. David: only large pond had water 24. T: When else has it been stressed? That is opposite as before- 25. Rachel: how much land has been [inaudible] 26. [Students are discussing across each other] 27. T: interrupts (T warns that there should be one person talking at a time or sharing ideas) 28. David discusses issue of noise [he is saying that noise pollution might stress the animals] 29. Brazilian pepper taking over 30. David (T) - fertilizer 31. Rachel: pollution 32. (LOTS of Students): FIRE 33. (Yoshi talks about new seeds) 34. T: let me ask you... did a good job of stress impact animals or does stress impact 35. everything? 36. Chorus of students: everything 37. BB- (talks about stress working through food chain) 38. Rachel: everything in Everglades needs water to grow... 39. T: How about too much water? 40. BB- (talks about hurricane problem) 41. T: What is main polluter in Everglades? 42. (T talks about food chain poisoning) 43. T: does it help plants? 44. (T goes to talk to parent-comes back) 45. T: concentrate on fertilizer, 46. Cassie says it helps plants (T complements students on discussion), plants need fertilizer 47. T: Does fertilizer help plants in Everglades? 48. Miguel (B) Does it help? 49. Yeah... 50. T: Joseph? 51. Joseph: Don't need fertilizer for native plants... 52. Rachel: cats can get poisoned easily it at something... the birds was fertilized 53. Marco: It can be overfertilized 54. T: forgetting about the animals... 55. T: Jennifer, there are 2 types of fertilizer 56. Jennifer: [inaudible] 57. T: can the fertilizer stress the plants....? When you put native plants... are you going to 58. put in fertilizer in marshes? 59. Yessenia: cattails 60. T: is there one stress worse than others? 61. Rachel: Us taking Everglades land away... 62. David: (talks about problems of noise with animals) [there is an issue now about the 63. Homestead airport with noise being an issue there] In this sequence, the teacher is encouraging the students to think about what sorts of factors might be stressing the Everglades Ecosystem. He is very much guiding the conversation using a typical classroom talk tool-convention to help students identify stresses in the Everglades system. Students are generally giving short answers as individuals or in group shout-outs to answer the question. At one point, the teacher clarifies the response about fertilizer being a stressor as some students think it may help plants. [Because the Everglades is naturally a low nutrient ecosystem, even low concentrations of nutrients can lead to significant changes]. In this context, the IRE science framework tool-convention (teacher question – student answer - teacher explanation) serves to focus student attention on what the teacher is saying and to promote answering out loud (Mehan, 1978). A comparison of observed artifact and tool-convention use is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Observed artifact and tool-convention use In the classroom setting, students typically had such interactions during discussions with the teacher. The majority of classroom events involved such whole group discussions. Less frequently, students worked individually or in groups on short term projects after receiving directions from the teacher. Students did have a number of opportunities to learn how to use data gathering toolconventions in the classroom, several of which were used in the field. For example, students learned to differentiate opposite/alternate leaf pattern arrangements, measure height and width of specimens. In this example, the teachers spent some time demonstrating the distinguishing feature on the board to the whole group, then giving students the opportunity to practice using the tool-convention. In some cases (e.g. creating a quadrat, using the sling hygrometer or thermometer), while students were given an opportunity in the classroom setting to see or to use a toolconvention, these were never used or were only used by a small number of students during the field trips. In contrast, the field sessions usually had a different type of focus and interaction pattern and numerous artifacts and tool-conventions were utilized in the service of field science activities. After the initial field session where students were introduced to the site and the application of the data gathering techniques, students broke up in their teams and spent the majority of the time at two quadrats gathering data about what plants were there. During the time that they gathered data, students had little extraneous talk. The following dialogue example is provided from the 3 rd field trip. 3 122. Male 3: t-6 is, um, limestone. 123. Um-hmm. 124. Isn't t-5 white topped sedge? 125. t-5 is saw palmetto, 126. Right 127. t-6 is white topped sedge. 128. What's t-5? 129. Nothing 130. t-5 is the saw palmetto 131. white-topped sedge 132. Saw palmetto! 133. That's not saw palmetto! 134. Yes it is. 135. Michael, that's a baby saw palmetto. 136. It is? 137. Yes it is. 138. Male 3: man, why didn't you tell me this people? I put t-5 down for white sedge. 139. No, t-5 is for saw palmetto. 140. Oh, now you people tell me. 141. Ok, and then this area right here? 142. Ok and this area right here where the baby pine trees are…? 143. No, 'cause you have to put it down. 144. It's myrsine. 145. You're the smart one. 146. Thank you. In this sequence, students are discussing how to apply the identification tool-convention (T-5) to various features they see in the quadrat. There is some initial confusion (lines 124-131) about which plant is T-5 and which is T-6 and then additional discussion (lines 133-137) about the identification of a plant. There are several noteworthy features here. First, students are working within a space that has been defined with the use of the quadrat tool. Second, students are very much engaged with the data gathering process. During this sequence, there is very little off task behavior even though the teacher is not in the vicinity. Third, they are using the toolconventions and goals to guide their behavior. They are intent on using the procedures of labeling the objects within the quadrat (T-5, T-6) and identifying the plants there. While they are talking, they are using another artifact - their field journals - to record the data. Both sequences illustrate the way that tools are being used to accomplish goals. Speech conventions help structure the activity and learning that is taking place. However, in the first sequence, the IRE convention is typical of traditional science classroom conventions. Discourse was often teacher directed. In the second sequence, the students have appropriated the labeling scientific tool-convention to structure their data collection work in the quadrat. This scientific tool helps them to coordinate their observations and to tap the expertise of team members who can identify the species there. They are also using the field journals artifact to record their data. In the field, students frequently engaged in direct talk with to each other. Overall, students were engaged in the field in using a number of the tools that are characteristic of biological field research work such as using centimeter measuring units and identification practices using field guides. Because the number of species of plants in this habitat is significantly richer than other South Florida habitats, the teacher's focus was on developing tool-conventions for plant identification and data collection. For example, students used field guides to help identify some plants and attempted to look at leaf arrangements (opposite, alternate) to help in this identification. They also collected plant samples for later identification. Students became proficient at using their notebooks to designate species type, length, and other measures of plants growing in their quadrats. These tools helped focus students working at their two quadrats during the field trip data gathering. The use of a designated T1 and T2 was a tool-convention that Mr. Graham had practiced in the classroom and then used in the field that permitted students to record a variety of plants on site without having to identify them immediately. Though students did have picture guides, we rarely saw them using these to help identify plants in the field. It became clear that the picture guides were of limited value as they only contained some 30 plant species that were found in the pine rockland habitat, an area which has hundreds of species in it. The difficulty of identifying plants in this habitat was highlighted when a research assistant who had expertise on such plants accompanied the students on one of the field trips and brought a self-made identification list of hundreds of species of pine rocklands plants and their distinguishing characters and used this list to help identify plants in the field for students. Nevertheless, students were able to consistently identify several plants such as poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum), white-topped sedge (Dichrometa colorata), and dwarf rattlebox (Crotalaria pumila). Students were also allowed to take plant samples as part of a Park permitted process, so that they were able to identify some of these later. There was also evidence that students invented tools. For example, because the rulers used by the students were shorter than some of the plants they were measuring, students we observed from one team developed methods of measuring plants longer than the ruler by holding a finger at the point of the plant where the ruler top edge reached and then sliding the ruler up to that spot to begin to measure again from that new point. They then calculated the total length by adding the length of the ruler to the second measure. Discussion Similarities and Differences in Use of Tools in the Two Settings The use of tools was an important part of the work done by students who participated in the HOL program. It was an integral part of the way that the goals of the project were met in both the field and classroom settings. There is overlap in some tool use in the two settings, but there are some important differences as well. Students received an introduction to a range of artifacts used to study the Everglades in the classroom setting and had some opportunities to practice their use in the classroom setting before using these same tools in the field. In addition, each of the settings provided particular tool-conventions to assist in student participation in the activities. In the field, these were critical in helping students gather data, while in the classroom, they were important for a variety of tasks, including reviewing concepts and giving answers to factual questions about the Everglades. In reviewing the tools that were used by HOL students in their field work, we find two types. The first - we might call "general tool use"- encompass general approaches that might be found in a number of different research areas. For example, it is customary for researchers to record data in some manner and to transform the data for analysis purposes as students did by keeping journals with the measurements and then making tables summarizing the data measured in the field. Another type of tool use we might describe would be "domain specific tools". For example, to assist in plant identification, plant ecologists use features such as leaf arrangements and leaf shape. Such tools are particular to the area of research being studied. We also found evidence of the development of new types of tool use to assist in data collection or analysis. Consistent with the analysis of tool use by Wertsch, Saxe, and Engeström, the way that the science was applied through the use of tools in the field setting gave rise to new problems which in turn lead to the development of new tools. This was observed when the teacher developed the quadrat marking tool and students developed tool-conventions for extending a ruler to measure plant length. In order to characterize the tools as linked to the activity structures in both settings, we have organized our findings using Engeström's model to create figures showing the activity in the field and the classroom. In the diagram outlining activity in the field, nodes include: mediating artifacts consisting of the artifacts and tool-conventions such as the quadrat tool and notebooks to record the data, rules consist of norms such as walking to the site in single file, subject is the individual, community is most frequently the individual team that is responsible for a data collection in a quadrat, division of labor involves mostly the students themselves doing things like negotiating the designation of T1, T2 and collecting quadrat measurement data in their notebooks, and object is the collection of data within the two quadrats during each of the field trips. Using this model, we see a number of ways that artifacts and tool-conventions may be linked to the other nodes. Thus an artifact such as the quadrat tool was used by the community (team) to mark an area for the group to collect their data. Each of the team members uses their notebooks to collect the data. The artifacts and tool-conventions can be seen to play a central role in facilitating the data collecting activity. In this data collection work, the activity structure stayed very similar during the four site visits. In the classroom setting, however, the activities were much more varied and included typical school tasks such as report writing as well as opportunities to practice field skills like use of the quadrat marking tool. This is outlined in the diagram of the classroom in Figure 5. Here, nodes include: mediating artifacts representing a variety of physical tools such as student notebooks as well as tool-conventions such as turn taking in the IRE speech pattern, rules consist of norms of classroom behavior like floor seating arrangements (e.g. sitting on the floor to listen to stories), subject is the individual, community was mostly at the classroom level though there were some instances when students worked in teams, division of labor consists of students mostly following what the teacher laid out in terms of particular tasks for the day and all students were usually assigned the same responsibilities such as trying to answer questions, and objects varied from answering game show type knowledge questions to demonstrating research writing skills in synthesizing information about animals in the Everglades. Using this model of the classroom activity we also can see nodal connections. For example, in the context where students are participating in a game to give verbal answers to questions about the Everglades, the IRE speech pattern sets up the give and take verbal interactions, students follow classroom norms regarding seating arrangements that facilitate such answering, and students participate as a whole group. Due to the shifting nature of the activities in the classroom, however, students spent time in a variety of activities that could differ with respect to several of the nodes (e.g. mediating artifacts, rules, objects). Tools served as a structuring device for the students in what they are doing in the field and were a critical feature of the activity that went on there. Most students were engaged in the data gathering activity the majority of time they were in the field. We found that the tools employed in the field allowed students to spend considerable amount of time engaged in activity that resembled what researchers might be doing. In the after-school classroom setting, activity often resembled what might be found in other types of classroom work and the tool-conventions used there often supported this effort. For example, we found that tool-conventions of dialogue (such as IRE discussed by Mehan) were common in the classroom setting but rare when students were actually engaged in their studies in the field. We did find there was some overlap between tools used in the classroom and in the field, particularly as students practiced procedures in the classroom that they would be using in the field. However the classroom tool use was often the first exposure that students had for such tools and necessitated a great deal of support by the teacher in the usage, including verbal directions and demonstrations. In contrast, as students worked in the field with the tools, they were mostly self-directed. Finally, as Figure 5 indicates, the two activity settings are linked by their use of tools and in some instances, the changes in tools in one setting are linked to changes in the other. For example, the creation of the quadrat marking tool by Mr. Graham during his work in the classroom led to its use in the field. Another way to view this is to consider that the outcome of creating the new tool in the classroom led to that tool becoming part of the activity system in the field (Krasny & Roth, 2010). In another example, the recording of data in the field journals led to its incorporation in the classroom in developing summary tables with the data. While this linkage was apparent with some tools, changes in the use of one tool in the field (the development of the tool-convention of measuring plants in the field by moving up the hand when the plant being measured exceeded a ruler in length) never made their way back to the classroom setting. There are several issues related to the differences in tool use across contexts that should be noted. For example, there was less talk in the field setting, though when it did occur it was rich with tool-conventions such as requests for naming plants with temporary placeholder names, and calls for measuring and sharing the data so that it could be copied to field journals. From our observations, it seemed that students quickly "got down to business" in the field in order to gather data at their sites, which included time drawing and recording observations. Given different goals in class and field, it may not be surprising that there would be differences in amount and type of talk. The different discourse patterns that were noted might also be linked to these goal differences as well as differences in division of labor. Differences such as goals and labor divisions might also have contributed to different types of problem solving with tools in the two contexts. For example, the measuring convention invented by students in the field when the size exceeded their one foot ruler was a problem solving response to the goal of measuring a plant when the ruler was not long enough by itself to provide an accurate measure. It took place in a labor context where students were performing most of the work themselves. Of course, given the interrelationships that are outlined in the model, it might be expected that differences in nodes like goals, tools, and division of labor would be factors in differences in problem solving behavior and perhaps learning as well. The model underscores the complexity of these relationships and calls for methods of analysis that can be further explored by researchers. For practitioners, keeping these models in mind might lead to thinking about ways that students might perform differently in authentic settings than in the classroom. For example, teachers may find that students who do not perform well with classroom toolsconventions are quite adept at learning and problem solving in the field with a different set of tools-conventions. Obstacles and roads not taken. There were several program goals involving the development of data representation and analysis that were not completed by the students. Because of a postponement of the start of the field activities due to tropical storm flooding in the Park, students did not begin the field work until January. Soon after this initial outing, the Herons group met infrequently at the end of March until the middle of April as students had their spring break and then the school prepared for statewide testing. Even after the testing was done, the group met less frequently as end of the year responsibilities required Mr. Graham to use afterschool meeting time for other duties. Towards the end of the year, Herons after-school meetings centered on groups of students copying their data in groups to cards. These were intended to be loaded on a web site to facilitate analysis. Mr. Graham collected this information from each of the groups, but the task of constructing a web site with the data was not completed. Because the beginning of the program and field trips were delayed after hurricanes flooded the Park, final data was not gathered until very late in the year. Consequently, planned activities for using tools such as bar graphs to analyze the findings and to identify change in numbers of plants were not completed for the Herons group. Thus some critical tools used by scientists in typical analyses of such data were never used by the students. Implications of the Study/Future Considerations The use of a sociocultural framework for studying mediating tools allows us to make distinctions in the two settings in terms of how artifacts and tools-conventions play important roles in the activities in each that are linked to other critical components of the activity. While there was overlap in some tool use in both settings, especially as students learned to use some of the tools that would be used later in the field during actual data gathering, there were some differences as well. Differences between tool-conventions students used regularly in the classroom included IRE patterned discussions and participation in game show formats for displaying knowledge of concepts; while in the field they regularly used a field journal for recording data and a T1, T2 to designate different species in the quadrat. If this example is typical of the types of opportunities that students may have when using authentic approaches, prospects for students to engage in regular tool use in authentic practice may lead to very different kinds of learning than students who only participate in classroom practice. Following Saxe's methodology, a stronger test for the theoretical framework linking learning and cognitive changes to the use of tools situated in cultural practice could have been made if a non-HOL group that used one of the tool-conventions in a classroom setting had been included. This might have been possible, for example, if HOL students would have been able to practice using graphing tools in service of their data representation. In this case, problem solving comparisons might have been made contrasting HOL students' use of graphing to graphing done by students not in the HOL program. Such comparisons are suggested in future studies of students using authentic data. The use of an activity based framework that highlights tool use allows us to appreciate a new set of relationships that the use of authentic tools may introduce when it is accompanied by other features of that setting. Thus, efforts such as Chinn and Maholtra (2002) to characterize more authentic science approaches can be supplemented by research that shows that authentic approaches introduce a suite of sociocultural factors that should be taken into account by educators desiring to introduce authentic practices. The study of the role of such factors in mediating learning has been applied to studying tools that help students understand the of role of uncertainty (Kirch, 2009) and could be expanded to include research on an extensive variety of artifacts and tool-conventions being used in settings where students are using more authentic approaches. As this study shows, such settings not only introduce new tools for use by students, but also a number of features that influence how that tool is used and how closely it resembles what scientists do. In conclusion, the use of more authentic approaches in education may result in more opportunities for students to utilize research tools in their work that are part of real practices. Because such tool use may critically impact student learning while engaged in authentic learning, consideration of methods to study such mediation is vital. Thus, future research should include further exploration of tool use and problem solving used by students who have learned to use these tools in different contexts. Such an approach can also benefit teachers by underscoring the need to identify the tools and conventions that scientists themselves use to study the domain and the best ways to assist students' tool use while using authentic inquiry. This might include consideration of how to provide support for students to create their own tool-conventions to assist in such inquiry. This could involve monitoring student activity for emergence of such toolconventions, giving positive feedback for attempts at such development, and classroom discussion about the use of such tool-conventions to help students comprehend their effectiveness as well as the role of creative use of such tools in the scientific enterprise. Endnotes 1. A brief description of the Everglades' biogeographic features and the featured Pine Rockland study habitat can be found in Appendix A 3. In this segment, it was difficult to identify speakers from the audiotape, thus names have been omitted. 2. The school, teacher, and students, are identified throughout with pseudonyms References Bioblitz (2012). Retrieved January 20, 2012 from: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/field/projects/bioblitz.html Boyer, L & Roth, W-M. (2006). Learning and teaching as emergent features of informal settings: An ethnographic study in an environmental action group. Science Education, 90(6), 1028-1049. Braund, M. & Reiss, M. (2006). Towards a more authentic science curriculum: The contribution of out-of-school learning. International Journal of Science Education, 28(12), 13731388. Buxton, C. (2006). Creating contextually authentic science in a "low-performing" urban elementary school. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 7, 695-721. Carter, C., Westbrook, S., & Thompkins, C. (1999). Examining science tools as mediators of students' learning about circuits. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 36(1), 89105. Chinn, C. & Malhotra, B. (2002). Epistemologically authentic inquiry in schools: A theoretical framework for evaluating inquiry tasks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 36(1), 175-218. Cole, M. & Engeström, Y. (1993). A cultural-historical approach to distributed cognitions. In Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations. Ed. Salomon, G. Cambridge University Press. Engeström, Y. (1999) Innovative learning in work teams: analysing cycles of knowledge creation in practice, in: Y. Engeström et al. (Eds.) Perspectives on activity theory, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), 377-406. Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E.., Skipper, B., & Allen, S. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Everglades Activity Guide. An Activity Guide for Teachers: Everglades National Park, Grades 4-6. Greeno, J. (1998). The situativity of knowing, learning, and research. American Psychologist, 53(1), 5-26. Hogan, K. (2002). A sociocultural analysis of school and community settings as sites for developing environmental practitioners. Environmental Education Research, 8(4), 413425. Kirch, S. (2009). Identifying and resolving uncertainty as a mediated action in science: A comparative analysis of the cultural tools used by scientists and elementary science students at work. Science Studies and Science Education, 94(2), 308-335. Krajcik, J. & Czerniak, C. (2007) Teaching science in elementary and middle School: A project- based approach. Routledge Press. Krasny, M. & Roth, W-M. (2010). Environmental education for social-ecological system resilence: a perspective from activity theory. Environmental Education Research, 16 (56), 545-558. Latour, B., & Woolgar, S. (1979). Laboratory life: The social construction of scientific facts. London: Sage. Lave, J. &. Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, G. & Hoody, L. (1998). Closing the achievement gap: Using the environment as an integrating context for learning. State Education and Environment Roundtable. Lemke, J. (1990). Talking science: Language, learning, and values. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Lodge, T. E. (2011). The Everglades handbook: Understanding the ecosystem, 3 rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Lunsford, E., Melear, C., Roth, W-M., Perkins, M., & Hickok, L. (2007). Proliferation of inscriptions and transformations among preservice science teachers engaged in authentic science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 44 (4), 538–564. McClintock, E., O'Brien, G., & Jiang, Z. (2005). Assessing teaching practices of secondary mathematics student teachers: An exploratory cross case analysis of voluntary field experiences. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(3), 139-151. Mehan, H. (1978). Structuring school structure. Harvard Educational Review, 48 (1), 32-64. Moschkovitch, J.N. & Brenner, M.E. (2000). Integrating a naturalistic paradigm into research on mathematics and science cognition and learning. In Kelly, A.E. & Lesh, R.A. (Eds.), Handbook of Research Design in Mathematics and Science Education (pp. 457-486). Mahway, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. National Research Council. (2001). Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press. Pea, R. D. (1993) Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In G. Salomon, R. Pea, J. Seely Brown & C. Heath (Eds.) Distributed cognitions: psychological and educational considerations (pp.47-87). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Polman, J. & Pea, R. (2001). Transformative communication as a cultural tool for guiding inquiry science. Science Education, 85 (3), 223-238. Project FeederWatch (2012). Retrieved January 20, 2012 from: http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw/. Rahm, J., Miller, H., Hartley, L. & Moore, J. (2003). The value of an emergent notion of authenticity: Examples from two student/teacher-scientist partnership programs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(8), 737-756. Resnick, L. B. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20. Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press. Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. New York: Oxford University Press. Rogoff, B. & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Roth, W-M. (1995). Authentic school science. Dodrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Roth, W.-M. & Bowen, G.M. (1994). Mathematization of experience in a Grade 8 open inquiry environment: An introduction to the representational practices of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 293–318. Roth,W.-M. & Bowen, G.M. (1995). Knowing and interacting: A study of culture, practices, and resources in a grade 8 open-inquiry science classroom guided by a cognitive apprenticeship metaphor. Cognition and Instruction, 13, 73–128. Roth, W.-M. & McGinn, M.K. (1997). Graphing: Cognitive ability or practice? Science Education, 81, 91–106. Roth,W.-M., & McGinn, M.K. (1998). Inscriptions: Toward a theory of representing science as social practice. Review of Educational Research, 68, 35–59. Saxe, G. B. (1991). Culture and cognitive development. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Saxe, G. B. (1994). Studying cognitive development in sociocultural context: The development of a practice-based approach." Mind, Culture, & Activity 1(3): 135-157 Saxe, G. B. (2002). Children's developing mathematics in collective practices: A framework for analysis. Journal for the Learning Sciences, 11 (2&3), 275-300. Sobel, D. (2004). Place-based education: Connecting classrooms & communities. Great Barrington, MA: The Orion Society. Sutherland, W. J. (1997). Ecological census techniques a handbook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The GLOBE Program (2012). Retrieved January 20, 2012 at: http:// globe.gov/. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. . Wells, G. (Ed.). (2001). Action, talk, and text: Learning and teaching through inquiry Practitioner Series. Williston, VT: Teachers College Press, (pp. 171-194). ERIC document #: ED451160. Wertsch, J.V. (1994). The primacy of mediated action in sociocultural studies. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 1 (4), 202-208. Wertsch, J. V., & Rupert, L. J. (1993). The authority of cultural tools in a sociocultural approach to mediated agency. Cognition and Instruction, 11, 227–239. Windschitl, M. (2001). The diffusion and appropriation of ideas in the science classroom: Developing a taxonomy of events occurring between groups of learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(1), 17-42. Wu, H.-K.,& Krajcik, J.S. (2006). Inscriptional practices in two inquiry-based classrooms: A case study of seventh graders' use of data tables and graphs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 63-95 Authors Dr. Scott Lewis's contact info is as follows: Correspondance: Scott Lewis, Ph.D., 930 SW 98th Terrace, Pembroke Pines, Florida, 33025. Correspondence: 930 SW 98 th Terrace, Pembroke Pines, Florida, 33025 USA. E-mail: email@example.com Dr. George O'Brien's contact info is as follows: George E. O'Brien, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Science Education, Florida International University, Department of Teaching and Learning, ZEB 257A, MMC, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, Florida 33199. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org Appendix A. Everglades National Park has been designated a World Heritage Site, International Biosphere Reserve, and Wetland of International Importance, signifying its global importance. This vast subtropical area has essentially two seasons - wet and dry - that governs the tempo of life in the environment. Because of its southern location and the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, this ecosystem has warm weather most of the year (with monthly daytime temperatures ranging between 78° – 91° F and nighttime temperatures ranging between 56° -73° F). It receives most of its rain from clouds associated with cumulus buildup in the months between April and October with monthly rainy season averages of about 6-9 inches though an occasional front will bring brief periods of rain during the period from November through March. The Everglades is subjected to periodic droughts and fires that race across the landscape on a seasonal basis, most often started by lightning. The slight differences in elevation provide enough of a difference for the water to begin its southward flow from the middle of the state. Historically, the Everglades system starts as water that overflowed the south end of Lake Okeechobee and continued through the end of Florida as a slow moving sheet some 60 miles wide in spaces and eventually spilling into the straits of Florida. A variety of measures to control this flow after a devastating hurricane in the 1940's and pressures for development have lead to a complex series of canals, locks, and pumping stations that now interlaces South Florida. A number of other problems have beset this region from the last century, including the wholesale slaughter of birds in the quest for plumes, the near extermination of alligators. More recent problems include the loss of significant numbers of particular species including the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), Cape Sable seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis), and woodstork (Mycteria americana); the invasion of significant numbers of exotic plants and animals, including Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebenthefola); the discovery of toxic amounts of mercury in higher levels of the food chain; and the raising of the levels of phosphates in levels south of the farm areas south of Lake Okeechobee which have lead to the replacement of sawgrass with cattails in large areas. The Everglades Ecosystem encompasses a number of habitats, including sawgrass praries, cypress domes, and hardwood hammocks. At the most elevated portions of the system, the pine rocklands habitat may be found. This is the habitat that the students in this study were investigating. Pine Rocklands are a globally endangered ecosystem, occurring only in South Florida, the Bahamas, and Cuba. They are known by their tall South Florida slash pines (Pinus elliotii var. densa) and saw palmettos (Serenoa repens), and they support 374 kinds of native plants, of which 31 are endemic, five are listed as federally endangered, and five are candidates for listing. Many of the plants and animals have remarkable adaptations to this habitat. İlköğretim öğrencilerinin doğal alanda ve sınıf içinde bataklıklar ile ilgili öğrenmelerinde bilimsel araçların arabuluculuk rolü Son yıllarda fen ve çevre eğitimi alanında gerçek ortam uygulamaları artış göstermektedir. Bu tür uygulamalar sosyal yapılandırmacı yaklaşımları kullanırlar, bu yaklaşımlarda öğrenmenin, öğrencilerin araçları kullanırken gerçekleştiği kabul edilir. Bu çalışmada doğal alanda ve sınıf içinde bir yıl boyunca bataklıklar üzerine çalışan bir grup ilköğretim öğrencileri üzerine odaklanılmıştır. Özellikle, ilköğretim öğrencilerinin bilimsel araçları kullanımı gözlenmiş ve farklı durumlardaki kullanımları karşılaştırılmıştır. Çalışma sonucunda öğrencilerin doğal alanda veri toplama ile ilgili gözlem yapma ve ölçme gibi etkinliklere önemli miktarda zaman harcadıkları bulunmuştur. Bu bağlamda, öğrenciler genellikle öğretmenden daha bağımsız küçük grup çalışmalarıyla ve kendi öz-yönelimleriyle araştırmalarını yapmışlardır. Sınıf içerisinde bilimsel çalışmalarda bazı araçların daha fazla kullanılması beklenirken, özellikle fazlaca öğretmen yönlendirmesi içeren etkinliklerde, benzer sınıf etkinliklerinde kullanılan araçlar bu etkinlikleri desteklemiştir. Bilimsel araçların kullanım modelleri Yrjö Engeström'nin etkinlik yaklaşımı temel alınarak her iki durum için düzenlenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular bu tür öğrenme durumlarında bilimsel araçların kullanılmasının önemini, gerçek öğrenme ortamlarında sosyo-kültürel ve etkinlik perspektiflerinin yansıtıldığı öğrenmenin sosyal olarak oluşturulduğunu yansıtmaktadır. Keywords: fen , bilimsel araçlar, sosyo-kültürel yaklaşımlar	<urn:uuid:7abf9e80-c7eb-4354-aaa2-9288e8492851>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://ijese.net/makale_indir/1525	2018-10-15T11:05:13Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00063.warc.gz	170,178,996	15,640	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.932139	eng_Latn	0.998513	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Lat...	false	docling	[ 3349, 7291, 11054, 14263, 18122, 22207, 26344, 29785, 31565, 35573, 37604, 38472, 41415, 41771, 44817, 48266, 51897, 53018, 57240, 62385, 64434, 67694, 70892, 72306, 75433, 77047 ]	[ 1.8359375, 2.046875 ]	1	0
The Assistant In A Montessori Classroom Key Points: * Assistants are key to ensuring that the complex learning environment is prepared for children. * The assistant's broad awareness and scanning of the environment not only protects the teacher's lessons but also assures that observational data are being gathered continuously, students are navigating the environment appropriately, and concentration is honored. * Assistants enable Montessori teachers to focus on instruction without interruption. * The teacher and assistant's interactions offer a constant model of grace and courtesy for students to emulate, something not possible with only one adult present. In conventional schools, students are grouped by grade and are taught by a single classroom teacher. In Montessori schools, however, students are grouped by three-year age spans (i.e., 3-6 years old, 6-9 years old, 9-12 years old), and require two teachers: a Montessori trained lead teacher and an assistant. Having a lead Montessori trained teacher and an assistant is vital to ensuring fidelity of implementation of the Montessori pedagogy, which in turn fosters the students' executive functions. Fidelity of Implementation In a fully implemented Montessori classroom, the teacher's most important task is to prepare an environment rich in developmental activities and to offer students individualized instruction. To ensure this fidelity of implementation of the Montessori pedagogy, an assistant is necessary to help prepare the environment, observe and record student behaviors, support procedural autonomy, protect student concentration, and model grace and courtesy. It is simply not possible for a lead Montessori teacher to do all of these things while offering individual and small group lessons. These role designations are often referred to as "one up, one down," reflecting the respective foci of the assistant and the teacher. Preparation of the environment. Montessori classrooms are carefully prepared learning environments, requiring great attention to detail. The shelves, which are organized by subject, must be kept orderly. Materials used daily need constant replenishing. The hundreds of hands-on materials in Montessori classrooms necessitate the help of an assistant to prepare and maintain the environment so that students can practice their lessons and engage in self-initiated projects. 1 Observation. Maria Montessori developed her educational method through systematic observation of children, and observation remains central to assessing the needs of Montessori students. 2 Specifically, observation in a Montessori context provides quantitative data for individual students and the class as a whole. However, a lead teacher has limited time to observe given the time required for instruction. An assistant acts as a "second set of eyes," identifying and recording each student's activity and his or her level and duration of engagement. These data enable the lead teacher to identify the ebb and flow of a student's work cycle as well as patterns in learning and demonstrated need. 1 All of this information is necessary for highly targeted and individualized student lesson planning and for developing effective classroom management practices and procedures. Procedural autonomy support. For a Montessori classroom to run smoothly and for students to independently navigate the environment, procedures must be determined, implemented, and followed. The multitude of procedures could involve academic work, such as steps for proposing a research project, as well as classroom management procedures, such as when and how students can make class announcements. An assistant is necessary to ensure procedures are followed so that students can move through the environment independently and the classroom can run effectively, leaving the teacher free to give students lessons. 3 This brief was prepared for NCMPS by Laura Flores Shaw, the founder and Editor-in-Chief of White Paper Press, a think tank specializing in translating scientific research into terms that allows people to make informed decisions about education and human development. For more information on the scientific basis of Montessori education visit http://www.whitepaperpress.us Recommended citation: National Center for Montessori in the Public Sector (2015), The Assistant in the Montessori Classroom. West Hartford, CT: National Center for Montessori in the Public Sector. Protection of student concentration. The process by which a child becomes self-regulated in their learning and other behaviors – what Montessori called "normalization"— occurs through concentration with self-chosen, hands-on materials. 4 Through concentration neurons fire and wire together, reinforcing the neuronal pathways of the brain's central executive region, 5 the region responsible for executive functions (EFs) – cognitive skills that enable attentional focus, planning, self-regulation, and multitasking. 6 As neuroscientist Adele Diamond states, "What Montessorians mean by 'normalization' includes having good EFs" (p. 961). 7 Thus, adults must, as Montessori trainer Dr. Annette Haines states, "protect the child who is concentrating." 8 If the classroom environment is disruptive and does not allow opportunities for deep concentration, the pedagogy is not being implemented as designed and EFs development is hindered. In the Montessori classroom, with her upward gaze and broad overview of the room, the assistant is a diligent protector of student concentration. Grace and courtesy. Grace and courtesy is an essential component of the Montessori curriculum that supports students' executive functions, academic growth, and social development. These lessons, which are provided to the entire class or a small group, enable students to act out various social situations (e.g., introducing oneself to a new classmate) or movements within the classroom (e.g., how to carefully return work to the shelf). Students' social development is supported through this social situation practice, enabling students to eventually navigate those situations independently and effectively. 9 Students' executive functions are built through this precise practice of impulse control and deliberate action, which contributes to students' academic growth. 10 Adults support the practice of grace and courtesy through modeling and, when necessary, scaffolding. As the teacher and assistant interact with one another, they must consistently model grace and courtesy so that students can see how these behaviors are enacted among members of the entire community. 11 Scaffolding, in the form of direct reminders or cues, may also be necessary. For instance, students involved in a conflict over a project may need to be reminded to actively listen to one another; or a student may need to be reminded how to navigate the classroom without stepping on others' work. A single teacher in the classroom cannot model adult-to-adult interaction, nor can that teacher consistently provide the necessary scaffolding of students' own grace and courtesy behaviors throughout the day. Conclusion Montessori pedagogy and the scholarly research as described herein demonstrate the necessity of an assistant in a Montessori classroom to ensure faithful implementation of the Montessori pedagogy, which, in turn, fosters students' executive functions and social and emotional development. Notes 1 Haines, A. (2000). The role of the teacher and the role of the assistant. Paper presented at the Freedom & Responsibility: A Glorious Counterpoint, Boston, MA. 2 Montessori, M. (2013). The Montessori method. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. 3 Koh, J. H. L., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Implementing autonomy support: Insights from a Montessori classroom. International Journal of Education, 2(2:E3), 1-15. 4 Montessori, M. (1967). The absorbent mind (1st ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. 5 Yuste, R. (1992). Cells that fire together, wire together. Journal of NIH Research, 4, 60-60. 6 Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review Psychology, 64, 135-168. 7 Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964. doi: 10.1126/science.1204529 8 Haines, 2000. 9 Haines, 2000. 10 Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964. doi: 10.1126/science.1204529 11 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. NCMPS, 07/07/2016	<urn:uuid:a3857c52-4ea1-4fdf-af71-1f5781f4ff21>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://public-montessori.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/The-Assistant-in-a-Montessori-Classroom.pdf	2018-10-15T10:09:20Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00064.warc.gz	303,000,539	1,814	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992794	eng_Latn	0.994416	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4451, 8796 ]	[ 3.203125 ]	1	11
Cold Warnings: protecting yourself in cold weather Cold winters are a reality in Canada and many Canadians have learned to embrace this time of year with fun outdoor activities like tobogganing, skating and skiing. However, staying warm and safe during this time of year can sometimes be a challenge. Learn how to prevent cold-related health injuries and prepare for cold-weather emergencies. Sign up for Halton Region cold warnings To alert residents to cold weather conditions that can affect their health, the Halton Region Health Department will issue a cold warning when one of the following weather conditions are forecast for Halton: * A daily predicted low of -15 degrees Celsius without wind-chill * Extreme weather conditions, such as a blizzard or ice storm * Environment Canada issues an Extreme Cold Warning for outdoor activity (when the temperature or wind chill is expected to reach -30 degrees Celsius for at least two hours) To sign up and received automatic cold warnings, visit halton.ca/cold. What is wind chill? Wind chill is the cooling sensation your body feels when the air temperature is combined with wind speed. Are you at risk during cold weather? Anyone can be affected by extreme cold-related weather conditions, depending on length of exposure and outdoor activity levels. Those especially at risk include: * adults over the age of 65 * people who work outdoors * infants and young children * people who exercise outdoors (hikers, skiers) * people who have limited resources to house or protect themselves How to prevent cold-related injury * Frostbite can occur within minutes, so dress appropriately when going outside. Cover up all exposed skin using multiple layers of loosefitting clothes with a wind-resistant outer layer, a hat, mittens, and scarf. * Drink warm ﬂuids – but NO alcohol or caffeinated beverages, as they cause your body to lose heat faster. * If you get wet, change into dry clothing as soon as possible. You lose heat faster when you're wet. * Keep moving – especially your hands and feet. * Keep your vehicle well-maintained. * Take shelter from the wind to reduce wind chill exposure. * Prepare emergency kits for your home and car. * Plan ahead and check the weather forecast! * Always be on the lookout for signs of frostbite and hypothermia. * Sign up for automatic cold alerts at halton.ca/cold What are cold-related injuries? Frostbite is an injury to the body that is caused by freezing. Frostbite causes a loss of feeling and color in affected areas, most often the body parts furthest from the heart: hands, feet, nose, and ears. At the first sign of redness or pain in any skin area, get out of the cold or protect any exposed skin, as frostbite may be setting in. If you suspect that frostbite has set in: * Get to a warm room as soon as possible. * Use underarms to warm hands if needed. * Wrap yourself in blankets or reheat your body by skin-to-skin contact with another person. * Place injured skin in warm – not hot – water because thawing frostbitten skin is very painful. * If toes or feet are frostbitten, try not to walk on them, unless it is absolutely necessary. * Do not rub, massage or shake the injured skin because this can cause more damage. Severe frostbite can cause serious health complications if not treated immediately. If you notice any of the following symptoms you should seek medical advice: * a white or grayish-yellow skin area * numbness * skin that feels unusually firm or waxy Hypothermia happens when the body loses heat faster than it can produce it. There are three stages of hypothermia progressing from mild (shivering, goosebumps) to more severe symptoms (difficulty speaking, thinking and walking). Hypothermia is a medical emergency. Call 911 immediately if you suspect that someone may have hypothermia. While waiting for help: * move them to a warm place, if you can * gently remove any wet clothing * use several layers of blankets and warm the person gradually * give them sweet and warm beverages if they are alert Don't fight shivering. This is one of the ways the body increases its core temperature! How can I prepare my home and car for winter? Home: Make sure your heating system is working efficiently and seal all cracks and drafts. Keep at least three days' supply of food (needing no cooking or refrigeration), water (stored in clean containers or purchased) and medicines. Car: Make sure you keep booster cables, vehicle fluids, emergency ﬂares, a survival candle, blanket, ﬁrst aid kit and a highway help sign in your car. For more information and emergency preparedness checklists for your home and car visit: halton.ca/beprepared For more information about how to protect yourself or to sign up to receive automatic cold alerts, visit halton.ca/cold or dial 311.	<urn:uuid:077cb864-d53a-4277-8fa0-28bee75c48b7>	CC-MAIN-2018-43	http://www.halton.ca/common/pages/UserFile.aspx?fileId=21014	2018-10-15T11:20:41Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509170.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015100606-20181015122106-00064.warc.gz	469,473,085	1,022	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998405	eng_Latn	0.998493	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2367, 4816 ]	[ 3.34375 ]	1	0
Recent events in Colorado have put parents on guard about child safety issues. 10-year-old Jessica Ridgeway was abducted Oct. 5 on her way to school from her home in Westminster, and two other incidences in Merino and Haxtun have been reported in the last week. Last Thursday, Oct. 11, a suspicious vehicle was seen driving past Holyoke Elementary School. Holyoke Police Department was notified, and they confirmed the driver of the vehicle was cleared of any wrongdoing. Thankfully nothing happened, but Holyoke Elementary School still took the opportunity to remind the students and parents of safe practices. In a letter sent home with students, Principal Kyle Stumpf was happy to report all staff and local law enforcement followed protocols and procedure flawlessly. "Procedures work," said Superintendent Bret Miles, noting how staff used information from other school districts quickly and efficiently to make sure the scenario in Holyoke was not a threat to students. Stumpf said it gives him a lot of reassurance to know everybody will be able to handle an emergency. "This ended on a positive note." Parents are urged to talk with their children about safety. Considering the events of the past couple weeks, now is the time for increased awareness and education so that when something does happen, children, parents and community members will be prepared. "Holyoke is a safe little town, but things can happen here just like anywhere else," said Police 1 / 3 Scary Colorado events remind parents to talk to kids about safety Written by Darci Tomky Chief Doug Bergstrom. He reminds children to walk in groups instead of alone. They should be aware of their surroundings and aware if someone is following them. If children are suspicious of anything, they should immediately tell an adult. Families should determine “safe words” that are used if someone other than the parent is picking up a child from school, a secret password of sorts so the child knows they can trust that person. Last Thursday, elementary counselor Sharon Jones spoke with the students. Earlier in the year she taught them about personal space bubbles, so she reviewed with them how big these bubbles are in certain situations and what to do if a stranger enters that bubble. Children should never approach a strange or unknown vehicle, and if a stranger approaches them, they should run and scream in the opposite direction the vehicle is headed. They should tell an adult if someone is knocking to get into the school, and children should never open the door at home unless they are 100 percent sure who is on the other side. “I told them if they are ever scared or unsure of something they see while at school, to immediately tell an adult,” said Jones. “I reminded them that they are safe because the students’ safety is the number one priority for all adults in the elementary school building.” 2 / 3 Written by Darci Tomky Child Safety Tips In light of recent events, parents are encouraged to review with their children the following safety tips. Children should... 1. Walk to school, to the park, downtown or home from school in groups of two or more, and if they have an adult, that’s even better. 2. Be aware of their surroundings and watch for people following them. 3. Immediately tell an adult or parent if something suspicious has happened. 4. Never approach a strange or unknown vehicle. 5. Run and yell if a stranger approaches or enters their personal space bubble. Do not take time to use a cell phone, and don’t run in the direction the vehicle is headed. 6. Never open a door at school if someone is knocking to get inside. 7. Never open a door at home unless they are 100 percent sure who is on the other side. 8. Determine a “safe word” to use as a password if someone other than a parent is picking up the child. Holyoke Enterprise October 18, 2012 3 / 3	<urn:uuid:53413f2b-40a6-4cda-b031-686f93fa8493>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://holyokeenterprise.com/index.php?view=article&catid=37%3Aschool-news&id=6183%3Ascary-colorado-events-remind-parents-to-talk-to-kids-about-safety&format=pdf&option=com_content&Itemid=62	2015-08-30T07:53:53Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00302-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	110,832,584	797	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998572	eng_Latn	0.999033	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1478, 2906, 3892 ]	[ 3.078125 ]	3	33
Feeding Recommendations for Turtles and Tortoises Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff When a turtle or tortoise owner brings their sick animal to the veterinarian, the cause of illness can almost always be traced back to one of two causes; improper housing and/or improper nutrition. While there are a wide variety of commercial prepared foods available as well as many 'homemade diets,' they are often inadequate for many species. There are a wide variety of species of turtles and tortoises and the following recommendations are rough guidelines for maintaining good health in your pet. Every turtle or tortoise owner should purchase a professionally written reference book about their specific species of turtle/tortoise and follow the specific feeding/housing guidelines closely. Common sense approach When it comes to nutrition, the common sense approach is always the best. Many people translate feeding their dog or cat to feeding their pet turtle or tortoise, and that is a huge mistake. Dogs and cats have been domesticated for tens of thousands of years. They have been bred and selected for specific traits and tolerances. Millions of dollars have been spent studying and formulating balanced, nutritionally complete dog and cat foods. There is more money spent on the research and development of commercial dog food in a single day, than all the research done for turtle food in a single year. And all of this is for just the two species: canine and feline. There are hundreds of different species of turtles and tortoises, each with a different set of nutritional requirements. Tortoises and turtles are wild creatures. They are not domesticated. They are wild animals living in captivity. What this means is that if we are going to be successful in providing them with good basic nutrition, we need to mimic their natural diet and living conditions as close to their natural environment as we can. To do this, we have to know as much as we can about their eating habits, preferences, and nutritional requirements. Herbivore, omnivore, or carnivore? One of the most important things we need to know about our turtle or tortoise is whether or not they are a herbivore, an omnivore, or a carnivore. Feeding meat to a vegetarian tortoise is as unnatural and unhealthy, as feeding steak and chicken to a cow. At the same time, feeding fruits and alfalfa to a carnivorous aquatic turtle is like trying to raise a cat on salad and vegetables. It is essential that you know what your turtle's individual nutritional needs are. By learning what your turtle's or tortoise's normal diet is in the wild, you can tailor the following recipes to even more closely simulate their normal diet. Sample diets: Herbivore Diet Feeding Recommendations for Turtles and Tortoises - Page 1 of 3 Unauthorized use of any images, thumbnails, illustrations, descriptions, article content, or registered trademarks of Foster & Smith, Inc. is strictly prohibited under copyright law. Site content, including photography, descriptions, pricing, promotions, and availability are subject to change without notice. These restrictions are necessary in order to protect not only our copyrighted intellectual property, but also the health of pets, since articles or images that are altered or edited after download could result in misinformation that may harm companion animals, aquatic life, or native species. Mixed Green Leaf Vegetable Base (85-90%) Coarse mixed grasses and hays Dandelion, mustard, and collard greens Cabbage* Clover Kale* Endive Parsley* Carrot toppings Flower heads and other natural fodder plants Vegetables (10-15%) - Fruit should be given very sparingly because overconsumption can lead to high levels of sugar in the gut (intestine) and result in colic. Cantaloupe Winter squash Mango (no pits) Peas Parsnips Apple (no seeds) Grapes Red and green sweet peppers Sweet potatoes Green beans These contain high amounts of oxalates and should only be fed in limited quantities. Carnivore Diet Meat Components (65%-90%) Live feeder fish Earthworms Frozen pinkie mice Snails and mollusks Vegetable Components (Approximately 35% or less depending upon the species) Mustard, dandelion, or collard greens Dried commercial trout pellets or commercial turtle food (no more than 25% of diet) Grated carrot Clover Small quantity of fruit and other items listed in the herbivore diet Not all aquatic turtles are carnivores. Some species of aquatic tropical turtles require a diet rich in fruit, while others are almost completely herbivorous, so check on your individual species. Also, juveniles require more than adults. Omnivore Diet Vegetable and Fruit Components (50-90%) Berries and strawberries Endive Grated carrot Dandelion, mustard, or collard greens Green beans Winter squash Meat Components (10-50%) Live crickets Earthworms Freshly molted mealworms Slugs and snails Small pinkie mice Trout pellets and commercial turtle foods Feeding Recommendations for Turtles and Tortoises - Page 2 of 3 Cantaloupe Flower heads *Proportions depend upon species. Also, in general, juvenile turtles require more meat than adults. These diets should always be fresh and supplemented with a good vitamin-calcium supplement approved for use in turtles and tortoises. Clean, fresh water and a stress-free environment are also critical to ensure adequate consumption. The above diet suggestions are nutritionally sound, but the most important thing to stress is that different tortoises and turtles will demonstrate different preferences for certain foods. Provided that these preferences do not turn into addictions and they are healthy, there is no harm in catering to their preferences to some extent. However, the diet should be rotated and varied as much as possible to avoid monotony and unbalanced nutrition. Remember that nutrition is one of the most important aspects in maintaining a healthy and happy turtle or tortoise. By following these guidelines and researching your individual turtle's needs, you can provide an excellent diet for your turtle or tortoise.	<urn:uuid:ece5b879-ae49-49bf-a6f0-0875dedb0f70>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.peteducation.com/article_pdf.cfm?aid=945	2015-08-30T07:53:32Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00307-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	636,435,247	1,295	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.984295	eng_Latn	0.996044	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3402, 5027, 6093 ]	[ 2.546875 ]	4	9
Brushing Teeth & Home Dental Care Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff Brushing your cat's teeth should not be a chore for you or your cat. Instead, it should be an enjoyable time for both of you. If you take things slowly at the beginning and give lots of praise, you and your cat will start looking forward to your brushing sessions. But first, we need to gather together what we will need. Toothpastes and rinses There are many pet toothpastes on the market today. Make sure you use a pet toothpaste. Toothpastes designed for people can upset your cat's stomach. Pet toothpastes may contain several different active ingredients. Various veterinary dentists have recommended those toothpastes, gels, and rinses that contain chlorhexidine, hexametaphosphate, or zinc gluconate. For cats with periodontal disease, fluoride treatments or toothpastes may be prescribed by your veterinarian. (Please do not use any human fluoride containing toothpastes on your pet.) Flavored toothpastes can make toothbrushing more acceptable to pets. Toothbrushes, sponges, and pads The real benefit of toothbrushing comes from the mechanical action of the brush on the teeth. Various brushes, sponges and pads are available. The choice of what to use depends on the health of your cat's gums, the cooperation of your cat, and your ability to clean the teeth. Use toothbrushes designed specifically for pets – they are smaller, ultra-soft, and have a somewhat different shape. Finger toothbrushes that do not have a handle, but fit over your finger, may be easier for some people to use. Pet toothbrushes are available through our company, your veterinarian, or some pet stores. For some cats, starting out with dental sponges or pads may be helpful since they are more pliable. Dental sponges have a small sponge at the end of a handle, and are disposable. They are softer than brushes. Dental pads can help remove debris from the teeth and gums but do not provide the mechanical action that brushes do. Where to begin Number one, this should be fun for you and your cat. Be upbeat and take things slowly. Do not overly restrain your cat. Keep sessions short and positive. Be sure to praise your cat throughout the process. Give yourself a pat on the back, too! You are doing a great thing for your cat! First, have your cat get used to the taste of the toothpaste. Toothpastes for cats usually have a poultry, tuna, or other flavor so your cat will like the taste. Get your cat used to the flavor and consistency of the toothpaste. Let your cat lick some off your finger. Praise your cat when he licks the paste and give a reward (really tasty treat). If your cat does not like the taste of the toothpaste, you may need to try a different kind. Continue this step for a few days or until your cat looks forward to licking the paste. 1. The next step is to have your cat become comfortable with having something placed against his teeth and gums. Apply a small amount of paste to your finger and gently rub it on one of the large canine teeth in the front of the mouth. These are the easiest teeth for you to get at and will give you some easier practice. Be sure to praise your cat and give a tasty treat or other special reward (e.g., playing with an interactive toyl). 2. After your cat is used to the toothpaste, and having something applied to his teeth, get him used to the toothbrush or dental sponge you will be using routinely. We need to get your cat used to the consistency of these items, especially the bristles on a brush. So, let your cat lick the toothpaste off of the brush so he gets used to the texture. Again, praise your cat when he licks the paste and give a really great treat or other reward . Continue this step for about a week, making sure your cat readily licks the paste off of the brush. 3. Now your cat is used to the toothbrush and toothpaste and having something in his mouth. So the next step is to start brushing. Talk to your cat in a happy voice during the process and praise your cat at the end. Lift the upper lip gently and place the brush at a 45º angle to the gumline. Gently move the brush back and forth. At first, you may just want to brush one or both upper canine teeth. You do not need to brush the inside surface of the teeth (the side towards the 4. Brushing Teeth & Home Dental Care - Page 1 of 2 tongue). The movement of the tongue over the inside surfaces keeps them relatively free of plaque. Be sure to praise your cat, end on a good note and give a tasty treat or other great reward. When your cat accepts having several teeth brushed, slowly increase the number of teeth you are brushing. Again, by making it appear to be a game, you both will have fun doing it. 5. How often? Certainly, the more often you brush the better. Always aim for daily dental care for your cat, just as you aim for daily dental care for yourself. The hardest thing about home dental care for cats is just getting started. Once you have done it for a while, it just becomes part of your daily routine. If you cannot brush daily, brushing every other day will remove the plaque before it has time to mineralize. This will still have a positive effect on your cat's oral health. Other dental care items Food: Studies show that hard kibbles are slightly better at keeping plaque from accumulating on the teeth. There are veterinary dentist-approved foods on the market: t/d made by Hill's - the Science Diet people, and Friskies Dental Diet. Research studies have shown that cats eating these foods have less plaque and calculus build-up. Avoid feeding cats table scraps or treats that are sweet because they can increase the buildup of plaque and tartar, and can lead to other health problems. Treats: There are some dental chews on the market that are specifically designed to help control plaque and tartar buildup. Look for dental chews accepted by the Veterinary Oral Health Council (VOHC).	<urn:uuid:6d7f4571-b419-4cfa-8816-0d27736409d6>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.peteducation.com/article_pdf.cfm?aid=383	2015-08-30T07:53:28Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00311-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	641,233,181	1,300	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999086	eng_Latn	0.998995	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4343, 5929 ]	[ 2.6875 ]	1	11
Patient Focus Detached or Torn Retina The retina is the lightsensitive layer of tissue that lines the inside of the eye and sends visual messages through the optic nerve to the brain. When the retina detaches, it is lifted or pulled from its normal position. If not promptly treated, retinal detachment can cause permanent vision loss. In some cases there may be small areas of the retina that are torn. These areas, called retinal tears or retinal breaks, can lead to retinal detachment. Symptoms include: * A sudden or gradual increase in the number of floaters ("cobwebs" or specks) that float about in your field of vision. * A sudden or gradual increase in the number of light flashes in your field of vision. * The appearance of a curtain over your field of vision. July 2012 If you develop any of these symptoms, call your eye doctor right away or go to the nearest emergency room. A retinal detachment can occur at any age but it is more common in people over the age of 40. It affects men more than women. It is also more likely to occur in people who: * Are extremely nearsighted * Have had a retinal detachment in the other eye * Have a family history of retinal detachment * Have had cataract surgery * Have other eye diseases or disorders, such as retinoschisis, uveitis, degenerative myopia, or lattice degeneration * Have had an eye injury Source: www.nei.nih.gov Movies and your eyes Three-D movies like Spiderman and Brave are very popular these days with children and adults. Are these special effects detrimental to your vision or that of your children in any way? Although there have been no longterm studies done, ophthalmologists say there is no reason to be concerned that 3-D movies, TV, or video games will damage the eyes or visual system. However, complaints of headaches or motion sickness when viewing 3-D may indicate the viewer has a problem with focusing or depth perception. Schedule a comprehensive eye exam if you or your children encounter these problems. Conditions such as amblyopia (an imbalance in visual strength between the two eyes) and strabismus (misaligned eyes) would make it difficult to view digital 3-D images. Source: www.geteyesmart.org Did you know . . . Study of the horseshoe crab's eyes led to the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for Dr. H. Keffer Hartline when he and two other scientists discovered how the optic nerve network functions. Dr. Hartline selected the horseshoe crab for experiments because of its 2 large compound eyes with long and easy-to-isolate optic nerves and large individual photoreceptor cells. In 1932, he and his colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania were the first to record nerve impulses from single optic nerve fibers, by placing electrodes on the fibers and stimulating them with light. Results validated their hypothesis that visual information is relayed to the brain through nerve impulses. The crab has 8 additional eyes which are non-compound and function as light sensors that help with navigation and detecting food sources. Sources: www.rockefeller.edu and www.dnr.state.md.us/education/horseshoecrab/anatomy.html What's happening in Eye Care Research? The Penn State Hershey Eye Center is conducting several clinical trials. If you'd like to volunteer to participate, read more about them at: http://www.pennstatehershey.org/web/cto/home/current/ophthalmology 500 University Drive, Suite 800, UPC1, Hershey, PA 17033 For an appointment, please call 717-531-5690.	<urn:uuid:878ba6d2-6087-4932-b84d-d3fabe7616c1>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.pennstatehershey.org/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=09482d7a-ff19-45a2-832e-651a28b3fb97&groupId=102854	2015-08-30T07:51:28Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00305-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	638,786,339	780	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997613	eng_Latn	0.998132	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 791, 1394, 2211, 3514 ]	[ 2.765625 ]	3	20
Student Essay on The Sheltered Life of "The Giver" The Sheltered Life of "The Giver" by Lois Lowry The following sections of this BookRags Literature Study Guide is offprint from Gale's For Students Series: Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Commonly Studied Works: Introduction, Author Biography, Plot Summary, Characters, Themes, Style, Historical Context, Critical Overview, Criticism and Critical Essays, Media Adaptations, Topics for Further Study, Compare & Contrast, What Do I Read Next?, For Further Study, and Sources. (c)1998-2002; (c)2002 by Gale. Gale is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Gale and Design and Thomson Learning are trademarks used herein under license. The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Encyclopedia of Popular Fiction: "Social Concerns", "Thematic Overview", "Techniques", "Literary Precedents", "Key Questions", "Related Titles", "Adaptations", "Related Web Sites". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham. The following sections, if they exist, are offprint from Beacham's Guide to Literature for Young Adults: "About the Author", "Overview", "Setting", "Literary Qualities", "Social Sensitivity", "Topics for Discussion", "Ideas for Reports and Papers". (c)1994-2005, by Walton Beacham. All other sections in this Literature Study Guide are owned and copyrighted by BookRags, Inc. Contents The Sheltered Life of "The Giver" In Jonas's community, the people choose to be protected from making wrong choices so that both they and the rest of the community will feel safe. Although this may sound appealing, this is certainly no way for an intellectual human being to live. There are many pros and cons of this philosophy for living. There are many cons to this philosophy of living. The people of this community are probably very bored with their lives. Everything is always the same. Even making a bad choice would be better than making no choice at all. These people would benefit from making a wrong choice by experiencing the result. Also, if they are prevented from making bad choices, then they are not learning anything new, and their lives are always the same. By being protected from making wrong choices, in order to feel safe, the people of this community are beginning to be robotic. There are also some pros of being protected from making bad choices. One would be, the obvious, you would never have to worry about making a bad choice because you are prevented from doing so. Because there are no bad choices being made, the people of Jonas's community feel very safe and secure where they live. They do not have to think about crime or murder. They are so protected that they probably don't even know what these words mean. Even though the idea of waking up and knowing that you will not make any bad choices and that nothing bad will happen to you sounds good, this is not the way we should live. We should all live life to the fullest. We should experience not only the good things, but also the bad things and consequences in life. We should be allowed to make choices; our own choices.	<urn:uuid:1e1c4fe2-d10e-499c-b969-5478752fac05>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://render-bookragscdn-com.s3.amazonaws.com/docs/essays/2006/1/2/13507/2006/1/2/13507/39911-essays.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIYLGL5GJYFTRMKHA&Expires=1440964720&Signature=RS4vW%2B4HBEX%2BJ%2FhwsCggKbdYkmY%3D	2015-08-30T07:58:40Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00315-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	194,998,880	677	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.984382	eng_Latn	0.998132	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1393, 1403, 3120 ]	[ 2.046875 ]	1	7
Presented By: Allison Phillips, Lily Hoak, Bradley DeGraaf, and Erin Stutz What Happened to Going Outside? * Over scheduled kids, anxious parents * Forced activities in childhood leads to more unwilling adults. * Teens are penned in by actually TOO much structure * Out of 802 students, ages 2 - 17, a survey showed that 78% of them have a cellphone. * Many commenters said nervous parents are keeping kids from an important childhood rite -- the chance to play outdoors without the feeling that adults have to watch over them every second to keep them safe. Fact or Fiction? Technology's reach stretches all the way down to newborns today. MOTIVATION is the biggest concern on why our generation isn't going outside. It's a Fact * 75% of students said they don't have enough time to go outdoors and don't have the motivation. 15% stay indoors on technology. * Only 3% said they go outside plenty. * 7% said they don't go outside because there's nothing to do. * 90% of students said "yes," they would go to an outdoor event that was geared towards teenagers * When asked what they would like to see at these events the top 2 answers where concerts and pickup games What Are The Consequences? * Blood pressure decreases when outdoors as well as a person's resting heart rate. * Scientists have found that not going outdoors seriously affects mental health. * The tests also showed that the effects of nature take over the body within short periods of time (15 minutes) * Leading a more sedentary lifestyle can lead to a premature death * Lack of time spent outdoors can massively impact your immune system. Aspen, Colorado is home to a beautiful landscape, its HOME. The Biggest Killer is.... * Many teens today have acquired clinical depression, anxiety and other mental health disorders. * Exercise also helps to relieve stress and make you feel better about yourself. * Studies have shown that going outside can decrease stress levels and put you in a better mood. * A young brain is highly impressionable, and when a child chooses video games over regular play, that should be a red flag for parents. Depression is the number 1 consequence of not going outside How are we going to do it? FOLLOW US On INSTAGRAM OR TWITTER! * We have an Instagram Page, (@thegoproject) . Here, we post pictures of students getting active to promote the positive impacts of getting outside. Our team created the campaign, The GO Project, or Project Get Outside. We are a group working on getting teens outdoors and reducing health hazards. * We also have a Twitter page (@ProjGoOutside) * Sponsors like Colorado License and United Airlines. More ways to GO! We have also been planning a festival specifically for teenagers. The festival will include: * Local businesses setting up booths (for example, Colorado Ski and Golf, Boulder Running Company) * Bands from schools in the area like The Band Garkow. * Great food vendors with healthy food (Mad Greens and Jamba Juice) * Will happen in Clement Park over summer on May 30, 2014. * Pick up games of all sorts for teens to participate in How You Can Get Outside and Get Active * Take small steps. Don't try to do everything at once. * Only try to change one habit at a time. * Write down the habit you want to change, and write down specific plans for achieving that goal. * Repeat the behavior you're aiming for as often as you can. The more a behavior is repeated, the more likely it is that it will become "instinctive." * Get motivated find something you love	<urn:uuid:d05f5e54-7f34-44e4-9698-1ea4f45a5018>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://jeffco.us/bcc/documents/special-projects-documents/youth-in-government-documents/-the-go-project--presentation/	2015-08-30T07:51:12Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00320-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	131,705,813	765	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.946783	eng_Latn	0.999542	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 74, 644, 1173, 1678, 2180, 2646, 3097, 3526 ]	[ 2.53125 ]	1	15
The American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame & Museum Presents: SOUND What is sound? [x] Sound is a type of energy made by vibrations. [x] When any object vibrates, it causes movement in the air particles. [x] These particles bump into the particles close to them, which makes them vibrate too causing them to bump into more air particles. [x] This movement, called sound waves, keeps going until they run out of energy. [x] If your ear is within range of the vibrations, you hear the sound. [x] We hear sound with our ears. Parts of the Ear Special Ears [x] A horse's ears act like satellite dishes to capture sound waves and funnel them to his inner ears. [x] Because of the large, cuplike shape of his pinnae, especially when compared to a human's small, flat ones, very little sound spills out of them, so he can capture noises we might miss. [x] Horses' ears can also move 180 degrees using 10 different muscles (compared to three muscles for the human ear) and are able to single out a specific area to listen to. Sound travels in waves What is a sound wave? [x] Sound waves exist as variations of pressure in a medium such as air. Sound waves travel in all directions and need a medium to travel through, such as air, water, wood, or metal. [x] They are created by the vibration of an object, which causes the air surrounding it to vibrate. [x] The vibrating air then causes the eardrum to vibrate, which the brain interprets as sound. Sound waves act like water ripples The waves are strong at the center or point of creation, and spread thinner and weaker as they travel outward. Types of Sound Waves [x] A high pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency sound wave. [x] A low pitch sound corresponds to a low frequency sound wave. A commonly used unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz), where 1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second Horses hear better than us [x] Horses use their hearing for three primary functions: to detect sounds, to determine the location of the sound, and to provide sensory information that allows the horse to recognize the identity of these sounds in case they need to run away. [x] Horses can hear low to very high frequency sound, in the range of 14 Hz to 25 kHz while the human range is only 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Did you know? We have aircraft today that can break the sound barrier. That means they travel faster than the speed of sound. [x] Navy F/A-18F super Hornet as it breaks the sound barrier [x] Shuttle Atlantis as it breaks the sound barrier Less Noise and Slower Speed [x] Some aircraft do not break the sound barrier like the P-38 Lightning. [x] The American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame inductee James Goodwin Hall flew one of these slower, more quiet planes during World War II on photo reconnaissance missions. Name the parts of the ear	<urn:uuid:7505a567-984a-426a-ad96-48a0f0e44f0d>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.aqha.com/Foundation/Museum/Events/Curriculum-and-Lesson-Plans/~/media/Files/Foundation/Education/Sound.ashx	2015-08-30T07:51:34Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00316-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	288,846,716	634	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.954382	eng_Latn	0.998319	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	false	docling	[ 66, 523, 541, 1021, 1449, 1597, 1752, 1855, 2263, 2507, 2781, 2808 ]	[ 3.734375 ]	1	53
Washington University School of Medicine Digital Commons@Becker Independent Studies and Capstones Program in Audiology and Communication Sciences 2007 Parents as advocates for their hearing impaired children transitioning from a private setting to a mainstream setting Elizabeth Anne Pitlyk Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/pacs_capstones Part of the Medicine and Health Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Pitlyk, Elizabeth Anne, "Parents as advocates for their hearing impaired children transitioning from a private setting to a mainstream setting" (2007). Independent Studies and Capstones. Paper 115. Program in Audiology and Communication Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine. http://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/pacs_capstones/115 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Program in Audiology and Communication Sciences at Digital Commons@Becker. It has been accepted for inclusion in Independent Studies and Capstones by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Becker. For more information, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org. PARENTS AS ADVOCATES FOR THEIR HEARING IMPAIRED CHILDREN TRANSITIONING FROM A PRIVATE SETTING TO A MAINSTREAM SETTING by Elizabeth Anne Pitlyk An Independent Study submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of: Master of Science in Deaf Education Washington University School of Medicine Program in Audiology and Communication Sciences May 18, 2007 Approved by: Barbara Lanfer, M.A. Ed., Independent Study Advisor This was a project completed with the hope of creating a "parent friendly" binder to be used as an aid for parents whose child with a hearing impairment would be transitioning from a private setting into a mainstream setting. Acknowledgements This independent study discussion could not have been written without the help of Mrs. Barbara Lanfer, my independent study advisor. Her constructive criticism and attention to detail allowed my independent study to be the very best it could be. Thank you. Pitlyk Independent Study Discussion Many parents of children with hearing impairments have mixed emotions about the thought of their child entering a mainstream setting. After all of the work, emotional ups and downs, and intense dedication, the transition from private school setting to a mainstream setting may bring about both feelings of happiness as well as feelings of anxiousness. Parents feel happy and proud that their child has worked hard and learned how to talk and listen, but parents may also be nervous about the idea of their child entering a new and unfamiliar educational setting. While there are trained professionals who will be capable of working with the child in the mainstream, it is most often the parent who assumes the role of advocate for their child. Keeping this in mind, I sought to collect information regarding the experiences that parents and their children had during the transition from the private auditory/oral program to a mainstream educational setting. I wanted to find out parent thoughts and opinions about how their children were progressing as well as how their children were handling the transition process. I wanted to learn about any struggles they were facing as well as to find out how the initial transition process went for their family. At the end of collecting this information, I wanted to have an idea about what topics were worth including in a "Parent Guide" that would provide parents with a valuable resource as they began this transition process. I decided that structuring a short yet comprehensive open-ended survey to send to parents would be the best way to obtain the information that I needed. I wanted the survey to be confidential so that I could elicit the most honest data possible. Eventually, after several attempts, I created a survey of eighteen questions. The topics covered in the survey included, information about the child's current academic performance, advocacy skills, assistive devices (i.e. hearing aids, cochlear implants, and FM systems), social adjustment, mainstream teacher, and mainstream preparation meetings. I sent the survey to thirteen parents whose children had recently graduated from Central Institute for the Deaf (CID). I included the survey and a cover letter explaining my intent and the importance of returning the survey in a timely fashion. Each survey was sent with a selfaddressed stamped envelope. In the eight weeks that I allotted to receive completed surveys, I received only three. What information I received was limited, but worthwhile, nonetheless. At the beginning of this process, I hoped that I would have a strong return rate for the survey. I assumed that since I was asking for information about children who had recently graduated from such a close-knit program that more parents would be willing to participate. I anticipated that parents would welcome the chance to share information about their children's progress and give input about how the transition process might be improved. Reflecting on why I did not receive a greater number of surveys, one issue stands out. The low return rate could be due to parents' hesitation to share information about their children. This could be attributed to a feeling of doubt about their child's progress in a new educational setting. Each of the three surveys that I did receive reflected positively on the transition experience and their children's success in the mainstream. Not one survey had anything negative to say about their child's academic performance or the role of the mainstream teacher. The premise that only parents whose children are experiencing success in the mainstream are willing to share information may be true. However, my goal was to learn about children's struggles, both academically and socially as they entered the mainstream. I wanted to know how helpful teachers in the mainstream are and I wanted to know what was hardest for parents. I planned to compile this information to make a resource guide to help parents as they go through the transition process. What I have chosen to include in the parent resource guide is mostly based on my knowledge as a teacher of the deaf and on information collected from other programs about mainstreaming, rather than parents' input. Regardless, I feel that this guide will be useful to parents whose children will be entering the mainstream. Perhaps over time, the guide can be revised as needed when more data is collected. Binder Components Classroom Acoustics When your child enters the mainstream, it will be very important that he or she be placed in a classroom with the most optimal sound acoustics as possible. In this case, "acoustics" simply refers to the noise conditions of the classroom. If you ever stop to think about all of the background noise that occurs within the classroom, you will be quite surprised to know how great its impact can be on learning (Nixon, 2002). Noises like the overhead projector, the ventilation system, tennis shoes squeaking on the floor, desks slamming, chairs squeaking, the computer humming, fans circulating, lockers slamming, classroom chatter, and hallway commotion all decrease the signal to noise ratio. The signal to noise ratio (SNR) is a measure of background noise in relation to the sound signal (in this case the teacher's voice). It is important that the signal (teacher's voice) be loud and clear enough to be heard over the background noise (Nixon, 2002). To ensure that your child has the opportunity to learn in the best acoustic conditions possible, there are several things that can be done. One of the most effective ways to control the background noise is make sure that there is carpet in the classroom. If this is not an option, there are a couple of tricks you can suggest that will help create a better acoustically treated room. Placing large rugs around the room will act to absorb some of the perpetual background noise. Another trick of the trade is to attach tennis balls to the feet of the desks and chairs. This will greatly decrease the overall noise level in the classroom. Adhering cork board (bulletin boards) to the walls of the classroom also will act as a buffer for noise. In addition, hanging curtains on the windows will also cut down on noise from the outside (Nixon, 2002). All of these techniques may not be feasible in your child's classroom. However, implementing even one of these can help reduce noise and increase your child's ability to hear the teacher more easily. If you're having difficulty conveying the importance of noise reduction in the classroom, it may be beneficial to mention the positive effects that it can have for all children. Recent research has shown that increasing the SNR within the classroom can have positive effects on academic achievement for all students (Siebein et. al.). Classroom Set-Up After having addressed the "classroom acoustics" issue in your child's classroom, there are several more things that you can suggest to help your child receive the most optimal speech signal. First, remind the teacher of the importance of facing the students when speaking. It is natural for a classroom teacher to continue talking while writing on the blackboard. This may take some practice, but in the long run, will be beneficial to all students. Not only is the signal (the teacher's voice) more audible, but your child has the benefit of lipreading. Another consideration is where your child is seated. The most appropriate area of the classroom for a child with a hearing impairment to sit is near the front of the room, away from the door, and away from other noise sources. If your child is a cochlear implant wearer, it is best that he or she be positioned in a way so that the teacher is nearest to the implanted ear. If your child is wearing a hearing aid, it is best that he or she be positioned so that the teacher is closer to the better ear. We know that is impossible for a teacher to stay in the same position all day, but mentioning this may help the teacher be more aware of his/her position in the room. Academics Academics are the meat of education. After you have discussed the acoustical factors in your child's placement, you can begin to focus on academics. There are many ways in which you and the teacher can help your child be successful. This next section will list several suggestions and accommodations for the teacher to implement in the classroom. Visual Aids One way to help a child who is hearing impaired succeed is for the teacher to present material both visually and auditorily. Listening all day in a noisy environment can be very tiring for the child with a hearing impairment. It can help to have information presented visually in the form of print or picture. Suggesting that the teacher use an overhead projector, write notes on the board, or even provide the child with a print out of notes will be a great help. Also ask the teacher to write directions on the board or to provide written directions. This will allow the child to listen and not worry about taking notes during instructional times. Questioning Too often, children with a hearing impairment get into the habit of answering yes when the teacher asks them if they understood what was said. The difference between understanding what was said and hearing what was said is critical. To help check for comprehension, it will be important that your child's classroom teacher asks different kinds of questions in differing ways to know if the child is actually understanding the information. While this seems like it may be a lot of work, it really is not at all. It is important that the teacher use these types of questions for all the students in the class and will result in helping the teacher better assess all students. Examples of questions a teacher may ask are listed below. Who did….? What happened…? What did…? Tell me what you think about that. Do you agree…? What might happen if…? What was the problem…? Classroom Discussions A common component of most classrooms involves students working as a group and participating in class discussions. To make discussions valuable to a student with a hearing impairment, several techniques can be implemented. It is important for the classroom teacher to follow these simple suggestions so that the child who is hearing impaired has the benefit of being able to follow discussions. First, whenever possible, it is best if the students sit in a circle. This allows students to make eye-contact with others during the discussion. This is important for the student with the hearing impairment and allows him or her to follow the conversation. Second, requiring students 6 to raise their hands and at the same time asking the teacher to call the name of the student before the student makes a comment will ensure that all students are attending to the student who is speaking. Third, the teacher should remind all students to speak one at a time. This will help all students follow the discussion more easily. Finally, it may also be helpful for the teacher to repeat any comment made by students. This will give the child who is hearing impaired an opportunity to hear the comment a second time. Other Helpful Hints Other accommodations to help children with hearing impairment succeed in the mainstream may include setting up a buddy system within the class. Having a buddy will allow the student with a hearing impairment to have someone that he or she knows, and can count on to clarify directions as well as take notes. Using the buddy system is an appropriate way of making the student with a hearing impairment feel more at ease, and allows the student to watch during discussions and not worry about taking notes. There is a lot of preparation that can be done at home that will help your child be less overwhelmed at school. Request an extra set of textbooks for home use as well as an overview of the curriculum. This will allow you as parents to prepare your child in advance for what is coming up. Especially discuss vocabulary that may be used with a new concept. This will give your child some prior knowledge and exposure to the information. Technology As the parent of a child with a hearing impairment, dealing with hearing aids, cochlear implants, and FM systems has probably become second nature. For some mainstream teachers, however, this may be their first encounter working with a child using hearing aids, a cochlear implant, or an FM system. Using an FM system everyday is an important part of a child with a hearing impairment's success. "If a student is eligible for services under IDEA, assistive technology must be provided if the student requires that service. Schools must also assume that those using assistive technology (including teachers) are properly trained" (Children and Hearing Aids). FM systems, working in conjunction with a child's device will increase the audibility of the speech signal and allow the child to listen with greater ease, and have better success in a mainstream classroom. A child with a hearing impairment in a mainstream classroom is learning in a very challenging environment. The classroom is noisy, there are a large number of students in the class, the pace of instruction is fast, and there is less time for one-on-one attention. Wearing an FM system and maintaining proper functioning of a child's personal device will assure that a child has every opportunity to succeed (Davidson, 2007). While the mainstream teacher might have some training on troubleshooting, it will still be important for parents to be a source of information should a problem arise. Following up with your child's teacher on a regular basis about equipment is a good idea. In addition, having replacement parts and especially batteries is important for parents to remember. Make sure that your child has extra batteries at school and knows how to change them. Since cochlear implants are a more recent technology for children with a hearing impairment, teachers may know less about them and may feel a bit unsure about how teaching a child wearing hearing aids and teaching a child wearing a cochlear implant will be different. Fortunately, there are few, if any, differences that teachers will need to learn about. It will be the job of your child's itinerant or deaf education teacher to discuss this information with the teacher. It may be the job of the parent to remind the teacher about the importance of minimizing static electricity within the classroom for children wearing a cochlear implant. Remind the classroom teacher about avoiding static electricity, as it may erase the child's map on his/her cochlear implant. This is especially true in the winter months when the air is dry and static electricity is more prone to occur. Make sure to supply the child's teacher with some dryer sheets, static guard, or Downy spray to use each day to help eliminate static. Carpeted floors and standard plastic chairs are culprits for static build up. Ask the teacher to rub down the chairs or spray the carpet to help eliminate this risk (Davidson, 2007). Other Issues In this section we will touch on several other issues that are important to the success of a child with a hearing impairment in the mainstream. These topics will include self-advocacy skills, social skills, and the importance of communication between parents and the child's teachers. Self-Advocacy Skills Part of the process of readying a child to enter the mainstream will be to help him or her develop self-advocacy skills. These kinds of skills need to be taught and practiced to ensure that the child will be able to use these skills in the real world. Self advocacy skills that the child should be using during the school day may include; asking the teacher and other students to clarify something that was misunderstood, asking the teacher and other students to repeat what was said, and alerting the speaker that what was said was not heard. It is now the parent's job to make sure that the child is using these skills while at school in order to reach his or her fullest potential. This may be a challenge for the child as he or she begins their school days in the mainstream setting. Now instead of the child being one of many children with a hearing impairment in a small class, the child is probably the only student with a hearing impairment in a much larger class. Self advocacy was easy at a private school where everyone was hearing impaired, and teachers expected and encouraged strong self-advocacy skills. Now it may be more difficult for the child with a hearing impairment emotionally to speak up and call attention to the fact that they did not hear or understand something. Talking to the child about how important it is to speak up when they either cannot hear or have misunderstood the information is crucial. Asking the teacher to observe the child's attempt at self advocacy is a good way to determine it they are using this skill to their benefit. The classroom teacher should encourage all students to ask questions and to ask for help if they do not understand. Open Communication Establishing open communication between the parent and his/her child's teacher is an important part for success in the mainstream. Parents live with the child and can provide a wealth of information to the child's classroom teacher. Giving them information about how the child learns, things they like to do, situations that make them uncomfortable, and other personal anecdotes will help the teacher get to know a different side of the student. This may help the classroom teacher understand the child better and avoid potential problems in the classroom. Devising a way to communicate with the child's teacher on a regular basis will help the parent to stay informed consistently. This can be arranged through weekly e-mails, telephone calls, or by using a special notebook that will allow the parent and teacher to communicate regularly through writing. Social Skills Part of attending school is creating peer relationships and being a member of the school society. Along with learning concepts, children learn how to establish relationships and maintain those relationships in a school setting. This will be especially important for the child who is hearing impaired and is entering the mainstream as a "new kid". Encouraging your child to talk about his/her hearing impairment and explain his/her device is an important first step. If your child feels uncomfortable doing this, then allowing the parent or itinerant teacher of the deaf to come into the class and give an in-service to the rest of the students may be a better option. Role playing with his/her peers during school time is a fantastic way to practice initiating or engaging in this sort of conversation. Remind your child that as a parent, you will always be there to listen and answer questions as well as help them socially. Often children with a hearing impairment tend to fall behind their peers in the area of pragmatics. Many things that the parent thought the child would "just know" may have to be explicitly taught. The parent may find it helpful to ask the teacher to inform him/her about social situations that may come up during the school day. This way, as the parent, you can be aware of the problem and be ready to discuss it with your child in a more private and non-threatening way. Most of all, it is important that you, the parent, remember to be patient and always encourage your child to be themselves and nothing more. References Children and Hearing Aids (n.d). Retrieved May 2, 2007, from American Speech-LanguageHearing Association Web Site: http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/treatment/child_aids.htm Davidson, Lisa. (2007). Personal communication. Washington University. Luckner, John L. (2002). Facilitating the Transition of Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing. Austin: PRO-ED, Inc. Nixon, Mike. (May/June 2002). Assessing the Acoustics in Your Child's Classroom: A Guide for Parents. Hearing Loss, 15-19. Siebein, Gary W., Gold, Martin A., Siebein, Glenn W., Ermann, Michael G. (October 2000). Ten Ways to Provide a High-Quality Acoustical Environment in Schools. Language, Speech, and Hearing Service in School, Vol. 31, 376-384.	<urn:uuid:4824765e-2704-46a9-ae93-3d46750228df>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=pacs_capstones	2015-08-30T07:54:21Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00313-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	71,077,895	4,512	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.968126	eng_Latn	0.999069	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1120, 1794, 2072, 2080, 4058, 6162, 7958, 9928, 11498, 12855, 14665, 16576, 18328, 20219, 21784, 22517 ]	[ 1.453125, 3.53125 ]	2	31
Frequently Asked Questions: What is Montessori Education? "Nearly 100 years ago, an Italian physician inspired the birth of a worldwide educational movement. Dr. Maria Montessori, one of Italy's first female physicians, became interested in education while working with children in Rome. In 1907, Montessori continued shaping her learning model by opening Casa dei Bambini, 'A Children's House,' for pre-school children. With her scientific background to guide her, she observed how young people learned best when engaged in purposeful activity rather than simply being fed information. Combining sensory-rich environments and hands-on experiential techniques, she drew upon her clinical understanding of children's cognitive growth and development in constructing an educational framework that would respect individuality and fulfill the needs of the 'whole child.' Dr. Montessori's pioneering work created a blueprint for nurturing all children to become the self-motivated, independent and life-long learners that are the ultimate goal of today's educational reform movement." Source: www.amshq.org How is your school different from the traditional public school classroom? Students in a Montessori classroom work at tables or with mats on the floor, within a structured environment. Teachers work with each student to develop a work plan and students are responsible for meeting the expectations of their work plan on a daily and weekly basis, working through different job areas such as math, reading and language arts. Students are provided main lessons and core curriculum instruction on a daily basis. Then they break up into smaller lesson groups as well as breaking out into individual work time. During this independent work time, students move freely about the classroom as they progress through their work plans in the order that best suits them – having the freedom to decide the order of completion. Students can often spend free time exploring favorite subjects in greater depth. Students develop a greater sense of independence and responsibility when given choices within their academic day. This freedom fosters the student's ability to make decisions that directly affect themselves and to become independent thinkers and workers. It also supports the child in developing selfresponsibility by taking ownership of their own learning. Because students are working at their own academic/developmental level, they are able to work toward concept mastery before moving on – instead of being tied to the general pace of the classroom as a whole (which, in the traditional public classroom, may mean skipping over a concept they didn't quite "get" or "hanging out" while the rest of the class catches up). In other words, if one student is having trouble with long division, he/she can spend more time on it while another student may need to focus their time on additional practice in fractions. Accelerated students can continue working on more challenging subject matter as they are ready for it. This format allows the teacher to guide a student in the area most needed while still presenting the general lessons and curriculum to the students as a whole. What is a Charter school? In 1992, the State Legislature passed the Charter Schools Act with the intent of providing opportunities for teachers, parents, pupils, and community members to establish and maintain schools that operate independently from the existing school district structure, as a method to accomplish the following: improve student learning; increase learning opportunities for all pupils; encourage the use of innovative teaching methods; create new professional opportunities for teachers; provide parents and pupils with expanded choices; and hold the schools established under this Act accountable for meeting measurable pupil outcomes. What is the cost for my child to attend CMP? As a California K-8 public charter school, CMP is a tuition-free public school funded by the state Department of Education. Donations are accepted to support field trips, arts enrichment and technology. What school district are you in? CMP is a network of 4 schools, operating on 5 campuses in the Greater Sacramento area. Each of the 4 schools is sponsored by a separate school district, as follows: Elk Grove campus (Elk Grove Unified School District); Capitol Campus (Sacramento City Unified School District); American River Campus/Carmichael Campus (San Juan Unified School District); and Shingle Springs Campus (Buckeye Union School District). As California Public Charter Schools, the CMP schools are considered "schools of choice" and operate independently of their authorizing school districts. What are your geographical boundaries for enrollment? As public charter schools, CMP schools are considered "schools of choice" and do not have residential requirements or geographical boundaries. Do I need to apply to my school district for an inter-district transfer? As public charter schools, CMP schools are considered "schools of choice" and do not require inter-district transfers. How do you admit new students/How do I apply to your school? CMP admits new students on a lottery basis. After the annual re-enrollment process is completed for current families, CMP begins its first round of lotteries for Fall enrollment in early Spring of the preceding year. To begin the enrollment process, please stop by any campus office or visit the CMP website (www.cacmp.org) for an enrollment application. Then submit the completed application to the campus or campuses for which you are most interested. In the meantime, you may contact the campus nearest you for dates and information on upcoming public tours. What are the odds of my child getting in through the lottery? Lottery odds vary from year to year by grade and by campus. Available slots for new families are generally not determined until after the re-enrollment process for current families is complete. Since summer is historically the biggest time of year for families to move or make changes, lotteries are often conducted on an on-going basis, as spaces become available. If your child's application is not pulled in the initial Spring lottery, CMP will keep it on file for all subsequent lotteries conducted for the same school year. If I applied last year and didn't get in, do I have to submit a new application? Yes, please submit a new application for each school year. This provides CMP with current information, including your continued interest in CMP. If my child received a lottery space last year and we did not enroll at that time, do we have to apply again? Yes. We can only confirm a lottery space at the time of availability. If you are not able to accept enrollment when your child's application is pulled, we will offer the space to another family and you must resubmit your child's application for subsequent lotteries. How old does my child have to be to start at your school? As a public K-8 school, students must be 5 years old by December 2 nd , in the year they begin attending kindergarten, and 6 years old by December 2 nd , in the year they begin first grade. Can you mail me an application/some information on your school? The enrollment application, Family-School Handbook and other information can be accessed at the CMP website: www.cacmp.org, or you can stop by your nearest CMP campus to pick up an application. Staff at each CMP campus can provide information about upcoming public tours. Can I schedule an appointment to visit your school? Staff at each CMP campus can provide you with information regarding the school program as well as the schedule for campus tours. Additional information can be found on the CMP website at www.cacmp.org How many students do you have in a classroom? The number of students in a class varies based on the configuration of facilities at each campus. In accordance with California State Class Size Reduction guidelines, K-3 class enrollment is 20 students or less, per teacher. Grades 4 through 8 typically provide for 1 certificated teacher to 24 or less students. What are the hours of the school day? The school hours generally run from 8:30 am to 3:00 pm daily, with slight variations from campus to campus. Please check with your local CMP campus to confirm class hours, as well as kindergarten scheduling. Do you have before and after school care? Yes. CMP's Club Montessori program is an optional care program available from 7 am to 6 pm. This program provides seamless transition of care for our students and families who require extended care outside the regular school day. More information and tuition rates are available from the school office or from our website at www.cacmp.org. Are you a year-round school? No. CMP operates on a slightly modified traditional calendar. In addition to Summer break, CMP schedules a 3-week intersession break during Winter and Spring. These break times allow parents ample opportunity to schedule vacations without interfering with the student's academic schedule. What do families do with their children during school breaks? CMP's optional Club Montessori program is available during intersession periods, minimum days, and summer break. Do you require (allow, encourage) parent participation? As a requisite component of enrollment, parents are required, and expected, to complete 40 hours of service for one child, 70 hours of service for two or more children during the school year. This service can be fulfilled in numerous ways, including, but not limited to, the following: working in the classroom, participating in field trips, serving on parent committees, and participating in parent workdays. There are many opportunities on campus and off – during the school day, or evenings and weekends. Do your students wear uniforms? CMP students participate in a relaxed uniform dress code which is available on our website. Each campus has the discretion to modify its guidelines based on their local campus community. Do you have bus service to your school? Students attend CMP schools from a far-reaching geographical area. Accordingly, CMP does not provide bus transportation. Do you have a hot lunch program? Lunch programs vary from school to school. While students are encouraged to bring a healthy lunch, many of the CMP campuses offer optional "vendor lunch" days as a part of their fundraising programs. These vendor lunches are optional and available for a fee. Do you offer Art, Music, Drama, PE, and Foreign Language Classes? Physical Education is a required course at each campus. Enrichment courses are often combined into the "cultural activities" of the Montessori classroom and vary from campus to campus. Please check with the principal of your local CMP campus for more information on particular offerings. Do you have a GATE program? Within the Montessori classroom, all students have the opportunity to experience a wide variety of academic and cultural instruction often only reserved for students enrolled in accelerated programs at other schools. Further, accelerated students in the regular Montessori classroom have the opportunity on a daily basis to work at higher levels of mastery and academic achievement, while still remaining in a class with their social peer group. For these reasons, accelerated students often flourish in the Montessori environment without the need for a separate GATE program. My child has a disability and I was told that Montessori was the best program for my child. Montessori education is a successful alternative for many students; and there are some students and families that may find other methodologies that are a better match. The best way to assess the potential for your child's success in the Montessori environment is to schedule a school tour and a time for your child to come into the classroom and interact with the teacher and the other students. Do you have credentialed teachers? Every CMP classroom provides a California State-Credentialed teacher. Most of CMP's teachers also hold Montessori teaching certificates or are actively working to obtain them. Are you accredited? CMP schools are California public schools recognized by the California Department of Education. Each of the CMP schools has also received a full five-year accreditation through the Montessori School Accreditation Commission (MSAC). Where do your Montessori teachers receive their training? A significant number of CMP's teachers have received their Montessori teaching certificates through the National Council on Montessori Education (NCME), in association with their studies at the Montessori Teachers College, Sacramento. Others have received their training through American Montessori Society (AMS) schools, Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) schools, or other recognized training programs. Does your curriculum meet state standards? CMP's curriculum is Montessori based and aligned with state standards. As a public school, students participate in state standardized testing each spring and receive a combination of progress reports and grade reports (two times each) for a total of four different opportunities to report student progress to parents each year. These grade reports are also based on state standards and published Montessori curriculum for each grade – and reflect the student's progress in mastering each standard. Do you administer state tests? As a public school, we are required to administer the State STAR test each spring. What are your STAR test results? How did your school do on the state testing? STAR test results for the collective CMP network are available at the CDE website: www.cde.ca.gov Prior to the 2006-07 school year, CMP had been sponsored through the Wheatland School District, in Yuba County. Accordingly, CMP's test results, through the 2005-06 school year can be located under Yuba County. STAR test results for the 2006-07 school year will be listed by individual school, and located along with the results of all schools within the particular authorizing district. Students within the CMP network as a whole have traditionally scored well on the STAR test. Additionally, CMP staff and families are anticipating the first available release of individual school scores in late summer of 2007. Besides the annual STAR testing, CMP regularly utilizes many other indicators of student progress and mastery, such as the Albanesi pre and post assessments, teacher observation, GAT general achievement assessments, etc. CMP strongly encourages all parents to engage in dialogue with the classroom teacher for a comprehensive, individualized assessment of their child's progress.	<urn:uuid:33f836e9-7cc9-42e3-acb9-43e2cb6a533b>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.cacmp.org/download.axd?file=fbe75485-79e1-4a09-b9b9-7a3006a27763&dnldType=Resource	2015-08-30T07:50:25Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00321-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	346,156,640	2,860	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998776	eng_Latn	0.998999	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4101, 7778, 11325, 14768 ]	[ 2.1875 ]	2	27
Course Guide Self-paced study. Anytime. Anywhere! Economics 201 Principles of Macroeconomics University of Idaho 3 Semester-Hour Credits Prepared by: Steven Peterson Clinical Assistant Professor of Economics University of Idaho 3-Econ 201 Copyright Independent Study in Idaho/Idaho State Board of Education Table of Contents Exam 4 Information ...................................................................................................................... 83 Econ 201: Principles of Macroeconomics 3 credits: UI Welcome Whether you are a new or returning student, welcome to the Independent Study in Idaho (ISI) program. Below, you will find information pertinent to your course including the course description, course materials, course objectives, as well as information about assignments, exams, and grading. If you have any questions or concerns, please contact the ISI office for clarification before beginning your course. Policies and Procedures Refer to the ISI website at www.uidaho.edu/isi and select About ISI Policies for the most current policies and procedures, including information on setting up accounts, student confidentiality, exams, proctors, transcripts, course exchanges, refunds, academic integrity, library resources, and disability support and other services. Course Description Organization and operation of American economy; supply and demand, money and banking, macroeconomic analysis of employment, aggregate output and inflation, public finance, and economic growth. UI students: May be used as general education credit in J-3-d. Econ 201 and Econ 202 may be taken in either order. Econ 201 or Econ 202 carry only two credits after Econ 272. Required: Internet access 10 graded assignments, 4 proctored exams Available online only. Course Materials Required Course Materials Parkin, Michael. Macroeconomics. 11 th Ed. Prentice Hall: 2013. ISBN: 9780133020250 Course Delivery All ISI courses are delivered through BbLearn, an online management system that hosts the course lessons and assignments and other items that are essential to the course. Course Introduction Welcome to my world of economics. This course examines an important branch of economics called macroeconomics, which analyzes the economy as a whole. Economists specializing in macroeconomics study the aggregate macro-economy and focus on indicators such as gross domestic product, U.S. unemployment, interest rates, inflation rates, money supply indicators, industrial production, inventories, and many others. The macroeconomist examines information and statistics which are tallied across numerous markets and across a virtually infinite number of decision-makers. This approach differs from microeconomics, another major branch of economics which focuses on the behavior of individual decision-makers and markets. Macroeconomics has been "front and center" of public policy debates in the U.S. since the 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent deep and devastating recession, the worst since the Great Depression of the 1930s. A policy branch of macroeconomics called Keynesian economics has seen a mini revival resulting from the crisis and recession. In this course, we will discuss the causes of the recession and policy debates. The roots of macroeconomics can be traced to before the time of Adam Smith, the founder of modern economics (who published The Wealth of Nations in 1776), yet the statistical tools needed for real macroeconomic analysis has only been available since World War II. The Great Depression in the 1930s made politicians and economists painfully aware that they needed better analytic tools and more information on the macro-economy in the United States. Since that time, the Federal Government has developed an immense database consisting of virtually every conceivable measure of economic activity. In addition, the government conducts sophisticated statistical analysis in its examination of economic activity. The government publishes information, for example, on the following: the composition of households in the U.S., the composition of firms, output statistics on all production in the U.S., money supply statistics, measures of inflation, measures of unemployment, statistics on exports and imports, statistics on investment, etc. You will make use of many of these statistics in your analysis of economic events as you progress through this course. Your decision to undertake a correspondence course places you in a special category of student. I have found, on average, that correspondence students who complete the course are more motivated and better students than those on campus. The reason is the self-motivation and discipline needed to complete a correspondence course. Course Objectives Broad Objectives - Facilitate critical thinking by exploring the analytical tools derived from economic theory and its applications. - Apply those analytical tools to macroeconomic issues. - Enhance general student intrapersonal and interpersonal intellectual awareness. - Facilitate and improve communication skills. Specific Objectives - To introduce the student to basic economic thinking and analysis. - To acquaint the student with economic concepts, terminology, and logic. - To familiarize the student with the tools needed for examining important economic models such as supply and demand, market failure, government failure, externalities, the role of private property rights, and free trade. - To familiarize the student with the incentives facing each individual, how individuals make economic choices, and how these choices lead to markets. - To introduce to the student public decision theory and how governments operate. The incentives and choices facing public decision-makers will be examined. - To familiarize the student with the debate over the appropriate role and function of government in the economy and its effect on private decision-making. - To familiarize the student with the tools needed for examining important economic variables such as real output, inflation, and unemployment. - To introduce to the student the various economic schools of thought and how these schools influence public policy. You will examine the theories of Keynesian economists, monetarists, supply-side economists, rational expectations economists, and others. - To familiarize the student with the growing global economy and how the economic future of the nations of the world are intertwined. - To introduce to the student the concepts and measures of economic growth, technological development, and human capital development. - To introduce to the student important topics in development economics and Third World development issues. - To introduce to the student the various policy tools available to decision-makers for influencing the economy and the rationale of their use. - To introduce to the student important topics of the decade of the 2000s, the collapse of the financial markets, the recession, and the changes of the political landscape with the election of Barack Obama to the presidency. - To illustrate the importance and relevance of economics to the student's life and future career. Lessons Overview Each lesson includes lesson objectives, an introductory lecture, supplemental materials, sources, and a two-part assignment. Assignments associated with each lesson consist of multiple choice questions and essay questions. Each lesson is worth 30 points each: the multiple choice questions are worth 20 points and the essay questions are worth 10 points. Generally speaking, correspondence study requires typed lessons. I will accept, however, either typed or hand-written lessons, whichever is easiest for you. For the graphing portion of the lessons, I recommend drawing them by hand, scanning them using a printer. It is best to submit the Essay/Graphing portions as one PDF document and then upload it to BbLearn. If you are typing the lessons, simply record the multiple-choice question number and the letter answer that best fits. Do not re-type the question itself. For the essay questions, if you type the lessons, do not type the questions themselves. Just include the question number and your answer. If you are handwriting the lessons and using the form provided, you may write on the back of the assignments or include an extra page if needed. I am looking for solid, complete answers on the essay questions, but do not feel compelled to write a book. I will give you feedback on your essay questions as you progress through the course. Some lessons (i.e. lectures) in your course guide include supplemental materials. Most of the lectures, however, are a review and summary of the textbook material. They provide a concise overview and review of the key issues covered in the text. In all cases you should read the chapter first before the lecture in the course guide. These lectures are designed to assist you in "digesting" and understanding the concepts covered in the text. I am most concerned that you understand the concepts of each lesson. Thus, you should adopt a form that assists you in that endeavor. For some students, learning is enhanced when they type the lessons because it helps them organize their thoughts. Other students find typing a learning impediment. Study Hints: - Keep a copy of every lesson submitted. - Complete all reading assignments. - Web pages and URL links in the World Wide Web are continuously changing. Contact your instructor if you find a broken Web page or URL. - Read the textbook readings as a first pass through the material. Choose a quiet setting, perhaps with a cup of coffee or your favorite soft drink. - The next step is to read the lesson and lecture in the Course Guide. Carefully consider how this information fits in with the textbook material. Review the key objectives of each lesson. - Now do the assignments. These will help you understand the important issues in each chapter. Note the importance of graphing. Be sure to practice these graphs. It takes work to get them down cold! - Set a schedule allowing for completion of the course one month prior to your desired deadline. Refer to the Course Rules in BbLearn for further details on assignment requirements and submission. Exams - You must wait for grades and comments on assignments prior to taking subsequent exams. - For your instructor's exam guidelines, refer to the Course Rules in BbLearn. Refer to Grading for specific information on assignment/exam points and percentages. Proctor Selection/Scheduling Exams All exams require a proctor. To submit your Proctor Information Form online, visit the ISI website and select Forms, Proctor Information Form. Submit this form at least two weeks before your first exam. Refer to About ISI Policies on the ISI website for information on acceptable and unacceptable proctors. Grading The course grade will be based upon the following considerations: - This course has ten (10) graded lessons and four (4) proctored exams. Each lesson has two assignments: Essay/Graphing Questions and a Multiple Choice Quiz. - Combined the assignments are worth 30% and exams are worth 70% of your final grade. The final course grade is issued after all assignments and exams have been graded. Refer to the ISI Policies and Procedures for information about confidentiality of student grades, course completion, time considerations, and transcript requests. About the Course Developer I am a Research Economist at the University of Idaho and a Clinical Assistant Professor in Economics in the Department of Business at the University of Idaho, where I have been employed for 20 years. My teaching interests are introductory macroeconomics, microeconomics, money and banking, and intermediate macroeconomics. My research interests are regional economic development and impact analysis. I have conducted studies on the economic impacts to local Idaho communities from reductions of timber harvests on federal forests, the economic impact of colleges and universities, the economic impacts of inland ports and dam removal to save salmon, tribal gaming, and other interesting subjects. I look forward to assisting you in your exploration of economics. Contacting Your Instructor Instructor contact information is posted on your BbLearn site. Lesson 1 The Beginning Humor in Economics President Truman once said he wants an economic adviser who is one handed. Why? Because normally the economists giving him [conflicting] economic advice state "On one hand and on the other hand..." Source: http://netec.mcc.ac.uk/JokEc.html Web Links Top 200 Influential Economics Blogs: Aug 2013 http://www.onalyticaindexes.com/2013/07/3 1/top-200-influential-economic-blogs-aug2013-2/ List of Nobel Prize winners in economics: http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/eco nomic-sciences/laureates/ Lesson Objectives - Define economics, the economic problem, incorporating the relationship between limited resources and unlimited wants. - Discuss the concept of marginal analysis, marginal benefits and marginal costs. - Identify types of factors of production types of income associated with various factors. - Explain the concepts of allocative and productive efficiency and how they differ. - Construct a production possibilities curve when given appropriate data. - Illustrate economic growth, the unemployment and underemployment of resources, allocative and productive efficiency, and increasing costs using a production possibilities curve. - Highlight the main features of pure capitalism, command economy, mixed and traditional systems. - Identify the major groups of decision makers and the major markets in a market system graphically, using the circular flow diagram. - Differentiate between product and resource markets. Reading Assignment Parkin chapters one and two, What is Economics? The Economic Problem, (skip gains-from-trade portion of chapter 2), pages 1-52. Important Terms Lecture Introduction The economics profession is a pie that can be sliced in many ways… Economics is a discipline that examines the allocation of scarce resources to consumers with unlimited wants and desires. The two key focal points of economics are the facts that all economic resources are scarce and that consumer wants and desires are unlimited (i.e. there are competing uses). These points create a conflict, a tension between the unlimited wants and desires by consumers and the scarcity of goods and services. Thus scarcity forces choice. Usually, when someone thinks of economics (and economists), he or she thinks of money and/or the stock market. In fact, only a small minority of economists specialize in finance or securities. The principal focus of economics is on human welfare. The quest to improve the human condition leads economics into virtually all aspects of peoples' lives and into virtually every profession. In fact, John T. Wenders, a retired economist at the University of Idaho, labeled economics an imperial science, frequently invading (i.e., offering analysis and insight to) many other professions. Economics as a discipline is perhaps second only to the granddaddy of them all—philosophy—in its scope. Economics is a way of thinking, a method of analysis. Economics offers a unique viewpoint of the essential elements of the human condition. Economics is part science. That is, it is based on some fundamental, predictable elements of human behavior. One such assumption, for example, is that people seek to maximize their own utility or welfare. Science also plays an important role in economics where the human world and the physical world come together, such as in the production of goods and services, resource development, technological improvement, and production efficiency. Economics is also subject to the unpredictable elements of human behavior, however, which distinguishes it from professions such as chemistry or physics. Economics is therefore a social science. The purpose of the first two chapters is to introduce you to the language and concepts of economics. Each of the major professions has its own language (much like a street gang!). Economics is no different. Understanding the language and terminology will greatly assist you in your learning endeavors. Chapter Two introduces you to two important economic models, the production possibility model and the circular flow model. Both have important macroeconomic applications. Be sure you are able to graph the productions possibilities model from numbers and graph the circular flow model as a stylized graph (no numbers). Written Assignment Before beginning the first written assignment, refer to the Course Rules and Getting Started in BbLearn for your instructor's assignment requirements. Written assignments are submitted through BbLearn. Essay Questions 1. What is the first economic question and its subparts? What is the second economic question? 2. Graphically illustrate a production possibilities schedule from the following table, placing guns on the vertical axis and food on the horizontal axis. b. Illustrate in the graph a point on the graph that is currently unattainable. c. Graphically illustrate a point representing the unemployment of resources on the same graph. d. What is the opportunity cost of increasing butter production from 2 to 3 units? e. Is this a straight line or curved production possibilities model? Good (Units) Guns (100,000) 15 14 12 9 5 0 Butter (1,000) 0 1 2 3 4 5 3. Using a stylized graph illustrate productive versus allocative efficiency (see Figure 2.4 in the textbook) 4. Graphically illustrate the combined circular flow diagram and label completely. 9 5. Watch Episode 1 of the PBS special Commanding Heights: The Battle of Ideas at this link: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/hi/story/. Summarize the economic intellectual battle represented by Friedrich von Hayek and John Maynard Keynes. In your opinion, what relevance does this battle have today? Multiple Choice Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. An incentive: production that is devoted to producing services. A) could be a reward but could not be a penalty. B) could be either a reward or a penalty. C) could be a penalty but could not be a reward. D) is the opposite of a tradeoff. 2. When an economy produces more houses and fewer typewriters, it is answering the ________ part of one of the two big economic questions. A) What? B) For whom? C) How? D) Where? 3. The analysis of the behavior of individual decision-making units is the definition of: A) positive economics. B) normative economics. C) macroeconomics. D) microeconomics. 4. When China builds a dam using few machines and a great deal of labor, it is answering the ________ part of one of the two big economic questions. A) Where? B) What? C) How? D) For whom? 5. In the U.S. economy, which of the following statements is true? A) More goods are produced than services. B) The economy is too complex to determine the proportion of C) Production is divided evenly between goods and services. D) More services are produced than goods. A) unlimited; limited B) limited; limited C) limited; unlimited D) unlimited; unlimited 7. Which of the following are considered factors of production used to produce goods and services? I. Land II. Labor III. Capital IV. Entrepreneurship A) I, II and III only B) I, II, III and IV C) I and II only D) I and III only 8. Human capital is: A) the skill and knowledge of workers. B) machinery that meets or exceeds federal safety standards for use by humans. C) all capital owned by individuals, but not by corporations or governments. D) all capital owned by individuals or corporations, but not by governments. 6. In every economic system, choices must be made because resources are ________ and our wants are ________. 10 9. In economics, the term "capital" refers to: A) consumer goods. B) mineral resources. C) the money in one's pocket. D) buildings and equipment. 10. Which of the following questions is NOT a microeconomic question? A) Can the Federal Reserve keep income growing by cutting interest rates? B) How would a tax on e-commerce affect eBay? C) Does the United States have a comparative advantage in information technology services? D) What is Britney's opportunity cost of having another baby? 11. Which factor of production earns most income in the United States? A) labor B) money C) capital D) entrepreneurship 12. The fact that some people can afford to live in beautiful homes while others are homeless, is most directly an example of an economy facing the ________ part of one of the two big economic questions. A) When? B) How? C) For whom? D) Why? Opportunity cost means the: A) highest-valued alternative forgone. B) accounting cost minus the marginal benefit. C) accounting cost minus the marginal cost. D) monetary costs of an activity. 13. 14. Production efficiency occurs when production ________. A) is at any attainable point B) is on the production possibilities frontier C) is at a point beyond the production possibilities frontier D) is on the production possibilities frontier or inside it 15. The production possibilities frontier is the boundary between: A) those combinations of goods and services that can be produced and those that cannot. B) those wants that are limited and those that are unlimited. C) those resources that are limited and those that are unlimited. D) those combinations of goods and services that can be produced and those that can be consumed. 16. Any point on a production possibilities frontier (PPF) itself is: A) production efficient. B) equitable. C) inefficient. D) unattainable. 17. The above figure illustrates that if this country wishes to move from its current production point (labeled "Current") and have 10 more tons of food, it can do this by producing: A) 10 fewer tons of clothing. B) 5 more tons of clothing. C) 5 fewer tons of clothing. D) 10 more tons of clothing. 18. The opportunity cost of moving from point a to point b in the above figure is ________. A) 3 pairs of socks B) 2 sweaters C) 3/2 pairs of socks per sweater D) Zero 19. Increasing opportunity cost while moving along a production possibilities frontier is the result of: A) firms' needs to produce profits. B) the fact that it is more difficult to use resources efficiently the more society produces. C) the fact that resources are not equally productive in alternative uses. D) taxes. 20. The table above lists six points on the production possibilities frontier for grain and cars. What is the opportunity cost of producing the 5th ton of grain? A) 6 cars per ton of grain B) 3 cars per ton of grain C) 16 cars per ton of grain D) 2 cars per ton of grain \| Point \| Production of grain (tons) \| Production of cars (cars) \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| A \| 0 \| 30 \| \| B \| 2 \| 28 \| \| C \| 4 \| 24 \| \| D \| 6 \| 18 \| \| E \| 8 \| 10 \| \| F \| 10 \| 0 \| 21. In the above figure, the curve labeled a is the ________ curve and the curve labeled b is the ________ curve. A) marginal cost; marginal benefit B) production possibilities frontier; trade line C) marginal benefit; trade line D) marginal cost; trade line 22. An expansion of the production possibilities frontier is: A) something that has occurred only rarely in history. B) proof that scarcity is not a binding constraint. C) a free gift of nature. D) called economic growth. 23. Technological progress makes the production possibilities frontier: A) shift outward from the origin. B) become more linear and less bowed. C) shift inward toward the origin. D) become less linear and more bowed. 24. In the figure above, the allocatively efficient output of computers is: A) 2 million per year. B) 3 million per year. C) the largest amount possible. D) 4 million per year. 25. When an economy produces at its allocatively efficient production point, A) a society can increase the production of one good only by decreasing the production of some other good that is valued more highly. B) a society can increase the production of all goods. C) scarcity is not a problem. D) resources are not limited.	<urn:uuid:73b86c5e-5ba1-43fc-9567-815fc05454d0>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.uidaho.edu/~/media/Files/orgs/Academic%20Affairs/Independent%20Study/Course%20Syllabi/Econ201.ashx	2015-08-30T08:07:51Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00326-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	801,591,592	4,930	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.952627	eng_Latn	0.996798	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 314, 475, 3270, 6089, 9304, 12067, 12329, 13988, 17712, 19909, 21741, 22974, 24176 ]	[ 1.1015625, 3.171875 ]	7	11
Written by Brandi Phillips Friday, 14 August 2009 16:13 We have all heard about something called the Swine Flu (H1N1 Flu)? What exactly is Swine Flu and how does a person get it? How can we be vaccinated against the virus? Once a person has been infected with Swine Flu, what can be done to treat it? I have heard so much about Swine Flu is has become somewhat irritating. I am not saying that educating the public about Swine Flu is not important, because I think it is very important. This is a newer virus and we need to find a treatment or a cure so we can save lives in the future. However, we need not get lost on this health concern, but rather talk about this and other health concerns as well. For this article, I will discuss with readers what Swine Flu is thought to be at this time as well as possible ways to avoid, treat and vaccinate. Swine Flu was discovered in April 2009. It is a highly contagious virus that spreads from person to person, and was listed as a worldwide pandemic on July 11, 2009 by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is called the Swine Flu because its symptoms resemble the flu virus that has been found in pigs (swine) from Europe and Asia- as well as in bird and human genes. It was reported the week of August 10, 2009, on most media networks, including CNN and MSNBC, that 51 U.S. soldiers serving in Iraq had been diagnosed with the Swine Flu virus and then treated. There were still 71 suspect cases that are still in isolation from the rest of the population at the time of this report (AP). The spread of the H1N1 Flu is similar to that of the regular season flu that most of us have experienced. Common symptoms are fever, headache and body ache, runny or stuffy nose, sore throat, diarrhea and possibly chills and fatigue. At its worse the virus can include serious illness requiring hospitalization and it may even cause death. Those who may be at a higher risk, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, are those who have dealt with diabetes, asthma, heart or kidney disease and those woman who are pregnant, based on a weakened immune system. Infection from one person to the next can occur anywhere from one day before or 5-7 days after the infected person becomes physically ill. 1 / 2 What is Swine Flu Pandemic? How can you be safe? Written by Brandi Phillips Friday, 14 August 2009 16:13 Prevention and Treatment As with other viruses such as colds and the flu: Cover your mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. Throw away the tissue immediately in a trash receptacle that is covered or flush it in the toilet. This prevents germs from spreading in the air. Wash your hands often with warm soap and water. Avoid touching you eyes, nose and mouth this is how disease and germs are spread. Avoid being up close and personal with sick people. If you are sick the CDC recommends that you stay home for at least 24-hours after your fever is gone. There is currently no vaccine that is available to prevent and cure Swine Flu, but there are a couple of company's that are doing some trial testing on individuals who are willing to do so. If you think you have been infected with the H1N1 Swine Flu virus, immediately contact your health care professional. Also avoid contact with others and try you best to be hygienic, in order to avoid spreading the virus. Brandi Phillips is a life skills coach and personal trainer specializing in cultivating health children and sustaining healthy seniors. Brandi is looking for individuals to feature in upcoming Insight issues who have had a success in dealing with a health and wellness concern. Successes include but are not limited to weight loss, diabetes, stroke, cancer, amputation, lupus, sickle cell, and anxiety. Please email your suggestions, comments or questions to email@example.com. 2 / 2	<urn:uuid:224f82d1-abec-473a-a048-075c63e18443>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://insightnews.com/health/4789-what-is-swine-flu-pandemic-how-can-you-be-safe?format=pdf	2015-08-30T08:02:42Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00326-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	122,724,333	867	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999073	eng_Latn	0.999121	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2280, 3866 ]	[ 2.4375 ]	3	27
Let 's Talk About… A ketogenic diet is a very strict diet that is high in fat, but with a normal number of calories. Sometimes, seizures in children can be controlled if the child stays on this strict diet. How does a ketogenic diet control seizures? The ketogenic diet makes your child use fat instead of carbohydrates for energy. Usually, a person eats lots of carbohydrates and our bodies change the carbohydrates into glucose, a type of sugar. The glucose feeds the body's cells. There are very few carbohydrates in the ketogenic diet and a lot of fat. The body uses fat for energy instead of carbohydrates. The fat changes into ketones, and the ketones feed the body's cells. The high amount of ketones in the body can sometimes help control seizures in children. Who can try the ketogenic diet? Usually, the ketogenic diet is used after several medicines have been tried, and a child continues to have seizures. The ketogenic diet is usually recommended for children 3-8 years old. Sometimes, infants 12 months to 3 years old are treated with the ketogenic diet. If a ketogenic diet is used for a child less than three-years-old, the child has to be watched carefully to make sure he grows properly. Older children may try the diet, but the child's family has to be very motivated and willing to resist food temptations outside the home. Families have to promise to use the ketogenic diet for at least two months. What happens if I decide to try the ketogenic diet with my child? Your child will have a clinic appointment with the nurse practitioner and the dietitian to discuss the diet and to make sure that all the laboratory tests are normal. A dietitian will also provide you with Ketogenic diet sample menus to see if your child will accept this diet. For the initiation of the ketogenic diet, your child will be admitted to the hospital for about three days for close monitoring while the diet is started. While your child is in the hospital, your family will receive intense training about the diet from a dietitian. A team of a doctor, a dietitian and a nurse rigidly supervises the ketogenic diet. What is the diet like? The ketogenic diet is high in fat, normal in protein, and low in carbohydrates. All three of these must be present in your child's diet for it to control seizures. The dietitian determines the amount of calories your child will eat each day and is based on their age and activity level. To achieve a desired level of ketosis, the diet is calculated in terms of ratios such as 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1. In a 4:1 ratio, there is 4 times as much fat as there is protein and carbohydrate combined. The dietitian creates meal plans and recipes that complete the required fat, protein, and carbohydrate for each meal. Each recipe includes the exact weight of the ingredients in grams, which must be weighed on a gram scale. The diet alone does not contain enough vitamins or minerals. Special vitamin and mineral supplements are prescribed for each child while on the ketogenic diet. It is also important that the child drink adequate fluids while on the diet. If you feed your child through a tube, he can have a ketogenic diet using a special ketogenic formula. The dietitian will determine the type and amount of formula for your child. What happens in the hospital? Your child will be admitted to the hospital to start the diet. The diet is gradually introduced and increased to full strength over a 3-4 day period. In the hospital, blood sugars and urine ketones are checked regularly. Based on recent studies, a fasting period is not necessary to start the diet. A combination of meals and eggnog shakes are used for introduction of the diet. The ratio of the diet may be adjusted based on the child's tolerance and ketone levels. The dietitian will provide recipes and recommendations for the amount of fluids needed for the diet. If you feed your child through a tube, a special ketogenic formula will be given of a different strength each day. Your child's dietitian will help your family carry out the feeding schedule to be used at home. What education will my family receive? Your family will be taught how to measure foods, develop menus, and read labels to identify proper foods for the ketogenic diet. In addition, you will be taught how to test for ketone levels with ketone strips, and watch for signs of low blood sugar or excessive ketosis. Are there any side effects of the ketogenic diet? One of the most common side effects of the ketogenic diet is constipation. Eating high fiber vegetables allowed on the diet and drinking enough fluids will help to prevent this problem. Another less common side effect are kidney stones, this can also be prevented by making sure your child is drinking enough fluids. Certain anti-seizure medications can cause kidney stones, which will need to be monitored closely with the ketogenic diet. When will my child have blood tests? Before starting the diet, blood test may be needed to determine if the diet is safe for your child. Additional routine blood test will be needed after the diet is started, usually at two months, and then every three to six months after. The results of the blood test will determine the exact diet for your child and the amount of vitamins and minerals needed. What doctor and clinic visits are required? Your child will have a clinic visit one month after being discharged from the hospital, and then every 3-6 months thereafter. At each visit, your child will meet with the ketogenic team including the nurse practitioner and the dietitian. Your child's neurologist is available for consultation at these visits. Throughout the course of the diet, you will have regular email and telephone communication with the dietitian and the nurse practitioner. Are there other types of diets that can help control seizures? The Modified Atkins and Low Glycemic Index diets are also low in carbohydrate, but are less restrictive than the traditional ketogenic diet. Both of these diets still require regular follow-up visits and monitoring with the nurse practitioner and the dietitian.	<urn:uuid:aad323af-066e-4f37-92bc-a503873952cc>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	https://intermountainhealthcare.org/ext/Dcmnt?ncid=520488900	2015-08-30T07:58:24Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00334-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	863,436,805	1,228	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999183	eng_Latn	0.999207	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3874, 6111 ]	[ 2.984375 ]	2	38
Bernard Ashley. Lile Soldier. New York: Scholastic Press, 2002. 230 pp. $16.95 (cloth), ISBN 978-0-439-22424-6. Reviewed by Aili Tripp (Department of Political Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison) Published on H-AfrTeach (May, 2003) e "lile soldier" in this novel is Kaninda Bulumba, a child soldier who is rescued from a ﬁctitious country in Africa and taken to live in a foster home in London. ere he becomes embroiled in gang violence. e book contains graphically violent scenes that some may consider too brutal for young readers. e following selection, for example, seems unduly violent. "Kaninda saw his father and mother in their hot, bloodwet heap on the ﬂoor, he saw Giy where her lile body had slid down the wall. He smelled the burning ﬂesh of the Kibu teachers at his school" (p. viii). ere are ﬁghting scenes in which Kaninda kills a man (pp. 105-106); in which a boatman's head is macheted (p. 223); and a scene in which Kaninda is trained to execute a man (pp. viii-ix). ritory. Children have not enlisted in the ﬁghting to exact ethnic revenge, but have been victims of the designs of more powerful adult politicians, generals, and warlords. e gang warfare in London pales in comparison to children ﬁghting in wars under such conditions in countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo, where since 1998 roughly 3.3 million people have died as a result of conﬂict. At the same time, Lile Soldier does not begin to describe the ways in which children have, in reality, been traumatized by war: the children in Sierra Leone who were drugged and forced to amputate limbs of people in their own communities, even their own families; the children in northern Uganda who have their ears and ﬁngers cut oﬀif they refuse to ﬁght; and the children in Angola who have been used to clear landmines. e book draws a parallel between ethnic ﬁghting in Africa and the warfare between London gangs to expose the futility of conﬂict. Kaninda is motivated by ethnic hatred and the desire to avenge the deaths of his parents and sister. is oversimpliﬁes the motivations of child soldiers in Africa. Over 100,000 children in recent years have been kidnapped and forcibly conscripted into conﬂicts in Angola, Congo, Somalia, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Congo Brazzaville. ey make up over half of the ﬁghting forces in these countries. As children, they are considered cheap, expendable, and easily coerced into mindless obedience. e author does not suﬃciently account for the fact that the child ﬁghters have largely been pawns, sent as fodder to the frontlines in wars over diamonds, gold, oil, and ter- Lile Soldier is not reader friendly. Much of the conversation is in the street slang of London, which some readers will ﬁnd challenging. Comments in quote marks are rarely aributed, making it diﬃcult to follow the conversation. e author's own voice oen continues in a modiﬁed London slang. ese problems are compounded by poor grammatical sentence structures and incomplete sentences, which provide lile respite for the reader (e.g., "Handy as a pair of boxing gloves was Mal," p. 14). Even the Swahili terms are not translated (e.g., posho, matoke, machafuko). Some parents and educators may object to the frequent use of swear words. In addition, characters are not suﬃciently developed. Sometimes basic information about the characters, such as their age, is revealed only at the end of the book aer the reader has already formed an erroneous mental picture of the character. e story unfolds slowly, making it diﬃcult to sustain the reader's interest. I could not get my 14-year old daughter to read beyond page 75, even though she is an avid reader of a wide range of literature. Although parts of the book are set in the ﬁctitious country, Lasai, Lile Soldier was inspired by images of Congolese child soldiers. is gives the author license to mix and match the improbable. e children speak English, yet one child from Lasai has a French name. e combination of graphicaly violent subject material, distorted contextualization of child soldiers in Africa, and challenges posed by the style of writing make it diﬃcult to recommend Lile Soldier. Not recommended. If there is additional discussion of this review, you may access it through the list discussion logs at: hp://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl. Citation: Aili Tripp. Review of Ashley, Bernard, Lile Soldier. H-AfrTeach, H-Net Reviews. May, 2003. URL: hp://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=7581 Copyright © 2003 by H-Net, all rights reserved. H-Net permits the redistribution and reprinting of this work for nonproﬁt, educational purposes, with full and accurate aribution to the author, web location, date of publication, originating list, and H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online. For any other proposed use, contact the Reviews editorial staﬀat email@example.com.	<urn:uuid:a306551e-49a6-4b8a-973f-f1b950d796ca>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=7581	2015-08-30T08:11:49Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00336-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	488,891,045	1,291	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.964257	eng_Latn	0.996651	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4316, 4899 ]	[ 2.09375 ]	1	20
BATS Bats in the United States are regarded for the most part as beneficial animals; they assist in maintaining the balance of nature by eating enormous quantities of insects. The majority of the approximately 30 bat species recorded from Texas feed principally on insects. Vampire bats are extremely rare in the United States. The prevalence of rabies in insectivorous bats and the occurrence of bat-associated human deaths have created concern regarding the public health significance of bats. On the basis of frequency of submission to the Texas Department of State Health Services for rabies testing, the life history of two important bat species will be discussed. LIFE HISTORY Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) are colonial and extremely abundant over much of Texas during warmer months, harboring in caves and in and around buildings. These bats normally migrate in September and October, spending the winter in Mexico or farther south. Young are born singly during the later part of June and are hung in masses in nursery caves, concentrations of which are found in the Edwards Plateau region of Central Texas. In addition to caves, this species uses a wide range of manmade roosting sites. Colonies of several thousand may frequent the following places: tile roofs; air spaces between inner and outer walls; areas beneath such attachments as signs, gutters and drain pipes; dams; and bridges. These bats leave their daytime retreats at dusk and feed until dawn. Red bats (Lasiurus borealis) are solitary, treeinhabiting species, which are common throughout Texas during the summer months. Although seldom found in numbers, this bat frequently comes to human attention due to its striking rust color and to the relatively exposed nature of its daytime resting stations in such trees as the pecan. Also, since the females carry their two to four young until they are able to fend for themselves, the load frequently becomes too much and they fall to the ground to be picked up by curious pets or children. CONTROL Wholesale destruction of bats is not advocated. However, it should be kept in mind that these animals are a major part of our wildlife rabies problem. Bats, by law, are defined as high-risk animals for rabies as are skunks, foxes, coyotes, and raccoons. Therefore, children should be warned against touching or playing with them. When a bat bites or has direct contact with a person or a pet, an attempt should be made to capture the bat for rabies testing. The bite victim should consult a physician or, for pets, a veterinarian. Bat bites are not always visible. Therefore, in situations in which a bat is physically present and there is a possibility of an unapparent exposure (for example, a person awakens to find a bat in the room with him/her or a bat is found near an infant or toddler), the bat should be captured and submitted to a rabies laboratory for testing. If rabies cannot be ruled out by laboratory testing, people with a reasonable probability of an exposure may be recommended for rabies postexposure treatment or, for domestic animals, a requirement for euthanasia or a booster vaccination(s) and quarantine. The fact that bat colonies exist close to human dwellings represents a potentially dangerous situation. Also, the odors, unsightly droppings, and ectoparasites make bats objectionable. The final answer to this problem is usually structural modification of buildings to prevent bat entry. Bat-proofing a building may only require closing a few small entrances to roosts after the bats have left on their nightly feeding flights or when they are absent during winter months. Texas Department of State Health Services Zoonosis Control	<urn:uuid:de50c282-d714-4a1e-99ee-b82e40f87191>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	https://www.dshs.state.tx.us/IDCU/health/zoonosis/education/pamphlets/BatsFlier.doc	2015-08-30T07:53:00Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00332-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	898,841,368	763	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998427	eng_Latn	0.998427	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3728 ]	[ 3.21875 ]	1	10
Pond Predator Control Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff Predators arrive at your pond by many routes: On the land: Raccoons, opossums, muskrats, beavers, otters, foxes, or even bears may eat your fish. Though deer will not eat your fish, they might take a break from your garden to graze on your pond plants. Through the air: Most wild birds will leave your fish alone, but there are two species that must be dealt with if they are common in your area, Herons and Kingfishers. Herons are aggressive fishing machines. Unchecked, they can wipe out a pond of Koi in a couple of hours. The much smaller, but well-named Kingfisher will swoop in from a nearby tree or perch and spear your fish with his long sharp beak. Everyone who loses valuable fish comes to the same conclusion... it's time to pay more attention to predator control. Here's what to do to prevent bad things from happening in your pond. Get to know your local predators Wherever you live, there are probably more potential predators about than you think. If you live in a suburban neighborhood, you might be surprised to discover your storm drain system is also a superhighway for woodland wildlife like foxes and raccoons. And due to changes in climate and the availability of habitat, more animals are showing up in backyards like yours all the time. The range of coyotes, bobcats and other large wild cats, for example, is increasing, with many being sighted in urban areas. You can learn a great deal about local predators by contacting your municipal animal control, or your county or state fish and game departments. If you are lucky to have a pond association in your area, members can be a valuable resource. All can advise you on the types of wildlife to watch for, and recommend safe techniques for protecting you and your property. Minimize the opportunity for plunder Small ponds with shallow areas make fish easy prey. On the other hand, most predators will not venture into ponds where fish have room to escape or hide, making their hunt difficult, or from which their own exit may be awkward. If you are about to build an additional pond, or expand the one you have, we recommend that you build it as large and deep as possible, and with steep sides. If you plan to have Koi, a depth of three to four feet is recommended. Also, because you can always elevate your plants with rocks, make plant shelves 12" to 16" deep so they won't be used as access points by predators. Always locate your pond where you can observe it from a window, and have a light ready to illuminate it at the flip of a switch. Deter the predators that pose the greatest threat We hope you will agree that control of predators is preferable to their eradication. Fortunately, you have many effective options: Netting - Covering your pond with netting, particularly at night, when predators are most active, is an excellent way to control most predators. Netting can also be used seasonally, for example, during spring and fall when animals are most active. In the water: If you have a creek or natural body of water nearby, amphibians can find Alarms - Animal Away, a small electronic device, detects animals moving into its protected area, then emits a high Pond Predator Control - Page 1 of 2 Unauthorized use of any images, thumbnails, illustrations, descriptions, article content, or registered trademarks of Foster & Smith, Inc. is strictly prohibited under copyright law. Site content, including photography, descriptions, pricing, promotions, and availability are subject to change without notice. These restrictions are necessary in order to protect not only our copyrighted intellectual property, but also the health of pets, since articles or images that are altered or edited after download could result in misinformation that may harm companion animals, aquatic life, or native species. their way into your pond. They commonly migrate through wet grass or standing water during heavy spring rains. Large bullfrogs, for example, will eat small fish. Snapping turtles will eat anything, even your finger, if you fail to take care. pitched sound and flashing lights to send them fleeing. For nighttime control, you can install motion sensors to trigger your exterior or pond lighting system. Fencing - Children are always curious about ponds. To prevent accidental injury and vandalism, we recommend you talk to your neighbors when installing a pond. Ask them to make sure their children do not enter your yard unsupervised. Keep your yard gate locked, and place a small caution sign on it. If you expect frequent visits from predators, you may need electric fencing immediately surrounding your pond. Electric fencing is easy to install and will deter most non-flying predators. Decoys - Some predators like herons are territorial and will not intrude on an area they perceive as already dominated by one of their kind. Others simply won't risk attack from a natural rival like a snake or owl. These are all available as decoys and work very well. For optimum effect, they need to be moved about frequently so that predators don't catch on. Alternative food and water - Remote placement of feeders and waterers at the opposite side of your property can draw predators away from your pond. Repellents - Spray repellents use smell and taste to ward off predators like deer, squirrels, and raccoons. They are very versatile because they can be applied wherever you desire. For best results, they should be renewed at intervals or after rain. Hiding places - Predators cannot eat your fish if they cannot catch them. Make sure your pond provides plenty of floating vegetation for your fish to hide under, and structure to dive below. Sections of wide diameter black PVC tubing can be placed inconspicuously on the bottom of your pond. These have the added advantage of providing good habitat for your fish. If you encounter an agile predator like an otter, consider a fish refuge, which is a hard mesh cage that allows fish in but keeps predators out. Don't wait to experience a loss. Predator proof your pond today.	<urn:uuid:7ded3686-d8d2-4e65-9d7b-ee5de3df08c3>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.drsfostersmith.com/pic/article_pdf.cfm?aid=418	2015-08-30T08:32:48Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00341-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	407,028,789	1,261	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998406	eng_Latn	0.998536	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3871, 6103 ]	[ 3.078125 ]	3	36
Big Wheels for Preschoolers Let's Look at Some Trucks! Big Rig by Bingham, Caroline J 629.224 BIN Examines different kinds of trucks and other massive machines, depicting how they work and what they do. Five Trucks by Floca, Brian JEASY Five different trucks do five different jobs to get an airplane ready for takeoff. <div class="clear"></div> Giant Dump Trucks by Eick, Jean and Sellner, Michael J 629.225 EIC Presents facts about dump trucks, their working parts, what they are used for, and why they are important. Here Comes the Recycling Truck by Seltzer, Meyer J 363.728 SE Follows Elisa, the driver of a recycling truck, as she picks up papers, glass, and metals and takes them to the recycling center where they are prepared for recycling. Isaac the Ice Cream Truck by Santoro, Scott JEASY Isaac the Ice Cream Truck doesn't feel as important as all the other trucks, but one day he has cooling ice cream for some hot and tired firemen who have put out a building fire. Peter's Trucks by Smith, Cat Bowman and Wolf, Sallie JEASY A boy sees many different types of trucks and learns what each one carries. The Little Black Truck by Gray, Libba Moore and Sayles, Elizabeth JEASY After a hard-working little black truck breaks down and is towed away, it is repaired and given a second life. Trashy Town by Clemesha, David and Yaccarino, Dan and Zimmerman, Andrea Griffing JEASY Little by little, can by can, Mr. Gillie, the trash man, cleans up his town. <div class="clear"></div> Truck by Crews, Donald JEASY Follows the journey of a truck from loading to unloading. Truck Song by Barton, Byron and Siebert, Diane JEASY Rhymed text and illustrations describe the journey of a transcontinental truck. Truck Stop by Dobkin, Bonnie and Dunnington, Tom JEASY (READER) Describes different kinds of trucks in verse using a beginning reader format. <div class="clear"></div> Truck Talk: Rhymes on Wheels by Katz, Bobbi J 811.54 KAT A collection of poems in which various kinds of trucks, including a garbage truck, a tow truck, a cement mixer, and a fire truck, describe what they do. Truck Trouble by Royston, Angela J 629.284 ROY Describes a truck driver's rig and some of the problems he encounters as he picks up and delivers his cargo. Trucks, Trucks, Trucks by Sis, Peter JEASY As a little boy cleans up his room, he gives one word descriptions of the work his various toy trucks do, such as hauling, plowing, and loading. What Are They Building? At the Construction Site by Budd, David M. and Sirimarco, Elizabeth J 690 SIR Briefly describes what goes on at a construction site and some of the equipment used there. Building a Road by Gower, Teri and Pluckrose, Henry Arthur J 625.7 PLU Photographs, drawings, and brief text describe the machines and process that are involved in building a road. Bulldozers by Brady, Peter J 629.225 BRA Introduces bulldozers by describing their parts, the function of each part, the work bulldozers do, and how they work with other machines. Includes a recipe for "dirt." Cherry Pickers by Rogers, Hal J 629.225 ROG Describes the parts of a cherry picker, how it operates, and the work it does. <div class="clear"></div> Construction Zone by Hoban, Tana J 624 HOB Photographs illustrate the kinds of equipment and earthmovers found at construction sites. Cranes by Rogers, Hal J 621.873 ROG Describes the parts of a crane, how it works, and the work it does at a construction site. Dig a Tunnel by Hunter, Ryan Ann and Miller, Edward J 624.193 HUN Simply describes a variety of tunnels, how they are built and how they are used. Diggers and Other Construction Machines by Richards, Jon and Tegg, Simon and Watton, Ross J 624.152 RIC Text and cross-section illustrations present the design and uses of various digging and excavating machines, including the backhoe loader, walking drag-line excavator, and mining shovel. Earthmovers by Rogers, Hal J 624.152 ROG Describes the parts of a large earthmover, how they operate, and the work they do. <div class="clear"></div> Graders by Rogers, Hal J 624.152 ROG Describes the parts of a grader, how it works, and the work it does at a construction site. <div class="clear"></div> Machines at Work by Barton, Byron JEASY During a busy day at the construction site, the workers use a variety of machines to knock down a building and begin constructing a new one. Mike Mulligan and His Steam Shovel by Burton, Virginia Lee JEASY When Mike Mulligan and his steam shovel, Mary Ann, lose their jobs to the gasoline, electric, and diesel motor shovels, they go to a little country town where they find that one new job leads to another. New Road! by Gibbons, Gail J 625.7 G Describes the planning and construction of a new road. I Like Tractors! On the Farm by Gower, Teri and Pluckrose, Henry Arthur J 631.3 PLU Photographs and simple text present some of the different machines used on farms, including tractors, cultivators, balers, and combine harvesters. Tractor by Llewellen, Claire J 631.37 LLE Color photographs of such farm equipment as tractors, balers, and harvesters are shown in use. Each page contains definitions of some of the terms used in describing the machine's functions. Tractors by Brady, Peter J 631.372 BRA In brief text, describes the many ways that farmers use tractors in the growing of crops. Are We There Yet? On the Move by Gower, Teri and Pluckrose, Henry Arthur J 629.04 PLU Illustrates a variety of ways people move from one place to another, from bicycles to hovercrafts. School Bus by Crews, Donald JEASY Follows the progress of school buses as they take children to school and bring them home again. Rescue Vehicles Ambulances by Rogers, Hal J 629.222 ROG Describes the parts of an ambulance, how it operates, and the work it does. <div class="clear"></div> Fire Engines by Budd, E. S. J 628.925 BUD A simple description of fire engines, what they do, and how they work. <div class="clear"></div> Fire! Fire! by Gibbons, Gail J 628.925 G Explains how fire fighters fight fires in the city, in the country, in the forest, and on the waterfront. Katy and the Big Snow by Burton, Virginia Lee JEASY Katy spends her summers as a bulldozer, but when a winter blizzard stops everyone and everything in a small town, Katy the snowplow comes to the rescue. Tow Trucks by Rogers, Hal J 629.225 ROG Describes the parts of a tow truck, how to operate them, and the work they do. More Interesting "Big Wheels" Grandes Maquinas by Pienkowski, Jan JR SP 629.224 PIE Spanish language pop-up book. Making Tracks by Parker, Steve J 629.049 PAR Describes how different kinds of vehicles and their wheels have developed throughout history, from chariots to trucks to the Bullet Train. Mama Zooms by Cowen-Fletcher, Jane JEASY COW A boy's wonderful mama takes him zooming everywhere with her, because her wheelchair is a zooming machine. Monster Machines by Bingham, Caroline J 621.8 BIN Photographs and text examine the parts and functions of such large machines as trucks, jets, supertankers, tractors, bulldozers, and fire engines. Wheels Around by Rotner, Shelley J 621.811 ROT Mostly color photographs of wheels functioning in a variety of ways (from strollers, wheelchairs and wagons to school buses, tractor trailers, and street sweepers). - 6 -	<urn:uuid:c5aa285a-03f3-4568-bb52-73a0fbf11382>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.santacruzpl.org/kids/books/lists/pdf/1/	2015-08-30T07:54:00Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00339-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	675,520,557	1,901	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995639	eng_Latn	0.996121	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1408, 2869, 4449, 5911, 7251, 7424 ]	[ 4.28125 ]	2	16
Educator's Guide Educational extensions for the DecemberJanuary 2010 issue of Ranger Rick® magazine Community Photo Contest Check out the photo contest winners in "Your Best Shots" (page 4). Discuss what makes each of these photos effective. Then organize a nature photo contest for your group or class, your school, or your whole community. Come up with a theme, such as "Nature in Our Neighborhood." Invite participants to explore their surroundings with a camera and submit their best photos. Then post the photos (anonymously) and let everyone vote for their favorites. The Word on Walruses Read about walruses in "Two-Ton Tuskies" (pages 6-11) to find out why these goofy-looking animals are well equipped to survive in an extreme habitat. Then ask students to draw a walrus, label its major features (such as blubber, flippers, whiskers, and tusks), and add a sentence or two about each feature that describes how this adaptation helps the walrus survive in its habitat. That's a Laugh "The Buzz" (page 13) explains how scientists are discovering that apes—and perhaps other animals, too—can laugh. Discuss this finding with students. What makes students laugh? What does laughter bring to their lives? Does the fact that other animals laugh change the way we humans might think about them? How might it change the way students interact with their pets at home? Sponge Play After reading "Meet the Sponges" (pages 18-25), see how much information students "absorbed" by staging a play about the lives of these under-appreciated animals. Have students cut up and decorate kitchen sponges to make stick puppets. Then invite students to create a script that highlights the main ideas about sponges that they learned from the Ranger Rick story. Pulling for Pandas The panda pop-quiz in "Panda-Mania" (pages 3031) explains that, while pandas are still rare, their numbers seem to be rebounding. Have a few students visit the library or search online to find out more about the panda comeback, and then invite them to report their findings to the rest of the group. Other students could research and report on additional aspects of panda biology, using the quiz answers as a starting point. Toucan Poem Who can write a toucan poem? You can! Read "Toucans" (pages 34-39). Then have students use the bird's fun-to-say name and facts about its fantastic bill to write an amusing but informative poem about toucans. Explore After Dark Use the instructions in "Winter Lights" (page 44) to make snow and ice lanterns to light up a dark winter night. Then plan an after-dark walk to experience the sights, sounds, and feelings of this season. Place your lanterns along the path you will travel, and pause along the way to enjoy the frosty air, the stars in the night sky, the wind in the trees, and any night-time animal sounds you might hear. © 2009 National Wildlife Federation. Permission granted for non-commercial educational uses only. All other rights reserved. TOUCAN TRUTHS Read "Toucans" on pages 34-39 in the December/January 2010 issue of Ranger Rick. Then read the statements below. They're all wrong! Using what you learned in Ranger Rick, rewrite each sentence to tell the real story about toucans. 1) A toucan's big bill is so heavy that the bird cannot fly. 2) A toucan uses the hooked tip and jagged edges of its bill for killing and eating large animals. 3) The toucan's bill has a built-in heater to keep the bird warm in cold weather. 4) Scientists have proven that toucans recognize each other by their bills and send messages by tapping their bills on tree branches. 5) Toucans aren't very coordinated. They drop anything they try to pick up in their bills. 6) With their massive bills, toucans have no trouble hollowing out trees for their nests. 7) All toucans are black birds with big orange-and-white bills. 8) You can see toucans all around the world. WINTER SURVIVAL After you read "Wild Winter Campout" (pages 40-43 in the December/January 2010 issue of Ranger Rick), answer the questions below. The kids in the story had fun camping out in the winter, even in the cold and snow. To stay comfortable, they had to meet some basic survival needs. How did they get each of the following things? Wild animals that stay active in winter need these same things to survive—but they can’t come inside to central heat and a well-stocked refrigerator! Give some examples of how animals such as birds, deer, and squirrels meet their needs in winter. Shelter: Shelter: Warmth: Warmth: Food and water: Food and water:	<urn:uuid:0283cd8e-592d-46f2-92b1-f27bb70a2d11>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Kids/Ranger%20Rick/Educators/10_DecJan_RREG.ashx	2015-08-30T07:52:24Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00347-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	170,187,012	1,036	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998367	eng_Latn	0.998631	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2977, 3898, 4563 ]	[ 4.28125 ]	2	26
Woodchurch High School Summer Learning Pack to support and prepare you for Year 8 Introduction This pack contains tasks which will consolidate your Year 7 learning and pre-learning tasks to help you to get a head-start in your Year 8 subjects over the summer break. Completing these tasks will help you to feel more prepared and therefore confident in September. We want you to enjoy the summer but also not forget all the hard work you have completed in Year 7. You should pass any completed work to your new subject teachers in the first week back. Your reward will be feeling better and stronger in lessons. Good luck! Contents English What key learning do I need to revise? 1. Use the Google Site to revise your work on Oliver Twist. Here is a link: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/english/year-7/oliver-twist a. Child Labour b. The Poor Law Amendment Act c. Charles Dickens' beliefs and motives 2. Industrialization (recalling the work you did on William Blake will also help here) 3. The format / layout for a speech and formal letter 4. Persuasive devices and their effects (SPEARFACTOR) 5. The definitions and spellings of the following words: Identity, society, circumstance, resilience, acceptance, empathy, tolerance, respect, loyalty, narrator, narrative perspective, cruelty, exploitation, significant, emphasise, convey. How can I get a head-start? 1. To prepare you for your study of tension in the novel, The Woman in Black by Susan Hill, watch the trailer below. The Director has intentionally tried to scare the audience to make them want to see the film. How has he done this? You may want to think about: a. The sounds and music b. The weather c. The action d. The pace (slow or fast) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VnY0fEV30Wk 2. To prepare for your study of William Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing, create a revision poster on Shakespeare's Life and Times. Include details of Elizabethan life and the status of men and women in this period (patriarchy). Research how differently they were treated based on their age, wealth and gender. 3. To prepare you for studying Blood Brothers by Willy Russell, use the following newspaper article and revision website to make notes on Life in Britain, and specifically Liverpool, in the 1980s. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/apr/19/1980s-cultural-history http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/english_literature/dramabloodbrothe rs/0drama_bloodbrothers_contrev2.shtml We want to remind you that there are pre-recorded video lessons on the English Site for the work you have missed on 'Romeo and Juliet' and Poetry from your Year 7 Anthology. Maths What key learning do I need to revise? We want to say a huge well done to all of you who have been engaging so well with the work on MathsWatch over the past couple of months. To check that everyone is ready to move on to year 8, we will be assessing you on the below during the first couple of weeks back, so please treat the next few weeks as a great chance to revise properly for this assessment. Number Properties - Primes, Multiples and Factors: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/z6j2tfr - Power and Roots: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/ztqmhyc Substitution - Substitution: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zqpfcj6/revision/2 - Linear Graphs: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zdbc87h/articles/zkpj2nb 2D Shapes - Measures: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zthsgk7/revision/1 - Symmetry: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zsktyrd/revision/1 - Transformations: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zkw2pv4/revision/1 - Angles and Triangles: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zrck7ty/revision/1 - Circles: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zc9wxnb/revision/1 - 2D Shapes: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zj76fg8/revision/1 3D Shapes - Area: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z2mtyrd/revision/1 - Perimeter: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zsf39j6/revision/1 - Volume: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z26nb9q/revision/1 - 3D Shapes: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zj76fg8/revision/1 Equations - Introduction to Equation: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zbybkqt/revision/1 How can I get a head-start? https://sites.google.com/view/maths-department-woodchurchh/year-8 If you consult the Maths Department Subject Site for year 8 you will see the following: - Learning Objectives which you will study next year - Exit Passes for each Learning Objective. You will complete these in class, but they are available for you online so that you can revise for your termly assessments. Use the summer to get ahead by having a go at these before you look at them in class. Don't forget, you have also still got access to Hegarty Maths, and if you search for any of the key words on the Videos screen you will be able to find the relevant video. Science What key learning do I need to revise? 1. From your biology work on cells, draw poster of an animal and a plant cell including: a. Cell structure- the different sub-cellular structures and what their functions are. b. Diffusion- how particles move by diffusion. 2. From your chemistry work on particle model, produce a flash card defining each of these key concepts: a. Particle model- the structure of particles in solids, liquids and gases. b. Elements and compounds- what is meant by each term and the difference between each. 3. From your physics work on energy, draw a mind map of each energy store with examples of each one: a. Energy stores- the different types of energy store. b. Heating and cooling- what is meant by temperature and what is the thermal energy store. The definitions and spellings of the following words: Cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, cytoplasm, vacuole, nucleus, chloroplast, particle, element, compound, kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, thermal, elastic potential, temperature. How can I get a head-start? 1. To prepare for the unit of work on From cells to organ systems you should research the structure of: a. The digestive system. b. The circulatory system. c. The breathing system. d. The skeleton and muscles. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z9hyvcw/revision/1 2. To prepare for the unit of work on Chemical change you should research: a. That chemical reactions create new substances. b. How atoms are rearranged in a chemical reaction. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zypsgk7/articles/zwxhk2p 3. To prepare for the unit of work on Heating and cooling you should research: a. Thermal conduction. b. Heating and cooling. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z99jq6f/revision/1 PLCs and resources for all of these topics can be found on the Science Site (Woodchurch login access only) https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/science-new/year-8 What key learning do I need to know? 1. How do you draw a face? 2. What is proportion within portraits? 3. How do you draw facial features? 4. What is tonal shading? 5. Who is Jean- Michel Basquiat? 6. How can you develop your portrait in the style of Jean- Michel Basquiat? 7. What is composition? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JX02QQXfb_o How can I get a head-start? 1. How do you draw a face?What are the proportions? Create a poster that identifies the steps. 2. How can you use different tutorials on 'YouTube' to draw different features individually? For e.g the eyes,the nose,mouth etc. https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=how+to+draw+an+eye+step+by+step+eas y+drawing+tutorials https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=ho w +to+d raw+a+n o s e+s t ep +b y +s t ep +eas y+drawing+tutorials https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=how+to+draw+a+mouth+step+by+step+e asy+drawing+tutorials 3. What is tonal shading and why is it so important on facial expressions? 4. Research Jean- Michel Basquiat ? What was he inspired by? How can you develop your figure drawings in the style of the artist? What key words would you use to describe the work of Basquiat? Research the types of art he produced and worked on. Engineering What key learning do I need to revise? - What is CAD (computer aided design)? - How can CAD be used to design engineered products? - How to use CAD SketchUp. How can I get a head-start? In year 8 you will be manufacturing a Towers of Hanoi game. This game had to be designed and CAD was used to do that. Being able to use CAD is a necessity for engineers of today. To get a head start and a better understanding of the entire process of design and manufacture, complete the SketchUp tutorials below: Tutorial 1 https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/engineering-ecad/sketchup-tutorials/tutorial-1 Tutorial 2 https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/engineering-ecad/sketchup-tutorials/tutorial-2 Tutorial 3 https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/engineering-ecad/sketchup-tutorials/tutorial-3 Tutorial 4 https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/engineering-ecad/sketchup-tutorials/tutorial-4 Food Technology What key learning do I need to revise? Watch the video on YouTube from The British Nutrition Foundation – Making better Choices with the Eatwell Guide https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1tJYcNt6Bpk Thinking about your own diet, do you follow the principles of the Eatwell Guide? What small changes could you make to improve the nutrition of your diet? How can I get a head-start? During Year 8 we will investigate and study the question 'is fast food bad food?' To prepare you for your study, revisit any recipes you have made in year 7 and make them again at home. All the recipes can be found on: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/foodtechnologyecad/ks-3 This will develop your practical skills. Remember that food hygiene is an integral element of cooking - so remember to do your own dishes and avoid using the dishwasher. What else can I do: Take part in the Woodchurch Summer Virtual Cooking Challenge. This has been emailed out to you and can also be found here: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/foodtechnologyecad/home/getcooking-challenge This is a 6 week cooking challenge with a recipe challenge every week. Send the photographs of the dishes you make to: email@example.com Drama Which topic will we study first? In September, the first thing you will study in your Drama lessons will be a Learning Programme called Darkwood Manor! It's all about a haunted mansion, located near to the Yorkshire Moors. What will we be doing? We will consider the horror stories from the manor house and work together, in small groups, to bring our own performances about what really happened there to life. How can I get a head-start? You can complete the tasks below to help you to get a head start in Year 8 Drama: 1. Draw and label an image of what you think Darkwood Manor looks like. 2. Research the Theatre Practitioner, Antonin Artaud and create a leaflet about him. You can find information about Artaud on our subject site! Use the following headings in your leaflet: a. Facts about Antonin Artaud b. Antonin Artaud's Life c. Features of Artaud's Theatre 3. Learn the definitions and spellings of the following skills 4. Create flashcards to help you to revisit these skills regularly throughout the summer. 5. Write your own horror story with the title – 'A Visit to Darkwood Manor.' Include the following information: a. What does the house look like? b. What can you see, hear, smell, feel and taste when you visit the house? c. How did it become haunted? d. Why are you visiting the house? \| Mime \| Physical Theatre \| \|---\|---\| \| Soundscape \| Volume \| \| Sequencing \| Stylistic Features \| \| Plot \| Linear \| e. What happens on your visit? Geography What key learning can I revise?How can I get a head-start? \| Week \| Task \| \|---\|---\| \| 1 \| Learn the 7 continents and 5 oceans of the world \| \| 2 \| Find out the countries that make- up Great Britain, United Kingdom and British Isles. Try to remember them \| \| 3 \| Our Wirral Peninsula- draw a basic outline shape of the Wirral and mark on your map any important places to you- you may have visited, have family/friend there etc. \| \| 4 \| Create a map of your street and neighbourhood \| \| 5 \| Learn compass directions \| \| 6 \| Study and practise map skills such as: measuring distance, scale, relief and contours, grid references and map symbols \| Explore your Geography Year 8 Site here using this link: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/geographywoodchurch/year-8 Use BBC Bitesize to read through the information, create your own revision notes and do the Bitesize tests on: Biomes - Learn the names of the world major biomes and be able to give characteristics https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zh2p34j/revision/2 Food chains and webs- Learn the definitions of key terms: food chain, food web, producer, consumer https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zq4wjxs/revision/1 Tropical Rainforests- Be able to locate the tropical rainforest and describe the different layers https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zpmnb9q/revision/1 History What key learning do I need to revise? 1. The Battle of Hastings - why did William win? 2. How England changed after Hastings - did the Normans bring a truckload of trouble? 3. The power of the Medieval Church - were Medieval Kings as powerful as they wanted to be? 4. Medieval medicine - which civilisation had the most advanced healthcare? How can I get a head-start? 1. Use this link to learn about everyday life under The Tudors, making notes on: * Jobs * Lives of the rich * Lives of the poor * Life in towns and cities 2. To prepare you for your study of The Stuarts next year you should complete the tasks on the Gunpowder Plot and Witches in this document. 3. Use the link below to research about the English Civil War, taking notes on: * Who was James I? * English Civil War (why did it happen? Who won?) * Oliver Cromwell (who was he? Was he popular?) * Fire of London (1668) https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zky82hv/revision/1 * All summer work for Computing & Business can be found on the Computing & Business website. * Simply log into the Computing & Business section and the work is at the top of the homepage. * We have placed your work into year group folders based on the year group you will be in next year. How can I get a head-start? Complete the worksheet on control and flowcharts. Go onto https://scratch.mit.edu/ and look at the different games and animations that have been programmed and look to program one yourself French What key learning do I need to revise? 1. The key sound / spelling patterns in French. For some useful tips, watch the two video clips on BBC Bitesize: 'Pronouncing words in French' and 'Understanding silent letters in French https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/subjects/zgdqxnb 2. Use the google site to revise the topic 'C'est Perso' from Year 7 using the MFL google site: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/mfl/french/unit-1-cest-perso 3. The present tense of ER verbs https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/mfl/french/the-present-tense 4. The present tense of the key irregular verbs: avoir and être https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zjx947h/articles/z6bs2sg 5. The interrogatives (the 'question words') https://quizlet.com/gb/255030206/gcse-french-asking-questions-flash-cards/ 6. Opinion phrases in French, connectives and adjectives. https://quizlet.com/gb/177338882/school-opinions-flash-cards/ How can I get a head-start? To prepare to learn about new technology: 1. Use the google site to revise the first topic 'T'es branché?' from Year 8 using the MFL google site: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/mfl/french/unit-1-tesbranch%C3%A9 2. Revise the key vocabulary from the unit using Quizlet. https://quizlet.com/gb/216242970/y8-french-on-the-internet-flash-cards/ 3. Revise the key irregular verb 'faire' using BBC Bitesize. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zjx947h/articles/zvw4f4j 4. Revise how to talk about your hobbies in French. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zjcbrj6/articles/zpjq4xs Spanish What key learning do I need to revise? 1. The key sound / spelling patterns in Spanish. It may be helpful to watch the BBC Bitesize clip to get some tips: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zhy27nb/articles/zk78382 2. Use the google site to revise the topic 'Vamos' from Year 7 using the MFL google site: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/mfl/spanish/unit-1-vamos 3. The present tense in Spanish: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/mfl/spanish/the-present 4. The present tense key irregular verbs: tener and ser https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zfgt6v4/art ic les/zk mw gw x 5. The interrogatives (the 'question words') https://quizlet.com/gb/575511329/common-questions-flash-cards/ 6. Opinion phrases in Spanish, connectives and adjectives. https://quizlet.com/gb/575535764/opinions-f las h-c ards https://quizlet.com/gb/575490720/connectives-flash / -c ard s/ How can I get a head-start? To prepare to learn how to talk about free-time activities and how to describe your local area: 1. Use the google site to revise the first topic 'Mi Pueblo' from Year 8 using the MFL google site: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/mfl/spanish/unit-1-mi-pueblo 2. Learn the vocabulary to talk about sports (English subtitles can be added using the tools button and Spanish subtitles are added when the interviews are repeated) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HKfV9u6ehE 3. Learn the phrases for other pastimes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXjMDCKS8d0 4. Watch this clip and note down the places mentioned in Spanish https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lvMh0OrcttM 5. Watch this clip and, using the Spanish and English subtitles, note down the rooms and furniture in Spanish and English: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qs3kUMqRvKY Religious Studies What key learning do I need to revise? Log on to our subject site: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/rswoodchurch/year-7/christianity * Task 1: Listen to each of the asynchronous (recorded) lessons on Christianity. Whilst watching/listening to each lesson, create concept maps, flashcards or condensed notes for each of the sub-topics. * Task 2: Use your revision resources to create a detailed fact-file on Christianity How can I get a head-start? Log on to our subject site: https://sites.google.com/woodchurchhigh.com/rswoodchurch/year-8/faith-in-action * Task 1: Listen to the asynchronous (recorded) lessons 1,2 and 3 * Task 2: Whilst watching/listening to each lesson, create concept maps, flashcards or condensed notes for each of the sub-topics. PSHCE What key learning do I need to revise? 1. What is PSCHE and WHY is it important? 2. Describe the components of a healthy relationship. 3. What is cyberbullying? Create a poster which shows this. 4. What is a digital footprint? 5. Learn the spellings and definitions of the following words: a) Personal b) Social c) Economic d) Resilient e) Confident f) Legal g) Illegal How can I get a head-start? Go to the PSHCE Site: PSHCE Learning Site - click on the different buttons for information on all of your new and exciting topics. 1. This year we will look at Public Health in Wirral. * Task 1: Watch the clip: https://youtu.be/kEC2W41ZtlE?list=PLudLLrrLGg8cPmRMi6MYrOpy7fDkJEvW1 * What is a Public Health Report? * What is an accidental death? * How can we improve the health of people living in Wirral? * Create a revision poster on how people living in Wirral can improve their health. 2. We will also look at healthy versus unhealthy relationships. * Watch the clip below. * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UB9anEZx9LU * Make notes on how you know a healthy relationship is turning unhealthy. * Write a speech on the importance of respect, equality and communication skills in a healthy relationship. 3. We will also look at the dangers of drugs. * Watch the clip: * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C3Na592f9oc * Create a mind map on the dangers of all drugs.	<urn:uuid:823db139-473c-4353-9173-99dea930812b>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.woodchurchhigh.com/docs/Summer2021LearningPack/NewYear8.pdf	2021-10-24T05:19:12+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00086.warc.gz	1,264,162,953	5,075	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.986761	eng_Latn	0.993708	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 83, 630, 640, 2653, 4885, 6821, 8065, 9052, 10242, 11680, 12913, 14026, 14536, 16090, 17882, 18673, 20053 ]	[ 2.953125, 3.4375 ]	1	0
Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010, pp. 07-12 ISSN 1923-1555 www.cscanada.net www.cscanada.org The Comparison Between TESL and TCSL in Chinese Universities MA Yan 1 Abstract: TESL ( Teaching English as a Second Language ) and TCSL ( Teaching Chinese as a Second Language ), they are both the second language teaching in Chinese Universities, which have some similarities in the second language teaching process and they are both need to apply some of the same teaching strategies. However, there are more differences between these two kinds of second language teaching in Chinese universities. This paper has compared TESL and TCSL in Chinese Universities from three perspectives: what are taught in second language teaching class? How to teach the second language? What are the different effects of the second language teaching? Then some conclusions have been summarized to understand the overall goals of second language teaching so as to contribute to the improvement of second language teaching techniques of TESL and TCSL. Keywords: second language teaching; TESL; TCSL 1. INTRODUCTION Language is one of the distinctive characteristic of human beings and one of the most important ways of expressing our love or our hatred; it is vital for achieving many of our goals and our careers; we use language for planning our lives and remembering our past; we exchange ideas and experiences through language, so some people know more than one language. Knowing another language may helpful for us to getting a job; a chance to higher education; an access to others' original edition of literature and cultural knowledge; the opportunity to go abroad to travel or emigrate to another country... It affects people's career and possible futures, their lives and future. In today's world, with the development of economy and international connection, more and more people speak more than one language, so language learning and language teaching are vital to the everyday lives of millions of people. Since the 1970s, a new academic subject has emerged, called second language learning (L2) research or second language acquisition (SLA) research, which looks at second and foreign language learning from a scientific perspective. Though it is still in the early stage of development, it has already produced many teaching theories and methodology from many perspectives. Teachers are assumed to aware of the theory and techniques of second language teaching. Although in such an assumption, successful teaching concerns about: students who have different physical characteristics; a particular educational context in which students are placed; and learning purposes and motivations in the students' minds through which 1 Department of Elementary Education, Xijing University, Xi'an, China. E-mail: email@example.com. * Received 2 March 2010; accepted 4 April 2010 they are coming to acquire a new language; techniques that have to fit in with the particular students. Now, let compare the TESL and TCSL from the following aspects in Chinese universities to see what are the differences and what can be concluded. 2. COMPARISON BETWEEN TESL AND TCSL STUDENTS There are more than 26000000 students in Chinese universities and most of them are Chinese native citizen, aged form about 17 to 26 years old, who have graduated from high school and passed the College Entrance Examination. Students enrolled by different kinds of colleges and universities according to their scores. All of them have had learned English more than 6 years. More over, in recent years, English is being attached greater and greater importance that a great number of students began studying English from Primary School or even Kindergarten. So they have had acquired the basic knowledge of English that including the basic grammar knowledge, thousands of vocabulary and certain degree of oral English competence. While the characteristic of TCSL students in Chinese universities are quite different. Statistics shows that there were 223500 foreign students in the year of 2008, coming to china from about 160 countries and regions and the number has reached to 230000 in 2010. I think the number will be increasing rapidly in the following years along with Chinese steady improvement of the comprehensive national strength, as a result, Chinese is becoming a popular language. When the foreign students come to China, most of them know little of Chinese and they just know "你好""謝謝""對不起"etc. ; not too many of them have had learned some of Chinese in their countries; few of them have had a good command of Chinese. So a lot of them need to start to learn Chinese from rearly zero foundation, so that Chinese is really difficult for them. Through the comparison, we can conclude that the main physical distinctive features of TESL and TCSL students lie in different age of majority students; different first language; different starting point of learning second language. 3. THE DIFFERENCES OF LEARNING PURPOSES AND MOTIVATIONS What are the purposes of learning and teaching a second language? That can be divided into three types: local goals, international goals, individual goals and here we just discuss the international goals. A. Careers that require a second language An important function of language teaching is indeed to train student for the international business world. The universities' syllabus points to English as "an important language to enable students meaningfully in international trade and commerce". Degrees in English are popular among Chinese universities, because our society will always need individuals who are capable of bridging the gap between two countries for economic or political purpose. So after graduation, students can find jobs like English teacher, translator, English tourist guide etc. B. Higher education In many countries, second language is a must to get access to higher education. The importance for students is not the second language itself, but the information that is gained via second language. For example, in China, if a student wants to get higher education, he or she must pass the required English exam. Here are College Entrance Exam, Post Graduation Entrance Exam etc. If you want to go abroad to have a higher education, you need to have the IELTS & TOEFL or GRE required scores. For foreign students coming to have higher education, they are required to pass the exam of HSK (Test of Chinese language ability for foreigners). C. Access to research and information It has been known that Chinese universities encourage the students to read factual prose and fiction for information and enjoyment. At a different level is the need for English to support various careers that are not primarily based on language-for scientists, doctors, or journalists. To keep up-to-date or to be well-informed, it may be necessary to use English. English provides an additional means of access to academic, professional and recreational materials. D. Travel The motivation behind many students' second language learning is to travel abroad. Nowadays, more and more people tend to go aboard to have an international travel, and English is a national language, that travel in most places in the world could be successful through English. China is a country with an ancient civilization of long standing. During the prolonged process of historical development, the Chinese nation has created its unique traditional culture. For foreign students, they are attracted by Chinese brilliant culture, so they all want to come to travel and study or work in China. When they were in China, they would found that learning Chinese can help them get a well understanding of Chinese people and Chinese culture. So it becomes a necessity to learn Chinese. Motivation in second language learning is has been used to refer to the long term fairly stable attitudes in the students' minds that influence the degree of effort that learners make. There are various types of motivations have been identified: integrative, instrumental, resultative and intrinsic motivation, introduced by Garner and Lambent in a series of books and papers (Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1985). The integrative motivation reflects whether the student identifies with the target culture and people in some sense, or rejects them. The more that a student admires the target culture—reads its literature, visits it on holiday, looks for opportunities to practice the language, and so on—the more successful the student will be in the second language learning. For the TCSL students, most of them admire Chinese culture, by coming to China and studying Chinese, they will be able to participate more freely in the activities of Chinese cultural groups. Instrumental motivation means learning the language for an ulterior motive unrelated to its use by native speakers—to pass an examination, to get a certain kind of job, and so on. Studying a foreign language can be important for our college students because it will someday be useful in getting a good job. Most of Chinese college students have to learn English, because they are required to pass the CET4 and CET6, which is also a requirement for getting the degree. Some of the English majors learn English to increase their career possibilities, while some of them learn English for going abroad. However a student might learn a second language with an integrative motivation or with an instrumental one, or indeed with both. Generally speaking, TESL students are recognized as the instrumental motivation. 4. COMPARISON BETWEEN LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT In the classroom: Teachers for TCSL and TESL students are different, that TCSL's teachers are Chinese-speaking teachers whose first language are Chinese and with a degree of Chinese Literature or Linguistics. And you know, lessons including language and explanation are given totally in authentic Chinese, while for TESL students, most of their English teachers are also Chinese-speaker without learning or working experiences in English-speaking countries. And TECL students' English class for non-English major are given half in English that is to say, the content of the text is taught in non-authentic English and the teachers' explanation is in Chinese. Out of the classroom: Both the TESL and TCSL students learn the second language in China, so it seems that their learning environment is the same. However, for the TESL students, China is their motherland where people speak Chinese which is not the target of English. So with little or no exposure to English language environments and a heavy emphasis on exams in the education system, many students find that, despite studying English very hard, they still have difficulties in using English effectively in real situations. While for TCSL students, China is the best Chinese target language country, in such an environment, they can not only learn Chinese in the TCSL classroom, but also, they can learn outside the classroom. And more over, what they will have learned are the pure and authentic language, culture and real Chinese life. So compare the environment for TCSL and TESL students, we can conclude that within the same second language learning environment, TCSL students have an advantage than TESL students, so it is much easier for them to study the second language well. 5. COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASSROOM TEACHING STYLES There are six main branches of second language teaching methodology: Grammar-Translation Method, Direct Method, Audiolingual Method, Functional Approach, Communicative Teaching Method, and Task-Based Teaching Method. In this paper, I will use another term "teaching style" and "teaching techniques", which as Clark (1984) puts it, is a "label for what we do as teachers". Teachers combine different techniques in various ways within a particular teaching style. Put a structure-drill with a repetition dialogue and a role-play and you get the audio-lingual style with its dependence on the spoken language, on practice, and on structure. Put a functional drill with an information gap exercise and a role-play and you get the social communicative style with its broad assumptions about the importance of communication in the classroom. A teaching style is a loosely commence set of teaching techniques believed to share the same goals of language teaching and the same views of second language learning. This paper relates Vivian Cook's (2000) six teaching styles to second language teaching: academic teaching style common in academic classrooms, the audiolingual style that emphasizes structured oral practice, the social communicative style that aims at interaction between people, the information communicative style that stresses information transfer from one person to another, the mainstream EFL style which combines aspects of the first three, and finally, other styles that look beyond language itself. The academic teaching style is characterized by teaching techniques of grammatical explanation and translation, and so is sometimes known as the grammatical –translation method. The style is similar in concept to marton's reconstructive strategy or Alien et al's analytic activities. The academic style is a time-honored way of teaching foreign language, popular in secondary schools and widespread in the teaching of advanced students in university systems around the world. And in Chinese universities, it is just the main teaching style of English as the second language for students. A teacher explains how to apologize in the target language—'when you bump into someone on the street you say "sorry"'; a teacher gives a quick grammatical explanation of the present perfect tense—"I have been to Paris" means that the action is relevant to moment of speaking; a teacher describe where to put the tongue to make the sound \|θ\| in 'think' —all of these are slipping into an academic style where the students have to understand the abstract explanation before applying it in their own speech. The academic teaching style emphasizes the acquisition of grammatical competence as rules of a type and lists of vocabulary. It does not directly practice language use in the classroom, and it holds a traditional view of the classroom and of the teacher's role: teachers are still acting the leading role in the class where about 70 per cent of the utterances in most English class come from the teacher. However, this kind of teaching style is widely used in TESL class, which is seldom used for TCSL students. You can see academic English teaching style in Chinese universities have many shortcomings which result in Chinese students' poor communicative competence. The audiolingual style is attached to a teaching style that reached its peak in the 1961s, best conveyed in Robert Lado's thoughtful book Language Teaching: a Scientific Approach (Lado, 1964). Its emphasis is on teaching the spoken language through dialogues and drills. A typical lesson in an audiolingual style starts with a dialogue, say about buying food in a shop: A: Good morning. B: Good morning. A: Could I have some milk please? B: Certainly. How much? The language in the dialogue is controlled so that it introduces only a few new vocabulary items, 'milk', 'cola', 'mineral water', say, and includes several examples of any new structural point: 'Could I have some cola?' 'Could I have some mineral water?' etc. the students listen to the dialogue as a whole, either played back from a tape or read by the teacher; they repeat it sentence by sentence, and they act it out: ' Now get into Paris of shopkeeper and customer and try to buy the following items…'. Then the students drill grammatical points connected with the dialogue, such as the polite questions used in requests 'Could I...' The teacher writes on the board: 'Could I have some (milk, water, and cola)? He says: 'milk'. And so on. The drill practices the structure repeatedly with variation of vocabulary. Finally, there are expansion activities to make the students incorporate the language in their own use. Hence the audiolingual style stresses the spoken language rather than the written and the so-called 'active' skills of speaking and writing rather than the 'passive' skills of listening and reading. The goal of the audiolingual style is to get the students to 'behave' in common second language learning situations, such as the station or the supermarket; it is concerned with the real-life activities the students are going to face. In one sense it is practical and communication-oriented. So this kind of teaching style is very useful and practical for foreigners coming to travel or learn Chinese in China. At the same time, it is being widely used for TCSL students, while it isn't being widely used for TESL students in Chinese universities. In the early of the 1970s, there was a shift towards teaching methods that emphasized communicative competence rather than linguistic competence: the ability to use the language appropriately rather than the knowledge of grammatical rules implied in the academic style or the habits of the audiolingual. In the social communicative style, language is defined as communication between people, rather than as texts or grammatical rules or patterns: it has a social purpose. Language is for forming relationships with people and for interrelating with them. Using language means meeting people and talking to them. Language is not so much rules or structures or texts as ways of talking to people. The aim is to give the students the ability to engage in conversations with people. In the classroom, the teacher no longer dominates the classroom, controlling and guiding the students every minute. By contrast, the teachers ask the students make up their own conversations in pairs and groups, learning language by situational activities. While the teacher provides some feedback and correction, this plays a much less central part in his or her classroom duties. The teacher plays a role of helper and guide rather than the leader. This is a jump in teaching techniques, and has being applied to TESL and TCSL class, but it is used much more in TCSL than TESL. The mainstream EFL style has developed in British-influenced EFL from the 1930s up to the present day. Till the early 1970s, it mostly reflected a compromise between the academic and the audiolingual styles, combining techniques of grammatical explanation with techniques of automatic practice. Until the 1970s this early mainstream style was characterized by the term 'situation' in two senses. In one sense language was to be taught through demonstration in the real classroom situation; teachers rely on the props, gestures and activities that are possible in a real classroom. This is a combination of other styles, and it can be properly used for both TESL and TCSL. 6. CONCLUSION By the above comparison, we can simply see the differences and the teaching effects between TESL and TCSL in Table. 1, and then some strategies have been given to improve the second language teaching in Chinese universities. Table 1: Comparison between TESL and TECL \| Comparison \| TESL \| \|---\|---\| \| Starting Point \| Learn English more than 6 years and have had acquired the basic knowledge of English \| \| Learning Environment \| Non-English target language country \| \| Motivation \| Instrumental motivation \| \| Teaching Techniques \| Academic Teaching Style \| \| Teaching Effect \| Good at grammar, reading but poor at communicative competence \| REFERENCES, Clark, MA. (1984). On the nature of techniques; what do we owe the gurus? TESOL Quarterly 18(4) 577-84. Gardner, R. (1985). Secial psychology and second language learning. London: Edward Arnold. Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Lado, R. (1964). Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rod Ellis. (2000). Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Vivian Cook. (2000). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.	<urn:uuid:465c703a-61c7-45ea-b6d6-983a1c2d1c07>	CC-MAIN-2015-35	http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/sll/article/download/j.sll.1923156320100102.002/1423	2015-08-30T07:54:15Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644064951.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025424-00344-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz	385,104,553	4,050	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.973814	eng_Latn	0.998653	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2858, 6469, 10197, 14680, 18854, 20130 ]	[ 1.5, 2.1875 ]	4	44
The Prior Review Peril Empower students to be leaders Definitions } Prior Review: for student media, the term refers to the practice of school officials — or anyone in a position of authority outside the editorial staff including the teacher — demanding they be allowed to read (or preview) copy prior to publication and/or distribution } Prior Restraint: Prior restraint, on the other hand, occurs when an administrator —oftenafterhe or she has read material (prior review) — actually does something to inhibit, ban or restrain its publication. } Source: NSPA, SPRC Q: The courts mandate prior review of all student media }A. True } B. False Q: The courts mandate prior review of all student media }A. True } B. False } The courts do not mandate it, but they also don't explicitly prohibit it. Best practice in student media is to let the STUDENT LEADERS make editorial decisions. Q: Prior review can teach students A. How to make their own ethical decisions as leaders. B. How to protect the school community. C. How to navigate the politics of a school community D. None of the above Q: Prior review can teach students A. How to make their own ethical decisions as leaders. B. How to protect the school community. C. How to navigate the politics of a school community D. None of the above: A well-trained adviser should be helping to establish ethical guidelines within a newsroom. When an administrator reviews content before publication, it can lead to self-censorship and/or protecting the school at the expense of truth. Q: Prior review protects the school from legal liability A. True B. False Q: Prior review protects the school from legal liability A. True B. False -It could actually expose the school to more harm. If a principal or teacher acting as an agent of the school has "allowed" an article to print after prior review, they and the school could be held to a higher liability should someone file a lawsuit. Source: http://www.splc.org/article/1997/12/fixing-the-blame Q: Students learn more when A. An administrator or teacher reads content first B. They make their own educated editorial decision C. They print something controversial and get in trouble for it. Q: Students learn more when A. An administrator or teacher makes the final decision because adults have more experience. B. They make their own educated editorial decision -When students are guided through an ethical decision making process and have established a code of ethics and editorial policy, which guides their decisions, they are empowered as leaders in their school. They can make decisions on the value of a story for their community in a more objective way than an administrator C. They print something controversial and get in trouble for it. Q: Prior review almost always leads to prior restraint. A. True B. False Q: Prior review almost always leads to prior restraint. A. True -Even if the administrators or teacher doesn't exercise prior restraint, the threat of it is implicit in the practice of prior review. It makes prior restraint much easier, it will encourage self-censorship, and it will silence student voice. According to JEA's Adviser Code of Ethics, the adviser shouldn't prior restrain. B. False Q: Who should read content before it is published as long as editors still make final decisions. A. Advisers B. Subjects of stories C. Student editors D. The assistant principal Q: Who should read content before it is published as long as editors still make final decisions. A. Advisers Scholastic journalism organizations find it acceptable for advisers to read content prior to publication to help foster a discussion of ethics and empower the students to use a robust decisionmaking process in deciding the value of a news story for their community. B. Subjects of stories C. Student editors D. The assistant principal Q: Prior review allows the most accurate information to be published A. True B. False Q: Prior review allows the most accurate information to be published A. True B. False: -The administration's loyalties may lie more with protecting the school from bad press than with printing accurate information. Students should always robustly report. Q: Prior review enables discrimination A. Against students B. Against viewpoints C. Against truth D. All of the above Q: Prior review enables discrimination A. Against students B. Against viewpoints C. Against truth D. All of the above -Admin loyalties most often lie in protecting the school from bad press when it comes to student media. This means students who want to publish something that could make the school look bad could have their First Amendment rights violated, viewpoints with which the admin disagrees may be silenced, and truth which "harms" the school may be punished. Q: Prior review instills A. A sense of how to be careful as a journalist B. A lack of trust in students C. A positive relationship between student journalists, journalism advisers, and administrators. Q: Prior review instills A. A sense of how to be careful as a journalist B. A lack of trust in students -It, in fact, undermines the very civic engagement and responsibility schools are expected to instill in students as a benchmark of our democracy. It also leads to a lack of trust in the educational programs of the school. C. A positive relationship between student journalists, journalism advisers, and administrators. Q: What benefits come from not exercising prior review? A. Working with students cooperatively to be good sources for stories B. Hiring qualified advisers and journalism teachers C. Building trust in the learning and communication process in a way that also lessens liability concerns of the school system D. Offering feedback after each publication E. Increasing dialogue among school staff and students, thus encouraging outlets of expression that strengthens school safety F. Expanding school and community understanding and appreciation of the value of free – and journalistically responsible – student media G. Providing necessary resources to support and maintain publication programs, including financial support, master schedule preferences, development opportunities and time H. All of the above. Q: What benefits come from not exercising prior review? A. Working with students cooperatively to be good sources for stories B. Hiring qualified advisers and journalism teachers C. Building trust in the learning and communication process in a way that also lessens liability concerns of the school system D. Offering feedback after each publication E. Increasing dialogue among school staff and students, thus encouraging outlets of expression that strengthens school safety F. Expanding school and community understanding and appreciation of the value of free – and journalistically responsible – student media G. Providing necessary resources to support and maintain publication programs, including financial support, master schedule preferences, development opportunities and time H. All of the above Q: Where should I go for more resources? Scholastic Press Rights Committee: jeasprc.org Student Press Law Center: splc.org Journalism Education Association: JEA Adviser Code of Ethics: http://bit.ly/1LdLDSt jea.org	<urn:uuid:f61e55e0-14c3-47e3-bcbe-7f7eb19f469e>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://jeasprc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/CD2015priorreview.pdf	2021-10-24T07:04:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00087.warc.gz	461,730,827	1,533	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.987859	eng_Latn	0.997092	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn...	false	docling	[ 54, 569, 647, 889, 1097, 1544, 1620, 2011, 2208, 2771, 2846, 3247, 3426, 3874, 3965, 4227, 4347, 4820, 5023, 5453, 6261, 7070, 7290 ]	[ 2.140625 ]	1	8
Lead Poisoning in Children What You Need to Know What is lead poisoning? Lead poisoning is when a person's health is affected by lead contamination in what they eat, drink, touch, or breathe. Children under 6 years of age are most at risk for lead poisoning due to their small size and developing brains. No safe level of lead exposure in children has been identified. Childhood lead exposure can cause long-term harm but is preventable. What are the health effects of childhood lead poisoning? Lead poisoning affects the brain and nervous system. Health effects can be hard to recognize, and include: * Headaches * Vomiting * Constipation * Appetite loss/weight loss * Slowed growth and development * Learning, attention, and behavior problems * Hearing and speech problems * Lower IQ * Kidney problems When is a child at risk for lead poisoning? When a child: * Lives in or regularly spends time in a home or building built before 1950. * Has recently lived in or regularly spends time in a home or building built before 1950. * Lives in or regularly visits a home built before 1978 that was recently remodeled. * Has a sibling or playmate diagnosed with lead poisoning. * Lives with an adult whose job or hobby involves lead (auto repair, making stained glass, using firing ranges and/or fishing sinkers, etc). * Eats foods prepared with spices or food additives that were obtained from outside the United States. * Uses products such as folk, herbal, or Ayurvedic remedies or cosmetics, imported toys or candy, handmade or imported glazed pottery, or leaded glassware. * Puts nonfood items in their mouth or eats things that are not food (pica). Children often get lead poisoned when they breathe or swallow lead dust that gets on their hands and toys or eat chips of deteriorating lead-based paint. Where can lead be found in my home? * Lead-based paint - often found in homes and furniture painted prior to 1978. * Soil, especially around peeling exterior paint, high traffic areas, factories with smokestacks and incinerators, and areas where there is sandblasting. * Drinking water exposed to lead from the environment or from lead pipes, lead solder in pipes, and/or faucets containing lead. * Children's toys (lead paint was banned in the U.S.in 1978 but may still be found on older or imported toys). * Leaded crystal, lead-based glaze, and paint used on pottery. * Imported foods in lead soldered cans. * Some imported folk medicines, spices, food additives, or cosmetics. * Clothing worn during activities that create lead dust/particles, including working in smelting and battery plants, doing automotive repairs, making stained glass, casting bullets, using firing ranges, furniture refinishing, or making fishing sinkers. * Dust from some imported vinyl mini blinds and painted friction surfaces (such as opening and closing windows and doors) painted prior to 1978. How can I tell if my child has lead poisoning? A blood lead test is the only way to know if your child has lead poisoning. Children should be tested at one AND two years of age, or if you think that they were exposed to a lead hazard. Most children who have lead poisoning do not look or act sick. Talk to your child's doctor for more information about blood lead testing. How do I protect my child from lead poisoning? * Keep children away from peeling paint and prevent them from sucking or chewing painted objects such as windowsills and painted toys. * Regularly wash children's hands, bottles, pacifiers, and toys. They can become contaminated from household dust or exterior soil. * Feed your child healthy foods high in calcium, iron, and Vitamin C. These foods may help keep lead from being absorbed in the body. * Regularly wet-mop floors and wet-wipe window areas (sills, frames, wells, etc.). Do not use a broom to sweep areas with potential lead dust. * Use a vacuum with a HEPA filter. A regular vacuum can spread lead dust into the air. Some health departments have HEPA vacuums available to borrow. * Keep your home well-maintained to prevent and fix peeling paint. Do not sand, as this creates dust particles that contain lead. * Take off shoes when entering the house to prevent bringing in lead-contaminated soil. * Prevent children from playing in bare soil. Plant grass on areas of bare soil or cover the soil with grass seed, mulch, or wood chips. * Children and pregnant women should not be present in housing built before 1978 that is undergoing renovations. They should not participate in activities that disturb old paint or in cleaning up paint debris after work is completed. * If you have older plumbing containing lead pipes or fittings, flush your cold-water pipes by running the water for approximately five minutes. The longer water sits in pipes, the more lead it may contain. After the flushing process, you can fill containers for later use. Use water only from the cold-water tap for drinking, cooking, and making baby formula, as hot water is likely to contain higher levels of lead. If you do not know if your home has older plumbing, contact your local water authority. * You may choose to install a water filter that is certified to NSF/ANSI Standard 53 for lead removal. If a water filter is installed, replace filters as recommended by the manufacturer.	<urn:uuid:4ddb8707-2317-4875-beaa-f98b7a57fcf9>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.oakgov.com/health/information/PublishingImages/Pages/Lead-Poisoning-in-Children/Download%20PDF%20Fact%20Sheet4.pdf	2021-10-24T05:12:00+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00087.warc.gz	1,132,533,088	1,131	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998709	eng_Latn	0.998739	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2389, 5308 ]	[ 4.125 ]	1	0
Worried About H7N8 Bird Flu in Indiana? What You Need to Know Background Avian influenza ('bird flu') outbreaks with a virus called H7N8 were reported in poultry in Dubois County, Indiana. Bird flu' viruses occur naturally among wild aquatic birds worldwide and can infect domestic poultry and other bird and animal species. Wild aquatic birds can be infected with bird flu viruses in their intestines and respiratory tract, but usually do not get sick. However, bird flu viruses are very contagious among birds and some of these viruses can sicken and even kill certain domesticated bird species including chickens, ducks, and turkeys. Some outbreaks of bird flu in poultry cause the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), through cooperative industry, state and federal efforts, to implement plans and procedures to contain and stop the outbreak. The USDA took these actions in Indiana because of the threat these outbreaks pose to the poultry industry and to ensure any additional bird flu outbreaks are identified and controlled quickly. Bird Flu & People Human infection with bird flu viruses is rare (http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-humans.htm), but can occur. Most often, human infections with bird flu viruses have occurred after unprotected close contact with infected birds or the excretions/secretions of infected birds (e.g., droppings, oral fluids). Infected birds shed virus in their saliva, mucous and feces. Human infections with bird flu viruses can happen when enough virus gets into a person's eyes, nose or mouth, or is inhaled. This can happen when virus is in the air (in droplets or possibly dust) and a person breathes it in, or when a person touches something that has virus on it then touches their mouth, eyes or nose. Human infection with bird flu viruses has not occurred from eating properly cooked poultry or poultry products. Human infections with bird flu viruses can usually be treated with the same prescription drugs that are used to treat human seasonal flu viruses, called "antiviral drugs." At this time no human infections with H7N8 bird flu viruses have ever been reported worldwide; however, other avian influenza H7 viruses have infected people (http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/influenza-a-virus-subtypes.htm) sporadically. H7 bird flu virus infections in people have been associated with a wide range of illness (http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-humans.htm) from conjunctivitis only, to influenza-like illness, to severe respiratory illness. As with seasonal flu, some people are at high risk (http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/high_risk.htm) of serious illness from bird flu infections, including pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems and people 65 and older. CDC has guidance (http://www.cdc.gov/flu/consumer/treatment.htm) for high risk people who get flu-like symptoms resulting from either seasonal flu or bird flu infections. H7N8 in Indiana At this time, CDC considers the risk to the general public from these H7N8 viruses to be low; however, because other avian influenza H7 viruses have infected people, it is possible that human infections with these viruses could occur. Risk is dependent on exposure. People with no contact with infected poultry or contaminated environments are considered at very low to no risk of infection. People with close or prolonged unprotected contact with infected birds or contaminated environments are considered at greater (though probably still low) risk of infection. The Indiana State Department of Health (http://www.in.gov/isdh/26902.htm) is implementing its bird flu public health monitoring plan (which includes monitoring the health of people responding to the outbreaks and other people exposed to infected birds, including for example, flock caretakers). This is being done to quickly identify possible human infections with these viruses and make sure anyone who is infected gets prompt medical evaluation and treatment if needed, and also to reduce opportunities for spread. The Department of Health is monitoring people with bird flu outbreak exposures for signs and symptoms including: fever (temperature of 100ºF [37.8ºC] or greater) or feeling feverish, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, fatigue, headaches, eye redness (or conjunctivitis), and difficulty breathing. Other possible symptoms are diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and seizures. Many of these symptoms overlap with the symptoms of other human respiratory viruses, including seasonal flu. It is flu season in the U.S. right now and human seasonal influenza viruses are circulating in Indiana at this time. Advice for People Near H7N8-Affected Facilities: - People with no contact with infected poultry or contaminated environments are considered to be at very low to no risk of bird flu infection. - But if you were near an H7N8-affected facility and are concerned about a possible exposure, watch your health daily for the next 10 days for fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, headaches, eye redness (or conjunctivitis) or difficulty breathing. - If you develop any of the symptoms listed above, you most likely have a regular human respiratory virus and not bird flu, but follow up to be on the safe side. - Call your state/local health department if you develop any of these illness signs or symptoms during the next 10 days. Your health department will help you determine what to do next. - If you did have contact with infected birds or contaminated environments, and develop flu-like symptoms, you should call your health department immediately. Protective Actions You Can Take: - Avoid wild birds and observe them only from a distance; - Avoid contact with domestic birds (poultry) that appear ill or have died. - Avoid contact with surfaces that appear to be contaminated with feces from wild or domestic birds. More information about bird flu is available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/index.htm	<urn:uuid:72d88708-e65a-4fc8-98df-62bdb304c7cb>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.in.gov/health/erc/files/Worried_About_H7N8_Bird_Flu_in_Indiana__What_You_Need_to_Know_Feb-03-2016.pdf	2021-10-24T06:24:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00087.warc.gz	1,020,576,938	1,237	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99795	eng_Latn	0.997974	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2667, 5126, 5995 ]	[ 2.828125 ]	1	0
TREKKING INFORMATION SHEET Cape Gantheaume Coastal Trek Cape Gantheaume Wilderness Protection Area Trekking in Cape Gantheaume Wilderness Protection Area Minimum Impact Bushwalking Kangaroo Island's rugged coastline offers keen bushwalkers spectacular coastal scenery, pristine rivers, tracts of undisturbed native vegetation and opportunities to observe abundant and diverse wildlife. Most of the coast is very isolated and provides trekkers with a true wilderness experience. However, this isolation also means that good planning is essential to ensure that your trek is as enjoyable and safe as possible. This leaflet is designed to help you plan your trek by providing information on where to camp, where to find water, the distances involved, and what you need to do before you begin your trek. The information relates to the coastal areas between D'Estrees Bay and Bales Bay on the south coast of Kangaroo Island. Access One of the major obstacles to overcome is that trekking the coast does not allow for easy loop-walks, and it can be difficult to get back to your car without backtracking or using roads. The best way to avoid this is to arrange a car pool if possible. Please note that To minimise your impact on this wilderness area, please adhere to the guidelines in the Minimum Impact Bushwalking brochure. The Route The trek begins at the Sewer car park at D'Estrees Bay. From this point follow the old vehicle track to Cape Gantheaume where you will find an isolated pristine beach dotted with New Zealand Fur-seals. (Warning: Cape Gantheaume beach has strong rips and is unsafe for swimming). From Cape Gantheaume, the trek is unmarked and trekkers need to find their own path through the coastal vegetation until they reach the Bales Bay car park. When to walk Kangaroo Island's weather is generally milder than the mainland. Cool summers and fine winter weather are not uncommon. The best weather for walking occurs during spring and autumn when long periods of fine and mild weather can occur. During summer, Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH) staff will not transport trekkers to and from vehicles. The trek can be accessed from two locations: on the eastern end via Sewer car park on the D'Estrees Bay Road; or via Bales Bay on the western end. \| DISTANCES OF SECTIONS \| \| \|---\|---\| \| Section of Trek \| Distance \| \| D’Estrees Bay to Cape Gantheaume \| 18km \| \| Cape Gantheaume to Bales Bay \| 16km \| Maps You should carry the appropriate 1:50,000 topographical maps to walk Kangaroo Island's remote coastline. DESTREES and SEDDON sheets cover D'Estrees Bay to Bales Bay. temperatures on the cliff-tops can be extreme, and in winter cold fronts roar in straight off the Southern Ocean creating very poor conditions for walking. Both of these extremes represent potentially dangerous situations and must be carefully considered when planning your trip. During the warmer months you must carry ample water, along with sunscreen and a hat, and in the cooler months warm clothing and a rain jacket are essential. As a general rule, because weather can be so unpredictable, expect the unexpected and be prepared! Campsites Trekkers may need to walk inland a short distance to camp in sheltered areas with level ground, away from windswept limestone cliff-tops. Please practice 'no trace' camping by leaving a campsite looking as if you had never been there. Camping is not permitted at Bales Bay Picnic Area. Water There is no water for the entire length of the trek. Sufficient water supplies must be carried to meet your needs. Fires Please not that this is a fuel stove only route (except on days of Total Fire Ban). Fungus Alert Phytophthora cinnamomi or Cinnamon Fungus is a disease that kills many native plants and destroys vital wildlife habitats. It is widespread on Kangaroo Island and your help is required to halt its spread. Bushwalkers can spread the fungus in soil sticking to their boots, tent pegs and toilet trowels. Make sure you start your trek and leave each campsite with clean gear and remove soil from your boots before leaving an area. Bush Trekking Registration * Before your trek commences you MUST complete a Trip Intentions Form and post or fax it back to the Kingscote office of the Department for Environment and Heritage. Once you have completed the form please contact our Kingscote Office, as your proposed route must be discussed with a Ranger. * There is a daily fee for bush trekking which covers camping, which is to be paid in advance at the DEH Kingscote Office. * You should leave a copy of your itinerary with a responsible person. They should contact Police if you have not logged out with them by a pre-arranged date and time. Feedback Wildlife - Observe, don't interact Every season presents fantastic opportunities to view wildlife in the Cape Gantheaume Wilderness Protection Area. Walkers in this remote coastal area may be rewarded with sightings of whales, seals, ospreys and sea eagles from the cliffs as well as kangaroos, echidnas, goannas and abundant birds in the heath and mallee. For your personal safety and for the protection of the animals, always use the following Wildlife Watching Guidelines: * Stay on the trail * Put the animals' welfare first * Move slowly and quietly * Observe from a distance * Use binoculars for the close-up view Failure to do so will cause unnecessary disturbance and stress, particularly for seal colonies and coastal raptors. Please remember that all plants, animals and natural features in parks and wilderness areas are protected. KEEP WILDLIFE WILD Please do not feed the animals	<urn:uuid:186169ec-7aed-4a36-bb4e-efcc277a48a7>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://cdn.environment.sa.gov.au/parks/docs/cape-gantheaume-conservation-park-and-wilderness-protection-area/parks_pdfs_ki_trekking.pdf	2021-10-24T07:28:15+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00091.warc.gz	256,822,868	1,229	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997842	eng_Latn	0.997933	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3456, 5636 ]	[ 2.03125 ]	2	0
BUSHNELL fill in the BLANKS Need a laugh? Chose a word for each noun, verb, etc. specified in the list below. Then read the story on the second, inserting your choices into the blanks. What will your story reveal? Share your stories with us at Need a refresher on parts of speech? An ADJECTIVE is a word that describes a noun. An ADVERB is a word that describes a verb. (A word usually ending in "ly") An INTERJECTION is a word or short phrase that expresses a strong emotion. A COMMON NOUN is a person, place, or thing. A PROPER NOUN refers to the name of a person, place or thing. For example: Italy, Alexander Ham ilton. A VERB is a word expressing an action. 1. YOUR NAME 2. LETTER IN THE ALPHABET 3. COMMON NOUN 4. PROPER NOUN 5. NAME OF A PERSON YOU KNOW 6. JOB TITLE 7. VERB 8. COMMON NOUN 9. ADJECTIVE ENDING IN Y 10.COMMON PLURAL NOUN* 11.VERB 12.ACTIVITY ENDING IN ING 13.A COLOR 14.COMMON NOUN 15.ANOTHER NAME OF A PERSON YOU KNOW 16.ADVERB 17.VERB 18.COMMON NOUN 19.VERB 20.VERB ENDING IN ING) 21.COMMON NOUN 22.INTERJECTION 23.ADJECTIVE *A noun that indicates more than one; for example: clowns, rooftops, cups. Breaking News from The Bushnell! , tell us about this musical. at The Bushnell. So, of News. Today, we are interviewing an actor who will be performing in the new musical The with AB TV ANCHOR: I’m (1) (2) (3) (5) (4) .” Then, towards the end, my side kick, .” the villain in the big musical number, “ . After that, we can ACTOR: The musical is about a who wants to the . I play the character. You learn a lot about my charac Never .” The plot twists and turns, especially when the main characters go during the song “The , and I have to a big ter in my opening musical number, “The (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (15) (16) (18) (19) (20) (21) (17) (14) musical at The Bushnell next season! TV ANCHOR: , I can’t wait to see this (22) (23)	<urn:uuid:3dc367d7-652c-4f62-853c-7812bae7c8cb>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://bushnell.org/TheBushnell/media/Bushnell-Media/Development/Bushnell_Blanks.pdf	2021-10-24T05:56:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00090.warc.gz	242,936,581	573	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.990242	eng_Latn	0.992896	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1159, 1909 ]	[ 3.140625 ]	2	0
Iowa City Community School District Strategic Plan The mission of the Iowa City Community School District is to ensure all students will become responsible, independent learners capable of making informed decisions in a democratic society as well as in the dynamic global community; this is accomplished by challenging each student with a rigorous and creative curriculum taught by a diverse, professional, caring staff and enriched through the resources and the efforts of families and the entire community. Student Preparedness Students will over time... - independently read increasingly complex text with understanding - independently write increasingly complex text with meaning, clarity, purpose and application of standard conventions - independently solve increasingly complex mathematical problems. - independently use increasingly complex scientific information and the processes of inquiry to construct scientific knowledge - develop the knowledge and the skills of the core disciplines of social studies and apply this knowledge to their lives as citizens - observe and/or participate in multiple fine arts experiences, representing a broad range of fine arts forms. - demonstrate knowledge and understanding of community accepted intrapersonal, interpersonal and civic values ( character education ) Board Ends Policies - Goal #1: Annually increase the percentage of students who are proficient in Reading, as measured by the Iowa Assessments, with a focus on closing the achievement gap for each sub-group measured under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. - Goal #2: Annually increase the percentage of students who are proficient in Math, as measured by the Iowa Assessments, with a focus on closing the achievement gap for each sub-group measured under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. - Goal #3: Annually improve the educational experiences for all children through culturally inclusive and responsive school environments and classroom instruction, as measured by various student assessments including the Biennial Youth Survey, with a focus on equitable outcomes for students in protected classes. District Goals The Building Comprehensive School Improvement Plans … - are aligned with the District Goals - are based on student building-level data - require a minimum of 3 goals with 1 goal for each of the District Goals - may have additional goals based the buildings unique needs (but should not exceed 5 total goals) - require plans developed by the Building Leadership Team (Teacher Leadership and Compensation program) and are shared with all faculty - are used to guide staff professional development - are used to guide Teacher Career Development Plans - are used to guide Administrator Career Development Plans - progress for each building and for the District is evaluated and updated annually Building and Classroom Goals Superintendent Directions (Level 1, 2a, 3a, 2b, 3b, 2c, 3c, 2d, 3d, 2e, 3e, 2f, 2g, 3g, 2h, 3h, 2i, 2j, 3j, 2k) Engagement (see next page) Classroom Learning Supports (see next page) Teaching and Learning (see next page) Infrastructure and Talent (see next page) Student Achievement Teaching and Learning Engagement Classroom Learning Supports Talent Infrastructure Iowa City Community School District Strategic Plan The mission of the Iowa City Community School District is to ensure all students will become responsible, independent learners capable of making informed decisions in a democratic society as well as in the dynamic global community; this is accomplished by challenging each student with a rigorous and creative curriculum taught by a diverse, professional, caring staff and enriched through the resources and the efforts of families and the entire community	<urn:uuid:c8c1ef06-5ff4-4968-a147-606d56667639>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.iowacityschools.org/cms/lib/IA01903939/Centricity/Domain/3574/Strategic%20Plan%20-%202015-16.pdf	2021-10-24T07:00:06+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00090.warc.gz	1,014,564,452	755	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.952613	eng_Latn	0.99419	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3155, 3243, 3753 ]	[ 2.96875 ]	2	1
Designs for a Table Ornament: A Saltcellar(?) in the Form of a Child Resting on a Bundle of Wheatstalks, Holding a Platter Pen and brown ink, over an underdrawing in black chalk. 177 x 80 mm. (7 x 3 1/8 in.) As a designer of ornament, Stefano della Bella was a creative and highly original artist whose work anticipates the Rococo manner of the 18th century. Indeed, many of his ornamental prints, such as the series of designs for vases published in Paris around 1646 as the Raccolta di vasi diversi, can be seen to have directly influenced the later work of artists and designers such as Juste-Aurèle Meissonier, Gilles-Paul Cauvet, Mauro Tesi, Johan Paul Schor, and Gilles Marie Oppenord. This drawing may be compared stylistically to an ornamental drawing by Della Bella of A Saltcellar in the Form of a Mermaid Holding a Shell in a private collection in Chicago, or a design for a garland in the Louvre. Similar drawings for table ornaments by the artist are in the Louvre, the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle, the Uffizi, and elsewhere. Such fanciful designs may have been intended for decorative objects commissioned by the Medici. Artist description: A gifted draughtsman and designer, Stefano della Bella was born into a family of artists. Apprenticed to a goldsmith, he later entered the workshop of the painter Giovanni Battista Vanni, and also received training in etching from Remigio Cantagallina. He came to be particularly influenced by the work of Jacques Callot, although it is unlikely that the two artists ever actually met. Della Bella's first prints date to around 1627, and he eventually succeeded Callot as Medici court designer and printmaker, his commissions including etchings of public festivals, tournaments and banquets hosted by the Medici in Florence. Under the patronage of the Medici, Della Bella was sent in 1633 to Rome, where he made drawings after antique and Renaissance masters, landscapes and scenes of everyday life. In 1639 he accompanied the Medici ambassador to the Parisian court of Louis XIII, and remained in France for ten years. Della Bella established a flourishing career in Paris, publishing numerous prints and obtaining significant commissions from Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, as well as other members of the court and the aristocracy. Indeed, the majority of his prints date from this fertile Parisian period, and include scenes of life at the French court. After his return to Florence in 1650, Della Bella continued to enjoy Medici patronage. Over the next few years he produced drawings of the gardens of the Medici villa at Pratolino, the port of Livorno and the Villa Medici in Rome, and also became the drawing master to the future Duke, Cosimo III. He was also active as a designer of costumes for the various pageants, masquerades and ballets of the Medici court. After suffering a stroke in 1661, Della Bella appears to have worked very little before his death three years later. Only a handful of paintings by Della Bella survive to this day, and it is as a graphic artist that he is best known. A hugely talented and prolific printmaker and draughtsman, he produced works of considerable energy and inventiveness, with an oeuvre numbering over a thousand etchings, and many times more drawings and studies. Significant groups of drawings by Della Bella are today in several public collections, with around six hundred sheets in both the Uffizi and the Louvre, and approximately 150 drawings apiece in the Istituto Nazionale per la Grafica in Rome and the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle.	<urn:uuid:e43f1f51-62da-4cd5-83cd-d7a51b7107c6>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.stephenongpin.com/PrintObjectPdf/index?objectID=790170	2021-10-24T05:32:15+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00090.warc.gz	1,212,709,911	797	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.993377	eng_Latn	0.996218	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1145, 3573 ]	[ 2.234375 ]	8	0
INWOODS SMALL SCHOOL (including EYFS) SPECIFIC NEEDS, LEARNING SUPPORT POLICY Aims: The aim of the Inwoods Specific Needs, Learning Support Policy is to ensure that all children with specific needs are identified, that provision is provided to help all pupils identified with SEND to excel, and to meet the requirements of the SEND Code of Practice (2015). We inform parents of all SEND provision, including for EYFS, at the onset of assessment of particular need. SEND provision is mentioned in the school's Curriculum Statement, and the policy is posted on the website. Definition: Pupils have specific educational needs if they have a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of pupils of their same age, or have a disability that hinders them from making use of the educational facilities provided, including social, emotional and mental health needs (SEMH), which call for special educational provision to be made for them. (1:3 SEN Code of Practice, 2001). Admissions Policy: The school admits pupils irrespective of their gender, race, disability or specific educational needs, provided that there are good prospects of meeting their needs without unduly prejudicing the education and the welfare of the prospective or other pupils. Also, in a situation where the School felt unable to provide or make available any specialist help required either due to lack of resources or local availability, then a student's specific needs might inform the decision of whether or not to offer a place to a student. Management: The Learning Support program is overseen by Inwoods School Coordinator Kate Power who is also the SENDCO. As part of this role the Coordinator aims to ensure; * that every pupil achieves the highest standards and potential possible in all areas of learning and life. * to give additional support through tailoring learning intentions and methods to individual need, interest and aptitude. * to identify pupils with a learning difficulty as early as possible and ensure that all their needs are met. * to encourage pupils to develop confidence and recognise value in their own contributions to their learning and to others. Identification and Assessment: At Inwoods there is an awareness of National Curriculum targets, but these are not the only focus of the child's learning. Each child is also assessed by their engagement in their learning and personal progress. At Inwoods each child is challenged in their learning, but there is also an awareness that they each have their own pace. The learning needs vary widely from child to child, there is not a strict idea of failure if a child isn't doing certain things at a certain age. On the other hand, the teachers are aware of age expected learning levels and so if there are concerns by either the teaching staff or parents there are recommendations made to assess the child for SEN. Specific learning needs are sometimes identified before a child's entry into Inwoods, or are identified by the classroom teacher or any other staff at any time. Learning needs are regularly assessed by the classroom teacher, and if specific learning needs are identified, the pupil is then referred to assessment by relevant outside specialists or health professionals. When a child's specific learning needs come to our attention Inwoods has many strategies in response, please see below. Identification involves all staff and the wider community, using a range of sources: Code of Practice: It is the duty of the SENDCO and Learning Support teacher(s) and professionals, responsible to the Head Teacher, to have regard to the Code of Practice on Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (2014). Support for Specific Needs Pupils: In line with the SEND Code of Practice, Inwoods has a graduated approach to offering support for Specific Needs Pupils. Any decisions to involve external specialists will be taken in discussion with parents and parents will be informed if their child is receiving SEN support. Staff regularly receive training and information regarding specific educational needs and approaches, especially when appropriate to meet the needs one of their students. The SENDCO stays abreast of policy and best practice in both National and Alternative Education circles. Stage One: Inwoods has put several approaches in place which diminish the need for Specific Needs differentiation and help prevent learning difficulties from setting a pupil's progress back. Although most schools consider specific needs only after identification, Inwoods' approach takes in many differentiated needs and approaches to learning with every pupil, therefore our Stage One is preventative and all-encompassing, rather than put in place only once concerns arise. * Having a low pupil-teacher ratio, so that teachers can help a child develop in the unique way that is best for them. * Regular discussions with each student regarding their learning, challenges and progress. * Providing many Montessori and other materials which meet the needs of many specific needs and learning difficulties. * Regular consultations with parents regarding the student and their homelife, challenges, progress, etc. * An allied occupational therapist may be consulted. At this stage, pupils are not put on the Specific Needs Register; the opportunities at Inwoods to tailor their learning, monitor and record it are the same as with other pupils. Stage Two: When a pupil is identified as needing extra provision, the class teacher and possibly SENDCO will provide interventions that are additional to those that are regularly a part of the school's differentiated curriculum. This can include: * Different learning materials or special equipment. * Increase in one-to-one tutoring. * Regular meetings with the student, their Teacher and SENDCO to assess the issues, responses and progress. An Individual Learning Plan (ILP) will be created. * Extra consultation with parents regarding their observations of the child and of any other situations that may affect the child's learning, including health issues, developmental history, parental observations, bullying or social issues, changes in life at home, etc. * Group or individual support from the classroom teacher and/or SENDCO. * Regular sessions with a SEN specialist. * Extra time for the teacher or SENDCO to devise the nature of the planned intervention and to monitor its effectiveness. * Staff development and training to introduce more effective strategies when applicable. Continual emphasis on the student's aptitudes and interests will inform the approach and counterbalance the focus on difficulties. Strategies employed to enable pupils to progress will be recorded in the Individual Learning Plan (ILP) An ILP will focus upon three to four individual targets that match the pupil's needs and have been discussed with the pupil. The parents will be part of these discussions or inform of the ILP's targets. This information will be reviewed termly and wherever possible the pupil will take part in the review process and be involved in setting the targets. At this stage, the child will go on the SEND register, and teachers will take care to stay in contact with each other, the parents and the pupil as regards the student's difficulties, approaches and progress. Stage Three: A request for support from External professionals, such as an Educational Psychologist or Speech and Language Therapist, is likely to follow a decision taken by the SENDCO and Principal and colleagues in consultation with parents and most likely the student, at a review of the pupil's progress. The assessment of the external professionals will inform planning, the measurement of a pupil's progress and the use of new strategies or materials. An Individual Educational Program will be drawn up and assessed regularly, involving classroom work and extra support. This will entail regular meetings of staff, parents and experts (and pupils where appropriate) The approach will continue as in Stage Two with the additional support and knowledge from experts. Stage Four: If it is deemed that the child's learning needs are still not being met, external support will be sought from East Hampshire District Council. A Specific Needs Educational Learning Assistant may be deemed appropriate. Other resources may be sought to provide for social and physical as well as learning needs. After assessment and ongoing, support in the classroom will continue, perhaps with a Learning Assistant, and when the pupil is not getting external provision. ILP's and other recording and assessment records will be kept to monitor the child's learning situation, as well as continuance of regular meetings. Reports will be kept in compliance with the EHDC assessment. Anti-Bullying: It is recognised that pupils identified with SEND are particularly vulnerable to bullying – either as a recipient or activator. * At Inwoods problem solving is a process all are actively involved in. Unkind behaviour, including bullying, is faced directly with warmth, understanding, exploration and clarity of what is and isn't appropriate. * Children and young people at Inwoods, with and without SEND, receive support to understand about puberty and sexual development; to recognise harmful sexual behaviour; to learn about consent; and to communicate concerns about bullying and sexual bullying. * Children identified with SEND are often monitored more closely, and any issue that comes up has a high level of response, due to their vulnerabilities. * A consistent approach is important, and if a SEND student is the recipient or activator of bullying, clear guidelines and approaches are established. * At Inwoods we create an environment where sexism is not tolerated; where personal space of students and staff is respected; where sexist language and comments are challenged; and where students and staff feel empowered to say no to any unwanted touch. Progress: The progress of pupils receiving additional support is closely monitored by: * ILPs and the meetings about them with staff, students and parents, and experts when applicable. * Regular assessment as delineated above. * Half termly reviews. * Regularly timetabled meetings with Learning Support, parents and teachers. Success criteria: The success of the education offered to pupils with specific learning difficulties will be regularly monitored and judged against the aims set out above.	<urn:uuid:66bff9f8-c86c-4db9-9e85-8c36f440b490>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://inwoods.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Specific-Educational-Needs-Learning-Support-Policy-2021-2022-Inwoods-EYFS.pdf	2021-10-24T05:47:16+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00089.warc.gz	447,069,096	1,942	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997454	eng_Latn	0.997837	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1821, 3472, 5788, 8955, 10492 ]	[ 2.1875 ]	3	0
__________________________________________________________________________________ Student Expression Rights What are they, exactly? PART ONE Directions: Answer the following questions to the best of your ability. Refer to the article(s) supplied by your teacher or any other documents/research you can access. When in doubt, give the best answer you can. 1. From what does our freedom of speech come from in this country? 2. What are some restrictions the government can put on our freedom of speech? 3. As a student, does the freedom of speech apply to you at school? 4. Can a school punish students for taking part in a walkout protest during the school day? 5. What reasons can a school have for restricting or punishing student speech? 6. What rules does YOUR school have about what students can say or do? 7. How about what students can wear? 8. When it comes to student publications, does your state have a “New Voices” law giving student editors the responsibility for making final decisions about what is published? PART TWO Directions: Read each of the following scenarios and respond to the accompanying questions. Make sure to tailor your responses to what would or should happen at your OWN school based on what you know. 1) A large number of students organize a walkout during the school day at your own school to protest gun violence. School administrators announce that any students taking part in the protest will be immediately suspended for five days. Can they do this? Why or why not? 2) Your school newspaper or newsmagazine writes an editorial arguing in favor of the legalization of marijuana across the country. Hearing about the story, school administrators demand to read it first and then tell students that it cannot be published. Can they do this? Why or why not? 3) A group of students want to protest what they say is too much bullying of LGBTQ students as well as the need for the school to designate at least some gender-neutral bathrooms in the building by coming to school with their hair dyed in bright, rainbow colors every day until action is taken. Can they do this? Why or why not? 4) Some students decide to bring attention to what they say are racist words or actions from government officials by refusing to stand for the pledge at the start of the school day or the national anthem at the start of any sporting events. Can they do this? Why or why not? PART THREE Directions: Of course, what we decide to say or do comes down to more than just what the law allows. We must also hold ourselves to high ETHICAL standards when deciding how we should express ourselves. Explain what you should take into consideration when deciding whether do make speech public that you know is legally allowed but may be risky or controversial?	<urn:uuid:7a00b781-c91f-4775-9bfd-9dc111ce1eb1>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://jeasprc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Student-Expression-Rights-Handout-Students.pdf	2021-10-24T07:08:31+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00092.warc.gz	447,672,791	553	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999395	eng_Latn	0.999709	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1040, 2804 ]	[ 3.78125 ]	1	1
Making Math Count More for Young Latino Children David Murphey, Rebecca Madill, and Lina Guzman February 2017 Executive Summary National and international data paint a discouraging picture of math proficiency in the United States. 1 The 21 st century economy will increasingly be one in which those proficient in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) skills will have an advantage with employers, as well as in navigating the technology-related tasks of everyday life. 2 Children's ability in mathematics, which builds on what young children have learned in their early years, is critical to their success in school, and to their future economic success. One in four U.S. kindergarteners today is Latino. a,3 In California and New Mexico, Latino children are already in the majority. 4 How this group fares in school, and how well prepared they are for the needs of an economy that is increasingly technology-based, will have far-reaching implications for our country. For that reason alone, notwithstanding concerns about equity, their math skills deserve a special focus. Achievement gaps (in math as well as in reading) between Latino children and their white counterparts emerge early in life, and can have negative effects that extend over the school years and beyond. 5 For this report, we reviewed existing research and conducted an original analysis of data from a large, nationally representative sample of Latino kindergartners, with the aim of understanding what factors are associated with math achievement prior to and during the kindergarten year. Here is what we found to be the case at the start of kindergarten: * Latino children's math skills trail those of white children by the equivalent of 3 months' learning. * Having prior experience in center-based child care, 7 more children's books at home, and parents who frequently practice numbers with them, are all independently associated with higher math achievement for Latino children starting kindergarten. * Latino children are more than twice as likely as white children to be poor, 6 and much of the variation in Latino children's math scores can be explained by poverty. Being from a low-income family, having parents with no education beyond high school, and living in a household where English is not the primary language spoken, are all associated with lower math scores for Latino children starting kindergarten. The specific mechanisms underlying these relationships need further exploration. Here is what we found to be the case over the kindergarten year: * Latino children's progress in math achievement is helped by their attending a full-day kindergarten, and—as we found at kindergarten entry—by having more children's books at home. * Among Latino children who started the year with relatively weak math skills, those with strong executive functioning made the greatest progress. Executive functioning skills, such as paying attention and self-control, underlie multiple areas of academic achievement and social-emotional development. executive functioning made the greatest progress. Executive functioning skills, such as paying attention and self-control, underlie multiple areas of academic achievement and social-emotional development. * After accounting for poverty, Latino and white children learn math at the same rate during kindergarten. But because, as a group, Latino children start behind their white peers, they remain behind in math by the spring of the kindergarten year. a In this report, we use Latino to refer to the group that is also termed Hispanic. 1 Expanding on our own findings, the broader research literature identifies some systemic barriers to improving children's math skills, including those of Latino children. For example, the research literature points to widespread, but faulty, beliefs that math ability is largely innate, 8 to anxieties associated with math performance, 9 and to bias against minority students 10 —all of which can impede children's progress. Classroom instruction in math is often inadequate or not focused so as to be most effective. 11 Our recommendations stem from our study findings, as well as our literature review, which identified opportunities for multiple stakeholder groups. We provide more detail on the basis for our recommendations in the full report. They include: Policymakers * Broaden access to high-quality early care and education, and make it more responsive to the needs of Latino families with young children. * Adopt common standards for early math achievement. * Make full-day kindergarten available to all families, regardless of where they live. Organizations engaged in education and advocacy * Expand the reach of programs that make children's books freely available. * Use multiple forms of communication (e.g., videos, social media, personal contact) to help correct prevalent misunderstandings and anxieties about math, and to offer practical help to parents, teachers, and others on encouraging children's early math skills. The education community * Increase the supply and strengthen the preparation of teachers who can provide high-quality early math learning experiences. * Improve the quantity and quality of developmentally appropriate mathematics instruction, including using a structured curriculum. * Give greater attention to the special needs and strengths of dual language learners and their families. * Incorporate activities that promote children's social-emotional learning and executive function. * Examine both explicit and implicit biases that may restrict children's math learning. * Adapt instruction, linguistically and in other ways, so it is congruent with students' cultural backgrounds. * Help sustain the engagement of parents and other family members in children's learning, at school and at home. Parents * Talk about math-related questions or tasks with children—using the language you are most comfortable with. * Play games with children that may reinforce their emerging executive function skills. * Make math fun by capitalizing on, or creating, opportunities to bring number concepts and related language into children's play. * Introduce a variety of activities that are rich in language and content about the wider world. * Build a collection of children's books, including those freely available or borrowed from a library. Researchers * Further investigate the development of early math skills, particularly through studies that delve deeply into the diverse Latino experience (e.g., differences in primary language used; country of origin). * Develop valid assessments of early skills (both academic and non-academic) for Latino children, and for others from non-dominant cultural backgrounds. * Further investigate the potential role of bias in teachers' ratings of children's skills, their expectations for children's behavior, and their interactions with students. 2 Endnotes 1. Goodman, M., Finnegan, R., Mohadjer, L., Krenzke, T., and Hogan, J. (2013). Literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments among U.S. adults: Results from the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies 2012: First Look (NCES 2014-008). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014008.pdf 2. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Innovation and Improvement. (2012). STEM 2026: A vision for innovation in STEM education. http://www.air.org/system/files/downloads/report/STEM-2026-Vision-for-InnovationSeptember-2016.pdf 3. Murphey, D., Guzman, L., & Torres, A. (2014). America's Hispanic children: Gaining ground, looking forward. Child Trends Publication #2014-38. Bethesda, MD: Child Trends. Retrieved from http://www.childtrends. org/?publications=americas-hispanic-children-gaining-ground-looking-forward 4. Ibid. 5. Child Trends. (2015). Early school readiness. Bethesda, MD: Child Trends. http://www.childtrends. org/?indicators=early-school-readiness; Reardon, S. & Galindo, C. (2009). The Hispanic‐White achievement gap in math and reading in the elementary grades. American Educational Research Journal, 46(3), 853‐891. 6. Proctor, B. D., Semega, J. L., & and Kollar, M. A. (2016). Income and poverty in the United States: 2015. U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P60-256. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 7. Center-based care included day care centers, nursery schools, preschools, and pre-kindergarten programs, including state-funded pre-kindergarten programs and Head Start. 8. Uttal, D. (1997). Beliefs about genetic differences on mathematics achievement: A cross-cultural comparison. Genetica, 99, 165-172. 9. Maloney, E. A. & Beilock, S. L. (2012). Math anxiety: Who has it, why it develops, and how to guard against it. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(8), 404-406. 10. National Research Council. (2006). Hispanics and the future of America: Panel on Hispanics in the United States. Tienda, M. & Mitchell, F. (eds.). Committee on Population, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators' implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions? Research Brief. Yale Child Study Center. http:// ziglercenter.yale.edu/publications/Preschool%20Implicit%20Bias%20Policy%20Brief_final_9_26_276766_5379.pdf 11. Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. (2015). Transforming the workforce for children birth through age 8: A unifying foundation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. drop us a line We'd love to hear your thoughts on this publication. Has it helped you or your organization? Email us at firstname.lastname@example.org. Copyright 2017 by Child Trends, Inc. Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research center that studies children at all stages of development. Our mission is to improve outcomes for children by providing research, data, and analysis to the people and institutions whose decisions and actions affect children. For additional information, including publications available to download, visit our website at childtrends.org. Publication # 2017-01 3	<urn:uuid:51064afc-7afc-4554-bb6e-a27c2fbb4175>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Early-Math-Report-Executive-Summary-2.8.pdf	2021-10-24T06:35:27+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00091.warc.gz	852,956,984	2,141	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.967098	eng_Latn	0.995456	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3585, 6923, 10353 ]	[ 2.875 ]	1	2
5. Students in education support centres and students with disability The sample Twenty-one students attending Year 3 to Year 12 at an education support centre participated in the survey. The students came from four government-run education support centres, one of which was in a regional area. 133 134 The students at education support centres completed an amended version of the school and learning survey. They used either hand-held electronic devices or desktop computers and some were assisted by teaching staff or a CCYP staff member. Due to the small sample size of this survey (21), the discussion of findings will be descriptive and focus on outlining trends. Where comparison between students at education support centres and students at mainstream schools will be undertaken, it will be done using broad proportions only. In addition to the discussion of the responses from students in education support centres, the responses from 46 students who were part of the Year 7 to Year 12 main sample and who reported having disability will also be discussed. 135 The views of students from mainstream schools regarding the intersection of health, disability and engagement with school and learning are discussed in Chapter 4.8 – Feeling physically and mentally well. The views were expressed through the group discussions and therefore students may or may not have identified as having a disability or long-term health condition. Through some of the responses it was clear students were referring to friends and other students and advocating for support. Student profile One-quarter of participating students in education support centres were born outside of Australia and reported that their parents spoke a language other than English at home. No Aboriginal students attending an education support centre participated in the survey. All participating students in education support centres had attended more than one primary or high school and more than one-half of them had attended three schools or more. Students' health All participating students in education support centres described their health as 'good' or better, and more than three-quarters said their health was 'very good' or 'excellent'. This is significant as it highlights that students with disability do not necessarily perceive their disability in terms of the impact it does or does not have on their health, or that their disability is linked with 'good' or 'poor' health outcomes. The students reported a range of activities that they had difficulty with or could not do on account of their disability or long-term health condition. The most commonly mentioned activities that were impacted were 'doing school work in class' – more than one-half of students mentioned this – and 'sports'. Liking school When asked how they feel about school, one-half of students reported liking school 'a lot'. The other half of students answered that they like school 'a bit' or think 'it is OK'. One student reported not liking school. Participating students at education support centres described a range of activities and things that they like about school. The most commonly mentioned activities were: * seeing my friends (mentioned by three-quarters of respondents) * sports (mentioned by three-quarters of respondents) * learning new things (mentioned by one-half of respondents). These three most commonly mentioned activities that students like about school are the same that were mentioned by students in mainstream schools. SCHOOL AND LEARNING CONSULTATION – TECHNICAL REPORT 209 210 Positive relationships with peers, teachers and family Most participating students in education support centres (three-quarters) reported feeling that the teachers care 'a lot' about them. The remainder felt that teachers care 'some' and one student felt that teachers do not care about her/him. In regard to receiving help for their school work, most students (more than two-thirds) answered that they 'always' get the help they need. The remainder of students answered that they 'sometimes' get help and one student said 'not at all'. When asked about relationships with other students, three-quarters of participating students reported getting along with the kids in their class 'most of the time'. The remainder answered that they get along 'sometimes' and one student said that he/she does not get along with the kids in his/her class. All students answered in the affirmative when asked whether their family says it is important they go to school every day. Families were described as being engaged with their child's school with nearly all students saying that their parents meet with the teacher, come to school activities, and also one-third saying that their parents help in class or at school. Most students also said that their family asks about their school work. Safety and attendance All participants said it was important to them to be at school every day with three-quarters saying it is 'very important' to them. Most students also reported being worried when they miss school but some said they were not. In regard to safety, while nearly all students reported feeling safe either 'all the time' or 'most of the time', two students reported not feeling safe. In addition, more than one-half of students reported being afraid that someone will hurt or bully them at school either 'sometimes' or 'often'. Bullying was the most commonly mentioned topic when students were asked what they would change if they could change one thing about their school. Seven students made a comment relating to bullying with other comments relating to more freedom or students saying they would not want to change anything. "People who are bullies not to be at my school." "Bullying stop." "Do anything we want." "I would like to keep my school same like always." Overall, students attending school at an education support centre who participated in the survey presented positive attitudes and ideas about school and learning that were comparable and, at times, more favourable than those of students attending a mainstream school. The participating students in education support centres provide a positive example of how students with disability who are well supported and show positive attitudes and thoughts about school and learning can achieve the same engagement outcomes as their peers. When considered in more detail, three areas were found to stand out by trending more negatively for participating students in education support centres in comparison with students in the mainstream sample and these are: * an increased likelihood to have changed schools more than once * an increased likelihood of experiencing difficulties with a range of activities on account of their disability or long-term health condition * an increased likelihood to feel concerned or worried about being hurt or bullied at school. For all other topic areas the trends that were found for students in education support centres were comparable if not trending more positively than those described for students in the mainstream sample: students in education support centres exhibited a similar if not greater level of enjoyment of school (more than one-half of students in education support centres said they like school a lot), assigned equal or greater importance to being at school every day and listed the same top activities that they felt were most enjoyable about school. SCHOOL AND LEARNING CONSULTATION – TECHNICAL REPORT As with students in mainstream schools, the majority of students in education support centres felt that teachers care about them, that mostly they receive the help they need to do their school work (the trend for students in education support centres was that they were more likely than students in mainstream schools to say they get the help they need) and that they get along well with the peers in their class. Families were described as being engaged with their child's school and as assigning great importance to their child's daily attendance at school. Students with disability in mainstream schools Aside from the 21 students attending an education support centre, 46 students with disability who were attending Year 7 to Year 12 in a mainstream school also participated in the survey. A number of areas were found to stand out for students with disability compared to students without disability (all part of the main sample). These were an increased likelihood to: * have changed schools at least once * have a long-term health problem or condition in addition to a disability * experience difficulties with a range of activities on account of their disability or long-term health condition * have difficulties with concentration, behaviour, feelings or being able to get along with people. In addition, 17 per cent of surveyed students who had a disability were Aboriginal. These factors compound students' vulnerability and disadvantage and are supported by the literature, much of which describes children and young people with disability experiencing poorer health, educational and employment outcomes compared to their peers without disability. 136 137 In terms of attitudes and thoughts about school and learning, there was little difference between students with and without disability in mainstream schools. The trends in the following areas can be described as positive and are comparable for both groups of students: * most students like school (a lot or a bit) * most students feel that teachers care about them and treat them fairly * most students usually get along with their teachers * most students usually get the help they need * most students get along with their peers (slight trend for students with disability to be more likely not to disclose this information ('prefer not to say')) * most students feel it is important to be at school every day (slight trend for students with disability to be more likely to find this 'somewhat important' and less likely to find it 'very important') * most students find what they are learning very valuable. Finally, comparison between students with and without disability in mainstream schools has shown students with disability were more likely to: * have wagged school for a full day at least once in the school year * have been suspended at least once (increased likelihood for both school suspension and in-school suspension) * feel unsafe at school or worried about bullying * not have gone to school at least once for fear of being hurt or bullied. In summary, students with disability in mainstream schools reported a range of problems that have the potential to impact negatively on their school experience and making them more prone to vulnerability and disadvantage. Despite their predisposition to increased vulnerability however students with disability described similarly positive attitudes towards school and learning as students without disability. For instance: * Students with disability who are well supported either in mainstream or education support have positive experiences with school and learning. * Students with disability who are well supported either in mainstream or education support can and will work towards reaching their potential. SCHOOL AND LEARNING CONSULTATION – TECHNICAL REPORT 211	<urn:uuid:c58b9573-191c-4f64-a5ed-51dc1ac62488>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/media/2777/students-in-education-support-centres-and-students-with-disability.pdf	2021-10-24T07:12:35+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00091.warc.gz	846,346,952	2,062	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999487	eng_Latn	0.999554	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3574, 7512, 11323 ]	[ 2.078125 ]	1	0
Replacing the Green Desert: Meadowscaping and Other Native Alternatives The great American love affair with lawns has a long tradition. The funny thing is, it's not even our tradition - we adopted the idea from Europe where turf grasses are native. And that's where the ecological problem starts. Our native flora and fauna species did not co-evolve with European turf grasses and are not supported by these exotic grass species. Perhaps your client is not ready to remove an entire lawn. In that case, start with a smaller area and plant it with a compelling array of native plants, showcasing a beautiful succession of bloom from early spring through late fall. Make sure to site the meadowscape or native planting in a central location where the birds, butterflies and pollinating insects are in full view of your client. Turf demonstrates its incompatibility with our local ecosystems by demanding enormous amounts of inputs in order to grow well – copious amounts of water, fertilizer and labor. Turf is like a demanding child – always hungry, always needy, and incapable of being left alone. The average American lawn uses 20,000 gallons of water per year for irrigation and homeowners use ten times more synthetic pesticides on their lawns than farmers use on crops. Exotic grass lawns are virtual wastelands in our local ecosystems. This was not such a huge problem when America had great expanses of "natural" areas and homeowners allowed parts of their landscapes to grow "naturally," before intrusive invasive exotic species became so common. Now, many of our native species are seriously threatened and biodiversity is at an all time low in our landscapes. Why does biodiversity matter so much? Research has shown that biodiverse landscapes are more resilient over time to pests, diseases and climate change - the trifecta of environmental threats that seems to be growing daily. Still not convinced? Consider the fact that biodiversity is the key to healthy ecosystems, and healthy ecosystems deliver "ecosystem services" that we humans rely upon. Purification of air and water, carbon sequestration, crop pollination, climate regulation, soil fertility, waste detoxification, prevention or moderation of flooding – these are just some of the ecosystem services that we cannot exist without. Lawns just don't deliver. Landscape professionals can help homeowners and commercial clients "connect the ecological dots" and convert turf into biodiverse landscapes filled with life. It's good for humans and good for the ecosystems of which we are a part. Consider the difference between a lifeless monoculture of turf that supports almost no species vs. a meadowscape (a true meadow or meadow-like garden) filled with a diversity of native plants, attracting a wide array of songbirds, butterflies, pollinating insects and so on. Make this ecologically-rich, new landscape welcoming to clients by mowing a wide path in the middle, so they can take a stroll and enjoy the show. Or, they could stare at lifeless turf! The functional aspect of meadows and native plant alternatives is also compelling. Shallow-rooted turf is no match for the deep roots of many native plants that excel at keeping stormwater in place, enriching the soil as they grow in a complex matrix underground. Many of our native plants are workhorses at sequestering carbon and trapping or remediating toxins in the soil. Exotic turf? Not even close. Transitioning clients from turf to meadowscapes and other native alternatives means transitioning your business, as well. Many clients are now seeking out landscape professionals who offer more environmentally-friendly services including: organic maintenance, compost and compost tea applications, invasive plant removal, native landscapes, meadow installations, and so on. Are you ready? Differentiate your business now and outcompete the competition. It works and it pays! by Kim Eierman, CH AOLCP Environmental Horticulturist Founder, EcoBeneficial! Kim Eierman will be speaking at New England Grows in Boston on Wednesday, February 5, 2014 at 2:00 p.m. Her topic is, Replacing the Green Desert: Meadowscaping & Native Plant Alternatives. To learn more about Kim and EcoBeneficial!, visit www.EcoBeneficial.com. MLP NEWSLINE WINTER 2014 7	<urn:uuid:84d4cf07-8fcd-4d70-bc7f-d9f8c1ed51c1>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.ecobeneficial.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Replacing-the-Green-Desert.pdf	2021-10-24T06:10:50+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00092.warc.gz	902,822,074	867	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997967	eng_Latn	0.997967	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4287 ]	[ 2.375 ]	2	10
High School - Earth Science North Boone CUSD 200 UNITS (6/6 SELECTED) Last updated: March 21, 2019 SUGGESTED DURATION Unit 1: Earth, the Solar System and Universe. High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 STANDARDS HS-ESS1-2.: Construct an explanation of the Big Bang theory based on astronomical evidence of light spectra, motion of distant galaxies, and composition of matter in the universe. HS-ESS1-1.: Develop a model based on evidence to illustrate the life span of the sun and the role of nuclear fusion in the sun's core to release energy in the form of radiation. HS-ESS2-7.: Construct an argument based on evidence about the simultaneous coevolution of Earth's systems and life on Earth. HS-ESS1-6.: Apply scientific reasoning and evidence from ancient Earth materials, meteorites, and other planetary surfaces to construct an account of Earth's formation and early history. PRIORITY STANDARDS North Boone CUSD 200 Unit 1: Earth, the Solar System and Universe. High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 DESIRED RESULTS Enduring Understandings The Big Bang is a theory of the universe's origin and holds that 12 to 14 billion years ago, the universe was a very hot, dense, tiny ball of matter that expanded very rapidly to form the universe we know today. The Big Bang theory is supported by observations of: distant galaxies receding from our own; the measured composition of stars and non-stellar gases; and maps of spectra of primordial radiation that still fills the universe. Gradual atmospheric changes were due to plants and other organisms that captured carbon dioxide and released oxygen and water. Patterns of the apparent motion of the sun, the moon, and stars in the sky can be observed, described, predicted, and explained with models. Students will know (Knowledge): * Key vocabulary and concepts associated with the earth, the solar system, and the universe, including: volatile, orbit, ellipse, focus, axis, eccentricity, gravity, force, greenhouse gas, precession, insolation, big bang theory, plasma, cosmic microwave background, crust, lithosphere, seismic wave, mantle, mesosphere, asthenosphere, core, outer core, innercore, topography * And explain the theory of the origin of the universe * The characteristics of waves and electromagnetic radiation North Boone CUSD 200 Essential Question(s) How do scientists construct an understanding of earth and space? How are scientific inquiry and engineering design interrelated in the fields of Earth Science: Geology, Oceanography, Meteorology, and Astronomy? How did the universe come to be? How does science explain the formation and history of the universe and solar system? What is the universe, and what is earth's place in it? What is the universe, and what goes on in the stars? What are the predictable patterns caused by Earth's movement in the solar system? What unique characteristics make it possible for earth to sustain life? Students will be able to (Skills): * Use key concepts and vocabulary associated with the earth, the solar system, and the universe in discussions, investigations, and problem solving about the earth, the solar system, and the universe * Develop and use models to show how the big bang theory and its evidence are consistent with existing understanding of nuclear processes in stars * Use evidence in order to explain the origin of the universe * Use celestial maps and models to understand the universe Unit 1: Earth, the Solar System and Universe. High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 Students will know (Knowledge): Students will be able to (Skills): * Evidence that supports the expansion of the universe * Laws governing the motion of celestial objects * Technology used to study the universe North Boone CUSD 200 * Observe and measure properties of waves and electromagnetic radiation * Create the solar system to scale * Demonstrate the relationship between temperature and absolute magnitude * Compare and contrast characteristics of planets: atmosphere, rotation/revolution, terrestrial/Jovian * Use a topographic model to construct a topographic map projection * Predict occurrences of equinoxes and solstices Unit 2: Dynamic Earth High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 STANDARDS HS-ESS1-5.: Evaluate evidence of the past and current movements of continental and oceanic crust and the theory of plate tectonics to explain the ages of crustal rocks. HS-ESS2-1.: Develop a model to illustrate how Earth's internal and surface processes operate at different spatial and temporal scales to form continental and ocean-floor features. HS-ESS2-3.: Develop a model based on evidence of Earth's interior to describe the cycling of matter by thermal convection. HS-ETS1-1.: Analyze a major global challenge to specify qualitative and quantitative criteria and constraints for solutions that account for societal needs and wants. HS-ETS1-2.: Design a solution to a complex real-world problem by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable problems that can be solved through engineering. HS-ETS1-3.: Evaluate a solution to a complex real-world problem based on prioritized criteria and trade-offs that account for a range of constraints, including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics as well as possible social, cultural, and environmental impacts. PRIORITY STANDARDS North Boone CUSD 200 Unit 2: Dynamic Earth High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 DESIRED RESULTS Enduring Understandings The earth is composed of multiple interacting layers. Continental rocks are generally much older than the rocks of the ocean floor. Plate tectonics explains movements of the rocks at Earth's surface and provides a framework for understanding it geologic history Plate movements are responsible for continental and ocean-floor features as well as the distribution of most rocks and minerals within Earth's crust Motions of the Earth's mantle and its plates occur primarily through the cycling of matter by thermal convection. Students will know (Knowledge): * Key vocabulary and concepts associated with the dynamics of the earth, including: fault, epicenter, continental margin, tectonic plate, divergent boundary, convergent boundary, transform boundary, mid-ocean ridge, subduction, oceanic trench, mantle convection, slab pull, ridge push, sedimentary rock, sediment, igneous rock, magma, metamorphic rock, rock cycle, active margin, passive margin, isostatic equilibrium, uplift, subsidence, seismogram, subduction * The types of mountain formations at the three lithospheric plate boundaries * And explain the elastic rebound theory's role in seismic activity * And explain the advantages and disadvantages of the two major earthquake scales North Boone CUSD 200 Essential Question(s) How do people reconstruct and date events in Earths planetary history? Why do the continents move, and what causes earthquakes and volcanoes? How do Earths major systems interact? Students will be able to (Skills): * Use key concepts and vocabulary associated with the dynamics of the earth in discussions, investigations, and problem solving about the dynamics of the earth * Use historical evidence and data to support the theory of continental drift * Compare and contrast geologic features at the three types of lithospheric plate boundaries * Explain the role of convection currents in the movement of lithospheric plates * Compare faulting and folding as a response to stress on rocks * Compare the role of three types of seismic waves in recording and measuring earthquakes * Describe the formation of volcanic features at the three major volcanic zones * Compare and contrast types of lava to the volcanic features that they form Unit 2: Dynamic Earth High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 \| Students will know (Knowledge): \| Students will be able to (Skills): \| \|---\|---\| \| \| • Summarize evidence for extraterrestrial volcanism within our solar system \| North Boone CUSD 200 Unit 3: Earth's History / Geologic Time High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 STANDARDS HS-ESS3-1.: Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the availability of natural resources, occurrence of natural hazards, and changes in climate have influenced human activity. HS-ESS3-2.: Evaluate competing design solutions for developing, managing, and utilizing energy and mineral resources based on cost-benefit ratios. HS-ESS3-4.: Evaluate or refine a technological solution that reduces impacts of human activities on natural systems. HS-ESS3-6.: Use a computational representation to illustrate the relationships among Earth systems and how those relationships are being modified due to human activity. PRIORITY STANDARDS North Boone CUSD 200 Unit 3: Earth's History / Geologic Time High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 DESIRED RESULTS Enduring Understandings Unique characteristics distinguish minerals from rocks. The rock cycle is an interactive system of transferring matter and energy. Scientists use geologic evidence to compile the rock record using absolute and relative dating techniques. The rock and fossil record have been used to compile a geologic time scale throughout earth's major time eras. Energy production and other resource extraction include economic, social, environmental, and geopolitical costs and risks and benefits. Scientists and engineers can make major contributions by developing technologies that produce less pollution and waste and that slow or stop ecosystem deterioration Students will know (Knowledge): * Key vocabulary and concepts associated with the earth's history and geologic time, including: crystal, element, mineral, compound, sedimentary rock, sediment, igneous rock, magma, metamorphic rock, rock cycle, fossil, relative age, absolute age, Precambrian, supercontinent, cyanobacteria, Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era, Cenozoic era, ice age, glacials, interglacials, nonrenewable, renewable, sustainable, fossil fuel, engineering design process, constraint, criterion, tradeoff, iterate, alloy, rare earth elements, mining, ore, recycle, reclamation, hydraulic fracturing, tar sand, oil shale, hydroelectric energy, tidal energy geothermal energy, natural resource, natural hazard, biodiversity North Boone CUSD 200 Essential Question(s) What characteristics distinguish minerals from rocks? How do the three major classifications of rock interact within the rock cycle? How is the rock record used to construct an account of species that lived on Earth in the past? What evidence is used to reconstruct earth's past? Students will be able to (Skills): * Use key concepts and vocabulary associated with the earth's history and geologic time in discussions, investigations, and problem solving about the dynamics of the earth * Classify minerals by comparing observations and information about specific minerals with various organizing schemes * Analyze systems and system processes within the rock cycle * Construct an explanation for how energy and matter interact through the rock cycle * Model fossil formation * Describe how fossils are used to interpret the history of life on Earth Unit 3: Earth's History / Geologic Time High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 Students will know (Knowledge): Students will be able to (Skills): * The principles used to evaluate relative and absolute ages from the rock record * The ways rock layers can be correlated * General principles of resource management * How earth's minerals are extracted and used in current technologies * How changes on Earth's surface can cause soil erosion * How mineral resource use has influenced human activity * How technological innovations can minimize the impacts of extracting fossil fuel resources * How the distribution of natural resources and natural hazards affects human population size and settlement patterns * How advances in engineering and technology influence relationships among natural resources, natural hazards, human population size, and human population settlement patterns North Boone CUSD 200 * Describe the separation of geologic time into segments * Describe the changes to Earth's surface over its lifespan * Relate the fossil record to theories of how life on earth developed and changed over time (evolution) * Characterize Precambrian time, and the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras based on their major events and abundant organisms * Construct explanations about changes that have occurred in Earth's past and may occur in Earth's future * Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable energy resources * Examine the different ways fossil fuel resources are extracted * Debate the pros and cons of different renewable energy resources * Construct explanations of how human activities, including population growth, can become sustainable Page 10 of 16 Unit 4: Weathering and Erosion High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 STANDARDS HS-ESS2-5.: Plan and conduct an investigation of the properties of water and its effects on Earth materials and surface processes. HS-ESS2-1.: Develop a model to illustrate how Earth's internal and surface processes operate at different spatial and temporal scales to form continental and ocean-floor features. PRIORITY STANDARDS HSESS2-5 Plan and conduct an investigation of the properties of water and its effects on Earth materials and surface processes. North Boone CUSD 200 Page 11 of 16 Unit 4: Weathering and Erosion High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 DESIRED RESULTS Enduring Understandings Earth's surface is constantly being altered by the processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition of material. The abundance of liquid water on Earth's surface and its unique combination of physical and chemical properties are central to the planet's dynamics. Water has exceptional capacity to: absorb, store, and release large amounts of energy; transmit sunlight; expand upon freezing; dissolve and transport materials; and lower the viscosities and melting points of rocks Students will know (Knowledge): * Key vocabulary and concepts associated with weathering and erosion of the the earth's surface, including: the water cycle, surface process, weathering, erosion, deposition, soil, horizon, drainage basin, delta, sinkhole, longshore current, glacier, moraine, plateau * How external energy and gravity drive processes at different scales of time, space, and quantity * The processes that break down rock and the scales at which they operate * The difference between an icecap and an ice sheet * How lateral, medial, and terminal moraines form * How the following glacial depositional features form: eskers, kames, and kettles * Erosional and depositional features produced by glaciers North Boone CUSD 200 Essential Question(s) How do the properties and movements of water shape Earth's surface and affect its systems? How do weathering and erosion affect the earth's surface features and materials? What are the factors or variables that affect weathering and erosion? Students will be able to (Skills): * Use key concepts and vocabulary associated with the weathering and erosion of the earth's surface in discussions, investigations, and problem solving about the dynamics of the earth * Model different ways material is moved down and across earth's surface * Compare and contrast the ways material is deposited and how soil develops and changes * Develop a model to illustrate how earth's internal and surface processes operate at different spatial and temporal scales to form continental and ocean-floor features * Predict some erosional landforms formed by glacial ice * Observe how sediments carried from the lower part of a glacier to their sites of deposition * Plan and conduct an investigation of the properties of water and its effects on earth's materials and surface processes Page 12 of 16 Unit 5: The Hydrosphere High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 STANDARDS HS-ESS2-1.: Develop a model to illustrate how Earth's internal and surface processes operate at different spatial and temporal scales to form continental and ocean-floor features. HS-ETS1-1.: Analyze a major global challenge to specify qualitative and quantitative criteria and constraints for solutions that account for societal needs and wants. HS-ETS1-2.: Design a solution to a complex real-world problem by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable problems that can be solved through engineering. HS-ETS1-3.: Evaluate a solution to a complex real-world problem based on prioritized criteria and trade-offs that account for a range of constraints, including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics as well as possible social, cultural, and environmental impacts. HS-ESS2-5.: Plan and conduct an investigation of the properties of water and its effects on Earth materials and surface processes. PRIORITY STANDARDS North Boone CUSD 200 Page 13 of 16 Unit 5: The Hydrosphere High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 DESIRED RESULTS Enduring Understandings Water is an essential resource for living things as well as an important agent of change for earth's surface. The Earth's hydrosphere is dynamic and interactive, and significantly contributes to changes that occur throughout the Earth's various systems. Students will know (Knowledge): * Key concepts and vocabulary associated with earth's water, including: hydrosphere, reservoir, universal solvent, energy, sediments, salinity, seafloorspreading hypothesis, oceanic trench, ooze, sea-level rise, * Salt water is not potable and must undergo costly desalination processes for human consumption also that potentially causes adverse consequence * The earth's mantle contains a large amount of water, perhaps more than all of earth's oceans. * Ocean water carries sediment from land that has been deposited along the edges of continents to other parts of the ocean floor * Rock of the ocean floor does not weather as quickly as rock exposed on land. * Material from organisms such as corals and the shells of dead microscopic organisms can grow into very large structures on the ocean floor and have a large effect on it * The role of scientific data and research in providing information and proposing solutions on the sustainability of plans for using ocean resources North Boone CUSD 200 Essential Question(s) How do the properties and movements of water shape Earth's surface and affect its systems? Students will be able to (Skills): * Use key concepts and vocabulary associated with the earth's water in discussions, investigations, and problem solving * Cite and explain the empirical evidence that supports the seafloor-spreading hypothesis * Cite and explain a major cause of sea-level rise and local and regional factors affecting the rate of sealevel change * Analyze the positive and negative impacts of extracting natural resources from the ocean * Model the interaction of the earth, the sun, and the moon in order to explain the difference between spring tides and neap tides Page 14 of 16 Unit 6: Atmospheric Force and Weather High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 STANDARDS HS-ESS2-2.: Analyze geoscience data to make the claim that one change to Earth's surface can create feedbacks that cause changes to other Earth systems. HS-ESS2-4.: Use a model to describe how variations in the flow of energy into and out of Earth's systems result in changes in climate. HS-ESS3-5.: Analyze geoscience data and the results from global climate models to make an evidence-based forecast of the current rate of global or regional climate change and associated future impacts to Earth systems. PRIORITY STANDARDS North Boone CUSD 200 Page 15 of 16 Unit 6: Atmospheric Force and Weather High School - Earth Science - Last Updated on March 21, 2019 DESIRED RESULTS Enduring Understandings The foundation for earth's global climate system is the reflection, absorption, storage, and redistribution of the suns energy among the atmosphere, the ocean, land systems and out space. Changes to global and regional climate that occur on a variety of time scales can be caused by interactions among changes in: the Sun's energy output, the earth's orbit, tectonic events, ocean circulation, volcanic activity, glaciers, vegetation, and human activities. The magnitude of human impacts are great; however, so to are human abilities to model, predict, and manage current and future impacts Students will know (Knowledge): * Key concepts and vocabulary associated with atmospheric force and weather, including: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, weather, air temperature, precipitation, cloud cover, humidity, air pressure, wind speed and direction, weather instruments (barometer, hygrometers or psychrometers, anemometers, thermometers), Coriolis effect, air mass, fronts (cold, warm, stationary, occluded, climate, climate change * How energy from the sun is distributed on earth * Some causes for climate change, including: volcanism, orbital changes, plate tectonics, changes in atmospheric composition * How humans effect climate and the increase of carbon dioxide North Boone CUSD 200 Essential Question(s) How does water continually move between Earth's surface and the atmosphere? What regulates weather and climate? How does solar energy flow from the sun to earth, within earth's spheres, and between earth's spheres? How have natural processes and human activities changed earth's atmosphere and climate over time? How do changes in earth's atmosphere, weather, and climate affect other systems on earth? Students will be able to (Skills): * Use key concepts and vocabulary associated with atmospheric force and weather in discussions, investigations, and problem solving * Describe the composition of Earth's atmosphere and explain the cycling of gases in it * Compare the characteristics of each layer of earth's atmosphere * Describe and/or create a model of various paths water might take through the water cycle as it moves between earth's surface reservoirs and the atmosphere. * Construct explanations about how interactions among earth's systems affect weather * Explore the climate component of temperature and precipitation * Distinguish between 'average' and 'range' to describe the following climate conditions: polar, dry, tropical, temperate, and continental Page 16 of 16	<urn:uuid:f9b584b3-0121-4d20-8c82-0be614144a3d>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.nbcusd.org/wp-content/uploads/High-School-Earth-Science.pdf	2021-10-24T06:40:58+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00091.warc.gz	1,084,010,169	4,681	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.91139	eng_Latn	0.989596	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 120, 956, 3491, 4238, 5449, 7818, 8092, 8873, 11306, 13011, 13616, 16082, 17148, 19290, 19969, 22644 ]	[ 3.859375, 4.25 ]	1	0
Imperial 1.0 - 2.9 Owners Manual Intermountain Water Manufacturing Excellence Since 1966 1-800-454-3429 Table of Contents How your Imperial Water Softener Works Every day, thousands of billions of tons of water evaporate from the earth's surface. As the heat of the sun evaporates the water and draws it from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, many impurities are left behind. The water vapor eventually cools to form clouds and then falls back to earth as precipitation. On it's way from the clouds to your faucet, soft rain water dissolves and absorbs a part of almost everything is passes. The falling rain cleans the air as it falls. Unfortunately the impurities that were removed from the air have not left us, they have just been relocated through the water onto the ground. Gases and other contaminants cause undesirable tastes, colors and odors. Water falls upon the ground, collecting sediments like rust, sand and algae. The water eventually finds its way to a surface water supply or percolates downward and collects in an aquifer. As it percolates through the earth, the water can absorb hardness minerals, iron, heavy metals, radioactivity, organic contaminants, and many other complex elements and compounds. Water can also collect numerous harmful man-made chemical impurities throughout this cycle. These chemicals are generally odorless, colorless, tasteless and can often be life-threatening. The statement, "my parents drank this water for 75 years and it never killed them", is no longer a valid excuse to not be concerned with water quality. There has been a massive global increase in harmful chemical waste over the last 50 years. The scientific and medical community has not had time or the ability to study the long-term health effects of the more than 70,000 harmful chemicals that can be found in use today. Approximately 1,000 new synthetic chemical compounds are entering the industrial marketplace each and every year. Precipitation falls upon commercial and municipal dumpsites, toxic waste sites, industrial refuse depots, military test sites, leach fields, mining operations, farmers fields etc... Where it dissolves minute amounts of the toxic chemicals present and carries them along. The United States Government estimated in 1986 that close to two percent of the nation's ground water supplies were moderately polluted by sources such as hazardous waste dumps and leaking landfills. Industrial wastewater is also a major source of water contamination. When certain chemicals come in contact with others, they create new compounds. Chemicals that are considered generally acceptable in controlled amounts may react with other elements and/or chemicals to form new compounds that could be highly carcinogenic. Chlorine is one of the best-publicized examples; it reacts with organic matter in water and forms deadly trihalomethanes. Hard water is probably the single largest threat facing the American home in the 21st century. Hard water can coat your family, your home and your appliances with thousands of pounds of inorganic mineral rockscale each and every year; Hard water slowly destroys everything it touches. Left untreated, hard water costs you money, ruins your lifestyle and can even lower the value of your home. No one needs to tell you that you're living with Hard Water though. Soap doesn't lather easily, glasses are cloudy after washing, a ring forms around the bathtub, faucets and shower heads are crusty, laundering results are poor and there are many other easily recognized signs. There are several degrees of Water Hardness. Even if it is moderately hard, it can seriously damage the plumbing system in your home and, in time, cause inconvenient and expensive problems. Hard water is a poor solvent because it is loaded with a variety of impurities. These dissolved impurities react with certain chemicals found in soap to form a gummy, insoluble curd. This soap curd clings stubbornly to everything it touches. The ring around your bathtub is curd. That same curd causes your hair to become dull and hard to manage. Soap curd clogs skin pores and prevents your natural oils from moisturizing your skin. This dryness causes itching and also aggravates skin conditions like psoriasis, eczema and acne. Soap curd is especially noticeable by the scummy film it forms on dishes, glassware, walls and floors. Hardness and other dissolved solids combine to form the residue you see as spots on glasses, crockery, cutlery and shower enclosures. Hard water harms fabrics Laundry washed in hard water takes on a gray color and wears out faster than expected. With hard water in your washing machine, it's almost impossible to wash clothes white - even when you use large amounts of detergent and bleach Minerals and insoluble particles in hard water trap dirt and soap curd in the fabric of your clothes and linens. These deposits give fabric a dull gray "washed-out" look and cause the clothing fibers to be brittle. Your clothes and linens then feel harsh and rough they deteriorate faster. Hard water harms foods Some vegetables such as peas and beans become tough and unpalatable when cooked in hard water. Baking with hard water imparts an undesirable taste from the hardness minerals into your food. Tea, Coffee and other beverages prepared with hard water taste awful and often contain flakes of hardness. Hard water affects your house plumbing Perhaps the greatest damage done by hard water is the damage that you can't easily see. Water heaters, humidifiers, boilers and household pipes become lined with an increasingly thick layer of calcium and magnesium scale. As this scale builds up, the water flow in your pipes diminishes to such a point that new piping is usually the only realistic option to remedy the situation. Hard water scale inside a water heater forms an insulating layer that prevents the burners or heating elements from heating the water efficiently. Just 1/8" of scale inside the tank can require up to 30% more fuel to heat the water to the desired temperature. How water hardness is measured Water hardness is measured in imperial Grains per Gallon (gpg). A grain, in this case, is the weight of an average dry grain of wheat, approximately 1/7000 th of a pound. The water treatment industry generally uses the following standards to classify water hardness. \| Soft Water \| 0 - 0.5 gpg \| \|---\|---\| \| Slightly Hard Water \| .5 - 3.5 gpg \| \| Moderately Hard Water \| 3.5 - 7 gpg \| \| Very Hard Water \| 7 - 10.5 gpg \| \| Extremely Hard Water \| 10.5 gpg and greater \| THE CRIMES OF HARD WATER Increased Water Heating Costs Damaged Clothing Excessive Soap Consumption Pipe Scaling Faucet and Fixture Deterioration Skin Problems Unpalatable Food Undesirable Tastes and Odors Principles of Ion Exchange The smallest units that make up chemical compounds and still retain the properties of those compounds are called molecules. Molecules are made up of atoms or groups of atoms. Electrically charged atoms are called ions. The charge of a single ion can be either positive or negative - Ions of metals and of hydrogen are usually positively charged and are called cations. Ions such as chlorine, nitrate, phosphate, fluoride and sulfates are negatively charged and called anions. Certain insoluble materials are made up of large ions forming a skeletal structure containing oppositely charged ions. These ions can be exchanged with other similar ions in an ion exchange. The first commercial application of ion exchange was water softening in 1905. Since then, ion exchange has been the most reliable method of softening water in homes and industry. The softening of water by ion exchange relies on the replacement of the calcium and magnesium ions in the water by an equivalent number of sodium ions. The softening process may be illustrated by the following equation:- Obviously, the system can only exchange a certain amount of hardness and other contaminants. This is referred to as the capacity of the resin. The capacity of the resin is referred to as grains of calcium carbonate hardness removed per cubic foot of resin or Milliequivalents per liter. When the capacity has been exhausted, the resin needs to be regenerated with a solution of sodium chloride (brine) as follows:- Your Imperial Water Softening System can be regenerated with Potassium Chloride if desired. Over the years, the composition of ion exchange media has advanced, reflecting global technological advances. Ion exchange resins used in your Imperial Water Softener are made in the USA, without harmful toxic solvents. Designed to be physically and chemically strong while removing the maximum amount of hardness contamination from water. The Imperial water softener brand has been trusted by America for more than 40 years, and continues to provide comprehensive protection from hard water to an entirely new generation of American families. Your responsibilities as an equipment owner Your Imperial Water Softening System is manufactured to be efficient and very reliable. To ensure continued performance and keep your system operating within manufacturer's specifications, the following operating conditions must be ensured by you, the equipment owner: Water Pressure Regulator The influent water pressure into this water system must be regulated by a code-compliant pressure-regulating device not to exceed 75psi. Power Protection Power to this system must be supplied by an unswitched 110VAC supply. Surge protection is mandatory and is to be supplied by you, the equipment owner. The use of a UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) is encouraged. Salt This water system uses salt to clean itself. The brine tank must be filled with a high quality pellet or cubed salt to ensure system operation. Rock salt is not suitable for this system, as it usually contains high levels of impurities that can possibly compromise the system functionality. Hydroclear The Hydroclear performance injector should be kept full to ensure proper system operation and maximum efficiency. Check the level of your Hydroclear feeder each time you fill your brine tank with salt. Annual Inspection Water chemistry changes over the years and will have an effect on your system's ability to do its job. Natural attrition on the system will usually occur at 3-5% per year when protected with Hydroclear. Your system should be inspected and recalibrated annually to ensure your system is performing at optimum levels and that you stay current with the latest technologies. Annual inspections are free of charge to Platinum customers. System Programming & Adjustments The Imperial Water Softening System incorporates a highly sophisticated microprocessor control system, making it as efficient and reliable as possible. All system settings are pre-programmed at the factory and then carefully calibrated by your installer for your exact water chemistry. Your Imperial Water Softener Control incorporates EEPROM memory and a 24-hour power backup system, which means that your system programming never has to be reset, even in the event of an extended power outage. End-user programming is generally not necessary. If you need to change programming, the following procedure should be used:- 1. Press the STAR button to enter programming mode. - Use the UP & DOWN buttons to set the current time of day. The time of day is very important to the correct operation of the system. 2. Press the STAR button. - Use the UP & DOWN buttons to set the current water hardness level. The water hardness level should only be changed after a complete water analysis has been performed. 3. Press the STAR button. - Use the UP & DOWN buttons to set day override. The day override setting is designed to help protect your system from potential bacterial growth. This setting allows you to choose how often a mandatory regeneration is performed to ensure that the water is not allowed to stagnate. 7 Days is the factory recommended setting. 4. Press the STAR button. - Use the UP & DOWN buttons to set the regeneration time. When the system determines that regeneration is necessary, it will clean itself at the designated regeneration time. During regeneration, the system bypasses itself automatically from the house water to protect you from the salt and hydroclear used during the cleaning process. The regeneration time should be scheduled during a period of no water usage activity, such as 2am in the morning. 5. Press the STAR button. - Within 10 Seconds, system will start a manual regeneration cycle. This will clean the system and reset the capacity counter. During a cycle, the individual steps can be interrupted and advanced to the next step by pressing the STAR button. Interrupting a regeneration cycle is not recommended. 6. Press the STAR button one more time to exit programming. System Diagnostics Mode System Diagnostic Mode is designed to help you or your Authorized Intermountain Water Repair Agent understand the dynamics of the operation of your system. To enter diagnostics mode, press the UP ARROW for 5 seconds The system will display various program statistics and settings as follows: - Press the STAR button to view the next setting/statistic Hardness The hardness setting programmed into the system Programmed in Grains per Gallons (GPG) Regen XXX Days ago The number of days since the system last regenerated. If 0 (zero) is displayed, then the system cleaned today In Service XXXX Days The number of days since the system was originally installed Number of Regens XXXX The number of regenerations since the system was installed Peak Flow xx gpm The peak rate at which you have ever used water in your home since installation of the system. Average Volume XX GL/Day The average consumption of water per day in your home. Power Outage XX The number of power outages sensed by the system since original installation. Power Surge/Sage XX The number of power surges and/or sags since original system installation. ImpXXX IMPXX.XX The system software revision & default program setting code EXIT Press the UP arrow to exit diagnostics mode or scroll though the settings again with the STAR button When and How to Bypass your Imperial Water Softener Your Imperial Water Softening System is supplied with a code compliant bypass device. This bypass allows the Imperial to be completely isolated from the household plumbing. Normal System Operating Mode Turn the left and right handles so they are parallel with the pipe; and turn the top handle so it is perpendicular to the pipe as shown below. Water enters the system on the right side, and exits the system on the left side. System Bypass Mode Turn the left and right handles so they are perpendicular to the pipe; and turn the top handle so it is parallel to the pipe as shown below. Water enters the bypass on the right side, and exits the bypass on the left side. Water does not pass through the system at any time. When should I bypass my system ? Your system should be bypassed if any of the following occurs:- - System leaks - Unusual noises from system System Installation & Startup Procedures 1. Clear the installation area and sweep the area where the brine tank will be placed. 2. Test home water pressure and make sure it is 75psi static or below. 3. Check to confirm that the water heater has adequate heat expansion protection to protect the softener from hot water damage. 4. Connect to house plumbing using code approved methods & materials and ensure that a bypass device is installed. 5. Install surge protector or UPS for softener. 6. Plug softener in to power. 7. Install 3/8" ID PEX pipe or equivalent to the softener drain fitting and terminate to drain in a code-approved manner. 8. Connect brine tank to softener using 3/8" OD polytube supplied with brine tank 9. Bypass Softener. 10. Run bathtub cold to purge piping of debris and chemical residue from installation, this will take approx. 5 minutes at 3gpm. 11. Leave bathtub running and slowly open the inlet valve to the water softener. 12. Slowly open the outlet valve from the water softener. 13. Observe flow of water from the bathtub. Water will become a dark amber color. This color is caused by the system disinfectant/preservative. Allow water to run until clear. Observe water for resin particles. If resin particles are found in the water, immediately bypass the system and call tech-support. 14. Turn off bathtub cold 15. Press the star button to enter programming mode a. Set the clock with the up & down arrows, then press star b. Enter the measured water hardness at the installation location, then press star c. Enter the anti-bacterial override interval ( 7 is the default), then press star d. Set the time of regeneration, then press star e. The system will countdown for 10 seconds before it begins a regeneration. Press star to cancel, or let it begin regeneration. 16. Observe the system during each cycle and advance to the next cycle by pressing the star button 17. Leave the system in the Refill cycle to fill the brine tank with water. Intermountain Water 1 st year of ownership Limited Lifetime Warranty This residential water system is warranted as to workmanship and material for a period of one year from date of original installation at the original installation site, if properly installed by an Intermountain Water Certified Installer. Should any component in your system prove defective in the first year, it will be repaired, rebuilt or replaced at our option, provided it is returned directly to us. After the 1 st year of ownership, should any component in your system prove defective after the first year, it will be repaired, rebuilt or replaced at our option for a maximum charge of $50.00, provided it is returned directly to us. Labor, transportation, shipping or other charges incurred in the diagnosis, replacement or repair of defective components are not covered by this warranty. If you choose not to send a defective component back to us, repairs to your system can be conducted in your home by a factory authorized service technician if your home is within the operating radius of an Intermountain authorized repair center. This warranty does not cover transportation, shipping, diagnosis, replacement and repair charges resulting from your in-home repair request. Intermountain Water or its subsidiaries will not be held responsible for loss or damage caused by any defective component. This warranty must be presented at time of claim and all claims must be presented within 30 days of occurrence. This warranty is void if your water system is not installed in compliance with prevailing plumbing codes, or if the influent water temperature is hotter than 90 0 F or where the static water pressure is less than 25psi, or more than 90psi. Intentional/malicious damage, misuse, neglect, unauthorized modifications or accidental damage to the system are not covered by this warranty. This warranty does not cover damage caused by pressure surges, water hammer, power surges or sags, lightning, fire, flood, freezing, earthquake, acts of God or other casualty. Your water system is subject to normal wear and tear during its usable service life. Wear and tear is not regarded as a product defect and is not covered by this warranty. Your water system includes a Hydroclear performance-enhancing injection system in the salt tank. The Hydroclear performance-enhancing additive is essential to proper functioning of your system. If Hydroclear is not added to the injection system at the prescribed interval in your owner's manual, this warranty will be void. This limited lifetime warranty is only valid if registered within 10 days of initial installation. If unregistered, this warranty is only valid for 1 year from the date of original manufacture.	<urn:uuid:56e717f6-2b2c-4760-be27-c11c23c66a8b>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://intermountainsoftwater.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/126591932-Imperial-1-to-3-Manual.pdf	2021-10-24T06:04:58+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00092.warc.gz	433,139,648	4,095	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.940833	eng_Latn	0.997937	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 107, 126, 1592, 2604, 4560, 6133, 6855, 8479, 9028, 10715, 12124, 12996, 14350, 14835, 15277, 17266, 20030 ]	[ 3.75, 0.8359375 ]	11	4
Grammar videos: Comparative and superlative adjectives – exercises Watch the video and read the conversation between Sophie and Giovanni. Then do these exercises to check your understanding of comparative and superlative adjectives. 1. Check your grammar: true or false – comparatives and superlatives Are these sentences True or False? 2. Check your grammar: gap fill writing – comparatives and superlatives Write the words to fill the gaps. Use comparatives and superlatives. 1. The clothes here are _______________________ (good) than in my town. 2. That’s my _______________________ (bad) mark ever! 3. It’s _______________________ (far) than I thought – I think we’re lost. 4. That’s the _______________________ (disgusting) meal I’ve ever had! 5. I hope your team’s _______________________ (lucky) today than last week. 6. They’re _______________________ (happy) in their new school than in their old one. 7. It’s the _______________________ (good) song on the album. 8. Your spaghetti sauce is _______________________ (tasty) than my mum’s. 3. Check your grammar: multiple choice – comparatives and superlatives Circle the correct sentence. 1. a. The more amazing thing just happened to me! b. The most amazing thing just happened to me! c. The amazingest thing just happened to me! 2. a. He's a lot taller than you. b. He's a lot taller you. c. He's a lot taller from you. 3. a. She's worst than me at maths. b. She's worse than me at maths. c. She's more bad than me at maths. 4. a. He's the most good in the team at goal scoring. b. He's the best in the team at goal scoring. c. He's best in the team at goal scoring. 5. a. This pizza isn't as good as Alfie's. b. This pizza isn't as good Alfie's. c. This pizza isn't as best Alfie's. 6. a. It's frighteninger if you look down. b. It's more frightening if you look down. c. It's the frightening if you look down. 7. a. Where's the most cheap place to eat? b. Where's the more cheap place to eat? c. Where's the cheapest place to eat? 8. a. I've been running a lot. I think I'm faster now. b. I've been running a lot. I think I'm more fast now. c. I've been running a lot. I think I'm more faster now. Discussion Which meal do you think is tastier, fish and chips or pizza? Where do you get the best pizza where you live?	<urn:uuid:d81f1cce-da4d-4799-9b31-770a07962e6a>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/sites/teens/files/gs_comparatives_and_superlatives_-_exercises.pdf	2021-10-24T07:41:34+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00094.warc.gz	473,569,713	593	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997947	eng_Latn	0.999365	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1062, 2307 ]	[ 3.90625 ]	1	1
General Information English 1 hour per day Maths 1 hour per day Topic 1hour per day Home Schooling Weekly Outline Avon and Chelt 22 nd June 2020 - Please continue to post photos and videos to your individual portfolios. Mrs Vernall will respond Monday to Wednesday as she is in school on a Thursday and Friday. - Mr Gotobed will respond on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday as he is in school on a Monday and Tuesday. - All resources where indicated have been loaded on to a Year 3 Padlet Page. Please click on the link below. Where the Power points are too big to attach to the Padlet Page they will be attached on the Class Dojo page. Thank you. https://padlet.com/cgotobed/nal4fv4i6h4q5x1p - Daily BBC Bitesize lesson – containing reading, writing and SPaG: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/tags/zmyxxyc/year-3-and-p4-lessons/1 - Spellings Week 4- Spelling Grid and activity on Year 3 Padlet page. Please also continue with your own spellings from the Bronze and Copper spellings cards - Daily Reading or Bug Club - Grammar Activities on Bug Club - Writing- Write a non-chronological report about a rainforest animal or animals. What does it look like? Where does it live? (which layer), What does it eat? Interesting facts. Use headings and sub-headings. Power point on how to write a report on Padlet. Follow the lessons on either of these sites. They are covering the same topics. - BBC Bitesize Maths https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/tags/zmyxxyc/year-3-and-p4-lessons/1 - White Rose Maths- see sheet on Padlet for links to resources. https://whiterosemaths.com/homelearning/year-3/ - Daily- Learning Multiplication Tables : Times Tables Rockstars or similar - Number Bonds / Hit the Button - Weekly Challenge- count on from any number in 3's, 5's Twinkl Worksheet available on Class Padlet page. Rainforest animals week - Animals-research Rainforest animals and write a non-chronological report. Power point on Class Dojo. Fact sheets on Padlet Page Find out what they look like, where they live, what they eat and any interesting facts. Then, present your report in as imaginative way as possible. Use headings and sub-headings. Here are 2 suggestions for researching animals: https://www.oddizzi.com/teachers/explore-the-world/physical- features/ecosystems/rainforests/animals/ https://www.activewild.com/rainforest-animals-list/#animals-index - Animal prints and patterns. Look at the Power point on animal patterns. Either draw and colour a repeated pattern based on an animal in the rainforest or try printing a pattern. You could use potatoes or cardboard and string to make a printing block. See Power points on animal patterns on the Padlet page Look at this video on BBC Teach for ideas on how to do print making. https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/class-clips-video/art-and-design-printmakingdifferent-materials/zhytscw Other - Mindfulness- Take time to relax. Read a story. Activities on Padlet Page- Be Kind to yourself and Mindfulness Challenge Cards. - Daily Exercise- Daily P.E- Joe Wicks, Cosmic Yoga, Go Noodle - Take a walk with your family or go for a bike ride. - We will post a video each week to say hello and read a story.	<urn:uuid:ed889a73-ebe2-4525-bb10-ed09597c920a>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://partonmanorfed.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Year-3-June-22nd.pdf	2021-10-24T06:27:52+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00093.warc.gz	570,086,943	777	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996659	eng_Latn	0.995749	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2844, 3163 ]	[ 3.234375 ]	1	0
Four Corners Aggressiveness and Fitness Drill Chris Johnson 373,371 Views Rating 4.11 (135 Reviews) This soccer drill focuses on aggressiveness in winning 50/50 balls and fitness. This drill will be more beneficial for players under 8 and older. Four Corners Aggressiveness and Fitness Soccer Drill This soccer drill focuses on aggressiveness in winning 50/50 balls and fitness. This drill will be more beneficial for players under 8 and older. Drill Setup 1. Create a grid that is 30x30 yards. 2. Create 4 teams and have them stand at each of the four corner cones. 3. The coach positions himself outside the grid near the middle of 2 side cones with an abundant supply of soccer balls. Drill Instructions 1. The coach plays a ball into the center of the grid and shouts out a command (such as "GO") to begin play. 2. The first player in each of the 4 lines must sprint after the ball in an attempt to reach the ball first. 3. Once a player wins the ball cleanly, the player must hold possession from the other players for 5 seconds before passing the ball back to the coach. 4. If any player steals the ball from the person in possession, that player then attempts to hold possession for 5 seconds. 5. A team scores a point by successfully holding possession for 5 seconds and making a return pass to the coach. 6. The first team to reach 5 points wins. Drill Variations - The coach can play different types of balls such as flighted balls, bouncing balls, rolling balls, balls with large amounts of top or back spin. Drill Coaching Points - Players should be taught to go after the ball aggressively with speed, determination and vigor. Equipment - Disc Cones - Mini or Full-Size Disc Cones are a critical piece of equipment that every soccer coach must have in your equipment bag. - Scrimmage Pinnies/Vests - Scrimmage vests, also called bibs or pinnies, are also another must-have in your soccer coaching equipment bag. - Soccer Practice or Training Balls - Every player should have a soccer balls at practice to have a successful training session. Drill Ages - 4 - U4, Under 4, 4 and Under - 5 - U5, Under 5, 5 and Under - 6 - U6, Under 6, 6 and Under - 7 - U7, Under 7, 7 and Under - 8 - U8, Under 8, 8 and Under - 9 - U9, Under 9, 9 and Under - 10 - U10, Under 10, 10 and Under - 11 - U11, Under 11, 11 and Under - 12 - U12, Under 12, 12 and Under - 13 - U13, Under 13, 13 and Under - 14 - U14, Under 14, 14 and Under - 15 - U15, Under 15, 15 and Under - 16 - U16, Under 16, 16 and Under Soccer Drill Skill Focus - Dribbling - Soccer Dribbling Drills - Receiving - Soccer Receiving & Turning Drills - Fitness - Soccer Fitness Drills Soccer Drill Titled: Four Corners Aggressiveness and Fitness Drill Tagged: Four Corners Aggressiveness and Fitness Soccer Drill Published by: Chris Johnson	<urn:uuid:0d128807-c178-438f-a1dd-511e064007a5>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://sites-sasa.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/27141332/7v7_FourCorners_AggressivenessandFitnessDrill.pdf	2021-10-24T06:37:29+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00093.warc.gz	646,527,478	748	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.980566	eng_Latn	0.996466	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1210, 2661, 2820 ]	[ 3.046875 ]	1	0
Allied Health Expert team around you At NextSense, we have a dedicated team of allied health professionals working with children and adults who are deaf, hard of hearing, blind or have low vision. Occupational therapy Orthoptic services Speech therapy Physiotherapy Psychology Occupational therapy Our expert team of occupational therapists can work with you or your child to achieve increased independence and participation goals. Here are some things we can help with: * Everyday skills such as cutlery use, dressing, bathing, drinking from a cup, combing hair, accessing technology, and preparing meals. * Play skills such as playing with others, using toys, giving sport a go, catching balls, climbing, balancing, and construction. * Hand skills such as picking up small things, stacking blocks, drawing, handwriting, using scissors, and pre-braille skills. * Posture and movement such as positioning support for seating, bedding, travel, bathing and toileting. * Coping with change such as a break in routine in sensory environments. * Getting around such as wheelchair use and car travel. Orthoptic services NextSense orthoptists provide support for children and adults with a disability or additional needs who may have vision loss. Our team can offer information about you or your child's level of vision—including optimising vision for daily activities. The team are also experienced working with people who are non-verbal, who may use alternative modes of communication, and have cognitive or physical impairments. Here's a few things NextSense orthoptists can help with: * Functional vision assessments tailored to age and developmental level. * Vision screening. * Support with low vision aids, and computer technology assessments and training. * Environmental assessments—in the home, the classroom, the workplace or elsewhere. * Information and support for families of people who are blind or have low vision, and those close to them—including teachers and colleagues. * Provide comprehensive reports with strategies according to goals. Physiotherapy Our expert team of physiotherapists can work with you or your child to develop confidence with physical movement, coordination, agility, and balance. NextSense physiotherapists can work on the following skills: * posture * coordination * aquatic physiotherapy * agility and balance * gross motor skills * mobility * accessing recreational and physical activities. * equipment needs * sitting and walking, when these milestones are delayed. * activities in the home, school or community. Psychology Our expert team of psychologists start with you—and your goals. Based on the goals, individual psychology sessions are available, which can help in the following areas for children and adults with hearing or vision loss: * Specialised assessments and specific recommendations. * Supporting transitions, including from primary school to high school. * Working with the people that support you or your child, including teachers and therapists. * Identification of any factors impacting on learning and communication. * Counselling and therapy intervention to support children and families when they need it most. Speech therapy Our expert team of speech pathologists can help you or your child to redefine what's possible. Here's just a few focus areas: * communication for toddlers and infants * understanding instructions * speech clarity * sentence building * conversation and social participation * preschool and classroom skills * augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Makuei's speech pathologist helped him transition to school, working closely with his family and teachers to develop speech and language. Now, Makuei is thriving at NextSense School Spoken Language Program. Why choose NextSense for your allied health We work towards best practice frameworks, which means you or your child is receiving the best possible support. We're dedicated to working closely with you or your child, as well as families, teachers and other healthcare professionals to ensure development of skills across different environments. You'll have the flexibility to choose where and when sessions take place. From the home to an educational setting; a workplace to a program location; or at one of many centres around Australia. We work toward achieving you or your child's NDIS goals—improving independence, functional skills and participation—or whatever they are. We're a team. That means the support you receive from our NextSense allied health professionals is shared with the other NextSense experts who support you—ensuring that together we create an individual program of care that meets your unique needs. The NextSense difference We're for everyone, right across Australia. No matter your age, your needs, or where you live, we reach the people who need us. Australia's largest cochlear implant program. We provide access to leading professionals and ongoing care for thousands of Australians. Our dedicated people. Our wide range of experts work holistically to create a program of care that's unique to you. Not-for-profit service. That means we can focus on your needs. Registered NDIS provider. We partner with you on your NDIS journey. Redefining what's possible NextSense is a not-for-profit that provides dedicated, innovative, and customised services aimed at breaking down barriers for children, adults and families of people with hearing or vision loss. We rely on a generous network of support— from donors to volunteers. To find out more or get involved, go to nextsense.org.au Take the next step 1300 581 391 firstname.lastname@example.org We'll connect you with an experienced team member to discuss your needs. 'NextSense' is a registered trade mark of Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children (ABN 53 443 272 865)	<urn:uuid:1e375fc8-02d2-43be-8451-1604bfb83d78>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.nextsense.org.au/assets/downloads/NextSense_Allied-Health_web.pdf	2021-10-24T06:41:35+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00094.warc.gz	1,081,898,936	1,166	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997036	eng_Latn	0.997678	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 13, 282, 2063, 3192, 3776, 5260, 5852 ]	[ 2.140625 ]	2	0
May 2005 PO Box 176, New Paltz, N Y 12561-0176 Telephone 845-255-3223 Fax: 845-255-0624 Website: www.hasbrouckfamily.org E-Mail: firstname.lastname@example.org ©Copyright 2005 Hasbrouck Family Association Inc PRESIDENT'S REPORT OUR HOUSES After a harsh winter on Huguenot Street, spring has finally returned, and the houses opened for tours on April 30. The tour status of the three Hasbrouck houses is not normal; see details in the Our Houses item below. If you visit the Street, bring your membership card for free tours and a 10% discount (excluding books) at the museum shop in the DuBois Fort. Last month the HFA Board of Directors reviewed the membership dues schedule and voted to recommend an increase from $15 to $20 for annual dues, from $300 to $350 for life memberships to age 65, and from $150 to $200 for life memberships at age 65 and over. Since $10 of each annual dues goes to HHS, only $5 is left for HFA, and that is not even enough to pay for these newsletters. Virtually all the other family associations are already at $20 or higher, and the Board feels that HFA needs at least a $20 level for the near future. Likewise, a $50 increase for life memberships is very modest in relation to the multi-year benefits involved. Our bylaws stipulate that changes in dues levels must be approved by the general membership, so this proposal will be included on your proxy forms in September and the voting completed at our annual business meeting on October 8. If approved, the higher levels will become effective for the year beginning October 2006. Robert W. Hasbrouck, Jr. Abraham Hasbrouck House Work should commence this month to complete the underground drainage project for carrying gutter runoff away from the house. This will allow removal of the very unhistoric and bizarre-looking green plastic drainpipes now handling the flow at each corner. A ventilation regimen consisting of a combination of cellar fan and window openings is in use, and moisture monitors around the house are providing feedback on the effectiveness of these measures. By the time we have achieved verified success with our moisture control efforts, HFA and HHS should have agreed on an interpretation plan to guide us in completing restoration of the house and resuming "normal" tours. Meanwhile, it will be open for tours this season with the same interim displays as last year. In addition, HHS is planning to acquire a case which will enable us to display a sampling of the many interesting artifacts found during the archaeological excavations last fall. Jean Hasbrouck House The timetable for rebuilding the north wall has encountered a frustrating delay. The NY State archaeologist is requiring additional work at the site, which will not only delay the project but also add about $40,000 to its cost. The bidding process has been set back from early spring to fall, and the work is now scheduled to begin in the spring of 2006 – a year behind the original schedule. In addition, the furnishings were removed in anticipation of the original '05 work schedule, so the house will still be closed for tours this year and also next year due to the project delay. As for funding, HHS received two more small grants (totaling $8,000) but still needs about $200,000 to cover the total cost of the project. To avoid further delay, it will initially pay these costs from its own endowment fund, but that fund must be restored and, in fact, substantially increased if HHS is to be able to fulfill its mission to maintain the Street and continue to expand its educational activities. HFA maintains an account for Jean House contributions, and we hope you'll be generous in supporting this unique family house. Locust Lawn HHS is still on schedule for reopening the house for tours, beginning with the Colonial Street Festival on August 13 and on weekends thereafter through the rest of the tour season, which runs through October. Meanwhile, much work remains to be on the house and its outbuildings. A new entrance and parking lot will be installed this summer, and the front of the house improved in appearance to receive and impress visitors again. An overall paint job is scheduled for next year. ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE ABE HOUSE As described in the February newsletter, a major archaeological survey was conducted around the Abe House last fall as a prerequisite for NY State authorization for the underground drainage project. An astounding number and variety of artifacts were found, covering not only the historical period of the house, but also spanning a period of over 3,000 years! In all, eleven boxes of artifacts were collected, and they are now being washed and sorted by category. As of May 1, four boxes (including the most prolific areas) had been completed with an artifact count of 15,400! After the contents of all eleven boxes are processed, they will ultimately need to be analyzed and documented; but the cost of all this archaeology has strained the finances of the Anderson Fund, and the analysis/reporting process will have to be phased over time as funds for it become available. MEMBERSHIP RENEWAL Dues ($15/year) for renewal of annual memberships should have been paid by October 1, but there are still quite a few laggards out there. If you don't have L (for Life member) or 05 on your mailing label, you're 7 months delinquent by now. Income tax preparation is no longer a distraction, and the Bush tax cuts must have saved you enough to pay your HFA dues. So get yourself up to date! We need your support. HHS POLICY ON HOUSE NAMES The astonishing discoveries of recent years relating to our stone houses have upset traditional assumptions passed down through many generations about their origins. What a shock it was to learn that neither Jean or Abraham Hasbrouck had ever seen the houses attributable to them, which dendrochronology (tree ring dating) indicated were built instead by their sons, Jacob and Daniel, respectively! How, then, should we refer to these houses? Attendees at HFA's reunion last fall emphatically favored retaining the original names. And, besides tradition, there is a rationale for it. Jean and Abraham were the original patentees, owned the land on which the houses stand, and certainly did live on these properties. Indeed, the Jean House contains a small section which appears to be part of an earlier dwelling on the site – almost certainly Jean's. Furthermore, these original names have been used on many legal documents and publications, and the houses' public image is associated with these names. Nevertheless, historical accuracy needs to respected, particularly in a museum setting such as Huguenot Street. HHS has wrestled with this dilemma and produced a policy which the HFA Board of Directors has endorsed. It is reproduced below: "HHS will continue to use the old designations to respect the historical association of the names with these houses, and the genealogical connections of descendants with the builders of the original structures, as well as for simplicity and ease of communication within the Historical Society. "In recognition of recent research, however, all scholarly work, Society publications, signage, grant applications, and so forth, will acknowledge the Patentee and the builder. When both names are used, the later will be in brackets; i.e., Jean [Jacob] and Abraham [Daniel]." HFA OFFICE Our New Paltz office is open by appointment only. But if you are planning a visit to the area, leave a message on our answering machine or send us a fax or e-mail (see numbers on the masthead), and Meryl will contact you to arrange a visit where you can get information, look at our genealogy files and publications, and check our archives. If you are doing family research, you may also want to see what is available in the HHS Library. Call them (845-2556738) to make an appointment. Our office is just half a mile from Huguenot Street in the Pine Office Center at 124 Main Street. It's across the street from the Citgo gas station and far back from the street, but there is a sign at the driveway entrance, ample parking and handicapped access. In the same building is the New Paltz Chamber of Commerce, where you can get information and brochures on a wide range of attractions and accommodations in the area. SCHOLARSHIPS The deadline for scholarship applications this year is August 31, which means that awards will apply to the spring semester rather than the fall semester. To be eligible you must be (at that time) a college sophomore, junior or senior and be able to document Huguenot heritage. If you are interested, contact HHS for detailed requirements and an application: (845)255-1660 or email@example.com. UPCOMING EVENTS Colonial Street Festival This is HHS's biggest event of the year and will be held this year on Saturday, August 13 from 10AM to 5PM. (Admission fees are $10 for adults. $8 for seniors and students, $5 for ages 6-18, no charge for children 5 and under.) The houses of Huguenot Street will be open to visitors, and there will be historical reenactments, period arts & crafts and dancing demonstrations, children's programs, and live music. It's a great day of entertainment for the whole family, so be sure to mark it on your calendar. The festival is organized and run by volunteers from HHS and the family associations, and we need HFA members to help with this effort. One of the most impressive experiences for outside visitors, they tell us, has been the opportunity to talk to actual descendants of the Huguenot families. Time periods for volunteers are 9:30-12:30, 12:15-3:00 and 2:45-5:30. If you can lend a hand for all or part of the day, please contact Eleanor Sears (845-338-6492) or the HFA office. A traditional fundraising activity for this event is the raffle of a beautiful colonial-design quilt. You can expect to receive an HHS mailing about the festival with raffle tickets to sell, or buy yourself. There's no obligation, of course, but it's for a worthy cause – support for the many activities and programs of HHS. You don't have to be present to win. HFA Annual Reunion Our reunion day this year is Saturday, October 8, in New Paltz. It will probably follow the usual format: registration/socializing and service in the French Church in the morning followed by an on-site update at the Jean and Abraham Hasbrouck Houses, lunch at Deyo Hall, and our annual meeting. If you are coming from a distance and want to visit Huguenot Street in some detail, plan to spend at least one night here because the reunion will take up most of Saturday and you will need at least one additional day on the Street. The houses can be visited only on guided tours and are closed Mondays. If you will be a first-time visitor, contact us to help with your planning. The Hudson Valley is full of beautiful scenery and tourist attractions; you can easily spend an entire vacation here. Anyone planning an overnight stay should make reservations as soon as possible. The reunion is on Columbus Day weekend, and accommodations usually sell out early. New Paltz has three good motels: Super 8 (845-255-8865), EconoLodge (845255-6200), and Days Inn (845-883-7373). You can also get information on bed & breakfast inns in the area from the Chamber of Commerce (845-255-0243). In the February newsletter it was mentioned that we are also considering the addition of a Friday OR Sunday event as well: a tour to see a variety of historic Hasbrouck houses in the area around New Paltz (there are quite a few!). We asked for indications of interest in such a tour and will plan it if there is sufficient interest, but there has been no response so far. IF YOU WOULD BE INTERESTED IN SUCH A TOUR, LET US KNOW, INCLUDING PROBABLE NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS AND PREFERRED DATE (OCT. 7 OR 9), IF APPLICABLE. THIS HASBROUCK WAS A STAR IN THE SILENT MOVIE ERA Donna Hasbrouck, daughter of our former treasurer, Thad Hasbrouck, ran across a photo and a little information about Olive Hasbrouck, who was born Jan. 3, 1907 and appeared in silent movies during the period 1925-31 (and possibly later). A check of our database shows an Olive Elizabeth Hasbrouck, born Jan. 23, 1907 (a niece of family historian/researcher Raymond Delancey Hasbrouck). This could be a match – the birthdates differ by only a single digit, which could just be a typing error; but our entry for Olive Elizabeth makes no mention of movies. If you have any information about movie star Olive, please let us know, so we can place her properly in our family tree. HASBROUCK HISTORY BOOKS AVAILABLE As mentioned in the February newsletter, we are now able to offer you Kenneth Hasbrouck's 1992 book, Earliest Records of the Hasbrouck Family in America with European Background. Of particular interest in this volume are (1) a 37-page chronology/diary written by Colonel Abraham Hasbrouck (grandson of the patentee) and his descendants covering his family history from the exodus from France through 1846 (including the only family-written account, frustratingly brief and incomplete, of the family experience in Europe); (2) the "French Letter", another link to our European ancestry, also maddeningly incomplete and ambiguous, claimed by both Hasbroucks and Beviers; (3) the will of Colonel Abraham Hasbrouck; and (4) 13 pages of reminiscences by General Sherman Hasbrouck, mostly about growing up in the Stone Ridge area but also covering some of his interesting military experiences. There are also photographs, other documents, and a brief account of HFA's founding, including the people involved. This book is available to members for a postpaid price of $35 for the hard-cover edition and $25 for the soft cover as long as the supply lasts. You can also still obtain any/all of Kenneth Hasbrouck's The Hasbrouck Family in America -- $30 for all volumes, $20 for smaller orders. Send a check with your request to the Hasbrouck Family Assn., P.O. Box 176, New Paltz, NY 12561-0176. A HASBROUCK TRADITION – THE SERVICE ACADEMIES Beginning already with Abraham the Patentee, many Hasbroucks have volunteered to serve their country through participation in its armed forces. The most prominent producers of military leaders over the last two centuries have been the service academies of the Army, Navy and Air Force; and their Hasbrouck graduates have been a credit to the family and the nation. The oldest of the three is the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, NY, founded in 1802. Its first Hasbrouck graduate was Henry Cornelius in 1861 (see May '99 newsletter). He graduated into the Civil War and was cited for gallantry and meritorious service in the Modoc Indian War of 1873. He was Commandant of Cadets at West Point (1882-8), became a brigadier general in 1898, and commanded a brigade in Cuba in the Spanish-American War. The next was Alfred Jr. in 1883. He served for 37 years and retired as a colonel. He saw action in the Indian Wars, the SpanishAmerican War (in the Philippines), the Boxer Rebellion in China and World War I. The third Hasbrouck graduate was Robert Wilson Sr. in 1917 (see Spring '95 issue). He served in World War I, helped in the initial formation of armored divisions in the Army, was on General Omar Bradley's staff in the 1944 invasion of Europe, commanded the 7 th Armored Division through the Battle of the Bulge and the rest of World War II, and was then Chief of Staff of the Army Ground Forces until retiring as a major general in 1947. Close behind him came Sherman V. in 1920 (May '02 issue). After interesting assignments during the '20s and '30s in the Philippines, Japan and Latin America, Sherman commanded the artillery of the 97 th Infantry Division in Europe in 1945. Soon after the war he was military governor of two prefectures in Japan and then held a senior position in the nuclear weapons development program until retiring in 1955 as a brigadier general. The only Hasbrouck graduate since Sherman has been Robert Wilson Jr. (1955), whose most notable achievement has been surviving the last ten years as HFA president (see Feb '05 issue). The U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, MD was founded in 1845. Its first Hasbrouck graduate was the most distinguished – Raymond Delancey in 1892. He participated in the Boxer Rebellion in China, the Spanish-American War and World War I. During European assignments in the early '20s he did extensive research on the family's history there. He commanded the battleship California from 1924 until his death in 1926 from post-operative complications and was buried at sea from the ship. We have little information about the other Hasbrouck naval graduates. Theodore, Class of 1923, retired with the rank of commander. Preston (1928) and John T. (1984) did not pursue careers in the Navy. The U.S. Air Force Academy at Colorado Springs, CO graduated its first class in 1959 and has two Hasbrouck alumni. The first, Jeffrey Roy in 1993, did not remain in the service. Brian Wallace, Class of 2002, is the only Hasbrouck graduate of the service academies in the last twelve years and the only one presently on active duty. He's an intelligence officer; and after a year in Korea he moved to an airbase in Florida, where his job is to keep the flying units updated on current conditions in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, at this writing he's on a 90-day rotational tour in Afghanistan, getting first-hand experience on the situation there. There may be other family service academy graduates from female lines of descent with non- Hasbrouck last names. If you're aware of any, please let us know. We would also like to publicize other family members who have served their country in military careers; one is featured below. Obviously, the service academies are not the only source of such people. Please send us information on any you know about. HASBROUCK DESCENDANT WAS FLYING TIGER ACE John Van Kuren Newkirk (known as Scarsdale Jack), an 8 th -generation descendant of Jean Hasbrouck, was a military hero of World War II who gave his life in the defense of freedom from aggression. Until now he has escaped our notice in this newsletter, and we will try to make amends with this article covering not only his personal story but also that of the remarkable organization with which he served – Claire Chennault's American Volunteer Group -- much better known as the Flying Tigers. Jack's grandmother was Isabella Hasbrouck, a daughter of Jacob L. Hasbrouck. In 1868 she married Frederick S. Newkirk, whose ancestry traced to early Dutch settlers. Their first child was Louis Hasbrouck Newkirk (1871-1950), who married Grace R. White in 1902. They had two children before she died of tuberculosis in 1908. He later married Edna Roos, and they had two sons, the first being Jack, born October 15, 1913. Jack grew up in Scarsdale, NY, became an Eagle Scout and Scout Leader, and graduated from Scarsdale High in 1932. He studied aeronautical engineering at Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, graduated in 1938, and became a Navy fighter pilot. He was stationed in the Pacific aboard the aircraft carrier Yorktown, operating out of Pearl Harbor. By early 1941 the Japanese were invading China, threatening Southeast Asia, and becoming increasingly belligerent toward the USA and western European countries, which were trying to restrict their expansionist plans. Jack predicted American military involvement against Japan and told his sister that he wanted to get early combat experience to be of greater value as a leader and fighter when his country went to war. Thus, in the spring of 1941 he signed on with the American Volunteer Group (AVG), which was being formed to help save China from the Japanese invaders. The AVG was a critical project for retired Army Air Force Captain Claire Chennault, who went to China in 1937 to help Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek organize his air force against the Japanese. In 1940 Chiang sent Chennault back to the USA to obtain American planes and pilots to oppose Japanese bombing of Chinese cities and supply lines. Despite the objections of top US military leaders (who opposed the diversion of resources from the fragile US military strength at that time), he obtained President Roosevelt's approval for the project, arranged with manufacturer Curtiss-Wright to purchase 100 obsolescent P-40B fighter planes, and recruited 100 pilots and 200 ground crewmen from the US armed forces. Because the USA was not yet at war with Japan, the project had to be disguised as a civilian enterprise. The volunteers, young men motivated by the prospect of an exciting adventure in a righteous cause, had to resign from the military and sign oneyear contracts with the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Co. to manufacture, repair and operate aircraft for the Chinese government. They were designated formally as the American Volunteer Group. Claire Chennault's official position was adviser to the Central Bank of China. His passport listed his occupation as "farmer." The first contingent of AVG personnel (including Jack Newkirk) sailed for Asia in July 1941. A week before leaving, Jack married his sweetheart, Jane Dunham. Their blissful honeymoon would prove to be their only married life together. The group landed at Rangoon, Burma (now known as Myanmar) and set up shop at a British Royal Air Force (RAF) base to assemble and test the arriving airplanes. The AVG was organized into three squadrons, and Jack was appointed leader of the 2 nd Squadron (see board in photo). He quickly proved his leadership capabilities under trying circumstances as he organized and trained his men and maintained a high level of morale in spite of living in makeshift barracks in the jungle during the rainy season. Their primitive planes had no gun sights, bomb racks or auxiliary fuel tank attachments; all these had to be improvised and installed. Then the pilots were trained by (then "Colonel") Chennault in aerial combat tactics based on his years of experience against Japanese planes in China. Their job was to protect the famous Burma Road from Rangoon across the Burmese mountains into China – that region's sole remaining open supply route – from Japanese air assault. The 1 st and 2 nd Squadrons moved to airfields at the Chinese end of the road, while the 3 rd remained to join with the RAF in protecting the port of Rangoon. The pilots started with orientation flights and familiarized themselves thoroughly with the territory they were covering. Their P-40 aircraft bore Chinese insignia, and the pilots wore information panels in Chinese on the backs of their flight jackets informing anyone on the ground who encountered them that they were fighting for China and should be protected (see photo). The AVG went into action against the Japanese for the first time on December 20, 1941 and was almost continuously engaged thereafter as the Japanese pressed their invasion with overwhelming force by both air and ground assault. The AVG pilots quickly showed the aerial combat skills that created their lasting legend. In their first 11 days of action they shot down 75 planes while losing only 6 planes and 2 pilots. Chennault's experience-proved tactical instruction was invaluable. In joint AVG/RAF actions in Burma, the RAF's "kill ratio" was about 1:1, whereas the AVG's was 15:1 – this despite the British flying Spitfires, which were much superior to the AVG's P40s. The big difference was the tactics. The RAF used tactics learned fighting the German Luftwaffe, which operated much differently from the Japanese. Thanks to Chennault, the AVG pilots knew Japanese aerial tactics (and how to counter them) better than many of their opponents! To give their planes a more fearsome appearance, the AVG personnel copied a feature they ran across in magazine photos of German Messerschmidt-210s in Europe and British P-40s in Africa. They painted a sharp-toothed shark's mouth and eyes on the front fuselage of their P-40s – a design that quickly became their hallmark. Their exploits soon earned prominent coverage in American newspapers and radio broadcasts, for theirs was the only American success story in those dark, early days of the war. They were surprised to find themselves lauded as "The Flying Tigers." To this day no one knows for sure how this term originated; possibly it was a misinterpretation of the shark's head design painted on the planes. In any event, the name stuck, and a legend was born. Jack Newkirk proved himself to be a fearless combat leader, participating in every mission his squadron flew, and earning the respect of his men. (The press called him "Scarsdale Jack", but his selfchosen nickname was "Danger".) On December 30 his 2 nd Squadron, called "The Panda Bears", replaced the 3 rd in the defense of Rangoon. In early January 1942 the Panda Bears took the offensive in strafing raids on enemy airfields in nearby Thailand. Jack led the first raid, and his squadron continued these raids through the rest of the month despite Japanese retaliatory efforts with superior strength. On one such raid the Americans destroyed about 60 planes on the ground, their biggest victory of the war. The British awarded Jack Newkirk the Distinguished Service Order; he was the first American to receive this high honor in World War II. With typical modesty he attributed the honor to his unit and radioed home, "Squadron decorated." Although the Flying Tigers continued to punish the enemy, it was to no avail. With their superior numbers, both ground and air, the Japanese captured Rangoon at the end of February, and the Tigers were forced to redeploy to airfields in northern Burma. But they had cost the enemy dearly and had earned themselves a far-ranging reputation. In their 2 ½ month defense of Rangoon with a force that varied from 5-20 serviceable planes, they had faced over a thousand enemy planes in the air and inflicted 217 definite kills and 43 probables while losing only 16 planes (some on the ground) and 6 pilots. In March the Tigers and their RAF partners continued to oppose the steady Japanese advance northward through Burma. By this point the AVG/RAF group had about 30 serviceable fighters left to face a Japanese force of 400-500 planes. On March 19 two Tiger P-40s raided an airbase deep in Thailand and destroyed 19 planes on the ground. Determined to end this harassment, the Japanese struck back on the 21 st with a damaging 266-plane raid on the Tigers' main remaining airfield in Burma. On March 24 the Tigers counterattacked with planes flying from a base in China. The famous ace, "Pappy" Boyington, led 6 planes from the 3 rd Squadron against the Japanese airbase at Chiengmai, Thailand (now a major tourist resort). They caught 40 planes on the ground preparing for another raid on the Tigers' Burma base, and destroyed them all. Jack Newkirk led a flight of 4 Panda Bears, which strafed a column of trucks and armored cars along a nearby highway. During a strafing run his plane was hit by antiaircraft fire, exploded in a ball of flame, and crashed into the jungle; Jack did not survive. His brief but brilliant military career ended at age 28. Official records credit him with 10 ½ definite "kills" of enemy planes in the air, although some reports at the time gave higher numbers. He left for us a measure of his fine character in a letter to his wife: "There are certain things in every man's life that he cannot bear to leave undone if he is manly. Murder and bullying of peaceful, innocent peasants is one of those things I cannot stand for. Until I have done all in my power to relieve the situation, I cannot leave it for the other fellow. Besides, this task is ours only, for we are the only ones who are qualified to do it, and we need every ounce of manpower, every financial and material support and every mental uplift, or the whole thing will be impossible." Jack certainly set a shining example in carrying out these convictions. The Chiengmai raid slowed the Japanese offensive and gave the British and Chinese more time for a successful evacuation of troops and equipment northward into China. But the enemy offensive was unstoppable, and by the end of April they completed their occupation of Burma. The end was approaching for the Flying Tigers. The men's one-year contract was expiring, and they were weary and strained after five months of intensive combat. Their Burma Road mission had ended, and with America now in the war and marshaling its formidable strength, more help for China from the USA was on the way. In the meanwhile, the Tigers continued to aid the war effort in interior China, providing close air support for Chinese troops, defending cities against air raids and, in their final days, escorting newly-arrived American bombers on missions in Japanese-occupied areas. The AVG/Flying Tigers were disbanded on July 4, 1942. The surviving planes were absorbed into the new China Air Task Force, which in 1943 was expanded into the 14 th US Air Force, commanded by now-General Claire Chennault. The men scattered to resume their interrupted lives; but, not surprisingly, considering their spirit of patriotic dedication and the war in progress, many of them continued to serve their country, some in military service and others in the defense industry. A few even elected to return to China with the 14 th Air Force. The Flying Tigers had compiled an amazing record. In seven months they had destroyed about 300 enemy planes with another 153 "probables". They lost only 12 planes and 10 pilots killed in air combat, although 61 planes were destroyed on the ground in Japanese air raids. With courage and daring, against overwhelming odds, they and their RAF allies kept the Burma Road – China's vital supply lifeline at the time – open for 2 ½ critical months. And their success provided a big boost for both Chinese and American morale at a time when it was badly needed amid the string of setbacks in the early days of the Pacific war. There is a final, satisfying chapter to add in the story of Jack Newkirk. After the war his body was recovered and buried in India. When his family received this news in 1947, they arranged to have the remains brought back to America, where in 1949 they were reinterred by his half-sister, Janet, in a Newkirk family plot at St. James the Less Church in Scarsdale. Jack was honored as a war hero in a number of ways after his death, but there was a surprising development more recently. In 1993 two American military buffs and a Thai Air Force officer searched the jungle area where Newkirk crashed and found a piece of metal from his plane and then his original makeshift grave in a rice field, along with a memorial, which had crumbled. Aware of his exploits, the Royal Thai Air Force erected a stone monument, topped by a bust of him, in a Chiengmai cemetery. It was dedicated in 1999. The legend of Scarsdale Jack still lives, both among his family and friends at home, and in the faraway place where he "gave his tomorrows for our todays." EVENTS CALENDAR (Your attendance is invited) June 11 HHS Annual Meeting in New Paltz (10AM through lunch) August 13 Colonial Street Festival on Huguenot Street (Volunteers needed at Hasbrouck houses) October 8 HFA Annual Reunion in New Paltz We welcome our new member: Paul Hasbrouck, Lawrenceville, NJ	<urn:uuid:b5b1a196-b392-4a09-b74c-05d94b428594>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.hasbrouckfamily.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/HFA-Journal-for-May-05.pdf	2021-10-24T06:36:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00094.warc.gz	953,168,329	7,073	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998719	eng_Latn	0.998952	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3399, 7927, 11902, 14944, 18480, 22854, 28101, 31507 ]	[ 0.765625, 2.015625 ]	1	0
A Celebration of Hispanic Heritage and Hope! "The past year has been one unlike any in recent memory. For so many of us our lives have changed; we've celebrated life's milestones at home or spent holidays alone. But despite how our world has changed, we've kept our eyes on the horizon–we've held onto our hope. This theme celebrates our Hispanic heritage and our resilience. It provides us the opportunity to reflect on those who came before us and hold onto hope to create a better tomorrow. It inspires us to recognize that we are stronger together and reminds us that although we are apart, with hope, we are not alone." As you think about choosing Hispanic Heritage history lessons, activities, literature, resources, consider the above words of Mr. Victor Anthony Zertuche, Attorney-Advisor at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, after his message "Esperanza: A Celebration of Hispanic Heritage and Hope" was selected by the National Council of Hispanic Employment Program Managers (NCHEPM) as their 2021 observance theme for Hispanic Heritage month. Remember that although National Hispanic Heritage Month is celebrated by many between September 15 and October 15, celebrating culture, especially that of students in your classrooms, is something to do throughout the year. Hispanic Month \| A Hispanic News Source http://www.hispanicmonth.net Children's Institute • www.childrensinstitute.net Select books and literature that centers and celebrates Latinx and Hispanic voice, experience and history. Follow readings with a discussion. Discussion prompts include: What did you notice? What did you feel? What did you connect with? What would you change? What are you still unsure/curious about? Create a "discussion ball" by writing the discussion prompts on a beach ball and toss to students for engagement. Or number questions and have students roll a die. The number they get will be connected to their question. Further this activity by having students write book reviews, act out a scene from a play they read, write their own story or poem, create a drawing or collage that illustrates their favorite part or engage in a dialogue journal with a book buddy. SEL skills: Self-Awareness, Social awareness, Relationship skills Books to Consider Elementary Level: Dreamers By: Yuyi Morales Abuela By: Arthur Dorros Marisol McDonald Doesn't Match/Marisol McDonald no combina By: Monica Brown Julian Is a Mermaid By: Jessica Love Where Are You From? By: Yamile Saied Méndez Side by Side/Lado a lado By: Monica Brown, Joe Cepeda Middle School Level: Us, in Progress: Short Stories About Young Latinos By: Lulu Delacre l Sanctuary By: Paola Mendoza and Abby Sher (Middle and Highschool) I Got This: To Gold and Beyond By: Laurie Hernandez American Immigration: Our History, Our Stories By: Kathleen Krull High School Level: El Bronx Remembered By: Nicholasa Mohr Clap When You Land By: Elizabeth Acevedo We Set the Dark on Fire By: Tehlor Kay Mejia PLEASE CONSIDER: As you think about choosing activities, we invite you to be thoughtful, intentional, and reflective. What is your purpose? Does this create a welcoming and affirming environment? Is it inclusive and personalized to your student's diverse needs? Whose voices and experiences are you centering? Anytime you are asking students to share, it is helpful to have community norms around sharing, listening, respect and trust. If you have not created these together, we encourage you to do that. If you have created these together, we encourage you to refer back to them before introducing the activity. Children's Institute • www.childrensinstitute.net	<urn:uuid:50d7ca25-5d20-4d3a-b31f-598b63cf3337>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.childrensinstitute.net/sites/default/files/documents/hispanic-heritage-month_2021.pdf	2021-10-24T06:01:53+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00094.warc.gz	842,412,367	768	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996649	eng_Latn	0.99672	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1405, 3636 ]	[ 3.484375 ]	1	1
Teaching for democracy in the absence of transitional justice: The case of Northern Ireland Elizabeth Anderson Worden and Alan Smith Key Words: Northern Ireland, transitional justice, citizenship education Abstract: In Northern Ireland, the 1998 Good Friday Agreement ended thirty years of civil conflict— known as 'the Troubles'—by achieving nominal peace between the opposing factions. It did so, however, through a political power-sharing formula that had no provisions for state-sponsored transitional justice mechanisms. We ask to what extent education can promote the goals of transitional justice in the absence of a formal process. Drawing from qualitative data and using a new citizenship education programme in Northern Ireland as our case study, we argue that organizational constraints within the education system limit the potential of the programme. We also identify missed opportunities, such as the de-emphasis on the importance of teaching political literacy. Our findings have implications for other societies undergoing transition from violent conflict by highlighting the potential opportunities for citizenship education to aid in transitional justice efforts. In Northern Ireland, the 1998 Good Friday Agreement ended thirty years of civil conflict— known as 'the Troubles'—by achieving nominal peace between the opposing Unionist and Nationalist factions. It did so, however, through a political power-sharing formula that left little room to account for past atrocities committed by both sides and no provisions for conventional state-sponsored transitional justice mechanisms to address the Troubles. Truth commissions, tribunals, or other transitional justice venues can be "understood as judicial and non-judicial measures that seek to promote accountability and redress for massive violations of human rights, [and are] increasingly recognized as a fundamental part of peacebuilding efforts" (Ramírez-Barat and Duthie 2015, 1). As this special journal issue demonstrates, education plays a varied yet critical role in supporting the goals of formal transitional justice processes across the globe— from outreach programs that educate the public about a truth commission's findings to new school curriculum that focus on the recent past. 1 We shift this lens slightly by asking to what extent education can promote the goals of transitional justice in the absence of a formal process. Drawing on a new citizenship education programme in Northern Ireland (which incorporated areas of learning relevant to transitional justice) and interviews with teachers and curriculum specialists, we argue that organizational constraints within the education system, namely the low status and priority given to citizenship in the curriculum, undermine the potential of the programme. We also identify missed opportunities, such as teachers' underestimation of the importance of teaching political literacy and bias towards certain sectors of society, which is particularly important given that the peace agreement created new arrangements for power-sharing government. Underlying these findings is a tension between history and citizenship education: the extent to which education for reconciliation and democratic citizenship can be separated from teaching directly about a difficult past. These findings have implications for other societies undergoing transition from violent conflict by highlighting this tension and addressing both the opportunities and limits of citizenship education in aiding transitional justice efforts. We begin this paper with a brief overview of literature related to the potential role of education in the transformation of post-conflicts societies. Using broad strokes, we outline the historical and political background necessary for understanding the Northern Ireland case while also mapping the current educational landscape. The final part of the paper presents findings from empirical research carried out with teachers on social memory and citizenship education in Northern Ireland. Transformation and change through education After violent conflict, education has the potential to play an important role in long-term, post-conflict development. While there are multiple roles for education in these contexts, we draw attention to two aspects: first, the challenge of teaching about the past so that new generations may learn about conflict within their own society and how it has affected intergroup relations; and second, the extent to which education can educate children about new political arrangements that have emerged as part of conflict transformation processes. In terms of the former, history education can contain values that either promote division or encourage peaceful management of diversity. For example, analysis of pre-genocide Rwandan textbooks indicates that Hutus and Tutsis were portrayed in opposition to one another, which highlighted group division and encouraged intolerance (King 2014). In terms of post-conflict curriculum reform, this raises questions about how far history teaching should refer to recent, violent events. In some cases, this may mean introducing a period of silence, like the moratorium on history reform in Rwanda. However, evidence from Lebanon indicates that silence on the civil war during history class means that children turn to politicized sources, such as family members and political parties (van Ommering 2015). Barton and McCully (2005) found a similar phenomenon in Northern Ireland for which students drew selectively from the "neutral" history curriculum in their classroom to support their developing identifications with historical narratives of their own political/religious communities. According to these findings, history education should address students' developing ideas more directly by providing alternatives to historical narratives students encounter elsewhere (Barton and McCully 2005). However, it could be argued that conflict transformation is not simply about understanding the past, but also learning about the processes involved in bringing an end to violence and the new arrangements designed to guarantee equal rights and protection of minorities, and contributing to shared sense of belonging or identity. In this respect, citizenship education is often considered a critical part of transformation and reconciliation in post-conflict and divided societies (Bellino 2015a; Cole 2007; Davies 2004; Paulson 2011). Scholars from political science, education, and philosophy have argued that citizenship education is an essential component of any democratic society because citizens do not learn to engage in democratic institutions automatically (e.g. Banks 2007; Gutmann 1999; Kymlikca 1995; Levinson and Stevick 2007). In particular, it can be concluded that teaching civic values and citizenship practices in public schools can support stable democratic societies (Hahn 1998; Osler and Starkey 2005), can help democratization in transitional societies (Anderson 2007; Janmaat and Piattoeva 2007), and can aid in reconciliation in post-conflict societies (Davies 2005; Murphy and Gallagher 2009). Last, values, attitudes and behaviours learned through citizenship education socialize children about who may be regarded as a citizen, which shapes their perspective towards various groups, local regions, and people who come from elsewhere. In the context of Northern Ireland where 93 percent of students attend segregated schools (Gardner 2016) and children grow up in communities that define themselves as mainly British or Irish, a citizenship curriculum was introduced after the peace agreement that focuses less on the concept of one common nationality and more on questions about equality, diversity and human rights within a divided society emerging from violent conflict (Niens, O'Connor, and Smith 2013; Smith 2003). The following sections provide an overview of the peace agreement in Northern Ireland and the lack of a formal truth and reconciliation process. Despite this, it is argued that the introduction of citizenship education represented one element of a fragmented approach to transitional justice that carried the potential for formal education to engage children and young people with conflict transformation in Northern Ireland. Progress since the peace agreement More than 3,600 people were killed and 30,000 injured as part of 'the Troubles' in Northern Ireland. More than half of the deaths were civilians. Fatalities were inflicted on both communities (43% Catholics, 30% Protestants) and all parties to the conflict were responsible for some of the deaths (Fay, Morrissey, and Smyth 1999). By the 1990s, it was becoming clear that neither the use of violence nor a military intervention would resolve the issue. Ceasefires in 1994 eventually created the opportunity for a peace process that led to a political agreement. Referenda on the agreement were held in May 1998. In the Republic of Ireland 94% of voters approved of the proposals. In Northern Ireland, 71% of those voting endorsed the Agreement. The signing of the Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement in 1998 marked a transition from a violent conflict to an attempt to resolve the dispute about the constitutional status of Northern Ireland by non-violent, democratic means. The Belfast Agreement had three main elements. First, it addressed the constitutional status of the territory. As part of peace negotiations, the Republic of Ireland removed a territorial claim over Northern Ireland from its constitution and both governments recognized 'the birth right of all the people of Northern Ireland to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British, or both'. For the first time the agreement also accepted that the future constitutional status of the territory will be determined by "the wish of the majority of the people who live there" (Northern Ireland Office 1998). The agreement deferred a decision on the ultimate sovereignty of the territory and both governments promised to respect the outcome of any future decision through 'self-determination.' There is no detail in the agreement about the mechanism or process by which such a decision would be reached. Therefore, the agreement managed to 'transform' the conflict, but the core constitutional question has not been 'resolved' rather it is has been left for future generations. The second main element of the agreement was the establishment of new democratic institutions that involve power-sharing between locally elected politicians. These replaced direct rule from the UK Westminster government in London. A new legislative Northern Ireland Assembly was created of 108 local politicians (recently reduced to 90), and a 12-member Executive body comprised of politicians from different parties. A First Minister and Deputy First Minister are jointly elected by members of the Assembly voting on a cross community basis and Ministers are allocated to posts according to the d'Hondt system. Decisions in the Assembly are made by a weighted majority to ensure cross community support. The establishment of these structures in Northern Ireland was consistent with devolution to new assemblies in Scotland and Wales, but there have been significant challenges and the NI Assembly has been suspended on a number of occasions. The most recent Assembly collapsed in January 2017 when the Sinn Fein Deputy First Minister, Martin McGuinness resigned after the Democratic Unionist First Minister, Arlene Foster refused to step down whilst an enquiry into the administration of a government heating fuel scheme took place. This led to an election in March 2017, but the failure to date to re-establish a new Assembly has highlighted other issues that have contributed to lack of trust between the two dominant parties, such as lack of investigations and prosecutions related to the Troubles and support for victims. . There are arguments that the new political arrangement has institutionalized sectarian politics because it involves a form of consociationalism advocated by Lijphart (2004) that requires mandatory coalition between ideologically opposed political parties. In the early days, this was a considerable achievement, but the government is now being shared by two main power blocks (pro British Unionism and pro nationalist Republicanism). This has led to a weak 'middle ground' and the lack of a formal opposition also means that there are concerns about accountability. Political observers and the public at large have criticized this mandatory coalition for lack of progress on 'legacy issues' and expressions of cultural identity, such as parades andflying of flags (Northern Ireland Office 2006). There has also been lack of progress on 'dealing with the past' through official enquiries into unsolved killings, and support for victims and survivors of the violent conflict remain the cause of disagreement between the two majority political parties (Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn Fein). Liberal peacebuilding and transitional justice The peace agreement in Northern Ireland contains many of the elements that have come to be known as 'liberal peacebuilding,' in that there were efforts to negotiate ceasefires followed by peace negotiations that concentrated on disarmament, security issues, elections to new political structures to encourage multiparty democracy and attempts at economic regeneration (Newman, Paris, and Richmond 2009). Critics of liberal peacebuilding argue it is inherently conservative as it values state stability over all other criteria. It often brokers peace between elites and reinforces elites' power so that the benefits of peace ('peace dividends') rarely reach the most marginalized or those most affected by the conflict (Richmond 2013). Fearon and Laitin (2004) also suggest that "writers on liberal peacebuilding tend to underestimate the importance of domestic political processes and the agency of individual actors who are either importers or resisters of liberal policies." Others suggest that peacebuilding requires early engagement with social development (Guerrero 2011; Ndaruhutse S. et al. 2011; McCandless 2012) so that the underlying causes of conflict are addressed as well as the symptoms. Investment in education as part of peacebuilding may be one way of contributing to sustainable peace (Smith et al. 2011; Novelli and Smith 2011). Despite the criticisms of liberal peacebuilding, the example of Northern Ireland is a relatively successful one with new political institutions established and little return to violence since the agreement. However, Northern Ireland has not had a formal Truth and Reconciliation Commission or transitional justice process. Instead there have been disparate initiatives that have contributed to truth recovery and transitional justice. For example, the Bloody Sunday Inquiry was established in 1998 to investigate the killing of civilians in Derry in 1972. The inquiry cost more than £200million and the findings that British soldiers had fired on unarmed civilians were eventually published in 2010, which resulted in an apology from the Prime Minister on behalf of the British government. There have been calls for public enquiries into other unresolved incidents, such as the 1998 Omagh bombwhich killed 29 civilians. .. The police service set up an alternative approach through the Historical Enquiries Team in 2005 (later replaced by the Legacy Investigations Branch in 2014) to investigate the 3,269 unsolved murders committed between 1968-98. These investigations remain highly sensitive and one estimate is that there is a backlog of 12 years and little likelihood of solving these cases (McCracken 2015). Whilst a formal truth commission has not been established, a Consultative Group on the Past was created by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in 2007. It consulted widely on how society could best deal with the legacy of events related to the conflict. The final report (Consultative Group on the Past 2009) contained 31 recommendations, including the creation of a Legacy Commission, proposals for truth recovery, support for victims and an approach to remembrance, memorials and commemoration. The report also acknowledged the "importance of education in building a better understanding of the nature and causes of the conflict" and recommended that young people be "provided with the skills necessary to ensure there is no repeat of the past," but expressed concern "that resources are not being made available to support the next generation to cope with the legacy of the conflict." However, the overall recommendations were overshadowed by a controversial proposal for a one-off payment of £12,000 to the nearest relative of anyone killed during conflict from January 1966 as a means of drawing a line under the past. There was an overwhelmingly negative reaction to this and the proposals have not been taken forward. Whilst there were references to education in general terms as cited above, the Consultative Group also missed an opportunity to recommend that education officials include a formal education programme related to the legacy of the Troubles as part of the curriculum although EU funded research indicated an appetite amongst young people to learn about the reasons for the conflict within their society (Magill, Smith and Hamber 2009). The potential of the Northern Ireland curriculum for transitional justice Whilst some new political institutions have seen significant transformation, conflict continues in arenas like education where there has been little change since the peace agreement. Current students are, arguably, the first generation not to experience the worst excesses of the conflict, but vestiges of the Troubles remain and these young people still attend school in segregated environments (O'Connor 2012). Murphy (2016) argues that the lack of committed reform to integrating Northern Ireland schools prevents the education sector from making a substantive contribution to transitional justice efforts and to reconciling divisions in the postconflict context. The Revised Northern Ireland Curriculum of 2007 includes a number of potential opportunities for the inclusion of teaching and learning related to transitional justice. For example, at primary level the inclusion of Personal and Social Development as an area of study opens up opportunities to build a stronger commitment to human rights values and practices from an early age. Religious Education is also part of the statutory curriculum in all schools in Northern Ireland. At primary level, the Department of Education has published a Core Syllabus in consultation with the four main Christian churches in Northern Ireland, alongside nonstatutory guidance materials. 1 At secondary level, the RE curriculum includes an exploration of 'Prejudice, Sectarianism and Reconciliation' from a moral perspective, as well as the opportunity to study 'World Religions.' 2 The History curriculum at Key Stage 3 (age 12-14) is compulsory and requires that pupils, "investigate how history has been selectively interpreted to create stereotypical perceptions and to justify views and actions, for example, the Troubles, slavery, apartheid, Arab/Israeli conflict" and "investigate the long and short term causes and consequences of the partition of Ireland and how it has influenced Northern Ireland today including key events and turning points." 3 History is optional for pupils at Key Stage 4 (age 15-16) as part of the GCSE public examinations and involves a choice between studying either 'Peace, War and Neutrality, 1937-49' or 'Northern Ireland and Its Neighbours, 1960-85.' The latter is soon to be revised and extended to cover the period up to 1998 so that the whole period of the Troubles is included. The 2007 curriculum also saw the introduction of Local and Global Citizenship (LGC) as a statutory requirement at Key Stage 3 (age 12-14) and an optional GCSE examination 4 subject at Key Stage 4 (age 15-16). These were new additions since previously citizenship education had not been part of the curriculum. A number of factors contributed to this new development. A broader review of the curriculum was already underway with a view to making it more relevant to the needs of society. This coincided with an international resurgence in civics and citizenship 1 These can be accessed at: http://ccea.org.uk/curriculum/key_stage_1_2/areas_learning/religious_education 3 An overview of the statutory requirements for History at Key Stage 3 (age 12-14) as part of the NI Curriculum, can be found at: http://ccea.org.uk/curriculum/key_stage_3/areas_learning/environment_and_society 2 These can be accessed at: http://ccea.org.uk/curriculum/key_stage_3/areas_learning/religious_education 4 The General Certificate of Secondary Education Exams are required at end of compulsory education in the U.K. education in the 1990s and an increase in formal democracies "related to significant world events such as the ending of apartheid in South Africa, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the democratisation of former Communist states in Eastern Europe and the disintegration of the Soviet Union" (Smith and Print 2003). In Northern Ireland, the signing of the peace agreement in 1998 and the establishment of a new, devolved Assembly had significant implications for education in terms of how children and young people might learn about the new political arrangements, although this was not acknowledged explicitly at the time or identified as a transformational task for education in the Agreement. New equality legislation further underlined the need for education to introduce young people to human rights principles. A pilot programme was already underway in 24 postprimary schools throughout Northern Ireland (Arlow 1999) and this was eventually adopted by the curriculum authorities and formed the basis for the statutory programme. The political context also had significant implications for the model of citizenship education that emerged in Northern Ireland. A 'patriotic' model of citizenship that promotes loyalty to the State would be inappropriate in a situation where the concept of nationality is a divisive issue (Smith 2003). In Northern Ireland, young people are growing up in a society that expects them to occupy the same civic space despite holding different loyalties in terms of national identity. We see the challenge as whether it is possible to disentangle concepts of 'nationality' and 'identity' from concepts of 'citizenship.' This is reflected in the title which uses the term 'local' to refer in large part to the political context of Northern Ireland rather than the 'national' contexts of either the UK or Ireland. The juxtaposition with 'global' reflects both a strong lobby at the time for a global dimension in the new curriculum as well as the opportunity to contrast the NI experience with other international, particularly conflict-affected contexts. It is also significant that an inquiry-based model was adopted. The LCG emphasis is on exploring a set of core concepts ('Diversity and Inclusion'; 'Human Rights and Social Responsibilities'; 'Equality and Social Justice'; and 'Democracy and Active Participation') which are regarded as problematic from the outset and explored from multiple perspectives through a range of local and international issues. In terms of a potential contribution to transitional justice, there are quite explicit statutory requirements in the LGC curriculum to "investigate how and why conflict, including prejudice, stereotyping, sectarianism and racism may arise in the community" and "investigate ways of managing conflict and promoting community relations and reconciliation." The citizenship framework also includes opportunities to examine key human rights commitments and investigate ways of strengthening democratic participation as an alternative to violence. 5 In terms of practical implementation, it is also important to note that the pilot programme argued for dedicated time within the curriculum, but schools were ultimately given the freedom to determine whether to provide LGC through timetabled space, cross-curricular provision by infusion across other subject disciplines, whole school activities or a combination of these. LGC was also incorporated into a broader curriculum theme known as Learning for Life and Work that includes strands on employability, personal development and home economics which may have considerably lessened its impact. These arrangements also meant that LGC teachers (some volunteers, some conscripts) are drawn from a range of disciplines and this has led to a diverse range of practice that has been the subject of subsequent research and evaluation (Jeffers and 5 An overview of the statutory requirements for Local and Global Citizenship as part of the Northern Ireland Curriculum, along with a teaching resource developed by the curriculum authorities can be found at: http://ccea.org.uk/curriculum/key_stage_3/areas_learning/learning_life_and_work/local_and_global_citizenship O'Connor 2008; Niens and Chastaney 2008; O'Connor 2008, 2012; Emerson 2012; Niens, O'Connor, and Smith 2013; McCully and Clarke 2016). The revised curriculum contains a number of entry points to address legacies of the past, conflict transformation and reconciliation. Even though there is no single curriculum programme, opportunities exist through statutory requirements for Religious Education, History and Local and Global Citizenship. However, the linkages are neither neat nor unproblematic as our teachers from our study discuss, and the relationship between the distinctive roles of history and citizenship is unclear. Even history teachers in Northern Ireland are divided about the extent to which the subject should be part of the political aspects of contemporary history. Waldron and McCully found that "in practice, the sensitivities of a divided and violent society meant that many teachers shied away from the harder challenges it posed, leaving the 'risk-takers' to occupy the contested space of history's contemporary relevance" (2016). It is in this context that we have included both history and citizenship education teachers in this study. Data and methods This article draws from a larger, ongoing study on teachers, social memory, and citizenship and history education in Northern Ireland. The data presented here are from the first two phases of data collection in October 2012 and September 2014 – January 2015. During this data collection, we 6 developed a purposeful sample of schools and interviewed additional education actors who were involved with history and citizenship education. We conducted twenty-seven interviews: fifteen with post-primary school teachers; seven curriculum specialists (three educational NGO representatives, two government officials, and two university professors); and 6 Co-author Elizabeth Anderson Worden conducted the fieldwork and all interviews for the project with funding from the US UK Fulbright Commission, American University, and Ulster University. Co-author Alan Smith aided in the data analysis. five history teachers enrolled in a post-graduate certificate in education program (PGCE). These interviews focused on a range of topics, including the teachers' background and life outside of work, how they teach controversial subjects, and how they have implemented the 2007 LCG program. The teachers represented a range of post-primary schools 7 across two counties in both urban and more rural settings: three Catholic grammar (two co-ed and one all girls) and one secondary (co-ed), two predominantly Protestant grammar (one co-ed and one all girls) and two secondary (both co-ed), and one integrated (co-ed attended by both Catholic and Protestant pupils). We also conducted approximately 30 hours of school observation. In creating the initial sample in 2012, we worked with the staff at Ulster University to identify pre-service teachers and local teachers who would be willing to participate. After nine initial interviews in 2012, we worked again with Ulster staff in 2014 to develop a purposeful sample of teachers across school types and location. In 2012, we interviewed only history teachers but expanded the study in 2014 and 2015 to include teachers who taught citizenship in addition to their primary subject. As a result, we interviewed teachers from art, history, politics, languages, home economics, and religion. The interviews, which lasted between forty minutes to two hours, were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Using inductive codes, we utilized the software program ATLAS.ti to code and manage the transcripts. All research was approved by the institutional review board and ethics board of American University and Ulster University. All names, identifying characteristics of individuals, and school names have been changed. Findings 7 Post-primary schools include years 8-14 (approximately ages 11-18). We identify the following as organizational constraints: positioning of LGC in the Curriculum, the lack of compulsory examination for the subject in the upper levels of postprimary, and 'do it yourself' lesson plans and textbooks that are potentially too abstract for some teachers. We also identify two missed opportunities that limit the potential impact of LGC. LGC: positioning, priority, and status within the curriculum Teachers reported that the subject strands of Learning for Life and Work are generally seen as less rigorous than disciplinary specific areas of learning, such as mathematics or English. A teacher at an urban school added that parents regarded LLW and LGC as "soft" and were less inclined to support it. One university professor who has worked closely with teachers and curriculum development for the past several decades referred to LGC as "tucked away" in the curriculum for which it is "not taken seriously" by the entire educational system. Those involved with the LGC's development were disheartened by the subject's place in the curriculum. Colin is a curriculum specialist who worked closely with the development of LGC. When asked what he would have "done differently looking back" on the development of LGC, he thought locating it within LLW was a critical error: Colin: . . . the amalgamation of citizenship into Learning for Life and Work, I think, was catastrophic. I can't stress enough what a big mistake I think that was. Interviewer: Colin: And well, what happened? Why is it positioned in LLW? At the end of the day it was a decision that was taken above our level - above the curriculum council itself. And there were internal political reasons for that and I often suspected there were big "P" issues, big political issues at stake as well. And, amalgamating citizenship and employability gives two very different perspectives on… Interviewer: The purpose of education? Colin: Exactly. And they also combine two areas which don't have a great deal of conceptual overlap, or even overlap in terms of teachers who are competent to teach it. I think they went some way to neutering the possible impact of citizenship maybe that's just... maybe me being cynical, but I've always suspected there was something to that. In referencing politics with big "P", Colin suspects that there was resistance among some politicians or political parties to the new citizenship education program. With its emphasis on human rights, progressive politicians would most likely support it while conservatives would not. 8 Prioritizing subjects - often expressed by which subjects are "examinable" - is essential because educators feel increased pressure to cover all the mandatory subjects in their school schedule, and to accommodate students preparing for a range of optional GSCEs. Across our sample, teachers agreed that there was not enough time to teach all of the requirements of the new curriculum. Sharon, who is veteran teacher and administrator at a controlled grammar school, remarked in great certainty when asked about challenges with the new curriculum: "Timetable, literally fitting everything in." Across the county at a maintained secondary school another veteran teacher Mary concurred when asked challenges: Really, when you take the amount of time [required for each subject], the percentage of time that everything's supposed to have, it's virtually impossible to get it in. Susan who teaches LCG in another part of the county added: We've been experimenting because it's compulsory that everybody has LLW classes as you're probably aware of at this stage in Northern Ireland. It's not compulsory that they sit the exam. Now, up until last year, [in our school], we entered everybody in for the GCSE exam. . . . Now that's changed because our timetable has been squeezed and squeezed and squeezed with more new subjects that we have to offer and there's a big push that we offer - I think it's about 24 subjects - for the GCSE. So, for a small school, that's big. That's a tall order for a small school and so the timetable's been squeezed. 8 This is often highlighted in public debates over history textbooks for which the subject of history is de facto citizenship education in many contexts. See for example Worden 2014 and Zimmerman 2002. Teachers felt that "literally" they could not fit in all the subjects but also there was feeling that they were stretched thin, especially for the teachers for which LGC was an 'add-on' to the area of expertise—for example, an art teacher who also taught citizenship. Teacher empowerment v. prescribed materials? The competing demands affect teachers' professional development. John is a curriculum specialist who works at a local NGO that provides professional development opportunities for teachers, primarily focusing on pedagogies for teaching controversial topics within subjects like history and citizenship. Yet he has a hard time recruiting teachers to take part, despite the fact that the workshops are often funded. He attributes this to the lack of prioritization in the school schedule for these subjects: Some [financial] cover is essential for teachers - but even if they get their own room and board, it's not a silver bullet. . . . And there's so much pressure around teachers, particularly in regards to GCSE and A level classes, that they're [careful about] missing classes they're kind of going, 'I'd love to be there but I have this GCSE class.' Individual teachers collect, compile, and develop their own teaching materials for LGC. As long as the teachers are meeting the curriculum objectives, they are can use whatever materials they like. When the new curriculum was introduced in 2007, a cadre of teachers participated in LGC training and the curriculum development team created a large packet of materials (referred to as the "purple pack" because it was assembled in a big purple binder) with sample lesson plans, readings, and instructional guides. According to two of our informants who were involved closely with the project, the packet was designed to be only a starting point for teachers who should tailor the materials to fit their classroom needs and to reflect current events. They thought giving teachers "autonomy" or empowerment over the LGC teaching would engage them more. Yet if teachers are reluctant or not rewarded for participating in the professional development, they will not move beyond the prescribed purple pack. As it turns out, the flexibility within the curriculum works well for some teachers who are enthusiastic about LGC and enjoy creating lessons from current events. It works less well for those teachers who are indifferent about LGC (as was one of the teachers who had been assigned to fill a vacancy by the principal) or have little time to develop or refine existing materials. Susan explains: I like it in a way, because everybody brings a little bit of their own expertise from their original subject into citizenship. Which is quite nice. But, everybody's going to approach it a slightly different way. But, what I do find, for people who are reluctant to teach it, but they're told, "Sorry. It's on your timetable," they want the comfort blanket. They want the textbook. And they will not veer away from that textbook. [In contrast,] the person, as I say, who takes off the blinkers and thinks, "Well, it's on my timetable, never done it before. It's going to be a new experience for me," they'll see things in the media; they see things in our community and they think, 'Oh, I could use that for my citizenship class.' In at least two of our schools, the head of department, like Susan, developed materials for LGC in their school to help those who want and need a "comfort blanket." There are proactive teachers in the system that put in the extra effort to make up the shortcomings. Two teachers, who were more enthusiastic about developing their materials, discussed the importance of creating a 'safe space' for unpacking some difficult topics covered in LGC. One from Catholic grammar school has carefully cultivated a safe atmosphere in her classroom. She describes how she challenges her students to question their labels and stereotypes: . . . they see it's safe to share. And it's safe for me to say things. Now, I did say something last year with a group of 16-year-olds. We were talking about identity and the way we pigeon-hole people because of their identity and I said . . . 'Does every Catholic want to be in a United Ireland? And does every Protestant want to be part of the UK?' . . . And we were talking about Protestants who work in London. ..[and how]when they go to other parts of Britain, they're perceived as Irish. We were exploring all this. Then I said that I would like Northern Ireland to remain part of the UK and they said, 'But you're Irish !' So, I said, 'I'm Irish but I'm a Unionist.' And they were very shocked at me saying that and I said, 'Well, let's break it down. Why would I say something like that?' This is an example of a teacher who is able to push her students to question their stereotypes and think critically - both of which contribute to the larger goals of education for reconciliation through citizenship. Mary also takes a risk by revealing her own seemingly contradictory identities (Irish and Unionist) to make the point. These interactions are not easy and they require a committed teacher. Here within lies the potential hazard of do it yourself textbooks and teachers who are less than enthusiastic or pressed for time: their classrooms might not become the safe spaces that are necessary for addressing difficult subjects. John, who organizes the professional development, reflects on this point: So, you've a lot of teachers don't fully get what the curriculum was trying to do - you have those challenges and then you've the content challenges and linking back to the curriculum issue, a lot of teachers go, 'I don't have time to go into that much detail.' Yet building the democratic skills necessary for reconciliation might require that much detail. Missed Opportunities Like their counterparts across the globe, teachers from this study are complex individuals that are by no means a homogenous group. They come from different traditions, backgrounds, and have varied life experiences that inform their viewpoints and classroom practice. Yet overall, the teachers supported the new LGC programme - even those who struggled with a squeezed timetable. In response to the question "what is the purpose of teaching citizenship and why is it important for your country?" almost all the teachers gave responses that echoed the aforementioned goals of citizenship education. Thirteen out of the fifteen teachers from the 2014 data collection discussed the importance of fostering understanding, tolerance, and/or dialogue through citizenship classes. Michael, who teaches at a grammar school, responded with just one word when asked: "tolerance." Meg, who teaches art and citizenship in another part of the country stressed that "dialogue would be the most important aspect. Dialogue, communication, not hitting the roof whenever you hear a viewpoint that's different than your own!" In tandem with this support, we discovered missed opportunities - areas where teachers could more effectively engage their students and promote the goals of LGC. First, we found an attitude that citizenship education was something needed more for those students who live in areas still affected by sectarian conflict or for students from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Second and related to the first, teachers underestimated the importance of teaching political literacy. Over half of the teachers discussed socio-economic status in the interviews though we did not explicitly ask about social class. Teachers appeared to use social class as a justification for taking LGC less seriously. Peter, a politics and LGC teacher at a grammar school, speculates that students at secondary schools - that is, non-selective schools - need citizenship education more than his pupils: I honestly don't know but my sort of a preconceived notion would be that the secondary schools, which are the non-selectives, probably spend more time in citizenships and issues like that because they usually come from a more divided backgrounds, especially city areas in Belfast, London Derry, and the kids would be more tuned in to political difference at a very basic level. Whereas, in grammar schools they would be a wee bit more middle class especially somewhere like [this town] here. As I said before, the divisions aren't that obvious. The conflict is not really coming into the classroom . . . Peter thought there were two purposes to citizenship education: teaching about "how democracy works" (voting and so forth) and addressing "the sectarian divide between the two majority communities with the idea of diversity." But for Peter, addressing this sectarian divide might be more applicable to those who have experienced it. Mary, who teaches in the neighbouring county, would agree. Her grammar school has been widening its demographics and Mary thought this would prioritize LGC and LLW: "with our changing demographic, maybe the priority that Learning for Life and Work gets in the grammar school [will change] . . . we are recognizing maybe more of a need for it but haven't actually got to the stage of working out how to do it." Jeannie who teaches in another grammar school addressed widening demographics and the challenges that this posed: "we've got girls now that don't have that same background . . . [they don't] have parents who know the importance of tolerance, respect, and empathy." Laurel, who teaches history and LGC, at an integrated school believed that LGC had an important role to play in widening in the viewpoints students from lower socio-economic backgrounds: . . . because of the social economic background that they come from they don't take the path that we would really like for them and they don't take the opportunities that are given to them. So it's really important to let them see that they are within sight; that they've a role to play. You know, in making it better; making it a better place rather than that it doesn't matter if 'I don't pass my GCSEs'; 'it doesn't matter if I don't go to work'; 'it doesn't matter if I'm on the dole'; 'it doesn't matter, if I don' t make something of my life.' We want to try and, you know, get that out their heads or mindset that that's an option for them. It is apparent that these teachers believe students from a lower social economic background have much to gain from LGC. This is discouraging news because political apathy and complacency can affect citizens from all social strata. This emphasis on social class potentially blinds teachers to the benefits of teaching citizenship skills to all students and misses an opportunity for engaging fully with LGC. This finding echoes a broader tension in the field for which education initiatives are most often targeted at those "most affected" by conflict—either by social class or other social identities (e.g., Paulson 2010; Bellino 2015b). The other missed opportunity is the teachers' underestimation of the importance or relevance of teaching political literacy—that is, the set of practical or 'hard' skills needed to participate in political life and critically discern current political events (see Davies 2004; Moodley and Adam 2007). Through the LGC curriculum, teachers need to hit a careful balance of preparing students to participate in new political configurations and aiding in reconciliation. The teacher interviews were striking because of the relative absence of discussion about teaching the logistics of democratic life. The majority of the teachers considered developing tolerance, mutual respect, and dialogue to be the primary purposes of citizenship education. Most important for the Northern Ireland context, young people need to be prepared for if and when there is a referendum vote on the sovereignty question that the Good Friday Agreement left open. Peter discusses helping students understand "how democracy works." He is an exception - issues related to reconciling the divisions within society dominated the conversations about the teachers' understanding of citizenship education. What teachers do in their classroom might differ from what they say outside of the classroom. We do not have enough classroom observation data to determine the extent of this difference. Yet, we argue that our conversations, which revealed that the need for imparting democratic skills in young people is underestimated, merit mentioning and open further avenues for research. Discussion and conclusion Northern Ireland represents a good example of 'liberal peacebuilding,' which has had positive outcomes, not least a reduction in violence and new power-sharing governance, but it has also had constraints and limitations at both the political and educational level. One of the main critiques of liberal peacebuilding is that it prioritises the management of violent conflict through agreement between political elites and promotion of economic development over addressing underlying causes of conflict through social development, transitional justice processes and dealing with legacies of the past. The most recent collapse of the NI Assembly in December 2016, 18 years after the original agreement, highlights how fragile such an approach can be. Ironically, the power sharing arrangements have limited the extent to which it has been possible to create a formal truth and reconciliation process, but there have been other, less formal opportunities. The introduction of LGC was one aspect of education that carried the potential to contribute to transformation and change by educating new generations of children and young people about the violent conflict in their own society and the challenges of creating a more peaceful future. However, its impact has been limited for a number of reasons. Whilst there was a strong rationale for citizenship education after the agreement it remains on the periphery of the curriculum with a low status and limited space within a system that prioritises academic achievement and examination results. The design represents a fundamental tension between inquiry-based approaches to learning and more traditional, academic approaches. Two important opportunities have been missed: a contribution to helping all young people from all socioeconomic backgrounds understand the importance of dealing with the past and legacies of the conflict; and preparing young people with the knowledge and skills necessary for political literacy to decide the future constitutional status of NI through participation in democratic politics and a future referendum. The Northern Ireland case has highlighted new avenues of inquiry. Through analysing these constraints and missed opportunities, we also uncovered a blind spot in the organization and implementation of LGC: because it is a separate subject from history and teachers from a range of disciplinary background teach LGC, teachers can avoid difficult conversations about the violent past and its enduring legacies. To this point, Gallagher (2017) suggests that a prescribed curriculum might relieve this but only if the curriculum engages with difficult issues. The LGC framework calls students to understand conflict, sectarianism, and prejudices, but the focus is on the present and future. We recognize that teaching about the past is political and the curriculum specialists need to develop a citizenship programme which both sides support. This leads us to a thorny question: to what extent can educators and policymakers separate education for reconciliation and democratic citizenship from teaching directly about a difficult past? We do not have a straightforward answer but the disconnection between teaching for citizenship while addressing the past has potentially under-estimated the extent to which legacies still have the potential to destabilize current political arrangements. This tension has implications for other societies for which education policymakers might attempt to side-line teaching about a violent past while promoting citizenship education. It might not be possible to have one without the other. We also ponder if enlarging the scope of citizenship education (incorporating both local and global perspectives and themes) provides educators with a convenient cover for avoiding contentious subjects at the local level. It might be much easier for teachers to discuss and draw lessons from human rights abuses that happened elsewhere than abuses that have happened in one's country. Related to the lack of discussion about the violent past, we do not know the extent to which teachers use the organizational constraints and attitudes, like the 'squeezed timetable' or that grammar school students do not need LGC, as an excuse for not engaging more fully with LGC. Do they hide behind the veil of an exam-focused curriculum and school culture as a way to avoid uncomfortable subjects? Perhaps they are sceptical about the value of teaching citizenship despite publicly supporting it. Alternatively, they might not find any reward in teaching it. These are possibilities that merit further investigation. As our fellow contributors in this volume demonstrate, teachers play a pivotal role in the transformation of conflict-affected contexts and there is more to learn about these critical actors. While the placement of LGC in the Northern Ireland curriculum is disadvantageous, we are optimistic. Northern Ireland education policymakers incorporated transitional justice aims throughout the curriculum in the absence of a formal state-sponsored process. While the effectiveness in this particular case and at this time is limited, Northern Ireland is an example of a citizenship education programme that has explicitly moved away from an emphasis on national identity and embraced human rights with an eye to bettering the future for all citizens. Taking a cue from Northern Ireland, other deeply divided societies might find citizenship education to be an effective venue to promote transitional justice amongst their young citizens. References Anderson, Elizabeth A. 2007. "'They are the Priests': The Role of the Moldovan Historian and its Implications for Civic Education." Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education 37 (3): 277-290. Arlow, M. 1999. "Citizenship education in a contested society", Development Education Journal 6 (1): 14–15. Banks, James A. 2007. Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives. Indianapolis: Jossey Bass. Barton, K. C., and A.W. Mccully. 2005. "History, Identity, and the School Curriculum in Northern Ireland: An Empirical Study of Secondary Students' ideas and Perspectives." Journal of Curriculum Studies 37 (1): 85–116. Bellino, M. J. 2015a. "So that We do not Fall Again: History Education and Citizenship in 'Postwar' Guatemala." Comparative Education Review 60 (1): 58-79. Bellino, M.J., 2015b. The risks we are willing to take: Youth civic development in "postwar" Guatemala. Harvard Educational Review, 85(4): 537-561. Cole, E.A. 2007. Teaching the Violent Past. History Education and Reconciliation. Plymouth: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. Consultative Group on the Past. 2009. Report of the Consultative Group of the Past. House of Commons, Northern Ireland Affairs Committee. Available from: https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmniaf/171/171.pdf (Accessed 20 Feb 2017). Davies, L. 2004. Education and Conflict: Complexity and Chaos. New York: Routledge. Davies, L. 2005. "Teaching about Conflict through Citizenship Education." International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education 1(2): 17-34. Emerson, Leslie. 2012. "Conflict, Transition and Education for 'Political Generosity': Learning from the Experience of Ex-Combatants in Northern Ireland. Journal of Peace Education, 9 (3), 277-295. Fay, M. T., M. Morrisey, and M. Smyth. 1999. Northern Ireland's Troubles: The Human Costs London: Pluto Press. . Fearon, J. D. and D. Laitin. 2004. Neotrusteeship and the problem of weak states. International security 28, no. 4 (2004): 5-43. Gallagher, T., 2017. Addressing Conflict and Tolerance through the Curriculum. In (Re) Constructing Memory: Education, Identity, and Conflict edited by M. Bellino and J. Williams, 191-207. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Gardner, J. 2016. "Education in Northern Ireland since the Good Friday Agreement: Kabuki Theatre meets Danse Macabre." Oxford Review of Education 42 (3): 346-361. Guerrero, A. 2011. Rebuilding Trust in Government via Service Delivery: The Case of Medellin, Colombia. Washington, DC: World Bank. Gutmann, A.1999. Democratic Education. Princeton: Princeton University Press. . Hahn, C. 1998. Becoming Political: Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education Buffalo: Suny Press. Janmaat, J. G., and N. Piattoeva. 2007. "Citizenship Education in Ukraine and Russia: Reconciling Nation‐ Building and Active Citizenship." Comparative Education 43 (4): 527–52. Jeffers, G., and U. O'Connor, U. 2008. Education for Citizenship and Diversity in Irish Contexts Dublin: Institute of Public Administration. King, E. 2014. From Classrooms to Conflict in Rwanda. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kymlicka, W. 1995. Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Levinson, Bradley A. and Doyle Stevick, eds. 2007. Reimagining Civic Education: How Diverse Societies form Democratic Citizens. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Lijphart, Arend. 2004. "Constitutional Design for Divided Societies." Journal of Democracy 15 (2): 96–109. Magill, C., A. Smith and B. Hamber. 2009. The Role of Education in Reconciliation. Report for EU Peace and Reconciliation Fund. McCandless, E. 2012. "Peace Dividends and Beyond: Contributions of Administrative and Social Services to Peacebuilding." New York: PBSO. McCracken, N. 2015. "Document reveals 12 year backlog in legacy inquests" The Detail. Available at: http://www.thedetail.tv/articles/department-of-justice-claim-it-will-take-up-to12-years-to-deal-with-legacy-inquests (Accessed 24 April 2017). McCully, A. 2012. "History teaching, conflict and the legacy of the past." Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 7: 145–159. . McCully, Alan and Linda Clarke. 2016. "A Place for Fundamental (British) Values in Teacher Education in Northern Ireland?" Journal of Education for Teaching 42 (3): 354-368. Moodley, K.A. and H. Adam. 2007. "Citizenship Education and OPlicial Literacy in South Africa" in Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives edited by J. Banks, 159-83. Indianapolis: Jossey-Bass. Murphy, K. 2016. "Educational Reform through a Transitional Justice Lens: The ambivalent Transitions of Bosnia and Northern Ireland" in Transitional Justice ad Education: Learning Peace edited by C. Ramirz-Barat and R. Duthie, 65-98. New York: Social Science Research Council press. Murphy, K. and T. Gallagher. 2009. "Reconstruction after Violence: How Teachers and Schools can Deal with the Legacy of the Past." Perspectives in Education 27 (2): 158-168. Ndaruhutse S. et al, 2011. "State-Building , Peace-Building and Service Delivery in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States" Conflict (May):1–62. Newman, E., R. Paris, and O.P. Richmond eds. 2009. New Perspectives on Liberal Peacebuilding. Tokyo, New York, Paris: United Nations University Press. Niens, U., and M. Chastenay. 2008. "Educating for Peace? Citizenship Education in Quebec and Northern Ireland." Comparative Education Review 52 (4): 519-540. Niens, U, U. O'Connor, and A. Smith. 2013. "Citizenship Education in Divided Societies: Teachers' Perspectives in Northern Ireland." Citizenship Studies 17 (1): 128-141. Northern Ireland Office. 1998. "The Agreement, Belfast: NIO." Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-belfast-agreement (Accessed 20 Feb 2017). Northern Ireland Office. 2006. "St. Andrew's Agreement, Belfast": NIO. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/136651/st_an drews_agreement-2.pdf (Accessed 20 Feb 2017). Novelli, M. and A. Smith. 2011. The Role of Education in Peacebuilding. A synthesis report of findings from Lebanon, Nepal and Sierra Leone. New York: UNICEF. O'Connor, U. 2008. "Evaluation of the Pilot Introduction of Education for Local and Global Citizenship into the Revised Northern Ireland Curriculum." Coleraine: University of Ulster. Available from: http://unesco.ulster.ac.uk/PDFs/summaryreport.pdf (Accessed 6 August 2010). O'Connor, U. 2012. "Schools Together: Enhancing the Citizenship Curriculum through a Nonformal Education Programme." Journal of Peace Education 9 (1): 331-48. Osler, Audrey and Hugh Starkey. 2005. Changing Citizenship: Democracy and Inclusion in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill International. Paulson, J. 2010. "Truth Commissions and National Curriculum: The Case of the Recordándonos resource in Peru". In Children and Transitional Justice. Truth-Telling, Accountability and Reconciliation, edited by S. Parmar, M.J. Roseman, S. Siegrist, & T. Sowa, 327-364. . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Paulson, J. 2011. Education and Reconciliation: Exploring Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations. London: Continuum Books. Ramírez-Barat, C., and R. Duthie. 2015. Education and Transitional Justice: Opportunities and Challenges for Peacebuilding. New York: ICTJ. Smith, A. 2003. "Citizenship Education in Northern Ireland: Beyond National Identity?" Cambridge Journal of Education 33 (1):15-31. Smith, A. and M. Print. 2003. "Special Edition on Citizenship Education: Editorial." Cambridge Journal of Education 33(1): 3-14. Smith, A., E. McCandless, J. Paulson,. and W. Wheaton. 2011. The Role of Education in Peacebuilding - Literature Review. New York: UNICEF. Van Ommering, E. 2015. "Formal History Education in Lebanon: Crossroads of Past Conflicts and Prospects for Peace." International Journal of Educational Development 41: 200-207. Waldron F. and A. McCully. 2016. "Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland: Eroded Certainties and New Possibilities." In Teaching History and the Changing Nation State: Transnational and Intranational Perspectives, edited by Robert Guyver, 53-73. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Worden, E. 2014. National Idenity and Educational Reform: Contested Classrooms. New York: Routledge. Zimmerman, Jonathan. 2002. Whose America? Culture Wars in the Public Schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.	<urn:uuid:f253168c-9a19-4360-94f0-4bf601bf8363>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://ulster-staging.pure.elsevier.com/ws/portalfiles/portal/11629020/EAW+AS+Final+2+May+17.pdf	2021-10-24T05:06:43+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00093.warc.gz	716,679,004	11,945	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.951233	eng_Latn	0.998949	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Lat...	false	docling	[ 2274, 4277, 7394, 8342, 10391, 12477, 14418, 17401, 18603, 20949, 23982, 25145, 27218, 29062, 31335, 33373, 35299, 38107, 39567, 41801, 43838, 45842, 47829, 49867, 51422, 53423, 55515, 57959, 59743 ]	[ 2.0625, 1.1953125 ]	1	2
EXPLORE THE ISSUE BEING INVESTIGATED In Search of New Antibiotics: How Salamander Skin Secretions Combat Microbial Infections The antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929. Called a "miracle drug," it saved millions of lives. Penicillin kills growing bacteria by inhibiting an enzyme that carries out a key step in the formation of the bacterial cell wall. The enzyme normally catalyzes the formation of cross-links between the cell wall strands, and without these links the cell wall has no strength; the bacterium swells and ruptures, unable to withstand its own osmotic pressure. However, not long after the discovery of penicillin, strains of bacteria resistant to it began to emerge. In response to penicillum resistance, researchers have developed new antibiotics. Over the past sixty years, we have seen a foot race between the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains by disease bacteria on the one hand, and the development of new antibiotics by researchers on the other hand. Unfortunately, in recent years , it appears the bacteria may be pulling ahead. Diseases such as tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and malaria, once easily eradicated with drugs, now have developed antibiotic-resistant strains. The process of tweaking antibiotics to attack these resistant strains is becoming less and less effective. So researchers are seeking new classes of antibiotics that work in different ways. Two key factors in the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria are: 1. mutations of bacterial genes that confer resistance on an organism, and 2. the acquiring of antibiotic resistance from other bacteria, which spread genes from one cell to another on infectious bits of DNA called plasmids. While the initial doses of an antibiotic may kill most of the bacteria, the few bacteria that have undergone mutation to antibiotic-resistance, or that have acquired such resistance genes from other bacteria, survive and quickly multiply. The result is the creation of a drugresistant strain that can spread to other individuals, infections that cannot be successsfully treated with the antibiotic. A key to developing antibiotics less susceptible to antibiotic resistance is to identify drugs that target bacterial structures less likely to undergo mutations. Penicillin and similar antibiotics typically act on bacterial enzymes. Because enzymes typically have very narrowly-defined specific functions, cells can often tolerate the loss or change of a particular enzyme, making the cell able to survive the "experimentation" that eventually leads to antibiotic resistance. The bacterial cell is less tolerant of mutational alter- No Photo Available ation to other more broadly functioning components. A new class of antibiotics have been discovered that act on the bacterial cell membrane. These antibiotics are small, membrane-active peptides that interact with and disrupt the bacterial cell membrane. The phospholipids and membrane proteins that make up the cell membrane are fundamental cell building blocks that function to provide a barrier to noxious substances as well as maintaining the internal contents of the cell. Disruption of this barier would be lethal tothe bacterium. Where did researchers find these membrane-disrupting peptides? On the skin of amphibians. Skin is an important defensive organ for an amphibian. The dermal glands of amphibians secrete a variety of substances that aid in the protection of the animal. Mucus secreted on the skin helps retain moisture. Other substances are antipredatory, toxic or sticky secretions that keep predators away. Several species of frogs are known to release antimicrobial peptides onto their skin, offering the frogs protection from invading microorganisms. But many other amphibians also have dermal secretions -- might there be other sources of antimicrobial peptides? John Dankert of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette has studied the dermal secretions of the red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus. This species of salamander is lungless, relying on cutaneous respiration. Its skin is thin and well vascularized, providing an easy route for microbial entry. Although P. cinereus is territorial and so fights often, its wounds rarely become infected, indicating an active defense against bacteria. P cinereus seemed to Dankert to be an ideal candidate for the presence of antimicrobial peptides in dermal secretions.	<urn:uuid:683c2c31-b309-44d9-8ba2-0b02adbbc33e>	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://biologyjunction.com/images/misc/How%20Salamander%20Skin%20Secretions%20combat%20microbial%20infections.pdf	2021-10-24T06:05:09+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585911.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024050128-20211024080128-00095.warc.gz	230,371,462	844	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997749	eng_Latn	0.997749	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4425 ]	[ 2.140625 ]	1	2
HIGHER SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION 1995 GENERAL STUDIES 1 UNIT Time allowed—Two hours and a quarter (Plus 5 minutes' reading time) DIRECTIONS TO CANDIDATES * All questions are of equal value. * Attempt THREE questions. * Answer each question in a separate Writing Booklet. * Your answers should contain reasoned argument supported by relevant evidence. * Take time to read this paper carefully and plan each of your answers before you begin to write. * You may ask for extra Writing Booklets if you need them. QUESTION 1 Courtesy Alan Moir, Sydney Morning Herald. Religious leaders are frequently called upon to pass opinion on issues facing society. What is the role of religion in modern Australian society? QUESTION 2 'The United Nations has become ineffective as a peace-keeping organization.' How fair and correct is this claim? How might conflicts between nations be better resolved? QUESTION 3 ©The Observer,14/8/94. What factors can you suggest to account for the differences shown by the figures above? What are some social and political consequences of these differences? QUESTION 4 'The beach, the outback, television programs, and sport define Australian national culture as much as literature and the visual and performing arts.' Discuss this claim. QUESTION 5 'Civilization is to be judged by its treatment of minorities.' How tolerant of minority groups is Australian society? In your answer consider AT LEAST TWO minority groups. QUESTION 6 The Sydney Morning herald, 8/12/94, p 15. Give possible reasons for the employment patterns indicated in the graphs above. What are some of the consequences of these employment trends in Australia? QUESTION 7 In his 1995 Australia Day speech, the Governor-General, Mr Hayden, referred to communication technology. He said that the information super-highway is being over-hyped and exaggerated. This could lead to unrealistic expectations and disappointments. Do you agree with the Governor-General? What are possible benefits and problems of current communication technology? In your answer, refer to AT LEAST TWO of the following: * privacy * copyright * cultural identity * the Internet * marketing * education * leisure. QUESTION 8 'Good Government requires an effective Opposition.' Do you agree with this claim? Support your answer with relevant examples. QUESTION 9 A parliamentary inquiry into youth violence was told that teachers are being distracted from teaching by having to deal with a range of social issues. These issues include family problems, violence, and even making sure students are properly fed, clothed, and have a place to sleep at night. Many parents are creating false expectations of what teachers should do by neglecting their own parenting obligations. Schools are not capable of being total welfare agencies. Has the school replaced the family in the role of parenting? What do you consider to be the main role of the school in the education of a young person? Explain your point of view. QUESTION 10 'There are advantages and disadvantages of languages other than English becoming commonly used in Australia.' Discuss this statement. QUESTION 11 'Governments are being faced with more and more policy decisions where there is conflict between environmental and other interests.' How successful have Australian Governments been in addressing environmental concerns in recent years? Discuss specific examples in your answer. QUESTION 12 'The media's disregard of the right to privacy has reached unacceptable proportions. Individuals have a right to a private life.' Do you agree with these statements? Support your viewpoint with examples. BLANK PAGE BLANK PAGE	<urn:uuid:0b6f1be3-ec15-4a0c-a410-6b9e17cfa423>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://freeexampapers.com/exam-papers/Board-of-Studies-New-South-Wales/General-Studies/1995/95GENST.PDF	2024-02-27T17:30:45+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00672.warc.gz	278,182,857	738	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997197	eng_Latn	0.998474	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown" ]	false	docling	[ 517, 905, 1285, 1685, 3027, 3689, 3701, 3713 ]	[ 2.6875 ]	1	0
BEST PRACTICES ON INTEGRATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE INTO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS SDG 6: Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for All Prepared by Marilyn Fowler, MA, PhD., Department of Consciousness and Sustainable Development, John F. Kennedy University, Chief Editor Dr. Maia Kincaid,PhD., Founder of the Sedona International School for Nature and Animal Communication Robert Wheeler, UN Representative of the Global EcoVillage Network Jill Lauri, MBA, MSW Joan Kehoe Lisinka Ulatowska, MA, PhD., Coordinator Commons Cluster of the UN NGO Major Group Endorsers John F. Kennedy University Commons Cluster of the UN NGO Major Group South Eastern Peoples California Institute of Integral Studies The Federalist Movement of the Netherlands (WFBN) Madjulla Association (Australia) The Sedona International School of Animal and Nature Communicators The Institute for Planetary Synthesis The All Win Network The Association of World Citizens Contact: firstname.lastname@example.org BEST PRACTICES ON INTEGRATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE INTO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SDG 6: Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for All Executive Summary Considerations involving sustainable management of water and sanitation for all must include the needs of all of Nature as well as all of humanity. Human beings are just one integral part of the hydro or water subsystem, which also includes plants, animals and the Earth itself. Ecosystems are an important building block on which biodiversity relies and their need for water must be considered along with that of human beings. The health of our water correlates with the health of the life that depends upon it. The natural cycle of water controls life on the planet. To achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all, it is necessary to recognize that water is the giver and provider of all life. When humans hold it as precious, they naturally pay close attention to its ongoing supply and protect it from contamination. To address water scarcity and truly promote access to fresh water for all it will be necessary to create a culture of caring for all of Nature as well as all human beings. To stimulate interest in regenerating fresh water sources, humans can profit from learning how Nature creates sustainable development using fifteen billion years of experience. Several simultaneous steps and number of actions are proposed to help achieve this. Integrated water resources management, including trans-boundary cooperation, requires that we do not treat water-related ecosystems and other aspects of nature as simple commodities to be exploited for the benefit of the few. Rather, we must recognize that environments producing fresh water are essential to human life. These intact environments also constitute valuable learning laboratories for children, students, scientists as well as Nature communicators and can be used in many constructive ways if left undisturbed. Finding ways to share the wisdom and knowledge of those who understand the complexities of these ecosystems will benefit both human beings as well as Nature. It is important to acknowledge that developing countries are as knowledgeable as developed nations about best practices for maintaining fresh water and sanitation and in fact, may be demonstrating more effective stewardship and better cooperation with Nature, living closer to the Earth. This document discusses Nature-inspired practices to purify water sources as well as a number of best practices in dealing with open defecation and sanitation issues. It includes as well a variety of useful perspectives and practices to bring the Earth and her resources back into balance. At our core, humans are social beings who share an integral relationship with Nature. By reinforcing these basic values, leaders can inspire their communities to take action. With the support of local government, people can take the lead themselves. Actions are proposed to help bring this about. Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. In consideration of our goal to ensure a sustainable supply of clean, life-giving water for all, it is helpful to remind ourselves of the nature of water itself. Water is the most basic element of life, in constant motion on the earth and in the earth's atmosphere. The movement of water is governed by Nature through an intricate planetary system that takes up and releases moisture in complex, interrelating, climatic cycles. Where water is abundant, life flourishes; where water is scarce, life withers. Because water is a shared resource on the planet—vital to the ongoing survival of not just our species but all species—it is evident that human beings must work together in cooperation to implement this goal. If we approach the implementation of this sustainable development goal from a place of appreciation of clean water for all life, we will set in motion what is required to support us in our efforts. Sustainable management of water and sanitation for all must include the needs of all of Nature as well as all of humanity. Human beings are just one integral part of the hydro or water subsystem, which also includes plants, animals and the Earth itself. Ecosystems are an important building block on which biodiversity relies and their need for water must be considered along with that of human beings. The health of our water correlates with the health of the life that depends upon it. When water is contaminated in one location, it continues to contaminate all downstream locations within its reach, ultimately polluting the oceans as well as the land. We are reminded that cooperation for the wellbeing of all life requires that we value water quality everywhere and in every nation, because the quality of water in one nation is intimately connected with the quality of water in another. The natural cycle of water controls life on the planet. It determines which life forms, and which combinations of life forms exist naturally in each ecosystem. The way the water cycle functions at any given time affects habitats, availability of food, climates, water availability, and performs an important function in the evolution of species and how well they live with one another. Human beings make changes to the Earth System at their peril; we are seeing this with climate change. Over time there has been a shift from our understanding of humans as an integral, harmonious part of Nature to humans attempting unsuccessfully to control nature, causing crises such as droughts, fires, conflicts over water and mass extinction of species. Through their mega-projects, such as dams, levees, and tapping underground aquifers for intensive agriculture, people have disturbed natural processes so that water availability and management has become a critical issue. Moving forward in this century and beyond, water quality will continue to grow in importance, partly because of the tremendous growth of the population and urban expansion and development. This increasing human and industrial growth puts increased stress on the natural water resources, which further erodes our water quality. Water quality is a very complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial pollution, including runoff from agricultural areas, urban storm- water runoff, and discharge of untreated sewage, especially in developing countries, is a major cause of water pollution everywhere, including our oceans. Going forward, it is essential that we work with one another, together as one people, remembering the importance and precious value of water on the planet. It is important we look closely at our daily activities in relation to water use and preservation, as individuals, businesses, communities, nations and as a global community. It is also necessary that we discuss our needs honestly with regard to water availability and sanitation. To have productive discussions that will allow us to reach our long-term goal, we must initiate greater acceptance of each other, particularly those we have considered "other". From that place of mutual acceptance, together, we open to a perspective from which creative, and effective solutions can emerge. Human ingenuity is abundant everywhere on the planet. By sharing new ideas, methods, and technologies, we can resolve challenges and learn to live together in harmony with each other and with natural forces. Humans, like water and all other aspects of Nature, are interconnected and interdependent. The wisdom of water shows us our inseparability from each other and all of life. While no single nation can accomplish this goal alone, any one nation can lead the way for others to follow. 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all Water is the giver and provider of all life. When humans hold it as precious, rare, essential, even sacred, they naturally pay close attention to its ongoing supply and protect it from contamination. What we value as precious, rare or essential to life, or to our livelihood, we pay close attention to and manage with care. Modern technology has made water available at the turn of a knob, and has promoted a belief that fresh, clean water is always readily available for bathing, drinking and all other purposes. While most people are aware of how precious water is, many in technologically advanced countries take it for granted. There is an illusion that fresh water is always available and the only imagined inconvenience would be a plumbing issue inhibiting the flow of water to us. While the technology is truly something to celebrate, we must consider the reality of the dwindling fresh water source and people must be reminded that the faucet could go dry. Nature has not always provided. Proposed Actions It would be valuable for young people in technologically advanced countries to have alternate experiences with water as part of their education. This would enable new generations to understand the reality of the preciousness of water and foster the production of new technologies based on the sustainability of water for current and future generations. In such an educational process, students might: * Practice living without the technology which makes water so readily available; * Study water ecology; * Live in communities where water must be carried and where water is used in whatever form or condition it is found because that is the only option; * Learn to care for water resources with reverence and respect, as sacred sources; * Learn to cleanse contaminated water sources using natural methods; * Learn about using non-toxic, recyclable containers to collect water; * Explore innovative solutions to desalinating water more efficiently; * Create water pipelines to dry areas where water can be collected in central places for access by individual households. 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations Locations where open defecation still continues are prime locations to test and develop new technologies that can be adapted for use in all locations. What is currently utilized in cities with running water and flush toilets is a great feat of technological development but may not be sustainable in the future. By placing priority on bringing new technologies to areas that have been forgotten, sustainable advancement can be made on a planet-wide scale, which will bring greater equitability and wellness to all. Proposed Actions * Identify areas where change is needed with regard to equitable sanitation, hygiene and open defecation. * Publicize the issues worldwide and invite people and organizations to become involved in bringing new technologies that will transform these areas. * Implement various advanced technologies in these locations to test their effectiveness. * Monitor and study the technologies to perfect them. * Adopt these new technologies and sustainable practices for waste and water management in other locations and regions of the world going forward; publicize results widely to build awareness and create alignment with natural earth ecology. * Focus first on areas in greatest need so that they are transformed and then work on areas of secondary need going forward. Projected Outcomes * Immediate improvement of conditions in locations on the planet where change is most needed. * New awareness among scientists and other technological developers with regard to functioning of newly developed systems. * The invention of technologies that sustainably manage water as well as waste in harmony with earth systems and planetary boundaries. * The opportunity to test, perfect and expand ideas and ultimately create new types of sustainable systems that can be implemented in developed nations as well as in developing nations. * Higher standards of life for the poorest human inhabitants on the planet, bringing new awareness of the potential for greater health to all species of life. * funding and support for these new sustainable technologies and practices going forward, recognizing their absolute necessity for the continuation of life on the planet. Many problems relating to availability of natural resources, such as water and energy, can be resolved if we plan our human settlements so that people live within reach of sufficient water and other resources that serve a particular community. Increasingly, people are able to live and work in smaller communities with the help of the Internet. So, when we refer to what is "affordable," it is essential to interpret that in terms of availability as well as in terms of money. If water has to be transported over long distances, it becomes unaffordable for many people. If fresh water sources are depleted or polluted through poor waste management, people will languish for lack of water. When it comes to waste, human beings are integrally related to Nature and have much to learn from her examples. Everything discarded as waste by one part of an ecosystem is used by other parts of the system. Nature produces no waste. We can all learn many things from natural environments, including how to reuse "waste" and neutralize toxic substances. All people can participate in recycling inspired by Nature's processes. Where there is no central garbage collection, people can be encouraged to bring waste to central recycling centers. These can become centers for the exchange of goods. Financial reimbursement can be offered as an incentive for people to bring in articles such as aluminum cans, plastic bottles, reusable building materials and other resalable goods. The recycling keeps the cost of reselling materials low, which is advantageous for the economy. Nature offers us a free flowing model that operates with a spirit of sharing and cooperation, both within and between species. If people worldwide were to pool their information, know-how and best practices, possibly with the help of the Internet, then communities could choose the practices that suit them best to implement this goal. It is to our advantage to follow Nature's example, including using circular solutions. Sewage, grey water and other waste can be broken down using a combination of plants, insects and bacteria to free nitrogen, phosphorus, methane gas for cooking and other valuable resources. Waste management, if it follows nature's example, would be geared to full recycling. Since human beings produce so much toxic waste, the recycling process should be improved to make substances less toxic so they can be recycled and put to good use for the planet. To allow this to come about, people need to develop a desire to fully communicate with life itself, including listening with and to their own physical bodies. 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally This has to be a priority now! It is time that we work in conjunction with Nature rather than continuing our ineffective attempts to challenge and control her. We can follow Nature's way of balance and learn to move with her flow. The solutions lie in the simplicity of Nature and in using natural, non-toxic means of water purification. Plants and trees filter water naturally. We can learn from them and follow their lead. It is important to educate humans to help them develop awareness of and respect for Mother Earth, to realize that all of life is interconnected and we are all sharing the same precious resources so there is no point in continuing harmful practices such as dumping dangerous materials into our water systems. With a new understanding of how to live in ways that preserve and protect our precious water, keeping it clean and safe, people can raise awareness in the world through their way of thinking, speaking and being as well as their use of technology and media. Indigenous Peoples can share the knowledge of their wise elders to help people learn a loving way of being in harmony and appreciation of nature and animals. Increased funding should be put toward research and development of natural, earth friendly products and technologies to cleanse Earth's water sources. If we support Nature's own ways of purifying and cleansing her water sources, they will gradually regenerate. To enable such a turnaround, people must begin to appreciate both Nature and themselves for the miracles that they are—a miracle that can never be duplicated by humans. Human beings must first learn to see and treat themselves with respect and act in alignment with their best interests, so that creative solutions that benefit all can evolve. Proposed Actions It is essential to bring the Earth and her resources back into balance. This will require that human beings: * Cease the use of toxic and dangerous chemicals in all sectors. * Develop earth friendly technology, including non-toxic cleaners and degreasers. * Develop clean motors for cars and planes. * Develop an approach to child rearing that respects the individual's capacity to fulfil his/her potential and develop self-respect as a foundation to developing respect for all life on this planet. * Create supportive work environments that promote creativity and make it possible for people to have the time and resources for true relaxation and recreation when not working. * Implement Article 26 (2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights * Establish formal education using all types of media to promote awareness and understanding, with emphasis on: -The primacy of Nature and the need for Nature-inspired solutions. ▪Success stories of Nature-inspired best practices and effective solutions. -Student-centred projects that make use of individuals' unique skills and aptitudes to solve real world problems involving pollution and water quality. * Create incentives for people to develop solutions to problems relating to waste management and cleaning polluted water sources. * Provide material support for implementing such solutions. * Create a website where people can exchange best practices and effective incentives. * Apply commons rent/Land Value Taxation whereby the use of natural resources is paid for by commons rent/Land Value Taxation; and taxes are removed from labour, thereby causing people to make the most of their natural resources and encouraging people to work. * Implement legislation prohibiting people from producing products that are not 100% recyclable, and imposing high fines for any pollution or destruction of Nature. Even though many believe they cannot accomplish what is needed because powerful interests are in the way, almost anything is possible when people are motivated by a simple desire to do good, to simply take care of what needs to be taken care of. The more people step up and unite to support the best interests of all life on this planet without fears or political agendas, the more they will naturally take actions in alignment with the highest and best for all life on the planet and unleash the powers inherent in Nature. 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity If we want to address water scarcity and truly promote access to fresh water for all it will be necessary to create a culture of caring for all of Nature and all human beings. As well, we will need to stimulate interest in regenerating fresh water sources by learning how Nature creates sustainable development using 15 billion years of experience stored in the Earth. Addressing water scarcity will involve the following simultaneous steps. Proposed Actions * Increase awareness of daily water consumption in homes and in industries. * Establish a cap on the amount daily water use allowed. * Promote education in effective, environmentally conscious ways for people to save water. * Provide incentives for people to be responsible regarding their own water consumption. * Ensure that big companies declare their use of water and have a daily limit. * Offer assistance to relocate people who live in very dry places move to locations with easier access to water pipelines. * Ration water use when in short supply to ensure all have access to a fair share of available fresh water. * Start a wide-scale education campaign to ensure that all understand: o The crucial importance of fresh drinking water to themselves personally as well as to all others. o That access to fresh water must include all species, since leaving out one part of the Earth System from a needed access to fresh water will inevitably have a boomerang effect on one's own wellbeing. o The importance of exchanging and sharing information among people worldwide via a special website or the websites of relevant UN Specialized Agencies about Nature-based solutions for regenerating fresh water and best practices used by others facing similar fresh water issues. * Institute enforceable legislation that ensures that all have the necessary access. * 10. Create a global system that invites all cultures and nationalities to engage in an understanding of planetary water resources and current developments on the planet as a whole. Where people shift their vision and truly work together for the wellbeing of all people and the planet, they will experience true empowerment to achieve the goal of increased efficiency of water use, becoming aware of the remarkable miracles already happening on a daily basis. 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through trans-boundary cooperation as appropriate Where we treat water-related ecosystems and other aspects of nature as simple commodities to be exploited for the benefit of just a few, we risk depleting and destroying our natural environments, as is happening today. Ecosystems that produce fresh water are essential to human life. If we understand that we are an integral part of these ecosystems, and that our very survival depends on supporting and maintaining their continued health and vitality, we shall be increasing much more than just the system's capacity to produce fresh water. We shall be supporting the growth of microorganisms that live in water, insects, reptiles, birds, huge varieties of animals and plants, each of which is an invaluable marvel of nature in its own right as well as an indispensable part of the web of life. Each ecosystem that produces fresh water helps to sustain life on the planet. Each affects the air we breath, cloud formation, and sustains species worldwide through migration and the dispersal of seeds, all of which keeps the food chain in tact. Once people begin to realize that ecosystems constitute valuable learning laboratories for children, students and scientists as well as Nature communicators; that they are works of art awe-inspiring in their beauty, bringing solace, nurturing, peace, rest for the weary and much more, people will be more inclined to leave these ecosystems intact to perform their many functions and to provide their many benefits to all life. 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes Proposed Actions Following are some actions we can take to protect and restore water-related ecosystems: * Create many more areas that protect nature, such as wildlife sanctuaries. * Declare every important water source as protected and designate more and larger areas as protected worldwide. * Create legally enforceable legislation with stiff penalties for industries that dump their waste into water. * Prevent new buildings from being built that would impact such areas. * Allow rivers to re-assume their natural form, space and flow wherever possible. 6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies. Water is an essential element for human life and throughout the ages much wisdom and know-how has been developed regarding locating and stewarding water sources. Finding ways to pool this wisdom and know-how will benefit both human beings as well as Nature. It is important to acknowledge that developing countries are as knowledgeable as developed ones and in fact, may be demonstrating more effective stewardship and better cooperation with Nature, living closer to the Earth. 6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management. Ours is a world of abundance, as long as we use what we need and leave the rest untouched. Everything is interconnected and we would be wise to acknowledge that fact. If we want to purify the water, we must shift our intentions and emphasize values other than pure profit. This will take a new kind of effort that respects basic human needs. If we want clean drinking water, we absolutely must stop polluting it. The solutions lie in the simplicity of Nature and in using natural, non-toxic means of water purification. Plants and trees filter water naturally. We can learn from them and follow their lead. Our human desires for cooperation, collaboration and inclusion are deeply ingrained in our psyche. At our core, we are social beings who share an integral relationship with Nature. By reinforcing these basic values, leaders can inspire their communities to take action. With the support of local government, people can take the lead themselves. Proposed Actions 1. Institute a simple education campaign that speaks to the hearts of people, letting them understand deeply why it is essential to save fresh water and improve sanitation even in areas where rainfall is plentiful. (Here organizations such as the Global Ecovillage Network can be extremely helpful.) 2. Create incentives to get all people in local communities involved. 3. Foster a sacred relationship with water as an element to be treated with dignity, kindness, love and respect by: * Providing inspiring stories and demonstrations of best practices: * Providing education individually or as a group on how to implement best practices. * Offering examples of how people have benefited from implementing one or more of these practices. * Eliciting responses from others regarding their successes, the joy of working with others as a part of a group or simply as a part of a larger network. * Reinforcing the knowledge that they are doing useful, necessary and effective work for the planet. * Supporting the creation and exhibition of works of art that portray water as a beautiful and sacred and create a deep connection with water. * Bringing attention to current diverse works of art that emphasize our connection with water and Nature. * Showing how water is a part of every living being on this earth, how water is a part of all of our own bodies, and how we are integrally related to all bodies of water. * Showing through the arts that water is by nature wild and free. * Allowing our music to reflect the voices of water, at is sings and roars. * Portraying water's movements in dance as it flows and moves through the world. * 4. Encourage people to share what they are doing on Facebook and on YouTube, Twitter, Instagram and other social media to increase the potential that these images will go viral. 5. Make what is happening in each community known to other local governments via ICLEI and associations of Mayors, etc., and via the web sites of various UN Agencies. Once people get a sense that they might be able to see, hear, touch, feel, and dance with what they come to see as the nature of water within themselves and all around them, they may more easily realize that we are all part of each other, our fates are intertwined, and water is not an object outside of us but the primary element that makes us what we are. In our bodies, and emotions, we are one and inseparable. What happens to water happens to human beings. We are connected in both joy and suffering. Human emotions are intimately related to the element of water. Both require natural expression and flow. When dammed up, pressure builds, which can lead to torrential and damaging outpourings. Letting emotions and water flow in harmony with the movement of life, living life gracefully, in harmony and balance with the world around us is essential for the health of each human being, each aspect of Nature and the Earth as a whole.	<urn:uuid:3323b338-e879-4d20-b73b-1381dde425f9>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.animalcommunicationworld.com/_files/ugd/1a7546_6e6110c8dd9d4bb3aa96eea148b3333d.pdf	2024-02-27T15:41:10+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00671.warc.gz	640,089,811	5,625	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.962655	eng_Latn	0.996739	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1068, 3823, 4121, 7318, 9810, 12339, 14550, 17508, 20517, 22761, 25337, 27163, 29526, 30108 ]	[ 3, 3.8125 ]	2	3
Internet Access and Acceptable Use Policy June 2020 Respect, Courage, Excellence At Kalangadoo Primary School, we believe it is important for our students to learn how to use technology effectively, safely and responsibly. The Internet offers opportunities for students to … * Gain access to vast stores of information around the world * Collect and share information * Communicate with people around the world * Collaborate with students around the world * Develop literacy, writing and critical thinking skills * Improve skills in using computer-based technologies * Increase competencies in information skills * Participate in global projects Internet access is available in classrooms, on iPads and the Library. Internet use will be integrated into the class learning program and supervised at all times. Students will be taught the correct use of equipment and safe and responsible online etiquette. Although internet access is subject to filters through DECD, in the unlikely event that some inappropriate sites may be accidentally accessed, teachers will ensure that students know how to exit from such a site immediately. Student Code of Conduct for using the Internet and Devices * I understand that using the internet and devices at Kalangadoo Primary School is for educational, research and learning purposes only. * Before I use any technology, I will ask permission. * Before I begin to use the internet, I will ask permission of an adult and explain my purpose. * I will show the teacher any message before I send it. * I will tell the teacher if I find strange or inappropriate material. * I will not give out any name, address or phone number while online. * I will not complete online details or surveys, unless teacher directed. * I will use kind and respectful language. * I will check with the teacher before printing. * I will abide by copyright rules. * I will acknowledge work copied from the internet which is not my own. * I will not knowingly introduce any computer virus. * I will not download software from the internet without permission from the teacher. * I will take care of all devices and behave safely and respectfully when using it. 1 Internet Access and Acceptable Use Policy Consent Form 2022 I understand that if I do not abide by this Code of Conduct my right of access to the internet and use of devices will be restricted or withdrawn. Student Use Agreement I understand the rules for using the internet and devices at Kalangadoo Primary School and agree to abide them. Name (printed)…………………………………………………………………………. Signature …………………………………. Class JP/UC (Circle one) Date ……………………. Parental Agreement and Consent I have read and discussed the Code of Conduct with my child. I give permission for my child to use the internet and devices under the conditions outlined in the attached policy. Parent/Caregiver’s name (Please Print) ……………………………………………… Signature ………………………………… Parent Permission to Publish on School Website http://www.kdoops.sa.edu.au/kpshome/ If student work and/or photos of school activities are published on the school website, first names only or initials may be attached to work, but never to photos. I give / do not give consent for work and /or photos of school activities to be published. Signature…………………………………. 2	<urn:uuid:c02df548-83d2-40cc-98be-ba7cbb2f5cd1>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://kdoops.sa.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2023/08/2022-Internet-Use-Policy.pdf	2024-02-27T16:22:57+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00676.warc.gz	336,989,672	658	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.986387	eng_Latn	0.996885	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2182, 3310 ]	[ 3.0625 ]	1	0
Jan Karski was born Jan Kozielewski to a Catholic family on April 24, 1914 in Lodz, Poland. His early years were molded by a strong mother, who taught him about tolerance. He credited her with instilling in him the character to do the right thing. As a man of conscience, he risked his life to save others and became a hero of World War II. When the Nazis overpowered Poland in 1939, young Lt. Karski found himself on a Nazi prison train, but he refused to give up. He was determined to fight back so he jumped form the train during the night, doggedly making his way on foot to fight with the Polish Underground. Time and time again, he risked death to carry messages to England and France. The Nazis captured him and brutally tortured him, knocking out most of his teeth, yet he refused to reveal the names of his colleagues. Fearing he could not stand further beating, Jan Karski tried to kill himself to save his friends. Resistance fighters risked everything to save this courageous and valuable man, and 15 of them were executed following his escape. Karski planned another trip to England, met with Jewish leaders, and agreed to visit the Warsaw Ghetto to make an eyewitness report to the Allies. His senses were completely overwhelmed as he described the Ghetto: people dying in the streets, and children too weak to move. He gave a report to Anthony Eden and later to Franklin D. Roosevelt, along with numerous interviews, pleading for some sort of action to be taken to stop the Holocaust. The memories of people screaming and dying in the Ghetto would give him nightmares for the rest of his life. Karski stayed in the United States because the Nazis had discovered his true identity. If he were to go back to Poland, they would have executed him. Fearing that the Communists would dominate Poland, Karski rallied support for a free Poland. He wrote brilliant articles for major publications that laid out specific arguments and was supported by the most prominent publishers in the United States. Furthermore, other national journalists joined him in supporting the Polish government in exile. When the Communists came to power, Karski refused to return to Poland until they were replaced. Karski became a distinguished professor at Georgetown University and was loved by his students and colleagues, most of who never realized that Karski had the moral courage to try and save lives of millions of Jews. He was recognized by many countries and received the highest honor from his native country, Poland. Karski was also made an honorary citizen of the State of Israel and is commemorated on Israel's Avenue of the Righteous.	<urn:uuid:07b7c0d9-0c41-4ba3-9afc-76329fee443b>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://jankarskiinstituteus.org/documents/JanKarski.pdf	2024-02-27T16:50:57+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00676.warc.gz	20,930,912	550	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998766	eng_Latn	0.998766	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2643 ]	[ 2.84375 ]	1	6
FRANKLIN C. BISHOP MAPLE RIVER PROGRAM for the Clinton County Historical Society September 20, 1984 Tape #032 Transcribed by Myrna A. Van Epps, January 2007 The dashes indicate short points where tape couldn't be deciphered and represent minor omissions of a word or two. Tape begins with no introduction. My cousin --- kind of played a dirty trick on me. He was going to help me tonight and then he turns around and goes to Europe, but I'm sure that I know most of you and I'm sure that you will participate. I'm sure you're going to have a good time talking amongst yourselves. I'm going to take you back to the beginning and we'll go up and down this old river three or four times. I'll show you where it starts and where it ends. Then we'll go back and see the pretty spots. Then we'll go back and see the old-timers that lived there and they were a bunch of characters. You will know some of them. It's always interesting to pursue the people that lived along certain areas. I learned in early times when I worked as a conservation officer, I got into the schools quite a lot. You know how school children are, boys especially. They're always noisy. Nothing interesting until you bring a gun along. You hold it up and you've got ---. They're interested in guns. They're interested in bows and arrows and Indians and all that and so are you. Isn't that funny? I get people talk to me every day about the out-of-doors, people that love the outdoors and things peculiar. I had one talking to me today about birds, a noted expert on birds. There's a new author. So I used to go into a schoolhouse and I used to wonder what I was going to talk about to these children. You could reach right down in front of you there and get a handful of gravel stones and they could have their own collection. If you told them anything about those stones, you'd never get through, all the interesting things. When you asked me about the Maple River, I thought it would be nice to know how this river started, where it started, and all about it. Lo and behold, I got to writing some things and I happened to think way down in my basement back in a corner was the map that I made back in 1967? to use in the schools when I talked to these children about the same thing. I thought if they could understand it, maybe you could. The people that moved into this area are like people all over the world. There's one item that they always considered, and that was water. Water meant so much to the people. If you will consult your old maps, especially the atlas that Titus plotted for the state of Michigan in 1872, I believe. He had the original settlers' places on the map, and almost every one of them was marked, "spring, spring, spring, water, spring." The intriguing part of it was that on these same springs was "Indians, Indians, Indians, Indians." They were used by human beings for years and years. That is the attraction to the human race, is water. They go there first. Also this water was in use in later times. Right in this very community up to just a few years ago, I could point to a spring --- where there was wooden pipes that transported this water to this farmhouse, right up to a few years ago. Water was quite an item in the life of the pioneer and the Indian also. Some of the rivers ran fast; some of the rivers ran slow and created lagoons and floodwaters and these grew up to cattails. Some of the rivers ran fast and they furnished water power. The waters were used in a variety of ways. Clinton Co., Gratiot Co., Saginaw, Shiawassee are all in what was called the "Michigan Basin." After the first big bang when the scientists say the earth was created, it commenced to cool and shrink and some of it went up and some cracked and some went this way and some went that way. In the northern part Acquisition #2004-34-C of what is now Michigan [it] went up and commenced to sag here. When the first drops of water commenced to trickle down and bring that sediment down, they filled this basin in. Things started to grow and different sands were washed in and there was different vegetation. Then there were the fish. These grains of sand were irregular shaped and they permitted seepage. So as millions of years went by the water settled through these sands and there were seas. The salt settled. We pretty well know what happened. If you could take and cut a cross-layer out of the state of Michigan, you'd find that layer after layer after layer built-up, built-up, built-up until the glaciers came. After the glaciers came, it was a different story. They brought earth from other areas and when they'd melt, they'd dump it. That's exactly what happened here. So we have layer after layer after layer in this big basin that we call Michigan. As this was happening, probably close to 20-25,000, maybe 30,000 years ago, we had what they call the terminal glaciers, the last glaciers. Previous to this the waters ran eastward toward Lake Erie. All these waters ran that way. What really happened was that they formed a big channel called the "Imlay(?) Channel." The waters that are now the Maple River, and the Grand River, and the Shiawassee River, and the Looking Glass River all ran toward the east until the last glaciers plugged up the valleys. Then the streams commenced running in various directions, but the larger streams were dammed up and a huge lake was formed. All at once when the glaciers melted the pressure on the earth was relaxed and the earth commenced to rise. All this water was dammed up in this huge Imlay channel, clear across what is now the state of Michigan. It all at once broke loose and came right down through the Stoney Creek Valley, the "River de Rock," the French call it. Some of it went north of here forming the Shiawassee River. Some of it went a littler farther to the south and went down the Looking Glass, forming the Looking Glass River Valley and into and the Grand River. At this point, here's where it all happened. --- in Shiawassee Co., I think about five miles south and east of Corunna, in Venice Twp. Here's the beginning of the Maple River. Here's the Shiawassee River, comes in from Pontiac and comes in from Howell, if you like, and comes up through Shiawassee Co. at this point where the Maple starts. I have been there in the spring and dipped my hands in: Here's the Shiawassee and here's the Maple. People over there swear to it yet that the waters go back and forth. It's that close. Question from Audience. Frank, is that close to the Looking Glass? No, it's right within half a mile [that] the Looking Glass River divide starts, closer than that. Actually, you can see the ridge where the Looking Glass River divide starts. It's a marvelous thing to know that all these waters, these three rivers, were one large river. It starts here and comes across this Twp. in Shiawassee, Shiawassee Twp.,--- up into Owosso. Here's an area of peppermint bogs and fast-flowing water in the creeks; comes up to Ovid, comes up through the Rochester Colony; up to Elsie; north of Elsie up into Gratiot Co.; across through the big cattail marshes to Maple Rapids; and into that part of Clinton Co., the last township. up there, Lebanon Twp. It used to be, I think the name was "Wandaugon" which meant "water" in the Chippewa language. Here is a heavilyforested ground, land of the big trees and so forth and a very powerful part of the river. This is a small river from where it starts. It is small all the way across Shiawassee Co. When you get into Clinton Co., it's still small. I think in Gratiot Co. it widens a little in this particular part, Delta Twp. and Washington Twp. You can locate Washington Twp. --- Bridgeville and there was so much water they had to have three bridges to carry it underneath. There's large cattail marshes ---. I'll get to that later. These cattail marshes attracted these Indians and there were large springs along this territory, so they stayed near those. And they stayed near their food supply which was the cattail roots. They stayed there because of the fur. The fur was remarkable on muskrats because the muskrats were always larger than any other muskrats in the state of Michigan because they had this abundance of cattail roots to feed on. The fur buyer used to pay more money for those muskrats. I'm going to tell you about the spots you can travel and see the most beautiful part of the river. I thought that we might start over here by Matherton, right in this part where the river goes into Ionia Co. There's a little road to the south of Matherton that goes to the east. That is the French Road. If you start in on the French Road; if you consult your map and find it on your map, it goes east for half a mile into Clinton Co., the French Road. It goes to the east. It's about a mile. You come a state fishing site. That's right at the base of a large hill. You go up the hill to the east. You can park your car up there and walk out. In the fall you'll have a beautiful view of the entire valley. You can see almost to Hubbardston and trees of all colors. It's probably one of the most beautiful spots in the state of Michigan. If you've never been there, I'd like to urge you to take that trip. It's just for a Sunday afternoon. If you go another mile east, you'll be where the octagon schoolhouse [commonly called the "Round School"] was at this point here. If you go north a half a mile you'll come to Stone Road. You can park your car there. It's a hunting area. It's owned by the state and there's a parking lot there. Here's a place to take your camera because you can get some real good pictures. To me, it's probably the most beautiful spot that you'll see along the river. There's two beautiful places out there ---. It's a beauty! You bear this in mind because we're coming back to it. I'm going to tell you some more about it. The early pioneer was Mr. Stone. The Stones and I think Jay Sessions owned this land in the first place. And then the Stones --there, and it's been the Stone farm ever since. From that point you can go eastward on Stone Road one mile to Hinman Road. You better hesitate there because the road goes far. From that corner it goes way back in there to another crest on the hill. I don't know if you can drive that or not because Clinton Co. is notorious for not fixing bridges. From the Audience: I tried that once, but I went back. It's scary. --- It is the most beautiful place. It's on a par with these other places. These two old bachelor brothers lived there. I don't know if there were bachelors or not. I shouldn't say that, but they were in there living when I was a conservation officer there, the Rogers brothers [F. C. and J..R. Rogers, Sect. 16 on 1915 plat map]. It is beautiful. There is a big cedar swamp just before you get ---. It's a real, real stony road. You won't get stuck, I can tell you that, but I don't know about that bridge any more. Anyway, you can come back to French Road and go on eastward to the intersection of Colony Road (sic; probably means Tallman Rd.) and go north from that corner. You'll be in Salt City. Actually you get off French Road onto Colony Road--I think it's a half a mile north--you can drive off the side of the road. You can look to the north and west and you'll get another beautiful view, see all the different colors because there's all different kinds of maple trees. You can just see the different colors --- of the maples. If you're at Salt City there, down the road you can either go north--you'll have to go about a mile and a half north before you catch another road that goes to the east. You can go to around that way to Maple Rapids and its beautiful roads all the way. You can explore all the little by-roads, but don't go too far. You've kind of got to scout them out. People don't seem to mind if you turn around in their driveways. They're good about it. That is very beautiful in that area between Salt City and Maple Rapids on the north side. Or from the Tallman Road bridge, you can turn and travel east on the Island Road in towards Maple Rapids and come in on that side. While you're doing that, you'll see these old stone fences. All you'll see is a lot of brush and there's thousands of people that drive right by them and don't see them. They're stone fences. The old-timers got rid of their cobblestones and made their fences at the same time. If you can find a place where you're taking a picture, there are these stone fences. Question from Audience: Where is Salt City? That is on the Tallman Road where the Maple River crosses. That's where the springs are. This has a special story. Audience: My family was involved, I hate to say. The --- salt wasn't there. Even Houghton who made the examination of the springs said that there was salt there, but somebody had put the salt there. Salt was gold in those days, there's no doubt about it. I think we'll talk about that later on. It's quite a story. We're at Maple Rapids now. You can come back to Maple Rapids and you can go north of Maple Rapids and follow some of those old roads around. I think that first road is called Maple Road. It goes along the river. It goes eastward to a public fishing site. I guess I don't have the name of that road. You see, roads didn't have any names when I ---. Audience: It's the first road north of Maple Rapids to the right and it's a beautiful drive. It's stunning as all get-out. You can continue on that road around to Bridgeville. Now you won't see much at Bridgeville unless the water might be high in November. You can see geese and ducks and so forth along there. Then you won't see much else of the Maple River of any consequence until you get over to Elsie and take that little drive along the river from Elsie down to the Colony and view those areas. It's real beautiful there. Before the elms all died it was just one big arch. You would just drive in a tunnel all the way down through there. You would just see the maple once in awhile because the trees were so thick. I guess I've told you enough about the Maple River and how to travel it so that you'll see why I loved it. I think we'll go back to this intersection of Jones Road and French Road. If you'd like to travel this at night, there's a special treat for you. This is north of the octagon school house. You can sit here --- in the car and hear the owls down in here talking to each other. It's quite a sensation. I've had conservation officers want to get right out of there. It's spooky. Here's an area of big springs. I'm talking about the Stone place. The river here is wide. You can only get to it by boat. Most people laugh at you when you tell them the Maple River is 300 and 400 feet wide. Well, there is where the river is 300 and 400 feet wide. It's quite a place. It used to be quite wild. Audience: Didn't they call it "the bay," Frank? Matherton Bay [section 16, Lebanon Twp]. I have it marked over here. There are various little things there that would interest you. I took them for granted. On the north side of the Matherton Bay is a little stream in there called Spring Creek. That was a location point because people would tell each other, "this way or that way from Spring Creek." It was a good place to fish. I caught a lot of fish there. Also, on Stone's was the biggest rookery of great blue herons that there was in the state of Michigan, these monstrous birds nesting in the tops of these monstrous trees. An interesting story: The state bought that land and their theory was that you must cut all the big trees, harvest all the big trees in order to get the lumber and make suitable forest. That used to be the thought how to manage the forest. So they cut down all the big trees and the great blue heron colony left. That's the truth. There was another bird in there that might surprise you. Maybe some of you have seen it or heard about it, those that have studied birds. The pileated woodpecker that lived only in the isolated areas is a woodpecker big as a crow. The first one that I saw some farmers had shot and nailed on the side of a barn. I was about 16-17 years old when I saw that. After the state bought the ground and thinned out the forest, then the pileated woodpecker left. But in the last two or three years (I go over there occasionally.) and last fall I heard this awful noise and here come Mr. Pileated flapping his wings over the treetops. He was back! This is one of the things that happens when civilization moves in. At this point also were clam the beds. Maybe some of you can remember the old clammers that took the clams. They were about the filthiest people that you ever ran across. They'd get these clams by the boatloads. They'd find these beds and take these monstrous clams and put them in the boat. Then they would take them up on shore someplace and they had a big vat. They would boil them and kill the clams and the shells would pop open. They'd just take and throw the clams to one side. They sold the shells down to Belding and they made buttons out of them for a hundred years, I guess, until they invented plastic and then it was no sale. I knew some of the clammers that lived at Maple Rapids. One was a real nice fellow and he did it more or less as a hobby. He showed me a handful of pearls that he'd taken out of these clamshells. Roy Hastings was his name, very nice fellow. Audience: Frank, My husband had a pearl like that, but they're brown. They varied. They were all different colors really. He never tried to sell them but he could tell you just about what they were worth. Some of them were worth quite a lot of money. He did it just for a hobby. Then there was those that did it for a living. This was true on the Maple River and all up and down the Grand River. They were big shells. They called them, "three ridge." They were pocketbook shells. Audience: How big would they be, Frank? Probably like that, that long. They were monstrous shells. You could feel them with a boat paddle. Side 2 begins mid-sentence. ... that lived there [Fulton Twp., Gratiot Co.] 1 John Day and the next one to the east was 2 Lew Harter. They never said anything to anybody. You had to know them a long, long time before you could get in an active conversation. Audience: I remember the night he threw the hamburg out the window. The house caught on fire and he burned up in it. It was terrible. He was a nice old fellow. I used to enjoy those people. Right across the road from John Day's (That's on your map.), a little to the west, there used to be a pasture field there and it was covered with stones. It was the stoniest place you ever saw. There was a little, old broken-off pump there. I'm not sure, there might have been a house there at one time. One time I was collecting stones. There was this odd-colored stone, and I would collect it. I saw this one stone laying there. It was longer than this by a good deal, almost square, just a dull-colored stone. It was almost a perfect rectangular and so I took it home with me. Two or three weeks later I was talking to Henry Day down in Maple Rapids. Henry was John's brother. He used to live up in there. I told him I had found a pudding stone and this rectangular stone. John said, "Oh yes, that stone, the people buried a little girl there one time. There used to be a house there." There was no sign of the house except for this old, broken-off pump. So when I got back to my home I took that stone and took it right back up there and left it. I don't know what ever became of it. Probably somebody else picked it up, but Henry said a little girl was buried there. I guess that wasn't too uncommon in these early pioneers. I thought that would be of real interest to you. We go a little bit farther to the east, on the south side is what we call "Matthew's Landing." That's where the Indian burial ground was. I think Clyde Anderson probably dug up most of them, but they had been dug before that because Roy Hastings told me that a group of fellows from Maple Rapids dug the old Indian cemetery out earlier. The very earliest Indian graves were dug and the artifacts that they took out of the graves and they sold them, of course. That was the stone artifacts. I think the ones that Anderson found were almost Christian burials, some of them. That was at Matthew's Landing. Below Matthew's was ancient areas of cattails also. The big springs that the Indians used were just west of the burial grounds half a mile which would be across the river where Lew Harter used to live. That was a big spring right in the base of the hill where you could go there and get a drink of water once in awhile when I was walking through there. That water would boil right up from what looked like solid rock. Now it's all dry. 1 Died 26 Feb 1945; Clinton Co. Republican-News; 26 Feb. 1945; p9 c3 2 Lewis Harter died in house fire 15 Dec 1945; Clinton Co. Republican-News; 20 Dec. 1945; p1 c1 Audience: That would be not very far east of Matthew's Landing? That would be west. I thought it was interesting that these old-timers at Maple Rapids could tell you the history of all that. For you that are interested in the history around Maple Rapids, I've heard my mother tell about this one old-timer, and my uncles would tell about him. They'd laugh and laugh and laugh about this being so peculiar. His name was Hewitt and they called him "Swearing Hewitt." That's all the tale I know but you could probably uncover some little history on that. Audience: I've been doing research for a lady in California on that Hewitt family. He was the founder of Maple Rapids, the first Hewitt was. He planned the town. I'd like to tell you about some of the characters that were in this area. The first one I thought about today. Miss Livingston [probably Adele (Livingston) Jones] here, my old teacher, Miss Livingston, would know about this. This is a huge swamp that used to be out north of St. Johns, what we called "Hoxie's Cedar Swamp." I think the Hoxie boys moved out a long, long time ago. I guess they went on to better things. There was an old man that lived down along the edge of that swamp. We never saw him except in the spring of the year when he'd come around peddling this salve. His name was --- [sounds like "Allison Vinson"] He had sticks of this salve that he made. He would get the sap from the pine trees and the cedar trees and mix it. It was kind of a vile-smelling salve. All you did was wrap it around your finger, and once you got it on you couldn't get it off. It would heal right up. I can hear him say it yet, "It would stick a pup's tail fast to a root." I just had to include him in tonight's ---. That was a character out of Greenbush Twp. Audience: Where was he exactly? He had to live by Silvernail's someplace along that cedar swamp. The swamps are all gone now. This was south of Whitlock's, down in there someplace. Audience: That could be. You see, there were islands in the swamps and he may have lived on one. The --- bought some land in there and that was an island. There were some south of that. ----- lives on an island in the swamp. There were various places in there you could live. My father used to say that the people that lived on those islands were so poor that they probably only had one set of shoes or boots and so only one person could go out at a time on the river. By spring they were about starved out so they would come up to Squire Whitlock and ask him if they could please have a quarter of meat or a sack of flour. They would work it out during the summer. The next one I want to tell you about John Day. He was one of my favorite characters. I told you about his boat. I used to go by there. Maybe once every two weeks I'd stop and see John. He generally was out in the yard doing something. I went by there several times and I didn't see John so I thought well, maybe something's happened to him. Maybe I'd better stop. So I stopped one time. I got part way across the yard, and here comes John from back of the house. I told him, "I haven't see you, John, so I thought I'd stop in and see how you were coming." He said, "I saw you, but I couldn't get out here in time because you see this robin built her nest on my door and I have to crawl out the back window." He was just as solemn as could be about it. That's the kind of man he was. I saw him one time. I was across the river. I was looking for a violator with a net. I saw him come down there just before dark. He stood there just like a statue with a spear. All at once, he got the fish, a small carp. He took the fish, wiped the spear off, hid it again (It was against the law, of course, but I never bothered him.); took the fish and went on home. He had fresh fish for supper. Audience: What section did he live in? 33, center of the section. He had 40 acres in there, John Day, Fulton Twp. [Gratiot Co.] Lew Harter was much the same kind of a fellow. I really missed those old fellows when I moved away from there. They were such characters. The next character that you ran across, I never knew him, but I had seen when I was just a small child, Captain Gates. If you're old enough you remember Capt. Gates. He had a little store there and the cat slept in the cracker barrel. He sold the crackers nevertheless. He chewed tobacco and he had whiskers, and he never let that bother him one bit. I guess it kept the mosquitoes away. He was a Great Lakes sea captain --- . I can't remember too much about him, but people used to kid each other about going to Capt. Gates's store and buying groceries. Audience: Where was the store? Right in Bridgeville. Audience: Would that be just before you made the curve to go north on the road? That's right, on the old state road. Audience: They just tore it down not very many years ago. The last one I remember running the store I think was a man named Charlie Salters. This Bridgeville was quite a place. It was a place of good people, but they were kind of rough: The Lewises, and the Grubaughs, and the Barretts. I think that's about all the big people. They had some heavyweight wrestlers come out of that area, the Grubaughs. It used to be a place of entertainment Saturday nights if you wanted to see a fight. Some of the boys from Eureka would go over to Bridgeville and they'd have it out. They were big fellows. Audience: What was the name of that kind of a hotel they had up there at Bridgeville? Was it McMaster's? No that was not at Bridgeville. Well, A generation back, it would have been David Sturgis. He was one of my ancestors at Bridgeville because that's where he died. He died there acting, well it would be like McMaster's Station, only it was in Bridgeville. There was another gentleman that lived there by the name of Byron Danley. He ran a poultry house in later years here in St. Johns. He was 85 years old and I went in to talk to him. I guess I had been working for the department for about three years and I went to talk to him. He told me that when he was a kid, that the Maple River, you could go up to the banks and look and see the bottom in 12 feet of water. Audience: That's what my husband's grandpa used to say, that when they first came here, the Maple River was as clear as it could be, a long way. You'll notice that in Judge Daboll's book [Past & Present of Clinton Co. ], he says, "The rivers in that day were larger than they are now." By the way, the name of the man I'm trying to think of is Gillette. Andrew Powell used to tell a story about the Truax Ball. The Truax Ball took place at Bridgeville ---. Mr. Truax had the hotel there. He ran this place and he had a daughter and she had a girl that came to visit her. So he let it be known that he was going to have a dance as a matter of entertainment for her. What he did not say to the boys was that they were going to have to pay, so when they got there and found out that they were going to have to pay, the trouble began. First of all he wouldn't bring the girls in. They stayed away. So they came in and danced with each other. I can't tell you the whole story. One of my greatest regrets is I didn't write down every word he told about it, but they made that man's life utterly miserable. They went out and I believe they took his carriage and put it in the river and I can't tell you what else they didn't do that night. This is referred to as the Truax Ball. It's a tremendous story. But it's regular Bridgeville stuff. Something I skipped over! Audience: You never did hear about the Truax Ball? Never heard it but that's good. I would expect it to happen there. This area is west of Bridgeville, I couldn't tell you about the wildlife there. Audience: The people who lived farther away referred to them as the "river rats." This road that ran along the north side of the river, as long as we're at it, we might as well take it. We used to call it "skullgaria." Probably some pretty rough people that lived along that road. I knew they were rough. --- They lived off from that river and they lived off from what was in the marshes. They lived off from the other people around them if they could. Right in here, Matthew's Bay, in the months of August and the first part of September, you can see the American egret. It migrates up here from northern Illinois where they nest. They bring their young north. You see them scattered along in ponds and so forth. It think, the most I've ever seen in Matthew's Bay was around thirty, these big, white birds. It's a beautiful sight if you can ever find them there. I don't know if they come back in there now or not. Also in that area there was a colony of the black-crowned night herons for you people who have studied birds. This area where they nested was on the west side of the Matthew's Bay where the river ran north and south. There was a bunch of huge "popple" [poplar] trees there and these black-crowned night herons nested in those trees. That colony is gone. They cut the trees down for some reason or other and, of course, destroyed that colony. It's easy to see where most of our bird life goes. We destroy their habitat. Today I was reading in the paper the Army Corps of Engineers are busy in this area now and when they get busy they finish the river for you. You'll never see the Maple River like it used to be. Also next week the fate of the upper part of Maple River will be decided in a court in Livingston Co. because we couldn't get a fair trial in Clinton Co. nor Shiawassee Co. nor Gratiot Co. The people are so crooked that they couldn't decide what they wanted to do or who's going to pay for it. So it's going to be decided in Livingston Co. and that will finish that end of the river. This all has happened has because conservationists and people that love nature they haven't paid enough attention to it. It seems the farm interests are excessive. They demand too much. They're destroying everything that we had in the line drainage or line of water. This has happened on the Stoney Creek also. It's happened twice. Audience: I was talking to Dale Chapman [Clinton Co. Drain Commissioner] about it. I said, "I think they'll find that in about so many years the river will have restored itself to the point where it was before and they will have wasted all that money." He said, "I think so too. I think it was a silly project." The trees will grow back, I think. The elm trees, of course, will never come back. One impartial observer who lives in Owosso (He has a head for figures.) figured out the money that has been spent on surveys and studies and surveys and studies and so forth throughout the last fifty years. It will astound you! Agriculture could never recover that amount of money. Audience: Frank, do you remember along North US 27 when the gentleman decided that he was going to raise tomatoes on those flats. He arranged everything all beautifully. He had the river all dammed out with trees. He had about two crops of tomatoes and then the muskrats went to work. The muskrats went right through those dikes. He could not keep the water off of his land and so now it's gone back to nature. Nature has a way of putting things back where they were. I think they're working up there now diking and draining. I'd like to come back in 500 years and see what it looks like. Would you like to ask any questions or would you like to participate in anything else along the river? Audience: About the carp that you were speaking of, I remember a story about carp, but not like yours. My family used to take the road to Rochester Colony. You know the bridge just before you reach Rochester Colony over the Maple River. Just to the south there when I was a little girl, I would hear them speak about this man who had made a pond there and a dam. He was going to do something very clever. He was going to have a fish pond and it was going to have carp in it. So they did until there was a big flood. Good bye, and the carp all went down the river. Isn't that one of the reasons why the Maple River is the muddy thing that it is now? No, they do eat the vegetation and keep it stirred up. Audience: Anyway, we have carp now and the not the lovely things we used to have. I think these carp farms were promoted maybe sort of like the fox farms were, big money-making project. Probably somebody sold those carp pretty cheap for somebody to raise. After all they were imported from Germany and supposed to be good. People have various ways of cooking them and I've heard of a lot of the various ways, but never could eat them. Audience: What kind of wild life have you encountered in your travels? Any unusual situations? Yes, there were bear along the Maple River right up to just a few years ago. Audience: They say they have one there now. I wouldn't doubt it one bit. You hear these stories about bear, especially now with the big cats that's wandering around Michigan. People used to hear these great horned owls, you know. I was telling you about the younger game wardens. Now you tell them that there are still these pumas around Michigan that people didn't know about, they wouldn't stir out of the car. Actually, I learned not to laugh at all these stories. One turned out to be a big cat one time. I was astounded. This happened right in Shiawassee Co. One time this fellow was going to work in the morning. He had been out the night before and his head wasn't quite cleared up yet. He was travelling along road and he went to the shop and told that. They all laughed at him and they had a big time about it. I going to the northwest. A few days later we heard about it from Gratiot Co. He was travelling. He just on a little road over by Henderson. All at once a big bear went galloping across the heard about it so I went out there. I actually found bear tracks. It was a big bear and it kept right on kept right on going. I didn't laugh at all the stories. Audience: A bear has a territory that he covers, doesn't he? He makes the rounds of this? Instead of travelling on and on and, he has a territory, doesn't he? Generally speaking. The big cats always do. Wherever they are, they go for miles and miles and miles. There might be one in the upper peninsula, but I'm doubtful about it down here. Audience: I wish you would tell them about the reason for Island Road and where that stream is that makes the area called, "the island." Is it on your map there? I can't tell you that. It doesn't show it on this map. Audience: Do you know about where it is? It would be sections 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 on the north. Seven would take it to Maple Rapids. It's in Essex. It shows it straight there. I don't know the reason. Audience: It's from an island in the stream. My father and mother-in-law live on top of the hill and sometimes you can't get through there. There is no way. Somebody tried to drive through but -- their vehicle. --- I can remember when I was a little fellow that my folks put me in the bottom of the buggy, and my sister, and we went to see my grandfather and grandmother who lived up by Hubbardston. I took us all the afternoon to get there. Before we got there, we came to this one bridge. My father got out and waded the floodwaters on the bridge to see if the planks were all in the bridge. Meantime, my mother took the buggy whip and tied her handkerchief on the end of it and got it wet in the floodwaters and washed my face so that I'd have a clean face. I can remember that. I never could remember coming home. Audience: Probably you were asleep. You didn't get your face washed on the way home. What were you crossing? It would be now the Hayworth Creek crossing on Island Road. Audience: When you were talking about Stoney Creek, I've often wondered why did they call it Stoney Creek? In those sections I've seen there were no rocks. The French named it that. They named the Liberty Rock. Audience: Where were the stones? Mercy, down where Stoney Creek goes into the Maple River, you couldn't get a shovel into the ground, it's so rocky. It's just terrible rocky. All the stones, of course, came from the glaciers that moved down there. Audience: Did you ever hear what formed the jog in Maple River right there at Mead's Landing? I never heard of Mead's Landing. Audience: There's a jog in Maple River right there. There's quick turn in it. Then it straightens out and goes west. You mentioned it up there. It's east of Maple Rapids. Coming from the north there's a landing there where you put boats in. It's on the Anderson property there. That would be the public fishing site there? Audience: Yes, in Maple River. The river originally went clear to the south to the foot of the hills behind Matthews. When they dredged the river the first time, they cut that out. They came straight across from the east and they made a big island in there. Audience: I heard a story [about] what formed that island. I don't know if there's any truth to it or not. There's some logs buried. They used that river for sending logs down. There was a chain load, as they used to call them, of logs that caught on that corner. There's silt (How many feet of it?) on top of those logs still chained together. Did you ever hear that story? Never heard it! There was a lot of logs that came down that river because in 1934 or '35 in the Matherton Bay there was some enterprising young men from Grand Rapids [who] came over there and spent the summer. They brought a lot of rope with them and chain hauls and they took logs out of the Maple River that had been there for 75 years, I guess, or more. A furniture company from Grand --- Tape runs out mid-sentence.	<urn:uuid:7793635f-ac86-423d-add3-af9df99ac8cc>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://opennet.us/cchs/AudioHistories/Transcripts/FranklinBishop.pdf	2024-02-27T16:58:49+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00675.warc.gz	425,770,961	9,493	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999643	eng_Latn	0.999696	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3882, 10152, 13101, 17591, 21214, 25357, 28918, 33498, 36980, 39158 ]	[ 3.15625, 1.7578125 ]	1	0
FAMILY ACTIVITIES: PAUL'S GREAT ESCAPE FOR YOUNGER KIDS: BASKET TOSS Supplies: Basket (1), stuffed animal (1), tape (1 roll) Directions: Place the basket by a wall. On the floor, place a short tape line 2 feet from the basket, then another tape line 2-feet further back, and so on until you have 4 tape lines that get progressively farther from the basket. Give the stuffed animal to the first person and have them stand at the line closest to the basket. Have them toss the animal into the basket. Once they succeed, have them move back a line and repeat. Continue playing until everyone has a turn. Say: Our basket was big enough to hold a stuffed animal, but can you imagine a basket big enough to hold a grown man? Today's true Bible story had a basket like that. Paul wanted everyone to know the good news of Jesus God wants everyone in the world to hear about the good news of Jesus Question: If you were one of Paul's helpers, what would you have done to help him escape from the mean people? Question: What are some things you could do to tell others about Jesus? What could you do to help others who are telling people about Jesus? FOR OLDER KIDS: ROCK, PAPER, SCISSORS VERSE BATTLE Directions: Write down the verse from below on a piece of paper. Cut the paper into pieces so that a portion of the verse is on each section of the paper. Lay the pieces of paper face-up in the middle of your family. Encourage everyone to help you place the pieces in the right order. Read the verse carefully several times to memorize it. Today's Bible verse says: "But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you. Then you will tell people about me…from one end of the earth to the other." Acts 1:8 Choose two people to battle against each other by playing a round of "Rock, Paper, Scissors." Have both people chant, "rock, paper, scissors, shoot." On "shoot," you will show with your hand which of the three items you've chosen. For "rock" they'll display a closed fist. For "paper" they'll hold their hand open flat with palm facing downward. For "scissors," they'll hold out their pointer and middle finger in the form of scissors. Rock beats scissors, scissors beat paper, and paper beats rock. Play the best 2 out of 3 to determine who wins the round. Direct the winning person to remove one piece of the Bible verse. The person that lost the round will then recite the verse with the missing word/s. Continue playing until all of the cards have been removed and everyone can recite the verse completely from memory. Question: God want us to share the love of Jesus to others by telling them about Him. What could we say to our friends in order to tell them the good news of Jesus? Can you think of any other ways to share the good news of Jesus with others? Question: ©2020 Mooblio Inc. All rights reserved. www.gocurriculum.com \| 800-684-2303 \| firstname.lastname@example.org	<urn:uuid:dbf0a6a7-08ea-461c-93d0-788158b422bf>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.oaklandcc.net/uploads/1/1/8/3/118361398/family_activities_pauls_great_escape_1.pdf	2024-02-27T15:44:35+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00674.warc.gz	933,258,535	672	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99865	eng_Latn	0.99865	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2892 ]	[ 3.3125 ]	3	2
Graphing Similar Rectangles Problem Create four similar rectangles. List the dimensions for each rectangle. Plot the dimensions on a coordinate graph. Brian and Macy Transcript 1 Teacher: This group did not start with numbers. They did not create them. They didn't decide on dimensions first. Ok. What did you do first ,then, Brian? What did your group do? 2 Brian: This. This went up by one thing each time. And, yeah. 4 Brian: Yeah. 3 Teacher: So you just created the rectangles? 5 Teacher: On the graph. So what did your dimensions end up being then? 7 Teacher: Huh. Ok. So what do you guys think about that one? 2 by 3. 3 by 4. 4 by 5. And 5 by 6. 6 Brian: Um. 2,3. 3,4. 4,5. And 5-6. 8 Students: Woah. What happened? 10 Students: No. Just the screen. The screen. 9 Teacher: What do you mean what happened? What do you mean woah? 11 Teacher: Oh ok. 13 Teacher: So what do you think about those dimensions? 2 by 3. 3 by 4. 4 by 5. 5 by 6. Yeah. What are you thinking? Jim? 12 Student: It went out of focus. 14 Jim: Well, our group did squares. And if we look at it compared to his, actually the line goes up at the same rate. 15 Teacher: What do you mean the line goes up at the same rate? Go show us what you mean. What do you mean the line goes up at the same rate? You might have to zoom out. 16 Jim: How do we do that? 18 Jim: You can't really see it. 17 Teacher: Wide. The button that says wide. Ok, so tell us about that. Go ahead. 19 Teacher: Yeah, you can see it. Go ahead. 21 Teacher: Wait, excuse me. We don't have everybody paying attention. And we need to. Ok. Go ahead. 20 Jim: But then, like… 22 Jim: The line goes up at the same rate because it's increasing the lengths of the side by the same rate. 23 Teacher: Ok. So where are you looking when you say that? Just kind of point to us. What are you looking at when you say the line goes up at the same rate? 24 Jim: This line. 25 Teacher: That line. Ok. So it's straight. And it keeps going up at the same rate. And so, what… how did that help you look at the other one? Let's look at Brian's now. Or not just Brian's, his group's. So let's look at that one. How does that help you look at that? 26 Jim: Um, if you draw a line through it, it would go, oh, it would go up at the same rate. 28 Teacher: It would go up at the same rate? 27 Student: Yeah. 29 Jim: But, then, it starts at a different point. 31 Jim: This one, it would start at one. And this one would start at zero. Because this is a rectangle. Rectangles, that they were doing. And this one is a square. 30 Teacher: What do you mean it starts at a different point? 32 Teacher: So you're thinking that because it's a rectangle, it's different. 34 Teacher: Let's see about some other people who had rectangles then. Did anyone else have a rectangle? Who? Yeah, go ahead. 33 Jim: Yeah. 35 Brian: You have to go up. The way you do Jim's one, with the rectangle, is you go up from here to there. Instead of from down to there. 37 Brian: No, it doesn't. 36 Teacher: Right. But yours doesn't go from the place you started counting. 38 Teacher: Well, I'm wondering, is that not possible with rectangles? 40 Teacher: But you have one that does. Come show us yours. Let's look. So Macy, yeah, zoom out. And then tell us about yours. Go ahead. This was the one, remember, it was 3 and 5. And then 6 and 10. And then, what was your next one? 39 Brian: It's not. 41 Student: 9 and 15 42 Teacher: 9 and… Ok. So tell us about it. So, they're rectangles. And that one goes up and goes through the 0,0. It goes through the origin. Anyone else have a set of rectangles where it goes through the origin? 43 Student: Yeah. 45 Jackie: Yeah. 44 Teacher: Yours does too? 46 Teacher: Ok. So yours goes through the… oh, Jackie drew it. May I borrow this? Ok, so here's Jackie's. They have a different rectangle than Macy's. But theirs goes through the origin, too. So I'm wondering what's the difference, then? Megan, what do you think? 47 Megan: Macy's and Jackie's goes up by two. And Brian's group only went up by one. 49 Megan: Like they multiplied it by two. But Brian's group just went up and out a square. 48 Teacher: So, what do we think about that? 50 Teacher: Ah, so Brian added one to each. 52 Teacher: And the difference was, that in group two's and group five, what did they do instead of adding? 51 Megan: Yeah. 53 Megan: They multiplied. 54 Teacher: They multiplied. So I'm wondering if those are… do you think those are similar rectangles then? If you just add on. 55 Megan: No. Maybe. 57 Macy: Cause, for the check, they didn't have to go from the… 56 Teacher: Hm. Maybe not. All right. 58 Teacher: Say again? Talk to them. 59 Macy: Randy's check thing. They didn't have to start over here and go through all the corners to be similar. 60 Teacher: Oh, if we used Randy's method. That's right. Are you hearing this? Tell it again, Macy, how that helped you decide whether group three's were similar or not. Go ahead. 62 Teacher: So it has to be able to go through that place you start counting. What is the origin acting like there? 61 Macy: Because for Randy's check thing, you have to start over here. And for it to be similar, you have to go through all the corners. 63 Macy: The center of dilation. 64 Teacher: Yeah. It's kind of acting like the center of dilation. So, group three, you need to check yours. If yours doesn't act like a center of dilation, there, Brian, that's not going to help. Ok. If it's not acting like a center of dilation, we may need to check again. Because, yeah, Randy's method of checking for similarity that way. Similar Triangles Problem Task: Plot the following points on a coordinate graph: (-11, -4), (-5, -1), and (3,3) * Draw the line that passes through all three points and mark the point where the line intersects the x-axis. * Draw a perpendicular line segment from each of the plotted points to the x-axis. You should have created three triangles. * Find at least two ways to justify that the three triangles are similar.	<urn:uuid:990b847e-84a1-4d2e-a0b4-562d643d74a8>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.mathedleadership.org/docs/ccss/itp/Similarity_Slope_Graphs_of_Linear_Functions_Resources.3.pdf	2024-02-27T16:05:56+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00675.warc.gz	874,126,153	1,568	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.966285	eng_Latn	0.99948	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 154, 2819, 5573, 5997 ]	[ 4.78125 ]	2	0
Farm Fuel Safety Accidents in the handling, use and storage of gasoline, gasohol, diesel fuel, LP-gas and other petroleum products (solvents, paint thinners and naphtha) can result in serious fires and explosions. The chances of fire or explosion can be reduced by following safety precautions and by keeping fuel storage facilities in top condition. Flammable Liquids and Gases Gasoline, diesel fuel, LP gas, degreasing solvents, paint solvents and certain paints are among flammable materials found on most farms. Keep these liquids away from open flames and motors that might spark. Keep all petroleum storage and handling equipment in good condition and out of reach of children. Inspect for leaks, deterioration or damage. Never store fuel in food or drink containers. When transferring farm fuels, bond the containers to each other, and ground the one being dispensed from to prevent sparks from static electricity. Clean up spills right away and put oily rags in a tightly covered metal container. Change your clothes immediately if you get oil or solvents on them. In addition, watch out for empty containers that held flammable or combustible liquids. Vapors might still be present. Store these liquids in approved containers in wellventilated areas away from heat and sparks. Be sure all containers for flammable and combustible liquids are clearly and correctly marked. Read and heed directions on all product containers, noting flammability and safety precautions. Do not keep gasoline inside the home or transport it in the trunks of automobiles or recreation vehicles. Flammable Liquid Storage Requirements Proper Storage and use of flammable liquids can significantly reduce the possibility of accidental fires and injury to employees. To minimize risk to life and property, the requirements of NFPA 30 & 321, OAR 473-004-0720 and OSHA Standard 1910.106 have been implemented. Flammable and combustible liquids require careful handling at all times. The proper storage of flammable liquids within a work area is very important in order to protect personnel from fire and other safety and health hazards. * Storage of Flammable liquids shall be in NFPA approved flammable storage lockers or in low value structures at least 50 feet from any other structure. Do not store other combustible materials near flammable storage areas or lockers * Bulk drums of flammable liquids must be grounded and bonded to containers during dispensing * Portable containers of gasoline or diesel are not to exceed 5 gallons * Safety cans used for dispensing flammable or combustible liquids shall be kept at a point of use. * Appropriate fire extinguishers are to be mounted within 75 feet of outside areas containing flammable liquids, and within 10 feet of any inside storage area for such materials. * Storage rooms for flammable and combustible liquids must have explosion-proof light fixtures * Bulk storage of gasoline or diesel are kept in above ground tanks. Tank areas are diked to contain accidental spills. Tanks shall be labeled IAW NFPA guidelines. All tank areas shall be designated no smoking - no hot work - no open flame areas. Refueling Be cautious during refueling. Fires and explosions can happen. Besides being a fire hazard, spilled fuel can cause irritation and discomfort if it contacts the skin. Breathing an excess of fuel vapor often causes dizziness and headache. When arriving to refuel, drive up to the fuel pump or storage tank slowly. Be careful not to bump it. Turn off the engine, and extinguish smoking materials. If the engine is hot, allow it to cool for a few minutes. Position yourself so you can refuel without slipping or becoming fatigued. Remove the fuel cap slowly and allow the pressure to dissipate. Avoid over filling. Allow any spilled fuel to evaporate before starting the engine. After releasing the nozzle valve to shut off fuel flow, keep the nozzle in the filler opening a few moments to allow it to empty. Check vents to be sure they're not clogged, and replace the filler cap. Then lock up the pumps so children, or other unauthorized persons cannot pump fuel. Refuel small equipment outside -- never in an enclosed area. A funnel will make the job easier when using a safety can. Wipe up spills and allow the excess to evaporate before starting the engine. Before resuming work, put the safety can back into safe storage. Aboveground Tanks An aboveground storage facility is cost effective. The tanks are movable and ground water or limited flooding has little effect on them. Aboveground storage tanks must be sturdy and designed for fuel storage. They should be 40 feet or more from buildings. A tank too near a burning building could explode and spread the fire. Mount a tank elevated for gravity discharge on sturdy supports placed on a firm, level surface. Keep the area clear of weeds and trash to reduce fire risk. Remind machinery operators to stay away from the support structure and to not bump it when pulling up to refuel. Unless tanks are located in a shaded spot or have overhead canopies to shield the sun, evaporation losses can be sizable. Use a pressure-vacuum relief valve (rather than the standard vented cap). Safety Cans A labeled safety container is made of heavy-gauge metal and has a cap that automatically closes to prevent a spill if the can is dropped or tipped over. The squat shape makes a safety can difficult to tip. A pressure-relief valve opens when vapor pressure inside the can reaches three to five pounds per square inch. A flash-arresting screen in the filler opening and pouring spout will reduce the possibility of a spark which could cause a fire or explosion. Label fuel containers according to their contents. Do not risk confusing diesel fuel and gasoline. Paint gasoline cans red and diesel cans green. Store cans in a cool, wellventilated place, away from living quarters and ignition sources. LP Gas The fire or explosion hazard with LP gas usually involves leaks or failures in the system, improper transfer of liquid from one tank to another, or accidents where tanks or lines are ruptured. Also, an LP tank involved in a building, trash or tractor fire can greatly intensify such a fire or even explode. Large LP storage tanks should be at least 50 feet from the nearest building and 20 or more feet from other aboveground fuel tanks. Provide and maintain solid foundations to support LP-gas tanks so they won't settle or tip and break or damage connections. Equip the storage tank with a liquid-fill hose and a vapor-return hose. If the vapor escapes into the atmosphere, a fire or explosive danger is created. Therefore, when you fill your fuel tank, the vapor from the top should be fed back into the storage tank. Be alert for leaks in the LP-gas system. Protect gauges and regulators from weather and dirt. If you smell gas, turn off valve(s) at the tank(s). Open windows and doors to ventilate the building, and don't switch on anything electrical. Get everyone out, and call a technician to find and fix the leak. More Safety Reminders Keep all equipment used for petroleum storage and handling in good condition. Watch for leaks, deterioration or damage. Make needed repairs or replace faulty components immediately. Keep cap vents clean and free, and tank and safety can pressure-relief valves functional. If fuel is spilled on your clothing, go outside, away from any ignition source, and allow the clothing to dry. If more than a little was spilled, remove the garment, and wash the fuel from your skin to avoid irritation. When siphoning fuel, use a pump. Never use your mouth. A mouthful of gasoline or diesel fuel could be fatal, especially if it gets into your lungs. Also avoid excessive inhalation of gasoline vapor. When servicing machinery, check the fuel system for leaks. Double check connections to be sure they are secure and leak-free after changing fuel filters or performing other work requiring disconnecting or removing a fuel line or fuel system component. Turn off oil heaters before refueling. Make sure the filler cap is replaced and tightened. Set portable heaters away from combustibles where they cannot be tipped over. Motor oil and grease are considerably less flammable than engine fuels, but they will burn. Keep them away from ignition sources. Gasoline Containers Gasoline containers are dangerous. They contain a very flammable substance that can ignite and burn very easily. Extreme care should be used in the handling and storing of these containers. Hydrocarbons (gasoline) build up static electricity as they are stirred or agitated, during refilling. Always refill gas cans while they are in contact with the ground, and never while in the trunk of a car or in the bed of a truck. Those charged particles are looking for a place to discharge their stored energy and cannot do so safely because the plastic container or a truck bed liner act as an insulator. Gasoline should always be dispensed into an APPROVED METAL CONTAINER DESIGNED AND LABELED FOR THE STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF GASOLINE. If in a pinch, use an APPROVED plastic container designed and labeled for the storage and transport of gasoline. NEVER USE bleach jugs or glass jars to carry gasoline under any circumstance!!! So now you have your shiny new metal gasoline container and feel all warm and fuzzy that you are doing the right thing. I'm very pleased with you so far and I will let you get back to riding after a few more pointers. Only refuel your engine after it is cool. Many people have been burnt and scarred for life by gasoline spilling on a hot engine during the refueling process. We get so used to the convenience of gasoline, coupled with the fact that we use it every day in our cars that we forget the energy and danger that a gas can holds.	<urn:uuid:07e89ba9-c2b1-429a-8ac7-da929eb71d31>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://agsci.oregonstate.edu/sites/agsci.oregonstate.edu/files/main/FST_manual/04-04.pdf	2024-02-27T17:26:46+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00677.warc.gz	83,456,089	1,994	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998463	eng_Latn	0.998852	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1902, 4248, 6489, 8536, 9825 ]	[ 2.609375 ]	2	2
Preparation of dairy products Agrodok 36 Preparation of dairy products Pauline Ebing Karin Rutgers This publication is sponsored by: ICCO, Interchurch organisation for development cooperation © Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen, 2006. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. First English edition: 1985 Sixth revised edition: 2006 Authors: Pauline Ebing, Karin Rutgers Editor: Tineke van der Haven Illustrator: Bertha Valois Design: Eva Kok Translation: W.J. Guijt (revision: Catharina de Kat-Reynen) Printed by: Digigrafi, Wageningen, the Netherlands ISBN Agromisa: 90-8573-062-7 ISBN CTA: 978-92-9081-341-5 Foreword This Agrodok is meant to serve as a manual for those who want to start small-scale production of dairy products in developing countries. The booklet introduces the reader to small-scale dairy production using simple techniques. It also gives an idea of the opportunities available to earn some income through cheese making. Locally there is often much knowledge available on production of dairy products. We would advise you to get acquainted with such methods in your area before starting on your own. We would also suggest that you not introduce Western dairy products if there is no need to do so, especially if local dairy products are already being made. The authors have used information provided by the late J.C.T. van den Berg of the Wageningen Agricultural University in the Netherlands, who had much experience with factory production of dairy products in the tropics. The recipes described in this Agrodok have been drawn from various sources. We would greatly appreciate it if you would write to us about your experiences with the recipes in this book and with information on other local recipes. Where possible, they will be included in a future revised edition. The sixth, revised edition has been updated with some technological knowledge about dairy science and dairying techniques and experience in extension service. However it is utterly impossible to cover the whole field of dairy technology. To do this, one needs basic knowledge of dairy chemistry, physics and microbiology, in addition to hygiene and handling of the milk on farm level. Therefore this booklet has to be considered as an introduction. Interested readers have to extend their knowledge by means of further reading and professional training in some important dairy techniques. The list of literature references and useful addresses may be of help. Tineke van der Haven Wageningen, August 2006 Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 What is this booklet about? Livestock is usually kept for various reasons in the tropics such as traction, the provision of meat, wool, hair, skins and manure which, when dried, can be used as fuel. Milk is often no more than a byproduct of animal husbandry, although it is a valuable foodstuff. Furthermore, keeping livestock can be a way of saving. In the event of an emergency, animals can be sold to provide money. As such, animal husbandry is also a kind of insurance against, for example, disease and crop failure. It is not by accident that a certain kind of milk-producing animal is kept in a specific area. This is due to climatic conditions, locally prevalent diseases, available fodder, the possibilities for the owner to take risks, additional tasks that the animal is expected to do, religion and tradition and the preference for products that the animal produces. Keeping dairy animals often leads to a surplus of milk. If milk production is higher than consumption in a certain area, the surplus can either be sold on the market, or it can be processed so that it does not go off. If the quantity of milk to be processed is small (up to 100 litres at a time), this activity is considered to be small scale. This Agrodok deals with the small-scale processing of milk using simple equipment. 1.2 Why process milk? There are many reasons to process milk into dairy products, such as the following: ? The demand for fresh milk may be limited, and there may be more interest in dairy products. ? Many dairy products can be kept longer than fresh milk, therefore the milk does not have to be consumed immediately. ? If the daily amount of fresh milk for sale is limited, it may be more economical to process the milk into less perishable products, store them, and sell them later in greater quantities. ? Greater financial gain may be obtained. ? There may be no market for fresh milk close by, and only preserved products can be sold at markets at a greater distance. Apart from these reasons, it should also be realised that many population groups in Asia and Africa cannot or can hardly consume milk because of so-called lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance implies that the body is almost or entirely unable to digest the milk sugar, lactose, which is found in milk. Only small amounts of milk (up to 200 ml) consumed several times a day can be digested. Dairy products in which a proportion of the milk sugar is converted during production, such as cheese, curd, yoghurt and sour milk or buttermilk, do not cause many problems in this respect. Before processing surplus milk, one must consider whether it is profitable to do so. The processing is not always easy and there may be losses. For example, a waste product of cheese making is whey, which contains many valuable nutrients. If the whey is not used, a valuable part of the milk is lost. Furthermore, while milk is being processed quality deterioration may occur and it can go off. Only when milk is drunk immediately can you be sure that nothing is lost. 1.3 What problems can arise? Small-scale processing of milk means the processing of small quantities of milk, up to 100 litres at a time, using simple implements and as little extra equipment as possible. Processing milk in the tropics can be difficult because of the high temperatures and high relative humidity often found there. These conditions present special problems in choosing the right kind of dairy products. Their storage life must always be taken into account. High temperatures are bad for cheese making, especially for maturing cheeses. High temperatures also cause the bacteria already present in milk to multiply quickly. Milk sugar then turns sour, leading to the curdling of milk. However, these lactic acid bacteria are not harmful to humans. Thorough cleaning of dairy utensils and equipment is essential. Anyone handling milk must also pay great attention to hygiene. Lack of hygiene can contaminate milk with other types of bacteria, which turn it sour and reduce its storage life. The prevention of contamination is especially difficult when milk is collected from various places and processed centrally. Addition of even a small quantity of infected milk contaminates the total quantity of the milk. A further problem is the lack of equipment. One has to try to manage with simple dairy equipment, but even this can be difficult to find for small-scale milk processing. Electricity is usually not available so electric equipment (e.g. for cooling) cannot be used unless a generator is installed. Additives such as rennet for cheese making are often difficult to obtain in the tropics. The following chapters discuss the importance of milk in the diet, hygiene and milk processing techniques. The second part of the booklet gives guidelines for heating, cooling and fermentation and for the processing of cream, butter, ghee, sour dairy products and cheese. 2 Significance of milk and dairy products for humans 2.1 Milk as food Milk contains components that are essential to humans such as proteins, carbohydrates, fat, water, all the B-vitamins, vitamins A and D, calcium and phosphorus. It also provides energy. An important protein in milk is casein (in many cases 80% of the milk protein). This is the base for cheese making. Casein is linked to calcium phosphate, which is why milk contains a relatively large amount of this salt that is a very important nutrient for humans and animals. In addition to casein, milk contains whey proteins (20% of the milk protein). The whey proteins are in most cases not incorporated in the cheese; they remain in the whey. Whey proteins (globulins and albumins) have a very high nutritive value. Milk protein is of a high quality. This means that the human body can use a large part of the protein efficiently. Proteins in various other foodstuffs have a complementary effect. In combination with cereals, potatoes, meat, eggs or nuts in one meal, the body can use an even greater percentage of the milk protein. Apart from milk, there are other animal protein sources such as fish and meat. Vegetable protein, which is also important in making the body's proteins, is found in cereals and pulses. Protein is needed by the body for growth, replacement of worn-out body proteins and the production of compounds that the body needs. Milk sugar (lactose) is a carbohydrate, a necessary component to keep the body going. Our bodies burn carbohydrates in the same way an oven burns wood. Through this combustion, energy is released which is used by our bodies for many kinds of activities. Milk fat is present in the form of small fat globules, which have a lower weight than the other components of the milk. When cow milk is allowed to stand, these globules collect on top of the milk and form a layer of cream. Buffalo milk also forms some cream on top, but other kinds of milk, such as that of sheep and goats, hardly form a layer of fat at all. For these types of milk one needs to separate the cream from the milk. Milk fat is easy to digest. The body uses fat as a fuel or stores it as fat reserves. Milk is also an important source of minerals and vitamins. It contains large quantities of calcium, which can easily be absorbed by the body after digestion and is important for the formation of bones (the skeleton). Milk is also an important source of vitamin B2 (Riboflavin), but there is little vitamin C in milk. Therefore a person's diet must also include vegetables and fruits in order to ensure a sufficient supply of vitamin C. Milk is able to compensate for a lack of certain nutrients in a monotonous diet because of the great diversity of nutrients it contains and the high value of milk protein. It can therefore greatly improve the quality of the diet. Products derived from milk contain these nutrients to a greater or lesser extent. Milk is especially desirable for vulnerable groups, for instance babies, toddlers, children and pregnant and nursing mothers. Always strive for a healthy, varied diet, which apart from milk also includes cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits and if possible meat or fish. The various types of milk differ in various ways, including nutritional value. In the next pages this is dealt with in more detail. 2.2 Composition and characteristics of various types of milk The composition of mother's milk and milk from cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey and lama is shown in table 1. The figures in table 1 show that the composition of the milk of non-ruminants, e.g. mother's milk and mare milk, differs distinctly from the milk of ruminants (cow, goat, sheep, etc.). This may be partly explained by differences in the digestive system of the two groups. Apart from the differences in cream formation there are other differences between the various kinds of milk. There is a lot of provitamin A (carotene) in cow milk, giving it its yellow colour, but not in buffalo, goat or sheep milk. In the milk of goats and sheep the carotenoids are already converted into the colourless vitamin A. This is why only cow milk is yellow in colour. Table 1: Composition of various types of milk (source: FAO Nutritional Studies 27) \| Milk source \| fat (%) \| protein (%) \| lactose (%) \| calcium (%) \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Human (mother’s) milk \| 4.6 \| 1.2 \| 7 \| 0.0 \| \| Friesian cow \| 3.5 \| 3.3 \| 4.6 \| 0.1 \| \| Guernsey cow \| 4.7 \| 3.2 \| 4.7 \| 0.1 \| \| Indian buffalo \| 7.5 \| 3.8 \| 4.9 \| 0.2 \| \| Goat \| 4.5 \| 3.3 \| 4.4 \| 0.1 \| \| Sheep \| 7.5 \| 5.6 \| 4.4 \| 0.2 \| \| Mare \| 1.6 \| 2.2 \| 6 \| 0.1 \| \| Donkey \| 1.5 \| 2.1 \| 6.2 \| 0.1 \| \| Camel \| 4.2 \| 3.7 \| 4.1 \| ? \| \| Lama \| 3.2 \| 3.9 \| 5.3 \| ? \| Buffalo milk curdles sooner than cow milk. Unless the preparation is adjusted, cheese made from buffalo milk will mature more slowly and have a drier consistency than cheese made from cow milk. Goat milk can have an unpleasant smell; this can be prevented by boiling the milk as soon as possible after milking. Between some goats or breeds of goats there may be a difference in the taste of the milk. Cow milk accounts for 91% of the world's milk production. Buffalo, goat and sheep milk account for 5.9%, 1.6% and 1.7% respectively. Although there are enormous regional differences we can generally say that, if it is to be drunk, milk from cows or buffaloes is preferred to that from goats and sheep. This is because of the more neutral flavour of cow milk and buffalo milk. Goat and sheep milk are, just like the milk of cows and buffaloes, popular for making cheese and soured milk products (especially sheep milk). Camel milk is usually drunk. Mother's milk is the most ideal food for a suckling infant. Nonetheless, many substitutes have been developed which find a ready demand. We shall pay more attention to infant nutrition in the next section. 2.3 Infant nutrition Mother's milk is best suited to the needs of a baby, and contains certain components that protect an infant against infectious diseases. All the nutrients a baby needs, except iron and vitamin C, are to be found in sufficient quantities in mother's milk. At birth, a baby has a store of iron in its liver, which it uses up during its first 6 months. Any kind of supplementary feeding is only necessary after 3 months, as the mother's milk then no longer supplies all the nutrients the infant needs. Fruit juice and mashed fruit provide additional vitamin C, which the infant then needs. Supplementary feeding of energy-giving foods is also desirable. Mixing small quantities of milk powder into mashed food can considerably improve the food's value (especially the value of its protein). It is advisable to continue breastfeeding as long as possible because mother's milk is often the only source of animal protein for a baby. If the mother cannot breastfeed, does not have enough milk or dies, bottle feeding is a solution and the best substitute. However, in practice often too much water is added to the (artificial) baby food, which is usually bought in powder form. It becomes too watery and is therefore not nutritious enough. Moreover, artificial foods are costly and require good hygiene. Dilution with water is often a cause of infection because the available water may be polluted. Water used for bottle feeding must first be boiled, but sterilising water by boiling uses a lot of fuel, which is often in short supply. By using a cup or a spoon it is easier to maintain the necessary hygiene rather than a bottle because they are easier to clean. Money might be better spent on essential necessities of life than on artificial infant food if the latter is not strictly necessary. If a baby cannot digest milk, you will be forced to use milk products, which do not contain lactose. This is the case with inherited lactose intolerance. We shall discuss this in more detail. 2.4 Lactose intolerance Lactose intolerance means that the human body is almost, or entirely, unable to digest the milk sugar, lactose, which is present in milk because the body lacks the enzyme lactase. Lactase splits the lactose into glucose and galactose. The latter two mono-saccharides can easily be absorbed in the intestine. Undigested lactose can be converted by the microbial flora in the intestine into lactic acid and gases. Consumption of larger quantities of milk thus causes flatulence, stomach cramps and diarrhoea. 'Lactose intolerance' is thus often called 'lactase deficiency'. There are different forms of lactose intolerance among children: ? Lactose intolerance among children who are 2-5 years old. From the age of two years lactase activity in a child decreases and the child may have problems due to insufficient lactase by the time he or she is 4-5 years old. Consumption of small quantities of milk (one glass at a time) usually does not cause any problem. It is also possible to prevent problems by eating fermented milk products, in which part of the milk sugar has been converted, such as cheese, yoghurt and buttermilk. ? Congenital lactose intolerance. In this case, a baby cannot digest milk because the baby lacks the enzyme lactase, necessary for the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose. ? Lactose intolerance as a result of intestinal disease and/or malnutrition, especially in babies and toddlers. The lactose activity is temporarily decreased making it necessary to use lactose-free milk products for a short time. Cheese and fermented products like yoghurt, in which milk sugar has been converted, are also suitable. Apart from lactose intolerance, the use of milk also depends on other factors, which we will now discuss. 2.5 Milk and dairy products in the diet Diet refers to the way people feed themselves and the foodstuffs they use to do so. This is strongly influenced by people's traditions and religion, their economic position, their place in society and the possibilities offered by their natural surroundings. It is not surprising that each population group has its own diet. The use of milk and dairy products can also be looked at when examining the diet. Here are a few examples of how the factors mentioned above can influence the role and form of milk and dairy products in the diet. ? The cow is a sacred animal in India; therefore the rennet used in cheese making may not be taken from a calf's stomach. ? In densely populated areas, people are forced to use all available land for crops that give a maximum yield, or crops that can be directly consumed by the people. This limits the land available for dairy farming. ? If milk or dairy products have to be bought, money is needed. ? It may not be possible to keep cattle in certain regions, e.g. the humid tropics, due to the natural environment. For example, in humid areas of West Africa cattle cannot be kept because they are the host of the tsetse fly, which transmits sleeping sickness. For these reasons, milk and dairy products in the diet can be of greater or lesser importance in one area or another. Economic and social situations are especially subject to change and dietary patterns change with them. New foodstuffs may be introduced to (partly) substitute others. Adoption of new products is often no easy matter; sometimes centuries-old traditions may have to change. Also, taste and other characteristics such as texture are important in the acceptance of new kinds of food. Something that may be considered very tasty in one place, may not be appreciated elsewhere. 3 Hygiene Milk should be handled with care. There are several factors that can make milk go off and become unsuitable for further consumption. These include: ? contamination by diseased animals (tuberculosis, brucellosis) and/or people ? the presence of too many micro-organisms in the milk ? bacterial and/or chemical conversion of certain substances in the milk ? contamination of the milk with antibiotics (used for treatment of diseased animals), disinfectants, pesticides and so on. The above-mentioned factors always cause some deterioration of milk. In some cases it is only the flavour that is affected, but usually the structure and smell of milk also change. In the case of contamination with antibiotics and disinfectants, the milk's appearance does not change, but fermentation, which is necessary for processing the milk, is inhibited. We will first discuss the way micro-organisms cause the deterioration of milk. Then precautions which can be taken to minimise the impact of these factors will be explained, and some suggestions for cleaning and disinfection will be given. 3.1 Deterioration due to micro-organisms Bacteria, yeasts and moulds are all called: micro-organisms. Micro-organisms are very small and cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are found everywhere in nature: in the air, water, and soil and also in food and milk. Micro-organisms can multiply very rapidly. Milk in the udder of a healthy animal contains almost no microorganisms (aside from lactic acid bacteria). After the milk leaves the udder contamination with, sometimes harmful, micro-organisms will take place during milking, milk handling, transport and storage. Milk may be contaminated with micro-organisms originating from the skin of the animal, the milker's hands, the milking utensils or the air. Most micro-organisms are not harmful, but some can cause diseases like salmonella infection, dysentery, tuberculosis (in man and in animals), diphtheria and typhoid. These disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogenic bacteria. Through inadequate hygiene, diseases can be transmitted from person or animal to person. Figure 6: Diverse sources of contamination: a shows badly cleaned utensils contaminating milk; b improper milking is also a source of contamination; c shows multiplication of micro-organisms during storage; d heating kills the micro-organisms. Micro-organisms can multiply very rapidly in milk. Temperature plays an important role in the life of micro-organisms. Their growth can start at a temperature of about 4°C. It is therefore very important to store milk or milk products at a temperature no higher than 4°C; otherwise deterioration will take place rapidly. Above 20°C, bacteria multiply at an incredible speed. Most micro-organisms are killed during pasteurisation, e.g. at a temperature above 63°C for a period of at least 30 minutes. But a few, the so-called spore-forming bacteria, will survive more intense heating. They can give problems like off flavours and coagulation in pasteurised milk. Yeasts and moulds Yeasts are micro-organisms that can ferment sugars into alcohol, gas and other substances. They are about 5-10 times larger than bacteria. Reproduction usually takes place through budding. Yeasts usually grow in an acid environment; they need oxygen and they can withstand rather high concentrations of acids. In dairy products, yeasts are usually found in soured products like sour milk or buttermilk, sour whey, butter, and curd and on the surface of cheese. When present in large numbers, they produce gas and they cause undesirable off flavours of the product. Moulds are string-like micro-organisms. The fine threads, called mycelium, are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. To develop they need atmospheric oxygen, and they thrive best in humid and acid conditions. Moulds multiply by forming spores. These float easily through the air and can often be found on poorly maintained ceilings and walls. Their mobility makes them an important source of infection. Moulds can be seen on the surface of butter or cheese in the form of coloured spots. For some soft cheeses (like Camembert and Brie) moulds are essential for ripening. In general, moulds are harmless, but some produce poisonous toxins (mycotoxins), such as aflatoxin in peanut products. Cells and spores of moulds and yeasts are destroyed by pasteurisation (heating the milk 30 minutes at 63°C or 20 seconds at 72°C). Bacteria Bacteria are single-cell micro-organisms that multiply by cell division. Raw milk and many dairy products contain many different kinds of bacteria. Environmental conditions (such as acidity, temperature, humidity or amount of oxygen) can change, making conditions less attractive for one group of bacteria but at the same time creating optimal conditions for another type. This is why some families of bacteria will always be found in milk or dairy products (lactic acid bacteria). An exception must be noted, which is dried products like milk powder. Micro-organisms cannot grow without water and therefore the number of bacteria in uncontaminated milk powder will be low. Bacteria found in milk can be divided into two groups: useful and harmful. Lactic acid bacteria (e.g. Streptococcus lactis) are useful. They produce lactic acid, which is not harmful and gives milk a fresh, sour taste. Moreover lactic acid is a good preservative for the sour products. Pathogenic bacteria (those that cause diseases in humans) cannot grow in acid products. When producing certain dairy products like soured milk, yoghurt and cheese, good use is made of these specific properties (see chapter 5). Sometimes milk is spoiled by the growth of bacteria that do not produce lactic acid. In this case, certain disease-causing bacteria can develop and whey separates from the milk. This usually happens after long storage of pasteurised milk. The smell is unpleasant and the taste bitter. Such milk should not be consumed. 3.2 Contamination of milk with extraneous matter Extraneous substances must be prevented from entering into the milk. These can be dangerous to one's health or cause unpleasant flavours and smells, reducing the suitability of milk for further processing. Some examples are cleaning and disinfecting agents, medicine, pesticides and pieces of metal or glass. The feed given to animals, such as some weeds, onions and cabbage, can also influence the taste of the milk. This can be avoided by feeding the animals after milking. Good hygiene can reduce deterioration. How to achieve a good level of hygiene will be discussed in the following pages. 3.3 Hygienic production, storage and processing of milk Contamination occurs when micro-organisms enter into the milk. Possible sources of contamination during production, storage and processing are: ? the animal itself: skin of teats and udder ? inflammation of the udder (mastitis) ? conditions at the milking place (floor, dung, dust, dirty water, etc.) ? utensils and equipment used during processing ? the person milking ? the air and environment It is no easy task to keep micro-organisms out of milk. Much depends on the person who is milking, the care taken of the animals and the cleanliness of the utensils. If everything is well sanitised and kept clean, relatively few micro-organisms will enter into the milk. Good hygiene is of major importance. In addition, milk - if not used or processed immediately - should be cooled after milking and kept cool. Good hygiene measures therefore: ? Prevent bacterial growth through good refrigeration of the milk. ? Prevent contamination of the milk. Hygiene during milking There are several possible causes of contamination during milking. In a normal, healthy cow very low numbers of bacteria are found inside the udder and the teats. Cows possess various mechanisms to prevent the entry of bacteria. To avoid problems while milking, it is important that an animal become accustomed to the activity. It will then know that it will be milked, and will react positively to it. Such positive behaviour can start if, for instance, it hears milk cans clanging, feels its udder being cleaned, etc. Then the animal is easier to milk and gives more milk. Stress and unrest make the cows move too much and kick; consequently more dirt and manure can enter into the milk. When a cow has an udder infection (mastitis), its milk will be contaminated with the bacteria that cause the udder infection, and that may produce pus and sometimes blood. Milk from these animals should not be used in any way. Mastitis can be prevented by maintaining good hygiene and avoiding injury to the teats during milking. An infected udder is not always easy to see. When an udder infection occurs, it is advisable to remove milk from the udder very frequently (e.g. every 3 hours by hand). The number of microorganisms in the udder is thus reduced. Be aware, however, that milking an infected udder by machine or by hand is often painful for the animal. The animal will kick frequently and this can be an important source of contamination of healthy cows. Bacteria can be transferred from the skin or teats to the milk, even with healthy dairy cattle. It is therefore important to clean the udder before milking. Wipe the udder clean with a dry, clean, preferably disposable cloth to prevent infection. If the teats or udder are really dirty, they must first be washed with clean, hand-warm water and a clean cloth and then dried with a clean towel. Cleaning the udder improves the cleanliness of the milk and makes milking easier. Skin and hair can also be sources of infection. Do not feed animals first before milking, it may create a lot of dust. See to it that the floor is clean, and be careful when clearing dung, mud or dust. A clean, well-illuminated milking place and fresh surrounding air are essential to maintaining good hygiene. Insects such as flies and cockroaches can also be sources of infection. Try to control them as they can carry many bacteria and viruses. When milking, the milk is caught in a pail or bucket. Dirty milking equipment is the main source of infection of milk. If residues of milk remain in the equipment because of improper cleaning and drying, bacteria will develop in these residues. These bacteria are already accustomed to the milk and will multiply rather quickly during transport and storage of milk in the equipment. Use pails and buckets that are smooth on the inside, for instance seamless metal buckets. All milking equipment should be thoroughly cleaned immediately after each use. Use soap or other detergents if necessary. Make sure that the water used is clean. If you are in doubt, boil it for several minutes or add chlorine. Very important: after cleaning, the equipment should be stored upside down in such a way that the inside of the buckets and cans dry. This prevents the remaining bacteria from growing. The person milking plays the most important part in maintaining proper hygiene during production. He or she keeps an eye on the condition of the animal, chooses the milking place and cleans all the equipment. He or she should have clean hands and wear clean clothes. If the milker suffers from tuberculosis, salmonella infection, dysentery or some other disease, the risk of contamination of the milk becomes very high; it would be wise to have somebody else take over. This is also the case if the milker has open wounds or ulcers. Hygiene during storage and processing By now you should know that milk should be processed as quickly as possible after milking and that it should be properly stored in order to minimise its chances of spoiling. It is best to filter fresh milk through a filter or clean cloth. This will remove visible dirt that might have entered into the milk. Clean or replace the cloth during filtering or filter the milk several times. The cloth should be thoroughly cleaned after use and then left to dry in the sun. In tropical conditions, raw milk, i.e. non-pasteurised milk, goes off within a few hours. It must therefore be kept cool and quickly pasteurised and again cooled to a temperature of 4°C if possible. Properly pasteurised and cooled milk can be kept for a few days, even in a warm climate. If you are not able to cool milk below 10°C, then do not mix different batches. Even if the older milk is still good, you will end up with an increase in bacterial growth and reduction of the overall quality. Use clean equipment for storage. Containers that are clear, such as glass, should be stored in the dark as light reduces the quality of milk. Clean your equipment with clean water. Cleaning and disinfection Utensils must be cleaned in such a way that all dirt, food residues, feed and micro-organisms are removed from the surface of the equipment. Dirty saucepans, jugs, milking equipment and utensils should be cleaned immediately after use. Washing soda (sodium carbonate) dissolved in hot water is an excellent cleaning agent. It may be useful to disinfect equipment in order to kill any remaining harmful micro-organisms. You can use a chloride solution such as bleach (sodium hypochlorite). A proper way of cleaning your equipment is the following: ? Rinse well with water. ? Start cleaning immediately after milking, so that milk residues will not dry and stick on the buckets and utensils. ? Scrub the tools in a hot soda solution (1.5 tablespoons of soda to 5 litres of water), using a small amount of water to dissolve the soda before adding it to the rest of the water. ? Buckets, tubs, etc., should be turned upside down on a rack during storage; the water can then drain and no dirt or dust can enter. Let the utensils dry to prevent bacterial growth. ? Rinse well with hot water. Well-cleaned tools are nearly sterile, only a small part of the bacteria remains on the tools. If these tools dry during storage hardly any bacteria will be present. In that case disinfection is not necessary. Tools which are used for storage of pasteurised milk or for cheese making and which do not get a heat treatment together with the milk can be disinfected after cleaning or before use. Proceed as follows: ? Disinfect in a chloride or bleach solution after cleaning or shortly before use. Add 2 tablespoons of bleach per 4.5 litres of water. ? Clean all your equipment properly. The following step will be ineffective if the utensils are not clean to start with. It is advisable to use stainless steel equipment, cheesecloth and wooden utensils. Tools or any other equipment made from aluminium should not be washed in a strong soda solution, as soda attacks aluminium. Iron utensils will rust in a strong chloride solution. Therefore rinse and dry these utensils immediately after cleaning and disinfection. If you have no cleaning agents -like soda- or disinfectants, you can disinfect your equipment as follows: ? Rinse with a soap solution. ? Thoroughly clean the utensils using clean water. ? Dry the equipment on a rack in the sun upside down or rinse with boiling water. WARNING: Take care that acid cleaning agents (e.g. nitric acid) and chlorine never come in contact with each other as very poisonous fumes can be formed. Cleaning agents and disinfectants are chemicals that - if not diluted - can irritate the skin. Direct contact should therefore be avoided; wear gloves, if possible. Do not use any disinfectants other than chloride (bleach). As cleaning agents and disinfectants are dangerous products, they should be locked away in a safe place, where no unauthorised person can get at them. Label the bottles clearly. 4 Processing techniques Milk can be stored longer if it has been processed. Extended storage is possible if you are able to control the growth of micro-organisms. The processing technique used will determine the storage life of the milk and dairy products. The following rules should be followed during the production, storage and processing of milk. ? Always wash your hands and avoid putting them in the milk if not necessary. ? Take care that no dirt particles or insects enter into the milk. ? See to it that all equipment used during processing is properly cleaned and disinfected if needed. ? Try to prevent the use of copper utensils. (Copper can give off flavours in butter and milk.) ? The use of a thermometer is recommended. ? Do not expose milk to sunlight; store it in a dark place. ? Make sure that milk used for consumption has always been boiled or pasteurised. ? Never drink raw milk because it may contain pathogenic bacteria like tubercular bacteria and salmonella. ? Never store raw (i.e. unheated) milk if it is not immediately cooled below 4°C. The following processing techniques will be dealt with in this chapter: ? cooling ? pasteurisation ? souring (acidification) ? creaming. Heating and cooling are in fact ways to preserve milk, but for convenience we will deal with them under the heading of processing techniques. 4.1 Pasteurisation As you by now know, milk contains certain micro-organisms that can spoil it. These bacteria grow best at temperatures between 10°C and 40°C. It is therefore important to cool milk as quickly as possible. This can be difficult in the tropics if no cold water or refrigerators are available. Most bacteria will be destroyed during heating. The most effective temperature depends on the heating time. In other words, heating for a longer period at a lower temperature can be as effective as heating for a shorter period but at a higher temperature. In figure 9, we see: aDirect pasteurisation of milk in a saucepan (method A below) b Pasteurisation of milk in bottles (method B below) Pasteurisation improves the safety and storage life of a product, while the taste hardly changes and the loss of vitamins is minimal. A distinction is made between low and high pasteurisation (see table 2). Although high pasteurisation initially kills more bacteria, the resulting milk can usually not be kept as long, because the high pasteurisation temperature stimulates spores of some bacteria to germinate. Moreover, the taste of high pasteurised milk has more or less the flavour of boiled milk. Pasteurised milk can be kept for about one week at 4-6°C if no re-infection takes place. The pasteurisation temperature to be used depends on the product to be made of the milk. ? High pasteurisation is used for yoghurt, butter and kefir. ? Low pasteurisation is used for milk for direct consumption and cheese. Table 2: Time–temperature combinations for pasteurising milk \| \| time \| temperature \| remarks \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| low pasteurising \| 30 minutes 3 minutes 20 seconds \| 63°C 68°C 72°C ) \| quantities >5 litres small quantities industrial equipment \| \| high pasteurising \| 2 minutes 20 seconds \| 82°C 85°C ) \| \| If there is no thermometer to measure the exact temperature, heat the milk to its boiling point. Pasteurisation methods The following method A is suitable if you are able to accurately control both temperature and time. Method B is more hygienic, if the exact temperature of the milk is unknown. You will need: ? for method A: a clean wooden spoon ? raw milk, a heat source, a saucepan with a thick bottom that is smooth on the inside, a thermometer and a means of cooling the milk that has been heated ? for method B: glass jars with lids or bottles with tops, or plastic bags and sealing equipment. Method A Put the milk in a clean saucepan and heat it to 68°C, stirring continuously. Keep the milk at that temperature for at least 3 minutes. Method B Clean the glass jars with lids or bottles with tops. Fill them with milk and close the lids. Submerge the jars and bottles in a large pan filled with water. Heat everything to 80°C and keep it at that temperature for at least 10 minutes. When using method A, let the milk cool down as quickly as possible. The best storage temperature is 4°C. The proper storage temperature for a soured milk product or cheese can be found in chapters 6 and 7. If you are using method B but are not able to maintain a constant temperature of 80°C, the best alternative is to heat the water in the pan until it boils and keep it boiling for some time. It is important to store the pasteurised or boiled milk at 4°C. At this temperature it can be kept up to one week. Handle the boiled or pasteurised milk with care to prevent re-infection. 4.2 Cooling Storing milk at a low temperature will greatly reduce the growth of bacteria. Bacteria develop much slower in cold milk. The best storage temperature is 4°C. If this temperature cannot be achieved, store the milk in a dark place at the lowest temperature possible: see table 3. Table 3: Quality of raw milk after storage for 24 hours under different temperature and hygiene conditions \| Storage temperature (°C) \| Very hygienic conditions \| Hygienic conditions \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| 4 \| good \| good \| \| 10 \| good \| poor \| \| 20 \| poor \| poor \| \| 35 \| bad \| bad \| Without cooling, raw milk will spoil within a day. Put the hot pasteurised or boiled milk in a clean container (the high temperature will disinfect the container). Let it cool down as quickly as possible, preferably in a large pan with cold water (refresh the water if it warms up). The best temperature for storage is 4°C. Cooling down in air, e.g. in a cold cellar or a refrigerator is very ineffective as the transfer of cold by air is very slow. If you use a pan with cold water make sure that no water enters into the milk because it would contaminate the milk again. Add ice cubes to the cooling water, if available. Stir both the water and the milk during cooling with a clean spoon, using different spoons. Figure 10 shows how to cool milk. As mentioned above, properly pasteurised or boiled milk can be kept for about one week if stored at 4°C. At 10°C it will spoil quickly; if it is 15°C or warmer, it should be consumed the same day (see table 3). 4.3 Souring by fermentation or acidification Another way of increasing the shelf-life of milk is to ferment it into soured milk products. Part of the milk sugar is converted into lactic acid by bacteria, for example by the yoghurt bacteria Streptococcus thermofilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus or the bacteria that grows at room temperature Streptococcus lactis. Fresh raw milk can be left to sour spontaneously, but then you cannot control which bacteria are growing. It is better to sour the milk with the help of specific lactic acid bacteria as a starter culture after the milk has been pasteurised. Quality and taste are influenced by the products that the different lactic acid bacteria produce. 4.4 Creaming Cream is made from the fat that rises to the surface of cow milk. A layer of fat forms on the surface of the milk after it has been left to stand for at least half a day. After a day this layer contains about 20% fat. The simplest way of collecting it is by skimming it off the top of the milk. Sheep and goat milk do not cream easily. You will need a creamer or centrifugal separator to obtain good results. You should be able to get about 1 - 2 litres of cream from 10 litres of milk. The skimmed milk which remains after the removal of the cream is still very nutritious, because it contains nearly all the protein of the milk. You can either drink it or use it for the production of sour milk or cheese. Sour (fermented) cream and sour (fermented) milk are produced by incubation of inoculated fresh cream or fresh milk. A culture of lactic acid bacteria is used for inoculation of the fresh milk or the fresh cream. Butter (80% fat) and buttermilk are made by churning cream or milk. One hundred litres of milk with a 4% fat content produces 20 - 30 litres of cream, which yields about 4 kg of butter. However, butter is not an important product in tropical countries because it melts easily at high temperatures and it is expensive. There is generally little demand for butter. Butter and cream can be used to make ghee. Ghee keeps better than cream and butter as it contains practically no moisture; it is almost pure milk fat. 5 Starter cultures In tropical countries it is often difficult to prevent raw milk from spoiling before consumption. One way to avoid this is to allow the milk to acidify or ferment. This is done by adding lactic acid bacteria to fresh milk. The addition of lactic acid bacteria is called inoculation. There are several groups of fermented milks. The principal differences between these groups are: ? type of fermenting flora ? type of milk used (cow, goat, sheep, buffalo, camel or mare) ? the way the milk is processed either before or after fermentation. Various kinds of lactic acid bacteria produce various kinds of sour milk. Yoghurt, dahi, laban, nono, kefir and koumiss are all produced in this way. These products differ in flavour, colour and consistency. 5.1 The development of lactic acid bacteria Bacterial growth shows a specific pattern comprising the following consecutive stages: adaptation phase (A), a period of rapid multiplication (B), a stabilisation period (C) and a decreasing phase (D). See figure 12. After inoculation with the bacteria, the milk starts souring. In practice the whole souring cycle takes one to two days. In this period one can recognise the four growth phases of bacteria as follows. Adaptation phase During this period, bacteria, of which only a relatively small number is present, have to adapt to their new environment. Multiplication is still very slow. The length of the adaptation period depends on the type of bacteria, their viability, the temperature of the milk and whether there are any bacterial growth inhibiting factors present. Period of rapid multiplication The bacteria, after adjusting to their new environment, multiply rapidly and start fermenting milk sugar (lactose) into lactic acid. The milk gets thicker because of coagulation of the proteins and the taste becomes sour. Stabilisation period During this stage, the number of bacteria remains constant. The reason for this is that they do not thrive in the acidic milk. Decrease of the number of bacteria Due to the exhaustion of the nutrients of the food source and the production of lactic acid, the bacteria become inactive and die after some time. Note: The gradual inactivation of the bacteria is the reason why you must not wait too long before adding part of a desirable bacterial culture to fresh milk (inoculation). 5.2 Cultivation of starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria Starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria can be obtained from specialised firms and laboratories or from other dairy plants. Most of the starter cultures from the laboratories and specialised firms are freeze-dried; dairy plants generally have fresh (liquid) starter cultures available. If starter cultures cannot be obtained easily, it is recommended that you cultivate and maintain your own cultures. That way it is not necessary to buy a fresh starter culture each time you want to make cheese or a soured milk product. If fresh raw milk is stored at ambient temperatures the bacteria in the milk (including the lactic acid bacteria) will develop, after some time acid will be formed and the milk will curdle. The lactic acid bacteria that develops can be used for the fermentation of the product; see section 5.5. During this spontaneous souring, however, undesirable microorganisms could contaminate the milk. It is therefore better to use a commercial starter culture. When small quantities of products are made, a small amount of fresh yoghurt, whey or sour milk (or buttermilk) can be used as a starter culture. Experience has shown that the use of a starter culture produces a more consistent and better product than the use of naturally soured milk. It is difficult to keep the starter culture fresh and active, especially under tropical conditions and with limited resources. The cultivation of the culture requires good hygiene and proper temperatures. Different products, such as yoghurt and cheese, require different cultures of lactic acid bacteria. If you can obtain a freeze-dried powder culture, follow the instructions on the package. Once the seal of the package has been broken, the bacteria will not survive for a long time, in any case not longer than 6 months. 5.3 Growth of starter cultures To make a starter culture you will need: ? a thermometer ? fresh milk ? a heat source ? a normal size (1 to 2 litre) pan with a lid ? a place to store the culture that has a constant warm temperature (e.g. an insulated box) ? a fresh starter culture or a freeze-dried starter culture ? a spoon or a small measuring cup ? glass pots that can be closed properly. The equipment can be sterilised by immersing spoons, ladles and lids in boiling water for at least 5 minutes. Milk used for the production of a starter culture should be handled under very hygienic conditions. Either whole or skimmed milk can be used as a base, but as the fat in the milk has no use, it is more economical to use skimmed milk. Boil the (skimmed) milk for at least 5 minutes in a saucepan. Transfer the boiled milk into a clean glass (use only glass!) jar, which can be properly closed. Normal clay pottery is porous and therefore more difficult to clean, so it can easily become a source of bacterial contamination. Cool the milk to the proper fermentation temperature. This temperature can be found in the instructions for use on the package of the starter culture. For the production of the first starter culture you must use a freezedried culture or an active fresh liquid culture. If a freeze-dried powder is used: mix the powder with a small quantity of milk to make a smooth paste (everything coming into contact with the starter paste should be disinfected). Add more cold, boiled milk (follow the instructions on the package) and leave the mixture at the proper temperature as indicated in the instructions for using the powder. Dry starters are usually weaker than fresh cultures and should therefore preferably be re-inoculated and incubated one time more before being used to make other products (see figure 13). If you start with a fresh liquid culture a quantity of 1 to 3% has to be added to the milk for inoculation. For freeze-dried starters follow the instructions on the package. The inoculated milk has to be incubated at a certain specific temperature for some time (generally 20 - 24 hours at a temperature of 18 – 20°C). In that time the bacteria multiply and the milk ferments. Different products, like cheese and yoghurt, require different starter cultures. Incubation time for yoghurt is much shorter, generally 3 - 6 hours at temperatures between respectively 45 and 38°C. Bacterial growth starts at the moment the starter culture has been mixed through the milk. From this point, a constant and correct temperature must be maintained. There are a number of ways to keep the culture at the desired temperature. It can be poured into a sterilised thermos flask while warm, or an insulated box can be used to incubate a jar containing the souring milk. Covering the closed saucepan with a blanket or placing the closed pot under the bed covers will also help to keep the temperature constant. Once the culture has been fermented, it can be used to make sour milk products and cheese. 5.4 Maintenance of starter cultures Maintenance of the culture involves daily transfer of the existing culture to freshly boiled and cooled milk. Use skimmed milk if possible. This process is needed to prevent the bacteria from becoming too weak and thus useless. Part of the existing culture is used to inoculate fresh milk, which in turn is fermented to become the new 'mother culture'. The rest of the original culture can be used to make products such as yoghurt, cheese and buttermilk. The addition of 1 – 3% culture to the milk should be adequate. After incubation the milk has to be cooled, e.g., by putting it in a refrigerator, and incubated again for 20 - 24 hours. If a refrigerator is available, inoculation could be done on a weekly basis, but it is better to refresh the starter 2 times per week. The mother culture must be kept properly cooled. If the culture is not used immediately, it can be kept, without transferring, for one week at most in a cool place, e.g. a refrigerator. After repeated use, the culture may become less active or its quality may decrease because it may not have the desirable fresh, sour flavour any more. If it appears that the activity of the culture is decreasing after some time, a fresh starter should be used. A general guideline is to discard the culture when it takes longer than 10 hours to make yoghurt at 40 - 45°C, or 30 hours for milk to become sour after the addition of the starter culture to the milk (temperature at 20°C). If the fermentation seems slow, the coagulum is rather thin and does not have a fresh smell, you may be sure that the starter bacteria are weakened. Instead of using milk, one can also use milk powder. It is absolutely essential to use clean, well-boiled water to dissolve the milk powder. Instead of a culture, a portion of the ready-made product (yoghurt, sour milk or buttermilk) can be used if this product was made shortly beforehand, but this method is not very dependable. The safest but also most expensive method is to use a new starter each time, certainly when fermented milk products are made irregularly, i.e. not every month. This will save the effort of frequent inoculation of a new culture. 5.5 Preparing your own culture If starters cannot be obtained easily, it is possible to cultivate simple lactic acid starters from raw milk (see figure 14). Store raw milk at ambient temperature until it has developed sufficient acid to curdle. For instance: leave 1 litre of fresh, raw milk to stand for 24 - 48 hours at 20-30°C. After souring of this milk, a second quantity of milk is then boiled and cooled to the temperature at which the milk is usually fermented in the production process. The top layer of the available sour milk is skimmed off with a spoon or ladle (to remove micro-organisms, which stick to the fat globules) and this cream is thrown away. Add a small quantity of this soured milk (called inoculum) to the boiled milk (about 2 - 5%) and mix them. After 24 hours of incubation at ambient temperature, again a fresh quantity of boiled milk with a temperature of about 20°C is inoculated with a small quantity (1-2%) of the second batch of sour milk (see figure 14). This procedure is repeated daily for about one week. Fermentation of the milk should take place in a jar or a bottle, which must be closed with a clean cover that is also dust free. It is essential that all the utensils and tools used (jars, spoons, etc.) are clean and disinfected. Prevent contamination after disinfection! After this period of cultivation the sour milk can be used as a starter, because the lactic acid bacteria will have overgrown other bacteria almost completely. Problems with the fermentation can have the following causes: ? The milk has been contaminated with hydrogen peroxide or disinfectants; this slows down fermentation. ? The milk contains antibiotics, e.g. penicillin (because the cow had been treated with antibiotics). ? The incubation temperature of the milk is too low (below 18°C). ? The temperature of the milk at the moment of the inoculation was too high (above 40°C). 6 Recipes Figure 15 gives a rough overview of the different dairy products that can be made from milk. Every recipe in this chapter starts with a list of the ingredients and equipment needed. The actual preparation is then described. Success depends on a lot of factors, so do not give up if you do not end up with the desired results the first time. Experimentation is necessary and you will probably have to adapt the recipes. Several preservation techniques, like cooling, heating, drying, souring, salting, etc., are relevant to most recipes. Different types of milk can be used, which give different results. Take great care when cleaning all pans, dishes and utensils; see chapter 3. 6.1 Cream You will need raw milk and a heat source. Method A After leaving milk to stand for about 24 hours at as low a temperature as possible (4-12°C), the cream can be skimmed off using a spoon or saucer. This method makes use of the fact that cream rises and then stays on top of the milk. It contains most of the milk fat. Only cow milk readily produces cream this way; other kinds of milk need a hand creamer (centrifugal milk separator) to separate cream and milk. Method B Materials: a hand creamer (milk separator), two big bowls. Heat the milk slightly to a little over 40°C and pour it into the upper bowl of the separator. It is important to turn the handle at a constant speed during the separation. After separating the cream from the milk, pasteurise both cream and skimmed milk. The use of a separator produces more cream and leaves skimmed milk with less fat. A disadvantage is that the separator has to be cleaned thoroughly, including the disks, which takes much time. A hand creamer is a complex tool. Never buy a second-hand creamer before having checked that it works well. It might lack some irreplaceable parts or may be corroded or damaged. The cream can be kept for a few days if it has been pasteurised. It can also be used for the preparation of various recipes. Cream can be used to make butter, for example. The skimmed milk that is left after the cream has been removed still contains a lot of nutrients (protein, fat, milk sugar, etc.) and can be used for direct consumption or for the production of soured milk or low-fat cheese. 6.2 Sour cream You will need: ? a saucepan ? fresh pasteurised cream ? a thermometer ? a starter culture or fresh fermented milk ? a metal or wooden spoon Cool the cream after pasteurisation to 18°C. Add 10 – 30 ml (1 – 3%; equal to 1 - 2 tablespoons) of sour milk or a starter culture to one litre of cream while stirring. Let the mixture become sour at a temperature of between 16 and 18°C, stirring it once after a number of hours to allow it to ferment evenly. After 24 hours the cream should be sufficiently sour and ready for consumption. 6.3 Butter You will need: ? a heat source ? pasteurised cream, sour cream or sour milk ? a pan ? cold water ? a thermometer ? sour milk or a starter culture ? a sieve ? a container for churning ? a bowl ? wooden spoons ? a tray for kneading ? fine salt if available (optional) ? clean water ? packing material, e.g. greaseproof paper or a jar Butter is made by churning one of the following products: cream, sour cream, or sour milk. If you do not have enough milk from which to skim off the cream, the milk can be soured and churned as a whole (provided that the fat content of the milk is rather high; above 4%). But sour cream is better to churn than sour milk. It is only possible to manufacture sweet cream butter if the production and handling of the milk, cream and butter are exceptionally hygienic and the cream has undergone after pasteurisation a cold treatment by storing it for at least 12 hours at temperatures below 10°C. Heating and souring Heat the milk or cream to a temperature of 85°C. Let it cool down to 18°C as quickly as possible (use a thermometer) using cold running water on the outside of the pan. Add 10 - 30 ml (about 1 - 2 tablespoons) of fresh fermented sour milk or a starter culture to one litre of milk or cream and stir. After about 24 hours at 16 to 18°C, the mixture will become thick and sour enough to be churned. Churning During churning the cream, sour cream or sour milk will be mixed intensively with air. This process causes fat globules to flocculate (or stick together), producing butter and buttermilk. The simplest way to make butter from small quantities of milk is by using a bottle or a jar that can be covered with a well-closing lid or a simple bowl with beaters. If large quantities of milk or cream are available, you should consider acquiring a real churn. There are several types available. The churn tub is a simple method, which is often used in the tropics. A cheap and practical domestic churn is a glass pot with a paddle attached to a screw top. The paddle can be turned manually. This churn is difficult to clean. It is best to rinse it with water before use, in order to prevent the butter from sticking to the sides. Churns should not be filled more than one third with soured milk or sour cream. Churn with a regular up and down or sideways movement. Stop churning when the butter particles reach the size of rice grains or peas and the buttermilk looks rather liquid. If, after 30 minutes, no grains have yet been formed, you can change the temperature by adding a little clean cold or warm water. See also the remarks at the end of this chapter. The amount of added water should never be more than 25% of the total amount of churned cream or milk. The butter particles will float to the top of the buttermilk, because butter is lighter than buttermilk. This makes it easier to separate the two products by pouring off the buttermilk through a coarse sieve. Never add too much water, otherwise the buttermilk will become too watery. Washing Washing of the butter grains is not necessary. However, if very clean water is available, it can improve butter quality. Washing the butter can be done in two ways: 1 Fill the churn 2/5 full with clean, cold water. Wash the butter by churning it for about 3 minutes. This can be repeated, if necessary. The idea is to remove part of the remaining buttermilk from the butter particles. It is important to remove as much as possible in order to produce butter that can be kept for a longer period. After washing, the butter particles can be skimmed off or the buttermilk can be drained. 2 If small quantities are available, the butter particles can be washed using a sieve. Put the sieve on top of a bowl and pour the mixture through it. Make sure that during churning the butter does not become one big lump, otherwise it will be difficult to wash - in case you want to do this. Salting (if preferred) Salting is not necessary for preservation; many people, however, like the taste of salted butter. The butter can be slightly salted (according to taste) by kneading in about 10 grams of salt to each kilogram of butter. Mix the butter again the next day in order to allow the salt grains to dissolve. Kneading Kneading the butter is important in order to get a nice, smooth product. It helps to distribute the moisture and this improves quality and shelf life, provided that kneading is done in a hygienic way. Use a clean, well-rinsed kneading board. Knead the butter with the back of two wooden spoons until drops of water and buttermilk are not perceivable any more and the butter has a nice, smooth surface. Remove drops of buttermilk during this process. Instead of a wooden spoon, a wet roller or bottle can be used. If none of these are available, just use clean hands to knead. Storage Butter should be stored in a cool, dark place. Put it in a pot or wrap it up in greaseproof paper or aluminium foil. After some time, one to two weeks, the surface of the butter can be covered with moulds. This mould formation can be partially prevented by sprinkling salt on the surface or by wrapping the butter air tight. Moulds only grow if oxygen is available. Butter can also be frozen. However, after defrosting the butter will rather soon have an off-taste. It is therefore a good idea to divide the butter into smaller portions before freezing. Salted butter is less suitable for freezing. Remarks 1 If milk has gone sour without the use of a starter, but it still tastes and smells fresh, it can still be churned. 2 Churning can take from 5 to as much as 60 minutes. A number of factors may influence the time needed, for instance: ? the fat content of the cream ? type of animal the milk came from ? treatment of the cream; the cream must have had enough time (at least 12 hours at 10 – 18°C) before churning for crystallisation of part of the fat to take place ? the temperature of the cream during churning. This last aspect is also dependent on the melting point of the fat. If the cream is too cold, the fat globules do not easily stick together and churning will take longer. If the temperature of the cream is too high, churning will go quickly and the butter grains will not stick together and butter will not be formed. A good churning temperature is 15 – 20°C. ? feed eaten by the animal; feed influences the crystallisation (= melting point) of the fat 3 Butter has a limited shelf life. It can become mouldy or rancid. An unpleasant cheese-like flavour may develop due to the deterioration of its protein. An alternative is ghee (see below), which does not spoil as quickly as butter. Ghee is produced by removing the last water remnants from butter by heating the butter and letting the water evaporate, or by melting butter and draining the water, which separates from the fat. 6.4 Buttermilk and sour milk Buttermilk is a by-product of the butter-making process. The taste can be more or less sour depending on the sourness of the cream or the milk, which is used for butter making, or on the degree to which it sours after churning. It is also possible to make a product like soured buttermilk using milk or skimmed milk, by inoculating it with sour milk and letting it ferment for one day. For the fermented milk you will need: fresh (skimmed) milk, a heat source, a wooden spoon, fresh fermented milk or buttermilk or a starter culture, a saucepan with a thick bottom, and a thermometer. Heat the fresh (skimmed) milk to boiling point, stirring all the time. Cool it down to 18 – 20°C, for instance in a large pan with cold water. Add 10 – 30 ml of sour milk or buttermilk or a starter culture per each litre of milk (1%). Leave for it 18 - 24 hours at room temperature (18 – 20°C); if the surrounding temperature is higher, fermentation time will be somewhat shorter. After this the sour milk is ready. Store it in a cold place (cool basement or a refrigerator), if you want to keep it for some days. 6.5 Ghee To make ghee, you will need: ? a heat source ? butter ? a pan ? a metal spoon. Heat the butter until water and fat form separate layers; the fat will float on top. There are two ways to remove the water: ? It is possible to remove the layer of fat with a spoon. This fat should then be heated again. The scum, which will form, has to be skimmed off regularly, preferably with a skimmer. The colour of ghee can vary from almost white to dark brown. A rancid flavour is acceptable, but if it tastes burnt it should be discarded. ? It can be removed by further heating. The water present will evaporate. 6.6 Koa Koa or khoa is a type of concentrated milk. You will need: ? a heat source ? fresh (unboiled) whole or skimmed milk ? a shallow, clean, wide, iron pan with a thick, flat bottom ? a flat, clean metal utensil to stir with (e.g. a flat pancake spatula). Fill the pan with the milk up to 30 to 50% of its capacity. Bring the milk to boiling, stirring continuously. The water will evaporate and after some time the milk will reach a certain viscosity, this means the milk will thicken. Take great care to scrape the sides of the pan during stirring. Once the milk has reached a dough-like consistency and stirring does not prevent the mass from sticking to the side of the pan, you can remove it from the heat source and lower the temperature by at least 20°C. At this point the water content should have been reduced to about 40% of what it was. Take the lump of koa out of the pan, put it on a cold surface and flatten it. After cooling, the koa will be firm and can be cut into squares. It will have a sweet, nutty flavour. Koa can be kept only for about 2 - 5 days because of possible re-infection. The preparation of koa requires much time (a few hours) and fuel, on top of which 1 litre of milk produces only 0.4 litres of koa. 6.7 Rabi Rabi is sweetened, concentrated milk. During concentrating, sugar is added from time to time. You will need: ? a heat source ? (unboiled) milk ? a wide, shallow iron pan with a thick bottom ? sugar ? a flat metal scoop ? scales. Add sugar to the milk during the heating process (maximum 300 g per litre of milk) and follow the same procedure as for koa. Lumps of sugar will often be found in the end product. 6.8 Yoghurt Yoghurt is produced when milk is soured by certain lactic acid bacteria, which prefer growing temperatures far above room temperature: 37 – 45°C. The milk should first be heated to 85°C or higher. A high pasteurisation temperature (above 72°C) gives a better consistency (thickness) to the final product. After the milk has been soured, the resulting yoghurt can be used to make more fresh yoghurt by adding it to fresh milk. Basic recipe for yoghurt You will need: ? a heat source ? fresh raw milk ? a saucepan ? a thermometer ? a spoon ? cooling facility (e.g. a large pan with cold water) ? starter culture for yoghurt or some fresh yoghurt ? a cool place (refrigerator or cellar) ? thermos flask or a box covered with a blanket Heat the milk to 85°C or higher and keep it at this temperature for 3 minutes. Cool the milk to 45°C. Add 30 ml (2 - 3 tablespoons) of fresh yoghurt to each litre of milk; the yoghurt should not be more than 2 days old. Instead of fresh yoghurt you can use a yoghurt starter culture. Mix the milk and the starter and leave it to ferment. The time required for the milk to turn sour depends on the temperature. To give you an idea: ? at 40 - 45°C it takes about 3 to 6 hours ? at 35 - 37°C it takes about 20 to 15 hours ? at 30°C it takes about 24 hours The ideal temperature to make pleasant-tasting yoghurt with a firm consistency is 40 - 45°C. It is not possible to produce yoghurt at temperatures below 30°C or above 50°C. The correct temperature can be maintained using an insulated box or a blanket. Yoghurt is ready for consumption once the incubation period is finished. If cooled, yoghurt can be kept for one week. Using a thermos flask Heat the milk to at least 85°C, then cool it to 45°C. Pour 90% of the milk into a thermos flask, which has been rinsed with hot water. Mix 1 - 2 tablespoons of fresh prepared yoghurt (or yoghurt culture) with the rest of the milk and add this to the thermos flask. Close the flask well and leave to stand for 3 - 6 hours. Remove the yoghurt from the thermos flask and store in a cool place. Yoghurt made of sheep milk is very firm and therefore not suitable for fermentation in a thermos flask. Yoghurt made from milk powder Make milk from milk powder according to the instructions on the package, but add 10 to 15% extra milk powder. Dissolve the milk powder in water, heat it to boiling point and let it cool down to 45°C. Stir in 1 - 3 tablespoons of fresh yoghurt or a yoghurt culture per litre of milk. Cover the saucepan and put it in a warm, insulated place. After 3 - 6 hours this (firm and concentrated) yoghurt should be ready for consumption. Remarks ? After incubation, cooling is desirable, preferably below 10°C, so that souring is stopped (this retains the pleasant taste) and the ? It is best to use fresh milk to make yoghurt. Milk powder can also be used. Sterilised milk may give a thinner yoghurt than pasteurised milk. bacteria remain more viable, allowing the yoghurt to be used to inoculate milk again. ? Thicker yoghurt can be produced by adding 2 to 3 tablespoons of milk powder to each litre of milk before heating it to 85°C. ? Make sure the milk ferments as quickly as possible, preferably at 40 - 45°C rather than 30°C. Harmful bacteria have less opportunity to develop if the fermentation process goes faster. ? It is not advisable to use fruit yoghurt from a shop as a starter culture because it contains a lot of additives. Plain yoghurt from a shop can be used if it is not too old. Sterilised yoghurt is not suitable either, because the yoghurt bacteria have been killed by the sterilisation process. ? Stir the product as little as possible before removing some, to avoid the extra risk of incorporating undesirable bacteria. ? When using yoghurt from a carton or a pot as a starter, first remove the top layer and take the yoghurt from the centre to make fresh yoghurt. This is because the bacteria in the middle are probably the most diverse and active. 6.9 Kefir Kefir, like yoghurt, is a milk product first discovered by the nomadic tribes living in the cold areas of the Caucasus. When making kefir, acid, gas and some alcohol are produced. Like sour milk and buttermilk, it has a special aroma which is different from that of yoghurt. Kefir is made by using a 'yoghurt plant', which is actually a misleading name as it is not a plant and it has nothing to do with yoghurt. The 'yoghurt plant' is in fact a cauliflower-like lump of chalky crystals and micro-organisms consisting of yeasts and bacteria. The yeasts produce alcohol and gas, while the bacteria convert the milk sugar into lactic acid. You may be able to obtain a piece of this from someone who regularly makes kefir. If not, get some dried kefir granules at the local market. You will need: fresh raw milk, a saucepan, a heat source, a thermometer, a clean pan, a glass bottle with wide neck, a bottle which can be closed tightly, kefir granules or a 'yoghurt plant', a sieve, cooling a teaspoon, and a cool place to facilities, clean water, store the product. Boil the milk and put it into a bottle, which has been thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with hot water. Do not fill the bottle completely; let the milk cool down to 20°C (use a thermometer). Add one tablespoon of kefir granules soaked in water to each half litre of milk in the bottle and cover it loosely so that the gas produced can escape. You can use a fresh yoghurt plant instead of the soaked granules. Keep the bottle at a temperature of 16 to 18°C. After 24 hours the milk will have become a little thicker, forming some froth: this is kefir. Sieve the kefir and use the (washed with clean water) granules, which remain in the sieve to make fresh kefir again. The kefir is now ready for consumption or can ripen for some days to get more flavour. Ripening of the kefir The kefir can be left to 'ripen', during which time further fermentation takes place. This is essential to create kefir's characteristic qualities. Pour the kefir into a well-cleaned bottle, which can be closed, or a bottle with a clip fastening and do not fill more than 3/4 because gas forms during ripening. Leave the bottle at about 15°C, but do not store it for more than 3 days. Towards the end of the ripening process the whey separates and can be incorporated again by stirring or turning the bottle. The end product is a thick, creamy, frothy drink with a sour taste and smell and the produced carbon dioxide is perceivable. If the kefir is left to ripen for more than 3 days, the milk may curdle and the drink becomes too sour. The temperature and the time are important as they determine the flavour. The kefir can be kept in a refrigerator or a cellar for a few days. Storage of the kefir granules If kefir production is stopped for some time, the kefir granules can be dried as follows: Put them into a sieve and rinse well with clean water until all remaining milk is removed. Place them on a clean cloth and leave to dry in a clean place, but not in the sun, until the granules have shrivelled up. The granules can be kept in a closed bottle in a cool place for 12 to 18 months. The rinsed granules can also be kept in a freezer. Kefir granules can also be kept in a pot with water at 4°C, but they become inactive after 8 to 10 days. Remarks ? The shelf life of kefir is the same as for yoghurt, sour milk and buttermilk: its quality will rapidly decrease if it is stored too long. At 5° C, soured products can be kept for about ten days; at 10°C this is three days, and 20°C is too high. ? There is a greater chance of failure with kefir than with yoghurt. The end product may not only taste bad, it can also be unhealthy. In order to produce good kefir, the appropriate hygiene should be applied. Care should also be taken not to work at too high temperatures. ? Kefir may be too sour or too yeasty (due to an incorrect balance between the activity of the bacteria and yeasts). A fishy or ammonia-like taste can be the result of a breakdown of proteins by undesirable bacteria, which enter due to insufficient hygiene. Koumiss Koumiss is a sour milk product similar to Kefir. It is manufactured from mare milk. 7 Cheese Cheese is a product that has been made for centuries. Virtually all the nutrients present in milk are concentrated in cheese (see table 4). There is a huge assortment of cheeses. They can have various compositions; we make a rough distinction between fresh cheese and matured cheese, and between soft cheese and hard cheese. Fresh cheese can be consumed immediately after production, whereas matured cheese has to be stored after processing to develop flavour and a good consistency. Soft cheese has a higher water content than hard cheese; moreover hard (or semi-hard) cheese generally has a clean, dry rind. Soft cheeses and hard cheeses can be matured for some weeks or even up to a number of years. Table 4: Rough composition of milk and some types of cheese \| Product \| \| \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Water \| Fat \| Protein \| \| Milk \| 87.5 \| 3.5 \| 3 \| \| Skimmed milk \| 91 \| 0.1 \| 3 \| \| Fresh cheese (whole fat) \| 73 \| 10 \| 10 \| \| Fresh cheese (low fat) \| 83 \| 0.2 \| 13 \| \| Cream cheese (fresh) \| 57 \| 32 \| 9 \| \| Soft cheese \| 51 \| 25 \| 19 \| \| Semi-hard cheese \| 42 \| 30 \| 25 \| \| Hard cheese \| 30 \| 35 \| 30 \| Cheese production in the tropics is typified by specific problems; consequently, production processes and end products differ from those in Western Europe. ? Outside the temperate zones, high temperatures and very high air humidity must be taken into consideration. Both these factors are unfavourable for cheese making, in particular for the maturation of cheese. ? Milk is often available in small quantities, while its quality may not be up to standard. In particular, its hygienic quality and composition may leave much to be desired. ? In many tropical and subtropical countries, very matured cheese is not very popular. Most consumers are not used to the distinct flavour and smell of such cheese. ? Hard and semi-hard cheeses require good-quality milk and hygienic processing. Moderate temperatures are needed for good ripening and storage of these cheeses. In warm and hot climates most cheeses are produced on a small scale and cannot be stored for a long time. Therefore generally these are soft cheeses. The shelf life of cheese can vary from several days to some months and even to some years, depending on its processing. Fresh cheese can, like fermented products, be stored for only a short time; it must be consumed immediately or within a few days. The keeping quality of such cheese can be improved by cold storage and salting. Fresh cheese generally does not have a rind and is packed in a wrapping or a package. Most of the fresh cheese has been curdled using only an acid; it cannot be ripened and it should be consumed within a couple of days. Soft cheese is processed by using acid and rennet, in most cases it matures for some weeks or even some months. Soft cheese generally has a rind and often also a microbiological flora on the surface of the rind (like Camembert and Brie). Semi-hard and hard cheese can be kept well for 3-4 months or more. Cheese which is able to continue ripening should not be kept in a refrigerator, but in a cellar or cool place at 10-15°C. Where applicable, information and instructions will be given in the following recipes on keeping qualities and ways of storing products. Cheese making has three main goals: 1 Concentration of the milk into curd, whereby a great deal of the liquid part of the milk, the whey, is removed. 2 Preservation of the curd. Acidification of the curd and the salting process are important, along with a well-closed cheese rind or effective wrapping of the cheese. 3 Maturation of the cheese, in order to get a good taste, flavour and consistency. The cheese-making process has some essential steps. These are: 1 coagulation of protein of the milk, whereby the fat is incorporated in the coagulated protein 2 draining of the whey 3 acidification of the curd 4 collection of the curd and combined growth into a cheese 5 salting 6 maturation The processing of fresh cheese follows steps 1 to 3; matured cheese needs steps 1 to 6. The basic operations in cheese making will be discussed in this chapter: ? the coagulation (curdling) of the milk using acid or enzymes ? the treatment and quality of the milk used to make cheese (pasteurisation and/or standardisation) ? the separation of the curd and whey the collection and preservation of the curd (heating, collection, ? the maturation (ripening) of the cheese. ? pressing and salting) 7.1 Utensils for making cheese When making cheese, you will not always need all the utensils described below. Decide beforehand which you will use, and make sure that they are clean and rinsed with clean water. It is preferable to use utensils made of stainless steel or glass. The utensils used during cheese making are: 1 a thermometer with a range of 20 – 100°C 2 a measuring cup 3 a bucket for coagulation of the milk 4 cheese moulds, which can be made in various ways (see below) 5 cheesecloth, its size depends on the size of the mould 6 cutlery and other tools such as: ? a knife to cut curdled milk ? spoons to measure rennet and/or acids ? a skimmer to scoop curd out of whey, or a colander. Cheese moulds can be made from various materials e.g. wood, plastic or metal. Metal materials should be non-rusting. Do not use plastic tubing used in construction as it can release poisonous substances. Cut the moulds lengthwise and drill holes from the inside out. Plastic moulds for the production of soft cheese are also commercially available. Wooden cheese moulds can be used as well. Cheese that will have a closed rind after pressing is never placed directly into a mould. Instead, a clean cloth of linen or cotton is first placed in the mould and it is then filled with curd. The cheesecloth is then folded closed. To make hard or semi-hard cheese you will also need the following: ? a cheese press ? a curd knife to cut the renneted milk Buy these second-hand if possible or make your own simple press, paying special attention to the following: ? It must be possible to easily clean the materials. ? The materials used must not be poisonous. ? It must be possible to build up sufficient pressure (0.1 to 0.4 kg/cm 2 or 2 - 5 x the weight of the cheese). 7.2 The quality of milk used to make cheese Cheese making begins with hygienic milking. The quality of the milk used greatly influences the smell, taste and keeping qualities of cheese. The composition of milk can vary greatly. Just before a cow is set dry – the period in which a cow is not milked – and just after calving, the cow milk has a different taste and composition. Milk from a cow with an udder infection is not suitable for human consumption, and therefore cannot be used for making cheese. Apart from the usual measures taken to ensure good hygiene during milking, attention must be paid to the following points: 1 Clean the equipment very well. 2 Disinfectants and cleaning agents must never be left in or on equipment. Disinfectants inhibit the growth of the bacteria of the starter or souring agent. 3 The room in which cheese is prepared must be kept properly clean. 4 The milk used for cheese making should preferably be pasteurised (15 seconds at 72°C or 30 minutes at 63°C). More intense heating is not desirable because it reduces the curdling of milk. More rennet or calcium chloride (CaCl2) is then needed. 5 For the above reasons, milk powder which is strongly heated during its production (high-heat milk powder) is less suitable for cheese processing. Only low-heat milk powder can be used. 6 Sour milk neutralised with sodium bicarbonate will not curdle well. 7.3 Coagulation of the milk The principle of cheese processing is based on the coagulation of the protein in milk, during which about 90% of the milk fat is encapsulated. The coagulated mass is called curd, the remaining liquid is called whey. Curd consists mainly of milk proteins (casein) and milk fat; while whey mainly contains water, milk sugar (lactose), protein (serum proteins) and B-vitamins. There are two basic ways to cause milk to coagulate: ? using a rennet (enzyme coagulation) ? using an acid Acid coagulation This is mainly used to make fresh cheese. The acid can come from bacteria from the starter culture or from an acid added to the milk. When using a culture, pasteurised milk is inoculated. Inoculating agents can be a specific cheese starter culture, whey or sour milk. Curdling time depends on the amount of inoculating agent added (0.1 - 5% of the milk used to make cheese), temperature (20 - 35°C) and the starter culture used. It takes 2 -16 hours. When the curd is firm, the curdling is finished. When using an added acid, you can use pure vinegar acid, lactic acid, citric acid or any other harmless organic acid. Sometimes a natural acid such as lemon juice is added. The acid can be added drop by drop to warm milk (about 80 - 90°C, just after boiling). Milk curdles much quicker at a high temperature. The curd is collected by straining the curdled milk through a coarse cloth. Sometimes the collected curd is pressed a little bit, and sometimes no pressure is applied. These products are consumed fresh. Rennet Rennet used in cheese processing can be of animal, vegetable or microbial origin. The rennet in cheese has two functions. ? During ripening, rennet causes milk protein to break down, giving the typical cheese taste. ? Rennet causes the milk to coagulate. Rennet is available in liquid form and as a dried powder. As it is an enzyme and therefore a biological product, the strength of the liquid product decreases during storage. Therefore, it is preferable to use the dried form. The concentration of the rennet is written on the package. The amount of rennet to be added depends on the strength of the rennet and on the kind of cheese you are going to make. When making soft cheese, sometimes no rennet is needed; if rennet is added, only a little is needed (0.1 ml of rennet to 10 litres of milk). For hard or semi-hard cheeses, about 1.5 ml of rennet is added to 10 litres of milk; assuming the rennet concentration is 1:10,000. A starter is almost always added before or while adding rennet. A number of factors influence coagulation: ? Curdling temperature. When using rennet a small rise in temperature (for example from 30°C to 33°C) can significantly reduce coagulation time. ? Amount of rennet or acid added. ? Intensity of pasteurisation. Curdling is reduced when milk has been strongly heated. This effect can be neutralised by adding a small amount of CaCl2; for example 7 grams of CaCl2 per 100 litres of milk. ? Fat percentage of the milk. A high fat percentage means more fat must be encapsulated and curdling occurs a little bit slower. Preparation of rennet Rennet from animal origin is prepared from the stomach of suckling calves or lambs. It is obtained by extraction of the stomachs in a salt solution with a preservative. A traditional method formerly used in The Netherlands can be applied in the tropics: ? Add 26 carved calf stomachs, 500 gram sodium chloride (salt) and 200 gram boric acid. ? Take 9 litres of boiled water. ? Store these for at least 10 days and stir once per day. ? Then, pour it into clean bottles, close these and store the bottles in a cool and dark place. Your rennet is ready. ? After ten days, remove the stomachs from the solution, add another 500 gram salt to the solution and store it for some days more. You have to try out the strength of the rennet. Also, the keeping quality of these rennets is usually poor. Sometimes the stomachs of the young animals are kept after cleaning, salting and drying. The dried stomachs are easy to transport and are used by some nomadic tribes. In cheese making a piece of dried stomach is then added to the milk. 7.4 Separating curd and whey Three methods can be followed to separate curd from whey: ? hanging the curd/whey mixture up in a clean cloth (see figure 23); ? putting the curd/whey mixture in cheese moulds, or in cylindrical forms with perforated sides; ? first cutting and stirring the curd/whey mixture, putting the curd in the cheese moulds and then pressing the cheese. When making fresh cheese, the first or second method is usually used. As the whey drains through the cloth or the mould, the volume of the curd will reduce to 1/2 or 1/3. When making ripened cheese, the last method has to be used to remove sufficient whey from the curd. The effect of cutting and pressing is described below. 7.5 The use of cheese whey Whey is the by-product of cheese making. The acidity and the composition vary widely with the type of cheese and manufacturing process used. Whey from rennet-coagulated cheeses is less acid than whey of acid-coagulated cheeses. Also, the content of solids varies depending on the method of cheese making. If the content of solids is high, e.g. in the case of the processing of sheep cheese or in the case of rough curd treatment, the solids of the whey can be processed to a whey cheese. A rather well-known type of whey cheese is the Italian product Ricotta. Manufacture of Ricotta from cheese whey 1 Heat the acidified whey till at least 85 °C or boil it for some time till the whey proteins have coagulated. 2 Add some salt (0.1%) if desired. 3 Collect the coagulated curd by filtering the mass through a towel or a filter. 4 If you press the curd you will get a hard cheese; if the curd is pressed lightly or not at all, the cheese is consumed fresh. 5 Add some salt if you like (if you did not do so before) 6 Store the cheese in the fridge. Whey as animal feed If whey is discarded it can cause serious problems as a dairy effluent. Therefore it is far better to use the whey as an animal feed. It has a good feeding value because of the presence of some of the whey proteins. It can be used for feeding pigs or young animals like calves or lambs. Even adult cows or fattening cows can be fed with whey. It is important that the whey used for animal feed is acid (completely acidified) at the moment of feeding, otherwise the animals can get intestinal problems because of the lactose content of the whey. 7.6 Collection and preservation of the curd The amount of whey (water) in the curd has a great influence on the cheese properties. Maturation time, flavour, consistency, keeping quality of cheese, etc., all depend on the water content. Whey contains milk sugar or lactose. This sugar has to be converted into lactic acid by the lactic acid bacteria of the added starter. If a great deal of the whey is removed from the curd, you get cheese with little moisture, therefore a dry and hard cheese, which has to mature a rather long time. If little whey is removed from the curd, you get cheese with a lot of moisture, therefore a soft cheese. This cheese has in most cases a sour taste. Since the curd treatment of fresh cheese and ripened cheese is quite different, they will be discussed separately. It is important during this step of chease making that the curd does not cool down and remains at about 30 – 36°C. The curd treatment can be started when the coagulated milk forms a firm mass. You can determine this by moving a small strip through the curd: if a smooth clear cut develops when the curd breaks it has coagulated sufficiently. Curd treatment for fresh cheese As a rule, to make fresh cheese little whey is removed. After curdling the milk, the curd/whey mass is hung in a cloth or placed in cheese moulds. After 24 hours, enough whey has leaked out and the curd is cooled down. The cheese is then ready for consumption. The separation of the whey can be stimulated by piling the cloths or cotton sacks on top of each other so that more whey is pressed out of the cheese. Curd treatment for ripened cheese After coagulation of the milk, the coagulated mass is cut with a sharp knife into square cubes of about 1.5 cm: see figure 24. It is important that the cubes are more or less of the same size and that the cutting is done very gently. After cutting, the curd/whey mixture is briefly left to stand, for about 10 minutes, after which it is carefully stirred. After some time it can be stirred a little bit more vigorously. Most of the whey is removed from the cheese vat and the curd is placed in the cheese moulds. The curd is then pressed (0.1 kg/cm2). After about one hour the pressure can be increased to 0.4 kg/cm2. Other ways of determining the pressure are respectively 2 times and then 5 times the curd's own weight. After being pressed, the cheese is left for some time (4 - 20 hours) at 20 - 25°C. In the meantime the lactose present in the cheese is completely converted into lactic acid. Then the cheese can be salted. Trying to produce cheese of a Gouda or Edam type in this way will be disappointing, because the cheese will become very firm, crumbly and acid. The reason for this is that the curd – after fermentation by the lactic acid bacteria - contains too much lactic acid. Therefore Gouda cheese makers add 15 to 20% of hot water to the curd and whey after stirring for about 30 minutes. The temperature of the water is such that after addition of the water the temperature of the curd and whey is 35 – 36°C. (Water temperature is about 65 – 70°C. Before adding the hot water, part of the whey (30%) is drained off). After adding hot water the curd-and-whey mixture has to be stirred again for at least 20 minutes. Salting the cheese Salting can be done in several ways: 1 Stir the salt through the curd; add 30 grams of salt per kilogram of curd. This reduces the effect of the bacteria of the starter, but potentially damaging micro-organisms are also inhibited at an early stage. 2 After pressing the cheese, rub it in with salt. Rub both sides in and then turn the cheese. This must be done every day for 3 days; in total 20 grams of salt is needed per kilogram of cheese. 3 Place the cheese in brine of 200 grams of salt per litre of water at 12 - 16°C. During this pickling, the cheese absorbs salt and secretes lactic acid. The brine becomes more sour and improves in quality; it should therefore not be thrown away. Salt must be added regularly to the brine; 20 grams of salt is removed from the brine by each kilogram of cheese. For a small cheese, e.g. less than 1 kg, pickling time is about 12 hours. During pickling, the cheese must be turned once. 7.7 Maturation of the cheese During the maturation of the cheese, protein and fat are partly broken down, causing a change in structure and flavour. The older the cheese, the more flavour it will have. Sometimes, after more than one year the structure becomes crumbly because of the protein breakdown. Maturation is caused primarily by the enzymes in the cheese. To mature cheese, it can be stored in a cool room. This is a good method but technically rather difficult in the tropics. After salting or pickling, cheese is ripened on a wooden shelf in a cool environment (12 - 20°C) with a not too high relative humidity (about 80%). Cheese must be turned regularly: initially, i.e. during the first 2 to 3 weeks, daily and later once a week. If mould grows on the cheese, it can be removed with water or vinegar. In addition to this method, the following treatments can be carried out on curd: ? Curd can be boiled in brine. ? Curd can be smoked over a fire (see figure 25). ? You can salt curd, make little balls of it and leave them to dry in the sun. The products which result are particularly suitable to be processed in other foods. After boiling, cheese will not ripen anymore because the enzymes inside the cheese are destroyed by heating. 7.8 Cheese recipes There are many variations in cheese making. To make a good product, it may be necessary to adjust the recipe. Therefore you should have a good method of recording exactly how the cheese is made. Your records can include the following aspects: ? quality of the milk and pasteurisation temperature ? date and surrounding temperature ? amount of milk ? temperature at which starter culture, acid or rennet was added ? ingredients, amount of starter culture, acid or rennet added ? coagulation time ? temperature at the end of coagulation ? temperatures during the cheese making process ? pressure applied, length of time applied, etc. ? storage time and conditions during storage ? salting time The following recipes should be seen as guidelines for making cheese. Instead of cow milk, you can often use goat, sheep or buffalo milk. Start by making rather simple products like yoghurt, fresh cheese, etc. Fresh cheese Fresh or unripened cheese has a high moisture content of about 75%; it can be consumed directly after preparation. It is made by removing the whey from soured, skimmed milk. The milk is usually coagulated by souring. Sometimes a small amount of rennet is added; this is done to facilitate the draining of the whey. However, addition of rennet is not essential. A well-known kind of fresh cheese is curd, known in various countries by the following names: Frischkäse, fromage frais, quarg, and baker's cheese. The differences between these cheeses are their fat levels. You can make curd by souring fresh milk, cream or skimmed milk into sour milk, sour cream or sour skimmed milk and then draining the thick sour milk in a bag or cloth. Sometimes bags are placed on top of each other to increase the removal of whey. After draining, the curd has a crumbly structure. By stirring or using a blender you can make the product smooth again. There are various kinds of curd cheese in which moisture, fat and salt content and size of curd particles vary. Fresh cheese has a fresh sour taste, especially when it is prepared from skimmed milk. By adding cream, the taste will become milder and richer. Curd can be kept for only a short time and must be stored at cool temperatures. During storage, further whey separation can occur; this is the result of further souring of the product. Curd from whole milk Pasteurise the milk 30 minutes at 63°C and then cool it to 20°C. Add per 10 litres of milk ¼ - ½ litre of starter culture or fresh sour milk or buttermilk; yoghurt can be added if desired. Add 2 drops of rennet - if available. It is advisable to dilute this small amount of rennet with several ml of water to improve its distribution through the milk. After stirring well, leave the inoculated milk to stand for 24 hours at 18 – 20°C. During those 24 hours, souring and coagulation will take place; the milk becomes a rather firm mass. This thick mass is subsequently poured into a cotton or linen cloth or a bag so that the whey can drain through the cloth. The cloth is placed into a large colander or cheese mould beforehand so that the whey can thoroughly drain. After 24 hours, sufficient whey will have leaked out and the remaining curd can then be mixed, for example with a spoon or blender, until it becomes a homogenous mass. The curd can now be consumed. When kept in a refrigerator, curd can be stored for 1 - 2 weeks. Bag cheese You will need a sieve, small basket or cheese mould and a cheesecloth or tea towel. Let 10 litres of buttermilk with low fat content drain through a cheesecloth until 1.5 litres of bag cheese, or curd, remain. Place a cheesecloth in a sieve, small basket or cheese mould and press the curd firmly into it. Let the curd drain for several hours, then turn it. About 1.5 kg of bag cheese has then been made, which contains no salt and hardly any fat. It can be kept for only a rather short time: 1 to 2 weeks. Keep it cool, preferably in a refrigerator. Krut For making krut one needs buttermilk, cheesecloth and salt. This is a way to make cheese from any leftover milk. Add some sour milk or buttermilk to the leftover milk and mix. Boil the mixture until the milk curdles. Separate the curd from the whey by pouring it through a cheesecloth. The curd is then kneaded with 2 - 4% salt and dried in the sun. Rasagollas You will need raw milk, a fire, pan, spoon, lemon juice or sour whey, cheesecloth, bowl, knife and concentrated sugar water. Rasagollas is a sweet dairy product originally from India. Traditionally it was formed into sweet curd balls, but because of the way it is prepared here, the curd can only be cut into cubes and not formed into balls. The milk is boiled with lemon juice (10 tablespoons or 150 ml per 10 litres of milk) or sour whey (1.5 litres per 10 litres of milk) while stirring continuously. Sour whey can be obtained from drained sour milk after the production of curd. The curd is separated from the whey by pouring the mixture into a cheesecloth, which has been placed over a bowl. The slightly elastic curd is cut into cubes with sides of about 2.5 cm. These are then boiled for about an hour in a sugar solution of 600 g per litre of water. 1 litre of sugar solution is needed for each kilogram of curd. The cubes can be stored quite some time and are very sweet. Feta You will need sheep, goat or cow milk, starter culture or fresh sour milk, rennet, cooking-salt, knife, cheese moulds, cheesecloths and cans or a plastic container to store the cheese. Feta is a sharp, salty cheese originally from Greece that is made of sheep and goat milk. You can also use a mixture of sheep and cow milk, but then the cheese will not have its typical white colour. Feta is kept in a solution of whey and brine. Heat 10 litres of pasteurised milk mixed with 200 ml of a starter culture, sour milk or buttermilk to 30°C. After 1 - 2 hours, rennet is added; use 2 ml of rennet per 10 litres of milk. After allowing it to coagulate for about one hour, the curd is cut into cubes of about 2.5 cm, after which it is carefully stirred for another 20 minutes. The curd must then be carefully transferred to the tubs covered with cheesecloth. This can be done either by scooping the curd directly out of the whey into the moulds lined with cheesecloth, or by letting the curd settle, pouring off the whey and only then putting the curd in the cheese moulds. After a few hours the cheese must be turned. The curd mass is carefully removed from the cheesecloth and replaced upside down. After one day, the lumps of curd are cut into cubes of about 10 cm. Salting can be done by sprinkling the blocks several times with salt or by placing the blocks in brine for 24 hours. If the cheese is kept for several days at about 18°C, it must be turned regularly and washed with cold water at the end of the storage period. The cheese can be kept for some time by piling blocks of cheese closely on top of each other and covering them with brine. The cheese should have a smooth and soft consistency. Queso blanco The so-called queso blanco is manufactured in many ways in Latin America. Typical for this cheese is that salt is added directly to the whey/curd mixture. This has the advantage that slightly soured milk can be used to make queso blanco. A much-used method is the following: Take raw (unheated) soured milk of 32°C, or take 10 litres of pasteurised milk and add 50 ml of sour milk, buttermilk or starter culture. Add 1.5 ml of rennet. After 45 minutes the curd is cut and stirred. Leave the whey/curd mixture to settle for another 30 minutes at 30 - 36°C. Pour off the whey and compress the curd to remove more whey. Mix 30 - 50 grams of salt through the curd. The salt can also be dissolved in water before being added. 100 grams of salt dissolved in 50 ml of water must then be added for each 10 litres of milk. Transfer the salted curd into cheese moulds and press the cheese. During the first hours, turn the cheeses occasionally. Press them until the following day. To improve rind formation, pour whey heated at 50°C over the cheese while being pressed (after one hour). Cheese made with rennet can be kept for 2 months at 10 - 15°C. As a variation to this method, you can add acid instead of a starter culture and use no rennet. Take raw milk, which may already be a little bit sour. Heat it to almost boiling. Acidify it with 300 ml vinegar per 10 litres of milk until a precipitate is formed. The acid can be partly neutralised with the addition of some sodium bicarbonate (double soda). Pour off the whey. Proceed further preparation as above. Fresh goat cheese (in oil) You will need pasteurised goat milk, a heat source, a pan with lid, a thermometer, sour milk (or buttermilk or starter culture), rennet, a spoon, an insulated box or blanket or newspapers, cheesecloth, salt, cheese moulds, a cool storage place, greaseproof paper (if available), a large pot, herbs and olive oil. Bring the pasteurised goat milk to a temperature of 20°C. Per 10 litres of milk, add 0.5 litre of fresh starter or sour milk or buttermilk. Take 20 drops of rennet per litre of milk, dilute this in a little water and stir this through the milk. Place the pan in the insulated box or in the blanket or the newspapers to prevent it from cooling down. Check the next day to see if the milk has curdled sufficiently; a little whey on top is acceptable. Cut the curd into cubes the size of a matchbox. After 2 hours transfer the mass into a cheesecloth and let it drain for 12 hours at room temperature. Mix the dry curd with some salt and put the cubes into cheese moulds. Press the curd into the moulds so that no air holes remain and place the moulds in a cool (15°C) place. The next day remove the cheese carefully from the cheesecloth and replace it upside down in the cheesecloth and mould. Leave the cheese for a further 24 hours in a cool place. Remove the cheeses from cloth and mould and turn them daily. Should they become too dry, wrap them tightly, for example in greaseproof paper. If you wish to store the fresh goat cheese cubes for several weeks, place them in a large (glass) jar, which can be closed. Sprinkle a mixture of different herbs over them, such as rosemary, basil, thyme, bruised juniper berries, a finely chopped piece of garlic, several pepper kernels and a chopped up hot pepper. Other herbs can also be used. Pour olive oil over the cheeses until they are just covered and add a few twigs of dill or rosemary to the oil. Close the jar and put it away in a cool and dark place. Before using the cheeses, let them drain well. Use the leftover oil for salad dressing. Fresh goat cheese (salted) You will need pasteurised goat milk, a heat source, pan with lid, thermometer, sour milk (or buttermilk or starter culture), acid, spoon, rennet, knife, colander or cheesecloth, cheese moulds, pressing equipment and salt. Heat the pasteurised milk in a pan to 30°C, stirring continuously. For each 10 litres of milk, add 0.2 - 0.5 litres of sour milk or buttermilk or 0.2 litres of a starter culture and 30 drops of rennet (diluted in water). After 45 minutes, cut the coagulated curd with a knife; after another 10 minutes, the curd will be the size of a marble. The top layer of whey can be poured off after leaving the mixture to stand a bit. Leave the curd in the carefully closed pan with the rest of the whey for a further 30 - 45 minutes. Then transfer the curd into cheese moulds in which cheesecloth has been placed. Press the curd; one hour is sufficient. The cheeses must then be pickled in brine. For a cheese of 500 grams, 10 hours of pickling is long enough. Fresh sheep cheese You will need pasteurised sheep milk, a heat source, a pan, a thermometer, a starter culture or fresh sour milk or buttermilk, rennet, a spoon, a knife, a cheesecloth, some salt (if desired) and cheese moulds. Sheep milk contains more fat and protein than cow milk and therefore only 4 - 4.5 litres of sheep milk are needed to make 1 kg of cheese. Because of the higher content of dry matter in the milk, sheep milk coagulates firmer than cow milk. Heat the pasteurised milk to about 30°C, stirring continuously. Add 300 ml of a starter culture and 40 drops of rennet to each 10 litres of milk. After 45 minutes the milk will have coagulated sufficiently to be cut. Cut the curdled, thick mass carefully; continue till the curd particles have the size of a pea. Bring the curd into a cheesecloth. If desired mix in some salt, and let the cloth hang until the cheese has the desired firmness. You can speed up the draining of the whey by opening the cheesecloth after several hours, scraping the thick part from the cloth, and mixing it in with the rest of the curd. You may want to make a less sour sheep cheese, which is a little bit firmer and with some lower moisture content. For this, you must leave the curd for a longer time: about 15 - 30 minutes in the cheese vat where the curd treatment is done. After a short period of rest, pour off part of the whey, stir the curd carefully again and fill the cheese mould using a cheesecloth. Add some salt to the curd, if desired. Press the curd: about 4 hours of light pressing is sufficient. Store in a cool place. Sheep cheese can be kept for at least one week in the refrigerator. Matured sheep cheese You will need pasteurised sheep milk, a heat source, a pan, a thermometer, sour milk (buttermilk or starter culture), rennet, a spoon, a knife, colander, a cheesecloth, cheese moulds and pressing equipment, salt, a tightly sealed pickling tub, coarse cheesecloth and a cool storage place. 10 litres of sheep milk yields about 2 kg of ripened cheese. After adding 60 ml of starter culture or sour milk (or buttermilk), leave the milk to stand at 30°C for 30 - 45 minutes. Only then add 60 drops of rennet, diluted with a little water, per 10 litres of milk, and stir it thoroughly through the milk. After allowing it to curdle for 1 hour, cut the coagulated milk for about 15 minutes until it is divided into particles of about 1 - 2 cm. Then stir it for 10 minutes, pour half of the whey off and heat the curd to 35°C by adding hot water with a temperature of 80-100°C. Stir the mixture again for about 15 minutes, after which time the curd must be left to stand for 30 minutes in the pan. Keep the pan warm as well as possible but never place it on a fire. Remove the whey that has separated, and pour the curd with the remaining whey into a colander. After the first draining, the curd must be transferred by hand into cheese moulds covered with cheesecloth. Press the cheese for 15 minutes with its own weight and turn the cheese. Spread the cloth in the mould again, press the cheese in place and fold the corners of the cloth over it again. Press the cheese for 2 to 3 hours, initially with a weight that is twice that of the cheese, later on with a weight 3 - 5 times as heavy. Subsequently pickle the cheese in brine (1 kg for a maximum of 24 hours). Then move it to a cool place where it must ripen for 5 to 8 weeks. Further reading Berg, J.C.T.van den. Dairy technology in the tropics and subtropics. Pudoc Publishers, Wageningen, 1988. ISBN 90-220-0927-0 Berg, J.C.T. van den. Strategy for dairy development in the tropics and subtropics. Pudoc Publishers, Wageningen, 1990. ISBN 90-2201005-8 French, M.H. Observations on the goat. FAO Rome 1970 (FAO studies nr 80, FAO Animal production and health series no. 14) ISBN 92-5-100848-5 Kon, S.K. Milk and milk products in human nutrition. FAO Nutrition Studies no. 27. 1972, Rome. Kosikowski, F.V. Cheese and fermented milk foods. 1977, Michigan, USA. ISBN 0-9602322-6-5 Walstra, P. and R. Jenness. Dairy chemistry and Physics. John Wiley & Sons, New York 1984. ISBN 0-471-09779-9 Walstra, P. J.T.M. Wouters and T. J. Geurts. Dairy Science and Technology. 2 nd ed. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 2006. ISBN 0-8247-2763-0 Useful addresses PTC+ is an international training institute that focuses on all the links in the production chain, plant and animal commodities, (agricultural) technology, (food) technology and natural areas. Training programmes are practice-oriented and mix theory with practical classes. PTC+ offers open entry programmes, tailor-made programmes and consultancy. Programmes are offered in the Netherlands and/or on location. It is the policy of PTC+ to search for partnerships and co-operation programmes with national and international institutions abroad. PTC+ Head Office PO Box 160 NL-6710 BD Ede THE NETHERLANDS T + 31 318 645700 W www.ptcplus.com Starter cultures, coagulants Chr. Hansen Chr. Hansen develops natural ingredient solutions for dairy industries, in close cooperation with customers and partners. Customers can profit from its specialist strategy by receiving quick access to high level specialist knowledge, support and customized solutions. The firm has locations worldwide and its product catalogue is available in English, French and Spanish. W www.chr-hansen.com F + 31 318 595869 E email@example.com Protex International / BIOPROX The following bio-products can be ordered from BIOPROX for the dairy industry (milk, cheese, butter, yoghurt): lactic culture (mesophilic and/or thermophilic), culture medium, growth factor, pH corrector, lactic culture activator, cleaning products. BP 177 F- 92305 Levallois – Paris FRANCE (also in Morocco, United Kingdom, Portugal and Spain) T + 33 (0) 1 41 34 14 00 F + 33 (0) 1 41 34 14 16 E firstname.lastname@example.org W www.protex-international.com/products/food-flavouring.html Gebr. Rademaker A supplier of cheese making equipment. Oostzijde 30 1426 AE De Hoef THE NETHERLANDS T +31 297 593213 Dairy processing equipment C. van 't Riet Dairy Technology BV Dorpsstraat 25 NL- 2445 AJ Aarlanderveen THE NETHERLANDS E: email@example.com W: www.rietdairy.nl (Applied) research Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome ITALY E: firstname.lastname@example.org W: www.fao.org/ag/AGA/AGAP/LPS/dairy/intro.htm T +31 297 593261 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) PO Box 30709 Nairobi KENYA E: email@example.com W: www.ilri.cgiar.org ILRI's mission is to develop animal health and productivity in the poorest regions of the world through scientific research and multilateral cooperation. Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) Bourton Hall, Bourton on Dunsmore CV23 9QZ Rugby Warwickshire, UNITED KINGDOM W: www.itdg.org E: firstname.lastname@example.org Technical briefs on Dairy processing and Yoghurt production E: email@example.com Appendix 1: Measures ``` 1 drop = 0.05 ml 20 drops = 1 ml 1 tablespoon = 15 ml 1 cup = 250 ml 1,000 ml = 1 l ```	<urn:uuid:9c84e503-9d05-46e5-9227-7878b23b9ec2>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.agromisa.org/wp-content/uploads/Agrodok-36-Preparation-of-dairy-products.pdf	2024-02-27T17:36:09+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00678.warc.gz	638,635,300	26,132	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.958536	eng_Latn	0.998691	[ "unknown", "swe_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn"...	false	docling	[ 29, 101, 761, 2656, 2666, 4316, 5257, 7342, 7616, 9038, 10831, 12342, 14312, 15508, 17287, 19122, 20931, 21877, 23090, 24782, 26618, 28765, 30323, 32296, 32895, 34745, 36097, 37396, 38543, 40098, 41061, 43220, 44254, 45929, 47551, 49650, 50368,...	[ 2.40625, 1.2421875 ]	2	0
Evaluations Evaluations are important in determining your child's skills in a variety of areas. This provides vital information in understanding your child's strengths and helps to establish the most appropriate intervention plan. Here is a list of evaluations you will likely encounter with your child in the months or years to come. Audiological Evaluations: Behavioral Tests Behavioral tests are hearing tests that are used with children who are old enough to either turn their head or play a game in response to a sound heard in the testing booth or through headphones. Behavioral tests provide information regarding: - the degree or amount of hearing loss - whether the loss is due to problems in the middle ear or inner ear, or a combination of both - how the hearing loss will affect your child's understanding of spoken language and ability to communicate Auditory Brainstem Response Evaluation (ABR or BAER) Auditory Brainstem Response Evaluation is a sleep EEG (brain wave) hearing test, which shows the weakest sounds your child's ears can detect at various frequencies. The test is neither painful nor uncomfortable in any way, but it is necessary for the child to be asleep in order to obtain clear recordings during the test. Three or four small monitors are gently taped to the child's head, and sounds are presented through an earphone to each ear separately while a computer analyzes the changes in the brain wave pattern in response to sounds. Otoacoustic Emissions (OAEs) Otoacoustic Emissions can be used to assess the presence or absence of a hearing loss. A soft sound is presented to the ear and a sensitive recording microphone measures an "echo" in response to that sound. If the "echo" or emission is present, the outer hair cells of the cochlea (the inner structure of hearing) are known to be functional. The emission will not be present in children with middle ear problems such as fluid or congestion and/or children with a mild or greater hearing loss. Medical Evaluations: Otolaryngology An otolaryngologist or ENT (ear, nose, and throat doctor) completes a medical evaluation of a child's hearing system. If a hearing loss is present, this specialist may order several radiologic and laboratory studies in order to offer medical or surgical options for diagnosis and treatment. Genetics A genetic evaluation can be important in determining the cause of a child's hearing loss. This can provide important information that may be helpful in making a more definite diagnosis of a genetic cause of the hearing loss. This information may also help in decisions about treatment and management of the hearing loss. Ophthalmology While it is important that all children have periodic vision checks, for children who have a hearing loss it is especially critical to keep these evaluations up to date, as these children are very visual learners. An examination by an ophthalmologist (eye doctor) can identify any visual problems and provide appropriate treatment. In addition, the ophthalmologist may be able to identify a problem with the eyes or vision that can help © Boston Children's Hospital, 2015 All rights reserved. Publication Date 4/29/2014 provide further information about the cause of the hearing loss. Developmental and Communication Evaluations: understanding a child's strengths and weaknesses, provide insight into a child's learning style, and is critical in helping to develop early intervention and educational plans. Hearing loss can have a significant impact on a child's development of speech, language, and communication skills and can have an affect on academic performance. Therefore, it is important to obtain baseline information regarding a child's developmental and communication skills by a speech/language pathologist and pediatric psychologist who is skilled in the development of children with a hearing loss. This information will be useful in This information is available in Arabic, Portuguese, German, and Spanish from your provider. For additional resources, please visit our Deaf and Hard of Hearing Program website at: www.bostonchildrenshospital.org/dhhp © Boston Children's Hospital, 2015 All rights reserved. Publication Date 4/29/2014	<urn:uuid:a5413b1c-68a7-4c35-8c03-9387e81a328c>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/national-resources/micro-sites/setting-language-in-motion/eng/Documents/Clerc%20Microsite/Assets/Module2-EvaluationsEnglish.pdf	2024-02-27T17:57:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00680.warc.gz	172,168,878	828	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996554	eng_Latn	0.997286	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3191, 4227 ]	[ 3.171875 ]	2	0
ISSN 1549-3652 Attitudes of High School Students toward Physical Education and Their Sport Activity Preferences Howard Z. Zeng, Michael Hipscher, and Raymond W. Leung Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, USA Abstract: Problem statement: Identifying and understanding correlates of school children's physical education activity participation are critical to promoting current and lifelong physical activity participation of children. Among other factors, children's attitudes are considered to be a key element influencing physical activity participation. Children who have more positive attitudes toward physical activity are reported to be more likely to participate in physical activity outside of school and demonstrate higher physical activity amounts than those with less positive attitudes. Fostering children's positive attitudes toward physical activity would be conducive to the promotion of current and lifelong physical activity participation of children. Aims at to examine high school students' attitudes toward Physical Education Activity (ATPEA) and their sports activities preferences. Approach: Participants were 1,317 students in grades 9-12th (603 boys and 714 girls) from five urban public school districts. The Physical Education Activity Attitude Scale (PEAAS) adapted version was employed for data collection. One-way ANOVA revealed that the five highest scores were Items 2, 16, 11, 18 and 5 on the PEAAS. Results: The overall mean score (70.160±3.948) indicated positive ATPEA for the participants. The independent group ANOVAs identified significant (p<0.01) differences in ATPEA scores with respect to participants' gender, ethnic group and Socio-Economic Status (SES). Girls scored higher than boys in Items 2, 13 and 15. Caucasian students scored higher than other four ethnic groups in Items 8 and 10. Students with middle SES scored higher than students with low and high SES in Item 2. Conclusion: The current ATPEA status of the participants appears to be positive. There are some crucial factors that structure the participants' ATPEA. These factors are related to students' perception, benefit, care and value about physical education programs and sports activities. Key words: Perception, value of program, team sport, aerobic exercise, Physical Education (PE), sports activities, activity preferences, theoretical framework, Attitudes Toward Physical Education Activity (ATPEA) INTRODUCTION Researchers in the field of Physical Education (PE) indicated that identifying and understanding the factors that are associated with children's physical activity participation are critical to the promotion of current and lifelong physical activity participation (Chung and Phillips, 2002; Ding et al., 2006; Sallis et al., 2000) . Among many factors, the children's attitude is considered to be a key factor that influences physical activity participation (Chung, M. and D.A. Phillips, 2002; Ding et al., 2006; Hagger et al., 1995; Solmon, 2003). ways and determine ones' involvement in him or her daily activities (Rikard and Banville, 2006). Developed a theoretical framework for a rational action, their framework further explained attitudes flow come from beliefs and yield intentions and actions. While intentions are a function of two basic determinants: (a) one's personal attitude toward a behavior and (b) one's attitude toward others (i.e., peers, teacher/leader and parents). The first determinant is the individual's positive or negative evaluations for performing the behavior; It just as Silverman and Subramaniam (1999) indicated: generally, with positive beliefs one will have a favorable attitude toward the object of the beliefs; otherwise one will possess an unfavorable attitude toward the object of the beliefs [28] . The second determinant is the person's perception of social Corresponding Author: Howard Z. Zeng, Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science, Rikard and Banville (2006) stated that attitudes are born from beliefs that one's has about him or herself and things. Attitudes shape ones' behaviors in many Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, United States pressure to perform or not perform the behavior based on the evaluation of others. Therefore, an attitudinal consideration and a normative consideration are formed that exert different degrees of power toward influencing one's behaviors for more positive or negative responses (Rikard and Banville, 2006). Researchers indicated that children who have more positive attitudes toward physical activity are reported to be more likely to participate in physical activity outside of school (Chung and Phillips, 2002; Ding et al., 2006; McKenzie, 2003; Portman, 2003) and demonstrate higher physical activity levels (Hagger et al., 19985) than those with less positive attitudes. According to a review of literature on children's Attitudes toward Physical Education/Activity (ATPEA) by Solmon (2003), children's characteristics and contextual factors are two major factors that are related to children's attitudes. Children's characteristics refer to children's age, gender and sports skill. Contextual factors include the quality of physical education programs and the accessibility of after school physical activities. Strand and Scantling (1994) pointed out that people express their beliefs and attitudes daily through behaviors and language. In PE, obtaining students' insight into their beliefs is a critical source for understanding their attitudes and their interests and involvement toward their PE program (Strand and Scantling, 1994). With regard to children's characteristics, elementary children are found to have more positive attitudes than secondary school children (Lee, 2004; Martin, 2000; Solmon and Carter, 1995; Xiang et al., 2004) and children's attitudes become less positive as they progress through their schooling (Biddle and Mutrie, 2008; Lee, 2004; Prochaska et al., 2003; Xiang et al., 2004). It is also found that elementary school children express very favorable attitudes toward health, fitness, enjoyment and social interaction benefits of physical activity, but do not enjoy physical activities involving hard practice and risk-taking movements (Patterson and Faucette, 1990). Lee (2004) found that the younger children possess more positive attitudes toward physical activity and show more interests toward all kinds of physical activities. However, the reliability of younger children responding to questions might need to be carefully considered due to their lower self-evaluation ability (Lee, 2004). With regard to contextual factors, the quality of physical education programs has been reported to be a strong factor influencing children's ATPEA, Subramaniam and Silverman (2002) indicated that school children's positive attitudes are likely to be associated with enjoyment, perceived usefulness of the curriculum and a sense of belongingness [33] . Curriculum with situational interests, such as those requiring students to analyze and design offensive and defensive strategies, may foster students' interests in physical activity (Chen and Darst, 2001). A learning environment that promotes personal meaning is considered to be important to the development of positive attitudes (Rink, 2006). Children are also likely to become more positive toward physical activity if they are in a learning environment that makes them comfortable and confident (Hagger et al ., 2003). Gender difference is another factor that has been addressed in children's ATPEA research. In the studies comparing the differences of attitudes toward physical education between girls and boys by Birtwistle and Brodie (1991), Folsom-Meek (1992) and Hick et al. (2001), girls were found more favorable ATPEA emphasizing aesthetics, whereas boys were found more positive ATPEA in challenging and risk-taking activities (Folsom-Meek, 1992; Papaioannou, 1994). Specifically, Greenwood and Stillwell, (2001) reported that boys demonstrated strong interests in archery, bowling, flag football and wrestling, whereas girls preferred gymnastics, softball and volleyball (Greenwood and Stillwell, 2001). Furthermore, boys were reported to have more positive attitudes than girls toward physical activities bringing them risk-taking experiences, whereas girls were more positive than boys in physical activities with beautiful and graceful movements (Colley et al., 1994; Hick et al., 2001; Parkhurst, 2000). Subramanian and Silverman (2002), however, did not find gender difference in attitudes between boys and girls toward physical education (Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007). Carlson (1995) indicated that students would lose interest in physical activity if the subject matter lacks challenges or the instructors repeat the same class activities without bringing fun to the children [4] . Siedentop (2004) also argued that a multi-activity curriculum with a series of short-term units would negatively influence the attitudes of students toward physical education. In contrast found that it is difficult for students to maintain interests in traditional team sports than in individual sports or activities. Additionally, Tannehill et al. (1994) found that, if physical education in school curricula becomes a marginal status, it would have a negative impact on students' attitudes (Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007). With regard to children's sports/activities preferences, Greenwood and Stillwell (2001) found that children had strong interests in basketball, bicycling, roller-skating, soccer, swimming and volleyball and had little interests in folk or square dancing, badminton, field hockey and floor hockey (Greenwood and Stillwell, 2001). Parkhurst, (2000) conducted a study to compare the attitudes toward physical activity and physical activity levels of sixth grade children in different ethnic groups. Parkhurst found that African American boys possessed more positive attitudes in the ascetic sub domain than African American girls. Regardless of ethnicity, boys possessed higher physical activity levels than girls (Parkhurst, 2000). Concerning Socio-Economic Status (SES), limited research has been conducted to examine how SES affects children's attitudes toward physical activity and participation in sports and physical activities. New York City (NYC) is the most populous and diverse city in the United States. The City is the center of international finance, politics, entertainment and culture. The City includes the largest population of immigrants from over 180 countries. Moreover, the City contains the largest public school system in the nation, with over 1 million students taught throughout 1,200 separate schools. To the knowledge of the investigators, no studies have been conducted to examine students' ATPEA and sports/activities preferences in this City where both the educational system and the students' population possess the most diverse characteristics on earth. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine the current status of ATPEA and sports/activities preferences of the high school students in the City of New York. Since 1990, there has been an increase in the body of knowledge in children's ATPEA. The increased interest in this topic might be attributed to the influence of attitudes toward further participation in physical activities after school (e.g., studies by (Papaioannou, 1994; Strand and Scantling, 1994; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2002; Tannehill et al., 1994) and further participation in physical activities out of school that related to achievements in students' sport competition (Graham et al., 2007; Lee, 2004; Strand and Scantling, 1994; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2002). Researchers also reported that students tend to participate in physical activities continually when they perceive the activities to be fun and enjoyable (Silverman and Subramanian, 1999). As most of the previous studies were conducted at the elementary and middle school levels, examining the ATPEA of high school students is important. MATERIAL AND METHODS Participants: Ten public high schools were recruited voluntarily from five school districts of New York City (two schools from each school distract of the NYC). A total of 1,317 participants in grades 9-12 (603 boys and 714 girls, aged 16.79±1.14 yr) returned the informed consent signed by their parent and voluntarily completed the questionnaire. Among the participants, 54.21% were females, 72.51% claimed they preferred co-ed class format and 74.26% claimed they came from middle-income family which is families with annual incomes between about $40,000 and $65,000. The percentages of participants came from different ethnic groups reflected the diverse characteristics of this urban city with 10.86% Caucasian, 21.56% Africa American, 42.82% Hispanic, 22.32% Asian and others 2.44%. Physical education characteristics of the selected school districts: The characteristics of the physical education lessons provided by the selected school districts were as follows: (a) Each high school provided physical education lessons on the content knowledge of basic motor and manipulative skills, cardiorespiratory endurance, flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance and body composition; (b) Students were required to participate in physical activities that develop physical fitness skills, demonstrate fundamental motor, non-locomotor and manipulative skills, understand the effects of activity on the body and the risks associated with inactivity, understand the relationship between physical activity and individual well being; (c) Students learned the necessary knowledge and skills to establish and maintain physical fitness, to participate in physical activity and to maintain personal health. The students had one physical education lesson per day, five days per week. Questionnaires: Two questionnaires were administered to the participants. The first questionnaire was the Physical Education Activity Attitude Scale (PEAAS) originally developed. This was a study and pencil selfreport questionnaire with a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree) summed across 20 items, resulting in a range of scores from 20-100. A score of 20 indicated the most negative attitude, 21-40 indicated a negative attitude, 41-60 indicated a neutral attitude, 61-80 indicated a positive attitude and 81-100 indicated a highly positive attitude (Appendix A). The second questionnaire was the Sports/Activities Preference Questionnaire (see Appendix B) developed by the Principal Investigator (PI). This questionnaire contained eight questions that asked the participants to self-report the activities they preferred and their demographic information. This questionnaire had a Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of.92, an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.90 and a scale validity coefficient of 0.93. Data collection procedures: After the schools were selected, permission to conduct the current study was granted by the administrators of the schools. In the letter to the school administrators, the purposes, procedures and potential outcomes of the study were described. Students were then asked if they would be willing to participate in the study. The volunteer students signed the inform consent forms. The questionnaires were administered by their instructors in physical education class settings and the students completed the questionnaires. After the questionnaires were collected, the investigators checked the completion of each questionnaire and the incomplete questionnaires were eliminated. In the current study, the completion rate was 87.8% (1,317 out of 1,500 questionnaires). Additionally, unofficial interviews with the program directors of the high schools were carried out during this study and the interview questions focused on their facilities, equipment, traditional sports, physical education and activities curriculum and state and school district requirements. Statistics analyses: Descriptive statistics were computed in regard to the high school students' ATPEA. A one-way Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) was utilized to determine the current status of the ATPEA for the participants. Furthermore, independent group ANOVAs that determined the differences in ATPEA scores with respect to participants' gender, ethnic groups and SES were also conducted. RESULTS The aim of this study was to examine the ATPEA and sports/activities preferences of the high school students in the public schools from the five boroughs of New York City. The descriptive statistics with respect to the ATPEA scores for the participants from the PEAAS are presented in Table 1. The highest score (M = 4.004±0.988) was Item 2, in which the participants believed that "Physical education is not only beneficial to those who are already in good body conditioning". In other words, the participants believed that physical education should be beneficial to anyone who regularly participates in it. The second highest score was Item 16 (M = 4.002±0.911), in which the participants believed that "During high school years, anybody who is serious about physical education is not foolish". The third highest score was Item 11 (M = 3.961 ± 0.829), in which the participants actually believed that "Physical exercise is the best way to obtain a youthful looking and agile body." The fourth highest score was Item 18 (M = 3.942±1.038), in which the participants did not believe that "High school would be better without physical education/activities classes." In other words, the participants believed that without physical education, high school would not be possible as it is supposed to be. The fifth highest score was Item 5 (M = 3.887+0.903), in which the participants believed that "Physical exercise provides an important relief from the stress of one's daily life." In other words, the high school students felt that physical exercises bring them fun and relaxation and are their essential daily activities. Moreover, the overall mean score for the 20 items was 70.160+3.948 indicating that the participants in the current study certainly possessed positive ATPEA. The top five high scores, in rank order, answered by the participants were Items 2, 16, 11, 18 and 5 (Table 1). Results of the participants' sports/activities preference are presented in Table 2. Nearly sixty-two percent of the students reported that they preferred playing team sports; 22.85% of the students reported that they liked to play individual sports; and 15.19% of the students were in favor of playing dual game sports. Among the five activities, aerobic exercise (35.91%) was the most favorite activity and weight lifting (23.01%) was ranked second. Other activities, such as dance (19.50%), outdoor adventure (11.92%) and martial arts (8.12%), were ranked right after. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Participants' Attitudes-toward Physical Education/Activity (ATPEA) from Physical Education Activity Attitude Scale (PEAAS); (N = 1,317) Note: M = mean score; SD = standard deviation. * Top five high score items Table 2: Participants' sports/activities preferences survey: the results summary (N = 1.317) Table 3: Comparisons to determine the differences in attitudes toward physical education/activities scores for participants with respect to gender, ethnic groups and social economic status (n = 1.317) Note: Only the top three significant (p<0.05) findings were presented; M = mean, SD = standard deviation. African A = African American Furthermore, the comparisons for determining the differences with respect to gender, ethnic groups and SES were computed using independent group ANOVAs (Table 3). Gender differences showed that for item 2, female students (M = 3.923±0.793; DF = 1, F = 8.615) scored significantly (p = 0.003) higher than those of male students (M = 3.811 ± 0.897). For item 13, the female students (M = 3.732 ± 0. 976; DF = 1, F = 6.457) scored significantly (p = 0.011) higher than those of males (M = 3.587 ± 1.099). For item 15, the female students (M = 3.498 ± 1.075; DF = 1, F = 7.49) scored significantly (p = .006) higher than those of male students (M = 3.328 ± 1.180). Concerning the differences among the ethnic groups, for item 8, the Caucasian group (M = 3.343 ± 1.126; DF = 4, F = 4.720) scored significantly (p = .000) higher than other three groups (M = 3.427 ± 1.045). For item 10, the Caucasian group (M = 3.427 ± 1.045; DF = 4, F = 3.218) scored significantly (p = 0.007) higher than other three groups (M = 3.427 + 1.045). For item18, the Asian children (M = 4.092 + 0.968; DF = 4, F = 3.413) and the Caucasian children (M = 4.056 ± 0.940) scored similarly whereas the Hispanic children (M = 3.878 ± 0.1.080) and the Africa. American children (M = 3.838 ± 1.051) also scored very similar. In regard to the SES factor, only one significant (p = 0.003) difference was found, that was Item 19, in which children from middle income family scored M = 3.441 ± 0.780, DF = 2, F = 5.733; children from low income family scored M = 3.383 ± 0.757; and children from high income family scored M = 3.214 ± 0.874. DISCUSSION The present study examined the current status of the participants' attitude toward ATPEA and their sport/activities preference. At the same time, this study also addressed the differences on ATPEA of the high school students with regard to their gender, ethnicity and SES. Generally speaking, the findings of this study indicated that the overall mean score over the 20 items for ATPEA of the participants was 70.160±3.948. This result indicated that the current ATPEA status of the participants is positive. The top five highest scores were Item 2 which stated that "Physical education is not only beneficial to those who are already in good body conditioning"; Item 16 which stated that "During high school years, anybody who is serious about physical education is not foolish"; Item 18 which stated that "High school would be better without physical education/activities classes"; Item 11 which stated that "Physical exercise is the best way to obtain a youthful looking and agile body"; and Item 5 which stated that "Physical exercise provides an important relief from the stress of one's daily life". We believe these factors are important in structuring the ATPEA of the participants. Concerning the sport preference of the participants, with a wide range of selection from the physical education curriculum (team sports: football, baseball, basketball, volleyball and soccer; individual sports: Swimming, Track and Field; and dual game sports: tennis, badminton and table tennis), team sports are the participants' first choice, individual sports second and dual game sport third (Table 2). These findings might be attributed to the influence of the following three factors: (a) the status of facilities and equipment of the schools; (b) the school's tradition and teachers' skill expertise; and (c) the majority students' preference. According to the unofficial interviews with the program directors of these high schools, all these schools have excellent facilities and equipments for team sports, fair facilities and equipment for individual sports, but fairly good facilities and equipment for dual game sports. Moreover, these program directors claimed that they have at least one team sport as their school's traditional sport. With regard to the gender differences between boys and girls, the current study found significant gender differences in the ATPEA scores in Items 2, 13 and 15. As the study hypothesized that, gender would have significant differences on participants' ATPEA. The present results showed that the hypotheses were true. The findings of this study were slightly inconsistent Among the five optional physical activities, the order of the participants' favor was: aerobic exercise, dance, weight lifting, outdoor adventure and martial arts. According to the unofficial interviews with the program directors of these high schools, the activities preferences of these high school students might be attributed to the school district requirements, the traditional activities of the school, the influence of physical education teachers' expertise and preference, the environment of physical education classes and the ethnic and cultural background. For example, Caucasian and Africa American children like and are good at team sports, Hispanic children like and are good at dancing and Asian children prefer to play individual sports and martial arts. The present result was related to the finding of Hagger et al. (2002) suggesting that students are likely to become more positive toward physical activity if they are in a learning environment that makes them comfortable and confident (Hagger et al., 1995). According to the program directors of these high schools, since 2005, the school districts in New York City have provided a wide range of options in physical activities classes for students to choose from or take part and the learning environments in those high schools are also comfortable and make their students feel comfortable and confident. with the previous studies reporting that boys had more positive ATPEA than girls (Koca and Demirhan, 2004; Parkhurst, 2000; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007). The current findings were consistent with the findings of the following studies (Colley et al., 1994; Hagger et al., 1995; Parkhurst, 2000) indicating that, as physical activities focused on aesthetics with beautiful and graceful movements (e.g., dance, gymnastics and yoga), girls showed more positive ATPEA than boys. Concerning the ethnic factor, significant differences in the ATPEA scores among the five ethnic groups were found in Items 8, 10 and 18. Caucasian children scored higher in Item 8 and Item 10 than the other four ethnic groups and they scored second high in Item 18 among the five groups. These findings demonstrated that Caucasian children had better understanding of the importance of physical education and exercise in their life. Asian children scored the highest in Item 18, scored the second in Item 8 and scored the third in Item 10 among the five groups, thus illustrating that Asian children' ATPEA were in the second position that was right after the Caucasian children. The mean ATPEA score from Items 8, 10 and 18 for Hispanic and Africa American groups were in the fourth and fifth position among the five groups. These data might be due to the fact that this population represented the largest sample size in this survey with a very large standard deviation, thus resulting in their mean ATPEA score in the fourth and fifth position because some children scored very high but other children scored low. This finding might provide the future direction to foster urban high school students' ATPEA for our educators. On the other hand, in the studies of the children's attitudes toward physical activity, boys were found to have more positive attitudes toward physical activities that were challenging and had elements of risk (Folsom-Meek, 1992; Smoll and Schutz, 1980; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007). In this aspect, the current study also found that boys were more favor of the sports and activities of soccer, basketball, weight lifting, outdoor adventure and martial arts and had more positive ATPEA than girls. It is worth pointing out that, the finding of "the female high school students are serious about their physical education classes and regard physical education classes as important as other academic classes" (see Items 13 and 15 and the Results section for detail) was new to the ATPEA study and was different from other previous studies. Lastly, concerning how the SES affected participants' ATPEA. The only significant difference was Item 19, stating that "There is a scientific basis for the value of physical education/activity." In Item 19, the children from middle-income family scored higher than those children from low and high-income families. The reason for the difference was unknown. Additionally, the current study also examined the preferences of students in co-ed or single-sex physical education class formats. Results showed that nearly 75% of the students claimed they preferred a co-ed class format whereas about 25% of the students claimed they preferred a single-sex class format. A reason for this finding might be related to the fact that the U.S. public educational system did not promote the singlesex physical education class format. Currently, New York City public schools do not have the single-sex physical education class format and the participants do not know the advantages and disadvantages of the single-sex physical education class format. CONCLUSION In summary, the current ATPEA status of the participants appears to be positive. The crucial factors that structure the participants' ATPEA are likely be: (a) 'benefits' (e.g., Item 1, 3, 5 and 11); (b) 'serious degree' (e.g., Item 6, 10, 15 and 16); (c) 'perception' (e.g., Item 2, 4, 8 and 14); and (d) 'value' (e.g., Item 9, 12, 18 and 19) about their physical education classes and physical exercises. The participants' sport preference is: team sports, individual sports and dual game sports. The participants' favorite activities are: aerobic exercise, dance, weight lifting, outdoor adventure and martial arts. Finally, according to the findings of this investigation and the unofficial interview with the program directors of these high schools, we would like to offer the following recommendations to improve PE experiences and promote positive ATPEA in the urban high school students: (1) Increase the participation of PE teachers during their classes the physical activities (role model and leading by example). (2) Increase the number of students engaged in motor activities within class time the national goals for school physical education programs emphasize that 50% or more of class time should be spent with In general, both male and female participants show positive and similar ATPEA. This finding is consistent with most previous studies. In specific, the female participants in the current study show more positive attitudes about their physical education classes than those of the male participants and regard physical education classes as important as other academic classes. Concerning the ethnic factor, different ethnic groups show different favoritism on certain factors. The reasons might be related to the cultural background, the environment of PE classes and the influence of PE teachers. Regarding the co-ed versus single-sex PE class formats, most participants indicate that they are in favor of the co-ed class format. students being physically active (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). (3) Multiple teaching strategies are recommended to be applied to meet the needs of diverse learners (Zeng et al., 2010). (4) To offering a wide variety of sports and activities for whom to choose. (5) Students' cultural background and gender characteristics must be taken into consideration when planning for their lessons or programs. Briefly speaking, the solutions are lying in a multiple dimensional relationship between school environment, economic realities, cultural factors and educational policy. Further research is necessary to discover it. The bottom line is: if we can change school children's attitudes toward PE and have daily physical activities become a part of their life, we will able to reduce the risk the hazards of a sedentary lifestyle when they growing up. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research study was supported by a research grant from the Research Foundation of the City University of New York. USA. The grantee was Dr. Howard Z. Zeng-the Principal investigator of this research project. REFERENCES Biddle, S.J.H. and N. Mutrie, 2008. Psychology of Physical Activity: Determinants, Well-Being and Interventions. 2Edn., Routledge, New York, pp: 428. ISBN: 041536664X Carlson, T.B., 1995. We hate gym: Student alienation from physical education. J. Teach. Phys. Educ., 4: 467-477. Birtwistle, G.E. and D.A. Brodie, 1991. Children's attitudes towards activity and perceptions of physical education. Health Educ. Res., 6: 465-478. doi: 10.1093/her/6.4.465 Chen, A. and P.W. Darst, 2001. Situational interest in physical education: A function of learning task design. Res. Quar. Exerc. Sport, 72: 150-164. Colley, A., C. Comber and D.J. Hargreaves, 1994. Gender effects in school subject preferences: A research note. Educ. Studies, 20: 13-18. DOI: 10.1080/0305569940200102 Chung, M. and D.A. Phillips, 2002. The relationship between attitude toward physical education and leisure-time exercise in high school students. Phys. Educ., 59: 126-138. Ding, S., P.M. Wright and W. Li, 2006. Exploring the relationship between a caring climate and student attitudes toward physical education in an urban high school. Res. Quar. Exerc. Sport, Suppl. Folsom-Meek, S.L., 1992. A comparison of upper elementary school children's attitudes toward physical activity. Educ. Res. Inf. Center. Greenwood, M. and J. Stillwell, 2001. Activity preferences of middle school physical education students. Phys. Educ., 58: 26-29. Graham, G., S.A. Holt-Hale and M. Parker, 2006. Children Moving: A Reflective Approach to Teaching Physical Education. 7th Edn., McGrawHill, New York, ISBN: 0071108432, pp: 985. Hagger, M., L. Cale and L. Almond, 1997. The importance of children's attitudes towards physical activity. Eur. Phys. Educ. Rev., 3: 144-164. DOI: 10.1177/1356336X9700300205 Hick, M.K., M.S. Wiggins, R.W. Crist and F.M. Moode, 2001. Sex differences in grade three students' attitudes toward physical activity. Perceptual Motor Skills, 93: 97-102. DOI: 10.2466/PMS.93.5.97-102 Hagger, M.S., N.L. Chatzisarantis and J.H. Biddle, 2002. A meta-analytic review of the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior in physical activity: Predictive validity and the contribution of additional variable. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 24: 3-32. Koca, C. and G. Demirhan, 2004. An examination of high school students' attitudes toward physical education with regard to gender and sport participation. Perceptual Motor Skills, 98: 754-758. DOI: 10.2466/pms.98.3.754-758 Martin, L.T., 2000. Perceptions of high, average, and low performance second graders about physical education and physical education teachers. Phys. Educ., 59: 204-219. Lee, A.M., 2004. Promoting lifelong physical activity through quality physical education. J. Phys. Educ. Rec. Dance, 75: 21-26. McKenzie, T.L., 2003. Health-related Physical Education: Physical, Activity Fitness and Wellness. In: Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying Research to Enhance Instruction, Silverman, S.J. and C.D. Ennis, (Eds.). Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp: 207-226. Parkhurst, D.L., 2000. Comparison of attitudes toward physical activity and physical activity levels of sixth grade boys and girls of various ethnic origins. Thesis/dissertation, Manuscript, University of Oregon. Papaioannou, A., 1994. Development of a questionnaire to measure achievement orientations in physical education. Res. Quar. Exerc. Sport, 65: 11-20. Patterson, P., and N. Faucette, 1990. Attitudes toward physical activity of fourth and fifth grade boys and girls. Res. Quar. Exerc. Sport, 61: 415-418. Portman, P.A., 2003. Are physical education classes encouraging students to be physically active? Experience of ninth graders in their last semester of required physical education. Phys. Educ., 60: 150-160. Rikard, G.L. and D. Banville, 2006. High school student attitudes about physical education. Sport Educ. Soc., 11: 385-400. Prochaska, J.J., J.F. Sallis, D.J. Slymen and T.L. McKenzie, 2003. A longitudinal study of children's enjoyment of physical education. Pediat. Exerc. Sci., 15: 170-178. Rink, J., 2006. Teaching Physical Education for Learning. 6th Edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, ISBN: 0073376523, pp: 416. Siedentop, D., 2008. Introduction to Physical Education, Fitness and Sport. 7th Edn., McGrawHill, Boston, ISBN: 0073376515, pp: 448. Sallis, J.F., J.J. Prochaska and W.C. Taylor, 2000. A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 32: 963-975. Silverman, S. and P.R. Subramaniam, 1999. Student attitude toward physical education and physical activity: A review of measurement issues and outcomes. J. Teach. Phys. Educ., 19: 97-125. Solmon, M.A. and J.A. Carter, 1995. Kindergarten and first-grade students' perceptions of physical education in one teacher's classes. Element. School J., 95: 355-365. DOi: 10.1086/461808 Smoll, F.L. and R.W. Schutz, 1980. Children's attitudes toward physical activity: A longitudinal study. J. Sport Psychol., 2: 137-147. Solmon, M.A., 2003. Student Issues in Physical Education: Attitudes, Cognition and Motivation. In: Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying Research to Enhance Instruction, Silverman, S.J. and C.D. Ennis, (Eds.). Human Kinetics, Champaign, ISBN : 073604275X, pp: 147-162. Subramanian, P.R. and S. Silverman, 2000. Validation of scores from and instrument assessing student attitude toward physical education. Measurement Phys. Educ. Exerc. Sci., 4: 29-40. DOI: 10.1207/S15327841Mpee0401_4 Strand, B. and E. Scantling, 1994. An analysis of secondary student preferences towards physical education. Phys. Educ., 51: 119-129. Subramanian, P.R. and S. Silverman, 2002. Using complimentary data: An investigation of student attitude in physical education. J. Sport Pedagogy, 8: 74-91. Subramanian, P.R. and S. Silverman, 2007. Middle school students' attitudes toward physical education. Teach. Teacher Educ., 23: 602-611. DOI: 10.1016/J.TATE.2007.02.003 Tannehill, D., J. Romar, M. O'Sullivan, K. England and D. Rosenberg, 1994. Attitudes toward physical education: Their impact on how physical educators make sense of their work. J. Teach. Phys. Educ., 13: 406-420. Tannehill, D. and D. Zakrajsek, 1993. Student attitudes toward physical education: A multicultural study. J. Teach. Phys. Educ., 13: 78-84. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000. Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health. Department of Health and Human Services. Zeng, Z.H., R.W. Leung and M. Hipscher, 2010. An examination of teaching behaviors and learning activities in physical education class settings taught by three different levels of teachers. J. Soc. Sci., 6: 18-28. DOI: 10.3844/jssp.2010.18.28 Xiang, P., R. McBride and J. Guan, 2004. Children's motivation in elementary physical education: A longitudinal study. Res. Quar. Exerc. Sport, 75: 71-78.	<urn:uuid:8f344ff9-04fd-4fc4-9da6-8e1f152a9838>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://thescipub.com/pdf/jssp.2011.529.537.pdf	2024-02-27T16:16:07+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00679.warc.gz	567,510,885	8,678	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.932261	eng_Latn	0.990359	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4226, 9467, 14726, 19222, 22463, 28126, 33086, 37679, 38752 ]	[ 2.015625, 1.40625 ]	3	4
Yr 3 Curriculum News Autumn 2023 English In Maths we will be covering the following topics: In English we will be covering the following topics: ! Narrative - innovating the fairytale 'Jack and the Beanstalk'; rewriting 'The Lion and the Mouse' from Aesop's Fabels and writing their own fable. ! Non Fiction – Writing a recount about the journey of a river. Writing a non-chronological report on Ancient Egypt. ! Poetry – Ancient Egyptian Kenning and List poems. Teaching of spelling and grammar will be integrated throughout each topic. Whole class reading takes place daily and will cover a range of texts, including books by Anthony Browne and Julia Donaldson. PE * Football and Tag Rugby, Agility and Speed In PE we will be covering the following units of work: * Netball and basketball * Ball Manipulation Your child should come to school in a PE kit on Fridays. The P.E. kit should consist of a blue or white t-shirt, black leggings/tracksuit bottoms/shorts and a pair of plimsolls or trainers. As the weather changes PE lessons will be outside as much as possible so please also include a sweatshirt. Spanish In our Spanish lessons this term, we will be learning how to greet someone in Spanish. We will also be learning about each other through the topic of ' What is your name?' Religious Education In RE this term, we will be exploring Hinduism. The children will be exploring the story of Rama and Sita and its significance to Hindu peoples. Music In Music, we will be focusing the unit ' Let your spirit fly' and we will be developing notational skills leading into our Christmas Performance Practise. Maths * Number and Place Value * Multiplication and Division * Addition and Subtraction In each topic, there will be a focus on mathematical reasoning, problem solving and applying methods in a variety of different contexts. Pupils will practice their mental arithmetic skills in a weekly test. Other Subjects 'Cradles of Civilisation. Children will explore the culture of these ancient civilisations and will compare similarities and differences between them. Our Geography topics this term are 'Rivers' and 'Mountains'. Children will explore the relationship between these physical processes and people. Our Science topics this term are 'Plants' and 'Rocks'. Our Art/ D.T. topics this term are Art and Design skills ( drawing and painting) and Prehistoric Art (painting and sketching). Our History topics this term are 'Ancient Egypt' and Homework * Your child has a MYON account which enables them to read books online at school and at home. The children have been taught how to use the app and their password has been sent home. They can take A.R. quizzes at home too. Your child is expected to read every day: * Your child will bring a library book home every week. They need to return the book by the following week if they would like to change it. Spellings are handed out on Fridays: * Children should use Spelling Frame for daily practice of the spelling list and rules. The password has been sent home. There will be a spelling test the following Friday. Maths: * Please support your children to learn their times tables, beginning with their 2s, 5s and 10s. We will be focusing on the 3, 4 and 8 times tables in class. Times Table Rockstars will be introduced next week and your child will bring home a password. * Mathletics homework is set every Friday and should be completed by the following Friday.	<urn:uuid:d3dc7ebb-4973-443e-a20f-3fd039a94b01>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://southharringayschools.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Year-3-Autumn-curriculum-news-2023.pdf	2024-02-27T18:10:01+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00682.warc.gz	39,233,727	750	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998806	eng_Latn	0.998806	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3462 ]	[ 3.359375 ]	1	0
Amherst School CURRICULUM OVERVIEW – LONG TERM PLANNING (2023/24) \| \| AUTUMN Term 1 / Term 2 \| SPRING Term 3 / Term 4 \| SUMMER Term 5 / Term 6 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| MATHS \| Number – number & place value • Number: Place Value Read, write, order and compare numbers up to 10 000 000 and determine the value of each digit. • Round any whole number to a required degree of accuracy. • Use negative numbers in context, and calculate intervals across zero. • Solve number and practical problems that involve all of the above Number – addition, subtraction, multiplication & division • Solve addition and subtraction multi step problems in contexts, deciding which operations and methods to use and why. • Multiply multi-digit number up to 4 digits by a 2 digit number using the formal written method of long multiplication. \| Number – fractions (inc decimals & percentages) • Associate a fraction with division and calculate decimal fraction equivalents [ for example, 0.375] for a simple fraction [for example • Recall and use equivalences between simple fractions, decimals and percentages, including in different contexts. Number-percentages • Solve problems involving the calculation of percentages [for example, of measures and such as 15% of 360] and the use of percentages for comparison. • Recall and use equivalence s between simple FDP including in different contexts. Measurement • Solve problems involving the calculation and conversion of units of measure, using decimal notation up to three decimal places where appropriate. • Use, read, write and convert \| Geometry- Properties of Shapes Draw 2D shapes using given dimensions and angles. Compare and classify geometric shapes based on their properties and sizes and find unknown angles in any triangles, quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Recognise angles where they meet at a point, are on a straight line, or are vertically opposite, and find missing angles. Time at the end of the term for consolidation, gap filling, investigations, seasonal activities, preparation for Secondary School etc. \| * Divide numbers up to 4 digits by a 2 digit whole number using the formal written method of long division, and interpret remainders as whole number remainders, fractions or by rounding as appropriate for the context. * Divide numbers up to 4 digits by a 2 digit number using the formal written method of short division, interpreting remainders according to context. * Perform mental calculations, including with mixed operations and large numbers. * Identify common factors, common multiples and prime numbers. * Use their knowledge of the order of operations to carry out calculations involving the four operations. * Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. * Use estimation to check answers to calculations and determine in the context of a problem, an appropriate degree of accuracy. Geometry and Statistics (PPA cover) * Illustrate and name parts of circles, including radius, diameter and circumferenc e and know that the diameter is twice the radius. between standard units, converting measurements of length, mass, volume and time from a smaller unit of measure to a larger unit, and vice versa, using decimal notation to up to 3dp. * Convert between miles and kilometres. * Recognise that shapes with the same areas can have different perimeters and vice versa. * Recognise when it is possible to use formulae for area and volume of shapes * Calculate the area of parallelograms and triangles. * Calculate, estimate and compare volume of cubes and cuboids using standard units, including cm3, m3 and extending to other units (mm3, km3 Number-algebra * simple formulae * Generate and describe linear number sequences. * Express missing number problems algebraically. * Find pairs of numbers that satisfy an equation with two unknowns. * Enumerate possibilities of combinations of two variables. Number-ratio * Solve problems involving the * Interpret and construct pie charts and line graphs and use these to solve problems. * Calculate the mean as an average * Number – fractions (inc decimals & percentages) TERM 2 * Use common factors to simplify fractions; use common multiples to express fractions in the same denomination. * Compare and order fractions, including fractions > 1 * Generate and describe linear number sequences (with fractions) * Add and subtract fractions with different denominations and mixed numbers, using the concept of equivalent fractions. * Multiply simple pairs of proper fractions, writing the answer in its simplest form [for example x = ] * Divide proper fractions by whole numbers [for example ÷ 2 = Geometry- Position and Direction (PPA cover) * Describe positions on the full coordinate grid (all four quadrants). * Draw and translate simple shapes on the coordinate plane, and reflect them in the axes. relative sizes of two quantities where missing values can be found by using integer multiplication and division facts. * Solve problems involving similar shapes where the scale factor is known or can be found. * Solve problems involving unequal sharing and grouping using knowledge of fractions and multiples. Number – addition, subtraction, multiplication & division- recap PPA cover Time at the beginning end of the term for consolidation ,gap filling, seasonal activities, assessment s, etc. ENGLISH READING Daily whole class reading and independent reading. Comprehension skills taught through guided reading sessions and standalone English lessons. Term 1 Unit 1: Goodnight Mister Tom (3 weeks) Unit 2: Anne Frank - Biographical Genres (2 weeks) Unit 3: Anne Frank – description and diary writing (1/2 weeks) Term 2 Unit 4: Whole school text (2/3 weeks) Unit 5: Narrative Poetry (1 week) Unit 6: Piano - Emotive Narrative using a flashback (1/2 weeks) Unit 7: Poetry – Twas the night before Christmas (1 week) Term 1 * Goodnight Mister Tom * The biography of Anne Frank * The diary of Anne Frank * Guided reading - Bombers Moon, Silver Sword, War Horse Term 3 Unit 8: Macbeth by William Shakespeare Storyboarding/PlayScript/Persuasive letter/Poetry (4 weeks) Unit 9: Ruckus – Literacy Shed (1 week) Term 4 Unit 10: Whole school text (2/3 weeks) Unit 11: Balanced Argument – Boreham bypass (1 week) Unit 12: Balanced Argument – Mobile phones (2 weeks) Term 3 * A Shakespeare Story (abridged version of Macbeth) by Andrew Matthews and Tony Rossm * Class novel chosen by class teacher Term 5 Unit 13: Quest Narrative - Myst (2 weeks) Unit 14: Journalism – newspapers (2 weeks) Unit 15: Narrative – replay (1 week) SATs KS2 Assessments Term 6 Unit 16: Non-chronological information projects – Coasts (3 weeks) Unit 17: Free write activities – using a starting stimulus, end point and incorporating dialoague (2 weeks) Year 6 production Term 5 * The Watertower by Gary Crew * Kensuke's Kingdom by Michael Morpurgo GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION Term 2 * Whole-school text * Revolting rhymes by Roald Dahl * Twas the night before Christmas poem by Clement Clarke Moore * Class novel chosen by class teacher Term 1 * Word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns) - revision * commas in lists and using a colon to start a list – revision * use of question tags (He's your friend, isn't he?) * Fronted adverbials – * Semi-colons, colons and dashes * Cohesion within paragraphs * Conjunctions (subordinating/ coordinating) and clauses * Subject and object Term 2 * Relative clauses/pronouns * Bullet points/layout devices Term 4 * Whole-school text * Pig Heart Boy by Malorie Blackman Term 3 * Inverted commas – direct speech * Expanded noun phrases – revision * Conjunctions (subordinating/ coordinating) – revision * Word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns) revision * Statement, command, exclamation, question * Progressive forms of verbs in present and past tense * Apostrophes possession – revision Term 4 * Synonyms and antonyms * Word classes (nouns, verbs, Term 6 * Kensuke's Kingdom by Michael Morpurgo * Whole class guided reading Term 5 * Subjunctive mood * Word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns) – revision * Adverbials of time to link ideas across paragraphs/cohesion * Inverted commas – revision * Determiners * Present perfect verb form (He has gone outside.) Term 6 * Application of taught material SPELLING * Prepositions – * Word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns) - revision * Brackets, dashes, commas to indicate parenthesis * Use of comma to clarify meaning * Adverbials to make links/cohesion * Past tense/present tense Term 1 Weekly spelling lessons to include: * Statutory word lists yr3-4 yr5-6 * Strategies for spelling * -able –ably –ibly –ible * Adding suffixes beginning with vowels to words ending in –fer * proofreading Term 2 * Statutory word lists yr5-6 * Homophones ce/se * Endings that are spelt –cious or -tious adjectives, adverbs, pronouns) – revision * Modal verbs and adverbs to show degrees of possibility * Using adverbials to create cohesion and make links between paragraphs – revision * Passive voice * Hyphens to avoid ambiguity * Standard English forms for verb inflections (We was…./We were…) * Apostrophes omission – revision * Formal and informal language Term 3 * -ough letter string * -words ending in –cial and –tial Term 4 * -homophones * - statutory year 5-6 list * -generating words from prefixes and roots Term 5 * Statutory yr5-6 list * Words ending in –ant –ance and –ancy * Root words and meaning Term 6 * Words ending –ent –ence and – ency * Homophones * Strategies for learning commonly misspelt words \| SCIENCE \| T1: Experimental skills T2: Electricity \| T3: Light T4 & T5: Evolution and inheritance \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| COMPUTING \| T1 & T2: Creating media – Tinkercad and google sites \| T3 & T4: Coding – Micro-bit \| \| HISTORY \| World War 2 (T1 & T2) \| \| \| GEOGRAPHY \| \| Australia (T3) \| \| PE \| T1: Swimming T2: Yoga \| T3: Indoor athletics T4: Gymnastics – Balance \| \| GAMES \| T1, 2 & 3: Hockey/ Rugby/ Football \| T4, 5 & 6: Handball/ Cricket/ Athletics \| \| ART \| T1 & 2: Still life / WW2 art (Henry Moore and Alberto Giacometti) \| T3: Australian Batik painting T4: Whole School Book project (usually linked to photography) \| \| DT \| T1: Healthy vegetable soups T2: Shelters \| \| \| RE \| T1: Is it better to express your beliefs in arts and architecture or in charity and generosity? T2: What difference does it make to believe in ahimsa, grace and/or Ummah \| T3/T4: What matter most to Christians and Humanists? \| \| MFL \| T1: French – rising stars T2: French – rising stars \| T3: French – rising stars T4: French – rising stars \| \| MUSIC \| T1:. Dynamics, pitch and texture T2: Songs of WW2 \| T3: Film music T4: Baroque \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| PSHE \| T1: Trust T2: Kindness \| T3: Determination T4: Politeness \| \| PROVISIONAL TRIPS / VISITORS \| World War Two Day \| Houses of Parliament Young Voices Safety in Action \|	<urn:uuid:067c7b59-7a74-4dbc-ac18-5c511f7edbb4>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.amherst.kent.sch.uk/attachments/download.asp?file=3843&type=pdf	2024-02-27T18:07:21+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00680.warc.gz	641,041,869	2,660	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.941059	eng_Latn	0.976596	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown" ]	false	docling	[ 2061, 3952, 5366, 6920, 8381, 9664, 10693, 10974 ]	[ 4.1875 ]	1	0
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FRAMEWORK CHARACTERIZING MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS' STATISTICAL THINKING Cynthia W. Langrall and Edward S. Mooney Illinois State University, USA Given the importance of instruction in promoting students' statistical literacy, a cohesive picture of the development of students' statistical thinking is needed to better inform classroom teachers and curriculum developers. With this in mind, one of the authors developed a framework to characterize middle school students' statistical thinking within four statistical processes, across four levels of thinking. A subsequent study (Langrall, Mooney, Hofbauer, & Johnson, 2001) addressed gaps in Mooney's framework. This paper describes how the findings of the Langrall et al. study were merged with the framework and reports on resulting modifications to the entire framework. INTRODUCTION It is widely acknowledged that proficiency in statistical skills enables people to become productive, participating citizens in an information society (e.g., Australian Education Council, 1994; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000; Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills [SCANS], 1991; School Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales, 1996). In the United States, SCANS (1991) has recommended that benchmarks be established to inform statistics education at the secondary level to better prepare students for the workforce. In response to this recommendation, calls for reform in mathematics education have advocated a more pervasive approach to statistics instruction at all levels (NCTM, 2000). More specifically, the NCTM has recommended that middle school students (ages 12 to 14) have experiences collecting, organizing, representing, and interpreting data. However, research on middle school students' statistical thinking is sparse. A cohesive picture of middle school students' statistical thinking is needed to better inform classroom teachers and curriculum developers. Researchers like Cobb et al. (1991) have identified the need for cognitive models of students' thinking to guide the planning and development of mathematics curriculum and instruction. There is evidence that research-based knowledge of students' thinking can assist teachers in providing meaningful instruction (Fennema & Franke, 1992). With this in mind, Mooney (2002) developed and validated the Middle School Students' Statistical Thinking (M3ST) framework based on a synthesis of the literature and observations and analyses of students' thinking in interview settings. The M3ST framework incorporated four statistical processes (describing, organizing and reducing, representing, and analyzing and interpreting data) and included descriptors that characterize four levels of students' statistical thinking within each process. In validating the framework, Mooney (2002) found that two aspects of students' statistical thinking were not adequately addressed in his study: categorizing and grouping data and students' use of proportional reasoning. In a recent study (Langrall, Mooney, Hofbauer, & Johnson, 2001), descriptors for these two subprocesses were generated for inclusion in the M3ST framework. This paper will report on the merging of these descriptors and the subsequent modification of the entire framework. COMPONENTS OF THE M3ST FRAMEWORK The M3ST framework was constructed with the perspective that students' statistical thinking is represented by the cognitive actions in which they engage during the data-handling processes of describing, organizing and reducing, representing, and analyzing and interpreting data (Reber, 1995; Shaughnessy, Garfield & Greer, 1996). The framework characterizes students' statistical thinking for four processes, across four levels of thinking. Statistical Processes Describing data. Describing data entails the explicit reading of data presented in tables, charts, or graphical representations. Curcio (1987) considers "reading the data" as the initial stage of interpreting and analyzing data. Therefore, ability to read data displays can be considered the basis for students to begin making predictions and discovering trends. In initially developing the framework, Mooney (2002) identified four subprocesses related to describing data: (a) showing awareness of display features, (b) recognizing the same data in different data displays, (c) evaluating the effectiveness of data displays of representing data, and (d) identifying units of data values. Organizing and reducing data. Organizing and reducing data involves arranging, categorizing, or consolidating data into a summary form. As with the ability to describe data displays, the ability to organize and reduce data is critical for learning how to analyze and interpret data. Measures of center and dispersion are important in analyzing and interpreting data, however, research indicates that middle school students rarely employ these statistics (Reading & Pegg, 1996; Friel & Bright, 1996). Mooney (2002) initially identified three subprocesses for organizing and reducing data: (a) grouping or ordering data, (b) describing data using measures of center, and (c) describing the spread of data. Representing data. Representing data involves displaying data in a graphical form. According to Friel, Curcio and Bright (2001), the graphical sense involved in representing data "includes a consideration of what is involved in constructing graphs as tools for structuring data and, more important, what is the optimal choice for a graph in a given situation" (p. 145). Representing data, like the previous two processes, is important in analyzing and interpreting data. How data are represented will determine the trends and predictions that can be made. Also, different data displays can communicate different ideas about the same data. Research has shown that middle school students are unclear of the necessary features of a graph (e.g., Berg & Phillips, 1994) and find making graphical representations of situations difficult (e.g., Mevarech & Kramarsky, 1997). Mooney (2002) concluded that three subprocesses underlie representing data: (a) constructing a data display for a given data set, (b) completing a partially constructed atypical data display (a data display not usually presented at the middle school level), and (c) constructing an alternate data display for data presented in a given display. Analyzing and interpreting data. Analyzing and interpreting data consists of identifying trends and making inferences or predictions about the data. Curcio (1987) has identified two levels beyond "reading the data" that form the basis for analyzing and interpreting data. "reading between the data" involves making comparisons within the data. "Reading beyond the data" entails the ability to make extensions, predictions or inferences from the data. These levels were used in development of the initial M3ST framework resulting in three subprocesses for analyzing and interpreting data: (a) making comparisons within data sets or data displays, (b) making comparisons between data sets or data displays, and (c) making inferences from a given data set or data display. The ability to analyze and interpret data builds upon the ability to read data displays, organize and reduce data, and represent data. Cognitive Levels The levels of students' statistical thinking in the M3ST framework were based on the general developmental model of Biggs and Collis (1991). Their model incorporates five modes of functioning: sensormotor (from birth), ikonic (from around 18 months), concrete symbolic (from around 6 years), formal (from around 14 years), and post formal (from around 20 years). Within each mode, three cognitive levels (unistructural, multistructural, and relational) recycle and represent shifts in the complexity of students' reasoning. According to Biggs and Collis, each of the five modes of functioning emerges and develops in a way that incorporates the continuing development of earlier modes. Thus, they also recognize two other cognitive levels: the prestructural which is related to the previous mode and the extended abstract which is related to the next mode. We consider the ikonic, and concrete symbolic modes to be most applicable to middle school students. Following this model, Mooney (2002) concluded that students in his study exhibited four levels of statistical thinking: idiosyncratic, (associated with the prestructural level and representing thinking in the ikonic mode), and transitional, quantitative and analytical (associated respectively with the unistructural, multistructural and relational levels; representing thinking in the concrete symbolic mode). Descriptors For each statistical process in the framework, the four levels of students' thinking are characterized by descriptors pertaining to each of the subprocesses. Descriptors were developed with the assumption that each subsequent descriptor subsumes the characteristics of the previous levels. For example, the process describing data includes four descriptors for the subprocesses identifying units of data values, one for each level of thinking: Level 1, misinterprets or does not identify units of data values; Level 2, identifies the units of data values incompletely; Level 3, identifies the units of specific data values; and Level 4, identifies the units of general data values. It is our intention that teachers will be able to use these descriptors as benchmarks to assess or characterize a student's thinking over a series of tasks. Thus, descriptors are not task specific and we expect variability in the level of thinking exhibited by a student's response across tasks. OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRAMEWORK DESCRIPTORS The studies conducted by Mooney, (2002) and Langrall et al. (2001) used the same method to generate and refine framework descriptors. This method comprised six components: (a) developing initial descriptors for the subprocesses based on research; (b) constructing a protocol to assess students' thinking of the subprocesses; (c) interviewing students using the protocol; (d) analyzing students' responses; (e) refining the initial descriptors; and (f) consolidating the refined descriptors into the framework. Both studies used students in grades six through eight (ages 12 to 14) from a Midwestern U.S. school. In each case, twelve students, four from each grade level, were selected for casestudy analysis. Using an interview protocol, each student was individually interviewed during a 60-minute, audio-taped session. In generating protocols for each study, tasks were developed with a series of questions designed to assess students' thinking across the four levels of the framework. Questions were designed so students could respond orally or by generating tables or data displays. In most cases, a task assessed more than one statistical process. In both studies, data sources consisted of the transcribed interviews, students' written work and data displays, researcher field notes, and summaries generated during the analysis. A double-coding procedure (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was used to analyze students' responses. The authors independently coded each student's response to each question. Responses were coded by levels based on: (a) the initial descriptors for each level and (b) descriptors generated from the data analysis that characterized students' responses, yet were not present in the initial descriptors. This occurred in the following manner. After all students' responses to a question were read, the authors compared the responses to the corresponding descriptors to describe the levels of students' statistical thinking. If descriptors did not adequately characterize students' responses, the responses were examined as a whole to discern patterns of thinking. These patterns were used to revise the corresponding descriptors and the students' responses were then recoded using the revised descriptors to characterize students' levels of statistical thinking. If few or no students demonstrated thinking at a particular level of a subprocess, we interpolated the descriptor for that level based on students' thinking at other levels. Throughout this process, differences in coding were discussed and agreement was negotiated. FRAMEWORK MODIFICATIONS In modifying the M3ST framework, descriptors were added, altered, moved, or removed from the framework to clarify the meaning of each process and to promote consistency in language. These changes are reported below for each statistical process. The current version of the M3ST framework is presented in Figures 1 through 4. Describing data. The subprocess recognizing the same data in different data displays was removed from the framework because we do not believe it reflects a general characteristic of describing data. Rather, it is task specific in the sense that the situation would have to warrant examining multiple displays of the same data. The subprocess evaluating the effectiveness of data displays in representing data was moved since it was more appropriately related to the process representing data. These revisions have resulted in the following subprocesses for describing data: showing awareness for display features (D.1) and identifying units of data values (D.2). Figure 1. Descriptors for Describing Data. \| Describing Data In general, student performing or explaining questions, tasks or activities which involve describing data will . . . \| Level 1 - Idiosyncratic D.1.1 Demonstrate little awareness of display features of a table, chart or graphical representation. D.2.1 Misinterpret or not identify units of data values. \| Level 2 - Transitional D.1.2 Demonstrate some awareness of display features a table, chart or graphical representation. D.2.2 Identify the units of data values incompletely. \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Level 3 - Quantitative D.1.3 Demonstrate complete awareness of display features a table, chart or graphical representation, D.2.3 Identify the units of specific data values. \| Level 4 - Analytical D.1.4 Demonstrate complete awareness of display features a table, chart or graphical representation including features that are irrelevant or cosmetic. D.2.4 Identify the units of general data values. \| Organizing and reducing data. Descriptors related to the subprocess ordering data were removed because the ways students might order data do not vary enough to distinguish different levels of statistical thinking. Based on the Langrall et al. (2001) study, descriptors for grouping data were changed to distinguish summative forms of grouping instead of representative forms of grouping. As a result of these revision, the subprocesses for Organizing and Reducing Data are: grouping data (O.1), describing data using measures of center (O.2), and describing the spread of data (O.3). Figure 2. Descriptors for Organizing and Reducing Data. \| Organizing and Reducing Data In general, students performing or explaining questions, tasks, or activities which involve organizing and reducing data will . . . \| Level 1 - Idiosyncratic O.1.1 Not attempt to group data. O.2.1 Not be able to describe data in terms of representativeness or typicalness. O.3.1 Not be able to describe the spread of the data in terms representative of the spread. \| Level 2 - Transitional O.1.2 Group data but not in a summative form. O.2.2 Describe the typicalness of data using invented measures that are partially valid. O.3.2 Describe the spread of the data using invented measures that are partially valid. \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Level 3 - Quantitative O.1.3 Group data in a summative form or group data by creating new categories or clusters. O.2.3 Describe the typicalness of data using a measure of center from a flawed procedure or a valid and correct invented measure. O.3.3 Describe spread of data using a measure from a flawed procedure or a valid and correct invented measure. \| Level 4 - Analytical O.1.4 Group data in a summative form by creating new categories or clusters. O.2.4 Describe data using a valid and correct measure of center. O.3.4 Describe spread of data using valid and correct measure. \| Representing data. The subprocess evaluating the effectiveness of data displays in representing data was moved from describing data to this statistical process since we believe this subprocess should be part of the decision-making strategy involved in determining the optimal choice of representation for a given set of data. The subprocess constructing an alternate data display was removed because we believe it is subsumed in the subprocess pertaining to evaluating data displays. The descriptors related to the subprocess completing a partial data display, were removed because we believed this subprocess was task specific in that it could only be assessed for a given rather than across a variety of tasks. These revisions have resulted in the following subprocesses for Representing Data: constructing a data display (R.1), and evaluating the effectiveness of data displays (R.2). Figure 3. Descriptors for Representing Data. \| Representing Data In general, student students performing or explaining questions, tasks or activities which involve representing data will . . . \| Level 1 - Idiosyncratic R.1.1 Be unable to construct a display or constructs a display for that is both incomplete and unrepresentative of the data. R.2.1 Evaluate the effectiveness of data display based on irrelevant features or reasons. \| Level 2 - Transitional R.1.2 Construct a display that is partially complete and representative of the data or complete and unrepresentative of the data. R.2.2 Evaluate the effectiveness of data display based on relevant display features. \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Level 3 - Quantitative R.1.3 Construct a complete and representative display. The display may have a few minor flaws. R.2.3 Evaluate the effectiveness of a data display based on relevant display features with some reference to the context the data is presented. \| Level 4 - Analytical R.1.4 Construct a complete, representative and appropriate display. R.2.4 Evaluate the effectiveness of a data display based on relevant display features and the context the data is presented. \| Analyzing and interpreting data. Descriptors for the subprocess proportional reasoning were added to the framework based on the results of the Langrall et al. (2001) study. The descriptors are based on the degree to which students reasonably use, and are able to quantify, relative thinking when analyzing data. Thus, the subprocesses for this process include: making comparisons within data sets or data displays (A.1), making comparisons between data sets or data displays (A.2), making inferences from a given data set or data display (A.3), and using proportional reasoning (A.4). Figure 4. Descriptors for Analyzing and Interpreting Data. \| Analyzing and Interpreting Data In general, student performing or explaining questions, tasks or activities which involve analyzing and interpreting data will . . . \| Level 1 - Idiosyncratic A.1.1 Make no or incorrect comparisons within data displays or data sets. A.2.1 Make no or incorrect comparisons between data displays or data sets. A.3.1 Make inferences that are not based on the data or inferences are based on irrelevant issues. A.4.1 Not use relative thinking. \| Level 2 - Transitional A.1.2 Make a single correct comparison or a set of partially correct comparisons within or between data displays or data sets. A.2.2 Make a single correct comparison or a set of partially correct comparisons between data displays or data sets. A.3.2 Make inferences that are partially based on the data. Some inferences may be only partially reasonable. A.4.2 Use relative thinking qualitatively. \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Level 3 - Quantitative A.1.3 Make local or global comparisons within data displays or data sets. A.2.3 Make local or global comparisons between data displays or data sets. A.3.3 Make inferences that are primarily based on the data. Some inferences may be only partially reasonable. A.4.3 Uses relative thinking quantitatively but not in a reasonable manner. \| Level 4 - Analytical A.1.4 Make local and global comparisons within data displays or data sets. A.2.4 Make local and global comparisons between data displays or data sets. A.3.4 Make reasonable inferences based on data and the context. A.4.4 Uses relative thinking quantitatively in a reasonable manner. \| DISCUSSION The M3ST framework was developed to provide a coherent picture of middle school student's thinking across four statistical processes. We believe that frameworks such as this one can play an important role in informing classroom instruction as well as guiding curriculum design. Teachers and curriculum developers can use the M3ST framework to construct tasks that are within the scope of students' statistical thinking yet able to promote the development of data handling processes called for in mathematics education reform documents. The modifications and refinements we have made to the M3ST framework were intended to make the framework more accessible to teachers. This refinement process was part of an extended research program that includes a large-scale validation of the framework followed by the implementation of a professional development program using the framework with middle teachers to guide instruction in statistics. REFERENCES Australian Education Council. (1994). Mathematics: A curriculum profile for Australian schools. Carlton, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation. Berg, C.A., & Phillips, D.G. (1994). An investigation of the relationship between logical thinking structures and the ability to construct and interpret line graphs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 323-344. Biggs, J.B. & Collis, K.F. (1991). Multimodal learning and quality of intelligent behavior. In H.A.H. Rowe (Ed.), Intelligence: Reconceptualization and measurement (pp. 57-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cobb, P. et al. (1991). Assessment of a problem-centered second-grade mathematics project. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 3-29. Curcio, F.R. (1987). Comprehension of mathematical relationships expressed in graphs. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 18, 382-393. Fennema, E., & Franke, M.L. (1992). Teacher's knowledge and its impact. In D.A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 147-164). New York, NY: Macmillan. Friel, S.N., & Bright, G.W. (1996). Building a theory of graphicacy: How do students read graphs? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 395 277). Friel, S.N., Curcio, F.R. & Bright, G.W. (2001). Making sense of graphs: Critical factors influencing comprehension and instructional implications. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 32, 124 – 158. Langrall, C.W., Mooney, E.S., Hofbauer, P.S., & Johnson, Y.A. (2001). Refining a framework on middle school students' statistical thinking. In R. Speiser, C.A. Maher and C.N. Walter (Eds), Proceedings of the twenty-third annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 1, pp. 437–448). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education. Mevarech, Z.A., & Kramarsky, B. (1997). From verbal descriptions to graphic representations: stability and change in students' alternative conceptions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 32, 229-263. Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mooney, E.S. (2002). Development of a middle school statistical thinking framework. Submitted for publication, Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 4(1). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. Reading, C., & Pegg, J. (1996). Exploring understanding of data reduction. In L. Puig and A. Gutiérrez (Eds.), Proceedings of the 20th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education: Volume 4 (pp.187-194). Spain: Universitat de Valencia. Reber, A.S. (1995). Dictionary of psychology. London: Penguin Books Limited. School Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales. (1996). A guide to the national curriculum. London: Author. Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (1991). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. Washington, DC: Department of Labor. Shaughnessy, J.M., Garfield, J., & Greer, B. (1996). Data handling. In A.J. Bishop, K. Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick, and C. Laborde (Eds.), International handbook of mathematics education (pp. 205 – 237). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.	<urn:uuid:a8e45ead-a2d7-4d1f-b0f8-24674592affd>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://iase-web.org/documents/papers/icots6/6b3_lang.pdf?1402524962	2024-02-27T17:22:00+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00681.warc.gz	17,794,724	5,185	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.948077	eng_Latn	0.990328	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3802, 8701, 13315, 17059, 21568, 24836 ]	[ 2.921875, 2.90625 ]	1	1
PSAT™ 10 Understanding Scores UPDATED WITH ANSWER KEY AND SCORE CONVERSIONS APRIL 1–26, 2019 Contact Us About College Board College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, College Board was created to expand access to higher education. Today, College Board's membership is made up of over 6,000 of the world's leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education. Each year, College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness and college success— including the SAT® and the Advanced Placement Program®. The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students, educators, and schools. For further information, visit collegeboard.org. About the PSAT 10 As one of the assessments in College Board's SAT Suite of Assessments, the PSAT™ 10 is designed to measure the skills and knowledge that current research shows are essential for college and career readiness and success. The PSAT 10 covers the same content areas as the PSAT/NMSQT®. Both the PSAT/NMSQT and the PSAT 10 serve as a check-in on student progress to help pinpoint areas for development. Educational Testing Service (ETS) administers the PSAT 10 for College Board. CONTACTS FOR STUDENTS AND PARENTS firstname.lastname@example.org 866-433-7728 +1-212-713-8105 (International) 8 a.m. to 7 p.m. ET, Mon.–Fri. GENERAL CONTACTS PSAT 10 P.O. Box 6720 Princeton, NJ 08541-6720 CONTACTS FOR EDUCATORS email@example.com 888-477-PSAT (7728) +1-212-237-1335 (International) 8 a.m.–8 p.m. ET, Mon.–Fri. The PSAT 10 and the SAT Suite of Assessments The SAT Suite of Assessments The SAT® Suite of Assessments is an integrated system of tests that includes the SAT (for students in grades 11 and 12), the PSAT/NMSQT® (for grades 10 and 11), the PSAT™ 10 (for grade 10), and the PSAT™ 8/9 (for grades 8 and 9). To calculate section scores, we first compute the student's raw score—the number of questions correctly answered—for each section. Nothing is deducted for incorrect answers or for unanswered questions. The tests measure the same skills and knowledge in grade-appropriate ways. They work together to show college readiness over time so educators, students, and parents can monitor student progress. Their content reflects the kind of meaningful, engaging, and challenging work that students find in the best middle school and high school courses taught today. What the PSAT 10 Measures The PSAT 10 measures the skills and knowledge that research shows are the most important for success in college and career. The Reading Test measures comprehension and reasoning skills and focuses on close reading of passages in a wide array of subject areas. The Writing and Language Test measures a range of skills, including command of evidence, expression of ideas, and the use of standard English conventions in grammar and punctuation. The Math Test covers a range of math practices, with an emphasis on problem solving, modeling, using tools strategically, and using algebraic structure. How the PSAT 10 Is Scored Students receive a total score that is the sum of their scores on the two sections (Evidence-Based Reading and Writing and Math). Next, we convert each of the raw section scores to a scaled score of 160 to 760. This conversion process adjusts for slight differences in difficulty among versions of the test and provides a score that is consistent across different versions. The scaled scores are the scores provided on score reports. How You Can Use the Student Score Report The student score report clearly summarizes a student's current achievement levels and encourages next steps to increase college and career readiness. You can help students by going over their score reports and helping them understand what their scores mean. Here's how. TALK WITH STUDENTS ABOUT COLLEGE READINESS For each section, the score report includes an indicator that shows whether the student's score meets the grade- level benchmark. These benchmarks allow students and educators to understand how students are progressing toward college readiness. If a student is meeting the benchmark for a section, remind them to continue to take rigorous courses and work hard to stay on track for college success. • If a student is not meeting the benchmark for a section, connect them to classroom work that is focused on areas that need improvement. Khan Academy® can help supplement this work. • USE STUDENT SCORES TO IDENTIFY STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES * Use test scores, as well as the cross-test scores and subscores online, to evaluate a student's relative strengths and weaknesses and to determine which skills need practice. Use the red/yellow/green coding on section scores to evaluate how your student is performing relative to other students who are meeting or exceeding the benchmark. • Highlight the areas in green as the student's strengths. • Prioritize areas in the red range for additional work and practice. • HELP STUDENTS DECIDE ON NEXT STEPS Work with your students to think of ways to develop each of the skills you have identified for focus and improvement. • * Encourage students to go online for more details and to link their College Board account to Khan Academy for a free, personalized study plan. For further guidance on interpreting score reports, see the Professional Development modules for K–12 educators at sat.org/educators. Score-Reporting Features On pages 12–13 of this booklet, you'll find an annotated sample score report that includes detailed explanations of the information that students receive about their college readiness skills. Students can access their online reports to obtain more information and guidance, including free, personalized Khan Academy instruction and practice based on their results. The online reporting portal at k12reports.collegeboard.org offers you an array of powerful tools to assess your students' progress and plan instruction that delivers what they need. The tools include: * Flexible reports that can be sorted and filtered by key demographics. * Instructional planning support using test subscores in specific content areas, benchmarks, information for cross-subject tasks, and data for prescribing interventions when students are behind or ahead. * Question Analysis Report that helps educators connect subscores to state standards, analyze students' strengths and weaknesses, learn which mistakes were the most common, and look for opportunities to reinforce skills. (The Question Analysis Report won't be available to schools testing in February or March.) * Access to the AP Potential™ tool to pinpoint students who are likely to succeed in more challenging courses. PSAT 10 Scores Total Scores ONLINE AND PAPER SCORE REPORTS The total score is the sum of the two section scores; its range is 320–1520. Section Scores ONLINE AND PAPER SCORE REPORTS Your students receive scores in the range of 160–760 for each of two sections. The Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section score combines the scores for the Reading Test and the Writing and Language Test. The Math section score is derived from the Math Test score, including the calculator and no-calculator portions. Test Scores ONLINE AND PAPER SCORE REPORTS The range for the following test scores is 8–38: * Reading * Writing and Language * Math Cross-Test Scores ONLINE SCORE REPORT ONLY The range for cross-test scores is also 8–38. These scores represent student performance on select questions across the three tests and show a student's strengths in the following domains: * Analysis in History/Social Studies * Analysis in Science Subscores ONLINE SCORE REPORT ONLY Subscores in the range of 1–15 offer feedback on student performance in the following skill areas: * Command of Evidence * Words in Context * Expression of Ideas * Standard English Conventions * Heart of Algebra * Problem Solving and Data Analysis * Passport to Advanced Math Score Ranges ONLINE SCORE REPORT ONLY A student's ability is better represented by score ranges than points. Score ranges are derived from the standard error of measurement and show how much a student's scores would likely vary if they took a different administration of the test under identical conditions. From recent administrations of the PSAT 10, these ranges are approximately: * Total: ±40 points * Section: ±30 points * Test scores, subscores, and cross-test scores: ±2 points Score Scales and Score Changes Using PSAT 10 Scores to Project SAT Scores The SAT Suite—from the PSAT 8/9 through the SAT—uses a common score scale for the total, section, test, and crosstest scores. The ranges reported for each assessment reflect grade-level appropriateness within the common scale. Thus, while the total range for the SAT is 400–1600, the total range for the PSAT 10 is 320–1520. This common score scale means that a student who took the PSAT 10 and received a Math section score of 500 would be expected to also get a 500 on the SAT or the PSAT 8/9 if they had taken either of those tests on that same day; a score of 500 represents the same level of academic achievement on all three assessments. This also means that student growth across the SAT Suite is easy to determine. If a student takes the PSAT 10 this year and receives a 500 Math section score, and then takes the SAT next year and earns a 550 Math section score, that student has shown a growth of 50 points, which likely resulted from hard work both in and out of school. The total, section, test, and cross-test scores have been vertically scaled to allow the accurate measurement of growth from test to test. Encourage students to focus on the section scores if they are curious about the growth they can expect to see in their scores over the next year. They should look at the set of projected score ranges we have provided (only in online score reports) for students that reflect typical growth. Of course, a student's individual growth will be shaped by the courses taken and by the practice the student undertakes between assessments. Subscores (available online only) aren't on a vertical scale, and therefore comparing performance year after year should be based on relative performance rather than by calculating student growth across tests. Students who wish to improve their performance on the SAT should follow these guidelines: * Develop academic skills through challenging coursework. * Read extensively and develop strong writing skills. * Engage in deliberate practice in the three math areas that are emphasized the most in the assessments. * Take practice tests and upload their results to Khan Academy for free, personalized practice of the skills they need to improve. To learn more, go to psat.org/practice. Benchmarks and Red/Yellow/Green Performance The PSAT 10 Grade-Level Benchmarks What the Benchmarks Mean The SAT Suite offers grade-level benchmarks that can be used to gauge whether students are on track for becoming college ready each year in grades 8–12. Gradelevel benchmarks represent the section scores on each assessment that students should meet or exceed to be considered on track to be college ready. The PSAT 10 reports benchmarks for 10th graders to help them understand their level of readiness for college and career training programs. The benchmarks help educators better understand how many students and also which students are on track to have the skills necessary for college-entry, credit-bearing courses. Equipped with this information, educators can support students who need extra help while there is still time for improvement. Teachers can also accelerate the progress of students who meet or exceed the benchmarks. RECOMMENDED USES Grade-level benchmarks can help educators: * Identify students who are on track for success in college and career readiness. * Identify students who may need extra support while there is still time for improvement. * Find students who may be ready for more challenging coursework. Grade-level benchmarks shouldn't be used to assign academic tracks, to discourage students from pursuing college, or to keep students from participating in challenging courses. Rather, the benchmarks are intended to help all students better prepare for life after high school. The College and Career Readiness Benchmarks for the current SAT predict a 75% likelihood of achieving a C or higher in related first-semester, credit-bearing college courses. The benchmarks are set at the section level, so there is a benchmark for Evidence-Based Reading and Writing and a benchmark for Math. Score reports for the PSAT/NMSQT, PSAT 10, and PSAT 8/9 include grade-level benchmarks based on how students grow from year to year toward the SAT benchmarks. \| \| Evidence-Based Reading and Writing \| \|---\|---\| \| 10th Grade PSAT 10 \| 430 \| Additional Information Provided to Help You Understand Progress Toward College Readiness The student score report provides further context for understanding scores by showing a color-coded bar chart for the section scores. Students who met or exceeded the benchmark will be in the green portion of the score band. If students didn't meet the benchmark but were close (within one year's growth), their scores will be in the yellow portion. Students who have a score indicating more than a year's growth below the grade-level benchmark will have a score in the red portion of the score band. Additionally, for each of the test scores and subscores, we have provided a color-coded guide to a student's relative strengths (green) and weaknesses (red). Percentiles A student's percentile rank represents the percentage of students who score equal to or lower than their score. For example, if a student's score is in the 75th percentile, 75% of a comparison group achieved scores at or below that student's score. Two types of percentile ranks, comparing student scores to two different reference populations, are provided in this publication for both total and section scores. Nationally representative percentiles are derived from a research study of U.S. students in the 10th grade and are weighted to represent all U.S. students in that grade, regardless of whether they typically take the PSAT 10. User group percentiles are based on the actual scores of students who took the PSAT/NMSQT and the PSAT 10 in the past three school years. 6 Percentiles for Total Scores \| 10TH GRADE \| \| \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Total Score \| PERCENTILES \| \| \| \| Nationally Representative Sample \| PSAT/NMSQT and PSAT 10 User \| \| 1520 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1510 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1500 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1490 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1480 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1470 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1460 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1450 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1440 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 1430 \| 99+ \| 99 \| \| 1420 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 1410 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 1400 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 1390 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 1380 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 1370 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 1360 \| 99 \| 98 \| \| 1350 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| 1340 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| 1330 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| 1320 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| 1310 \| 97 \| 97 \| \| 1300 \| 97 \| 97 \| \| 1290 \| 97 \| 97 \| \| 1280 \| 97 \| 96 \| \| 1270 \| 96 \| 96 \| \| 1260 \| 96 \| 95 \| \| 1250 \| 95 \| 95 \| \| 1240 \| 95 \| 94 \| \| 1230 \| 94 \| 94 \| \| 1220 \| 94 \| 93 \| \| 1210 \| 93 \| 93 \| \| 1200 \| 92 \| 92 \| \| 1190 \| 91 \| 91 \| \| 1180 \| 91 \| 90 \| \| 1170 \| 90 \| 89 \| \| 1160 \| 89 \| 88 \| \| 1150 \| 88 \| 87 \| \| 1140 \| 87 \| 86 \| \| 1130 \| 86 \| 85 \| \| 1120 \| 84 \| 84 \| Percentiles for Total Scores (continued) \| Total Score \| PERCENTILES \| \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Nationally Representative Sample \| PSAT/NMSQT and PSAT 10 User \| \| 1100 \| 82 \| 81 \| \| 1090 \| 81 \| 80 \| \| 1080 \| 79 \| 78 \| \| 1070 \| 78 \| 77 \| \| 1060 \| 76 \| 76 \| \| 1050 \| 75 \| 74 \| \| 1040 \| 73 \| 72 \| \| 1030 \| 71 \| 71 \| \| 1020 \| 69 \| 69 \| \| 1010 \| 67 \| 67 \| \| 1000 \| 65 \| 66 \| \| 990 \| 63 \| 64 \| \| 980 \| 62 \| 62 \| \| 970 \| 60 \| 60 \| \| 960 \| 58 \| 58 \| \| 950 \| 56 \| 56 \| \| 940 \| 54 \| 54 \| \| 930 \| 52 \| 53 \| \| 920 \| 50 \| 51 \| \| 910 \| 48 \| 49 \| \| 900 \| 46 \| 47 \| \| 890 \| 44 \| 45 \| \| 880 \| 42 \| 43 \| \| 870 \| 40 \| 41 \| \| 860 \| 38 \| 38 \| \| 850 \| 36 \| 36 \| \| 840 \| 33 \| 34 \| \| 830 \| 31 \| 32 \| \| 820 \| 28 \| 30 \| \| 810 \| 26 \| 28 \| \| 800 \| 24 \| 26 \| \| 790 \| 22 \| 24 \| \| 780 \| 19 \| 22 \| \| 770 \| 17 \| 20 \| \| 760 \| 15 \| 18 \| \| 750 \| 13 \| 16 \| \| 740 \| 11 \| 14 \| \| 730 \| 9 \| 12 \| \| 720 \| 8 \| 10 \| \| 710 \| 6 \| 9 \| \| 700 \| 5 \| 7 \| \| 690 \| 4 \| 6 \| \| 10TH GRADE \| \| \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Total Score \| PERCENTILES \| \| \| \| Nationally Representative Sample \| PSAT/NMSQT and PSAT 10 User \| \| 680 \| 3 \| 5 \| \| 670 \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 660 \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 650 \| 1 \| 3 \| \| 640 \| 1 \| 2 \| \| 630 \| 1 \| 2 \| \| 620 \| 1 \| 2 \| \| 610 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 600 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 590 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 580 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 570 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 560 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 550 \| 1- \| 1 \| \| 540 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 530 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 520 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 510 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 500 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 490 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 480 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 470 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 460 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 450 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 440 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 430 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 420 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 410 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 400 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 390 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 380 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 370 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 360 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 350 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 340 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 330 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 320 \| 1- \| 1- \| \| Mean Score \| 939 \| 934 \| Percentiles for Section Scores \| \| Evidence-Based Reading and Writing \| \| Math \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Section Score \| PERCENTILES \| \| PERCENTILES \| \| \| \| Nationally Representative Sample \| PSAT/NMSQT and PSAT 10 User \| Nationally Representative Sample \| PSAT/NMSQT and PSAT 10 User \| \| 760 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 750 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99+ \| \| 740 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99 \| \| 730 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 720 \| 99+ \| 99+ \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 710 \| 99 \| 99 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| 700 \| 99 \| 99 \| 99 \| 98 \| \| 690 \| 99 \| 98 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| 680 \| 98 \| 98 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| 670 \| 98 \| 97 \| 97 \| 97 \| \| 660 \| 97 \| 97 \| 97 \| 97 \| \| 650 \| 97 \| 96 \| 96 \| 97 \| \| 640 \| 96 \| 95 \| 96 \| 96 \| \| 630 \| 95 \| 94 \| 95 \| 95 \| \| 620 \| 93 \| 92 \| 95 \| 95 \| \| 610 \| 92 \| 91 \| 94 \| 94 \| \| 600 \| 90 \| 89 \| 92 \| 92 \| \| 590 \| 89 \| 87 \| 91 \| 91 \| \| 580 \| 87 \| 85 \| 89 \| 89 \| \| 570 \| 85 \| 83 \| 86 \| 87 \| \| 560 \| 82 \| 80 \| 84 \| 85 \| \| 550 \| 79 \| 78 \| 82 \| 82 \| \| 540 \| 76 \| 75 \| 79 \| 80 \| \| 530 \| 73 \| 72 \| 76 \| 77 \| \| 520 \| 70 \| 68 \| 72 \| 74 \| \| 510 \| 66 \| 65 \| 69 \| 71 \| \| 500 \| 63 \| 62 \| 66 \| 68 \| \| 490 \| 59 \| 59 \| 62 \| 64 \| \| 480 \| 56 \| 55 \| 57 \| 60 \| \| 470 \| 53 \| 52 \| 52 \| 56 \| \| 460 \| 49 \| 49 \| 49 \| 52 \| \| 450 \| 46 \| 45 \| 46 \| 48 \| Percentiles for Section Scores (continued) \| \| Evidence-Based Reading and Writing \| \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Section Score \| PERCENTILES \| \| \| \| \| Nationally Representative Sample \| PSAT/NMSQT and PSAT 10 User \| Nationally Representative Sample \| \| 440 \| 43 \| 42 \| 40 \| \| 430 \| 39 \| 39 \| 36 \| \| 420 \| 36 \| 35 \| 31 \| \| 410 \| 32 \| 32 \| 26 \| \| 400 \| 28 \| 28 \| 23 \| \| 390 \| 24 \| 25 \| 19 \| \| 380 \| 21 \| 21 \| 15 \| \| 370 \| 17 \| 17 \| 12 \| \| 360 \| 13 \| 14 \| 10 \| \| 350 \| 10 \| 11 \| 7 \| \| 340 \| 7 \| 8 \| 5 \| \| 330 \| 5 \| 6 \| 3 \| \| 320 \| 3 \| 4 \| 2 \| \| 310 \| 2 \| 3 \| 2 \| \| 300 \| 1 \| 2 \| 1 \| \| 290 \| 1- \| 1 \| 1 \| \| 280 \| 1- \| 1 \| 1- \| \| 270 \| 1- \| 1 \| 1- \| \| 260 \| 1- \| 1 \| 1- \| \| 250 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 240 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 230 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 220 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 210 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 200 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 190 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 180 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 170 \| 1- \| 1- \| 1- \| \| 160 \| 1- 1- \| \| \| \| Mean Score \| 468 \| 470 \| 470 \| 9 Answer Key April 1–26, Test Form 47 D \| Math Test – No Calculator \| \| \|---\|---\| \| SECTION 3 \| \| \| 1 \| D \| \| 2 \| B \| \| 3 \| A \| \| 4 \| D \| \| 5 \| B \| \| 6 \| A \| \| 7 \| A \| \| 8 \| C \| \| 9 \| D \| \| 10 \| D \| \| 11 \| C \| \| 12 \| A \| \| 13 \| B \| \| 14 \| 400 \| \| 15 \| 6 \| \| 16 \| 2, 12 \| \| 17 \| 20 \| \| Math Test – Calculator \| \| \|---\|---\| \| SECTION 4 \| \| \| 1 \| B \| \| 2 \| D \| \| 3 \| A \| \| 4 \| A \| \| 5 \| D \| \| 6 \| C \| \| 7 \| B \| \| 8 \| D \| \| 9 \| A \| \| 10 \| C \| \| 11 \| C \| \| 12 \| A \| \| 13 \| A \| \| 14 \| C \| \| 15 \| B \| \| 16 \| A \| \| 17 \| C \| \| 18 \| D \| \| 19 \| C \| \| 20 \| C \| \| 21 \| C \| \| 22 \| A \| \| 23 \| C \| \| 24 \| D \| \| 25 \| A \| \| 26 \| B \| \| 27 \| D \| \| 28 \| 5 \| \| 29 \| 6 \| \| 30 \| 42 \| \| 31 \| 17 \| NOTE: For more detailed information about scores, visit psat.org/resources. Score Conversion Score conversions shows how raw scores are converted into test scores, cross-test scores, and subscores. IMPORTANT TO NOTE § The section score for the Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section is calculated by adding the Reading Test score to the Writing and Language Test score and multiplying that figure by 10. § The section score for the Math section is calculated by multiplying the Math Test score by 20. § The digital Reading Test conversion is adjusted for mode differences, based on comparability studies. As we continue to administer the SAT Suite digitally, College Board will monitor performance and make needed adjustments to achieve comparable scale scores across testing modes. \| 48 \| \| \| \| 38 \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 47 \| 38 \| 38 \| \| 37.5 \| \| 46 \| 36 \| 35 \| \| 36.5 \| \| 45 \| 35 \| 34 \| \| 35.5 \| \| 44 \| 34 \| 34 \| 38 \| 34 \| \| 43 \| 34 \| 33 \| 36 \| 32.5 \| \| 42 \| 33 \| 32 \| 35 \| 31.5 \| \| 41 \| 32 \| 31 \| 34 \| 31 \| \| 40 \| 31 \| 30 \| 33 \| 30 \| \| 39 \| 30 \| 29 \| 32 \| 29.5 \| \| 38 \| 29 \| 29 \| 32 \| 29 \| \| 37 \| 29 \| 28 \| 31 \| 28.5 \| \| 36 \| 28 \| 28 \| 30 \| 28 \| \| 35 \| 28 \| 27 \| 30 \| 27.5 \| \| 34 \| 27 \| 27 \| 29 \| 27 \| \| 33 \| 27 \| 26 \| 29 \| 27 \| \| 32 \| 26 \| 26 \| 28 \| 26.5 \| \| 31 \| 26 \| 25 \| 27 \| 26 \| \| 30 \| 26 \| 25 \| 27 \| 25.5 \| \| 29 \| 25 \| 25 \| 26 \| 25.5 \| \| 28 \| 25 \| 24 \| 26 \| 25 \| \| 27 \| 24 \| 24 \| 25 \| 24.5 \| \| 26 \| 24 \| 23 \| 25 \| 24 \| \| 25 \| 23 \| 23 \| 24 \| 24 \| \| 24 \| 23 \| 22 \| 23 \| 23.5 \| \| 23 \| 22 \| 22 \| 23 \| 23 \| \| 22 \| 22 \| 21 \| 22 \| 23 \| \| 21 \| 21 \| 21 \| 21 \| 22.5 \| \| 20 \| 21 \| 20 \| 21 \| 22 \| \| 19 \| 20 \| 20 \| 20 \| 22 \| \| 18 \| 20 \| 19 \| 20 \| 21.5 \| \| 17 \| 19 \| 19 \| 19 \| 21 \| \| 16 \| 19 \| 18 \| 18 \| 20.5 \| \| 15 \| 18 \| 18 \| 18 \| 20 \| \| 14 \| 18 \| 17 \| 17 \| 19.5 \| \| 13 \| 17 \| 17 \| 17 \| 19 \| \| 12 \| 17 \| 16 \| 16 \| 18.5 \| \| 11 \| 17 \| 16 \| 16 \| 18 \| \| 10 \| 16 \| 15 \| 15 \| 17.5 \| \| 9 \| 16 \| 14 \| 15 \| 16.5 \| \| 8 \| 15 \| 14 \| 14 \| 16 \| \| 7 \| 15 \| 13 \| 14 \| 15 \| \| 6 \| 14 \| 12 \| 13 \| 14 \| \| 5 \| 13 \| 11 \| 12 \| 13 \| \| 4 \| 12 \| 11 \| 12 \| 12 \| \| 3 \| 11 \| 10 \| 11 \| 11 \| \| 2 \| 10 \| 9 \| 10 \| 10 \| \| 1 \| 9 \| 8 \| 9 \| 9 \| \| 0 \| 8 \| 8 \| 8 \| 8 \| The PSAT 10 Score Report A Case Study: Ima B. Student's PSAT 10 Score Report Take a look at Ima B. Student's sample score report below and on the next page. Use the corresponding information to help you interpret your student's PSAT 10 Score Report. Score Report What are Ima's scores? Ima's Evidence-Based Reading and Writing score is 430, and her Math score is 530. In Evidence-Based Reading and Writing, Ima's score meets the benchmark for college readiness. In Math, however, Ima is exceeding the benchmark and is on track. Test scores, cross-test scores, and subscores can give Ima a better understanding of areas to work on. What are Ima's score percentiles? Since Ima is in the 10th grade, the percentiles compare her scores with those of all 10th graders in the nation. Ima scored as well as or better in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing than 39% of a nationally representative group of sophomores. In Math, she scored as well as or better than 76% of a nationally representative group of sophomores. Additional percentiles are available in Ima's online score report. How can Ima see her full report? Ima can visit psat.org/myscore to see her full score report, learn how to prepare for the SAT, and see her potential for AP® coursework. How can Ima learn from her answers? Using her score report with her PSAT 10 test booklet, Ima can see the actual questions, correct answers, and difficulty level alongside her own answers. She can use her online score report to review the questions she answered incorrectly or omitted, and to see detailed answer explanations. What are Ima's next steps? When Ima accesses her full score report at psat.org/myscore, she'll also be able to connect to free, personalized practice on Khan Academy, see her potential for AP coursework, and use the college- and careerplanning resources at BigFuture™. Your Summary Score Report School Name: John F. Kennedy High School School Code: 123456 Grade: 10th Grade Student ID: 24068907 Optional Code: 00 Access Code: A02670146P The PSAT 10 Sample Score Report (continued) The PSAT 10 Sample Score Report (continued) YOUR PATH TOMORROW Here's what else is waiting for you online: A link to free personalized practice on Khan Academy 1 Share your scores with Khan Academy to get your personalized practice. A list of the challenging courses you're ready for Congrats! Your scores show you're ready to succeed in AP ® courses. 22 Your customized starter college list Check out the tools at BigFuture ™ to kick-start your college plans. 3 Money for College Our PSAT 10 scholarship partners award over $255 million a year and they're on the lookout for qualified students. If you said "yes" to Student Search Service® on your PSAT 10 answer sheet, you could be invited to apply for one of their college scholarships. If you didn't, it's not too late to opt in. Learn more about each scholarship Program and find out how to opt in at psat.org/scholarships. psat.org/scholarships. IN COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIPS © 2019 The College Board. College Board, AP, SAT, and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. PSAT is a trademark owned by the College Board. PSAT/NMSQT is a registered trademark of the College Board and National Merit Scholarship Corporation. Visit the College Board on the web: collegeboard.org. Khan Academy is a registered trademark in the United States and other jurisdictions. Ima B. Student 2019, 10th Grade The PSAT 10 Sample Score Report (continued)* Ima B. Student 2019, 10th Grade	<urn:uuid:c844fc75-4ca2-4055-9f07-f6568c6ba603>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.satinsights.com/_files/ugd/4d4fd1_c81715b8936c4cb291929fda6109a48e.pdf	2024-02-27T16:07:13+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00680.warc.gz	979,809,692	7,840	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.903682	eng_Latn	0.997408	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 95, 1760, 4658, 6918, 8665, 10988, 13813, 15575, 17305, 18513, 19448, 20204, 22274, 23532, 24132, 24307, 24353, 25733, 25813 ]	[ 2.421875, 1.7109375 ]	7	4
HUMANE SOCIETY OF BROWARD COUNTY Behavior Modification Handout Coprophagia The specific reason for stool eating in dogs is often debated and very little is know as to why dogs engage in this undesired behavior. There are numerous speculative ideas such as something lacking in the diet, attention seeking behavior, a hold over from nest or den cleaning behaviors from the dam. One thing we can all agree on is owners don't like it and controlling the behavior early on will help to eliminate a bad habit from taking hold. Controlling or managing your environment is often a less stressful and faster way to solve some behavior problems. If you don't want your dog to do something then eliminate the opportunity for the behavior to happen or decrease the likelihood of the behavior with a series of precautions and preventatives. Starting Off on the Right Paw / Managing Your Environment * Keep your yard or kennel area clean from feces. When the dog eliminates pick it up right away. * Use a food additive such as CoproBan or Fore-Bid available from your veterinarian to give the stool an unappealing flavor (to your dog). MSG can also be used on food for the same effect. * Supervise your dog when he is eliminating outside, interrupt any stool eating and redirect him with a food treat or toy. Clean up any feces right away. * If your dog is a cat box feeder use baby gates to eliminate his access. Covered boxes may also work for large dogs. Remember, make it easy for your cat to get to the box but not your dog. * Keep the box clean, scoop everyday. Your cat will enjoy a clean box and your dog will not have the opportunity to visit the buffet. * You may also use food additives on your cat's food to give the stool an unappealing taste (to your dog). Avoiding the Pitfalls * Any aversive or booby trap you may use to scare your dog away from the litter box may also scare your cat! * Punishment for this behavior is not going to be an effective deterrent and may only serve to create a fearful or aggressive response from your pet. * Be patient. This behavior is often exhibited in puppies and younger dogs. If given guidance by providing behavior modification and managing your environment most dogs will extinguish this behavior as they mature. * Always consult your veterinarian with behavioral changes in your pet to rule out any medical problems and get their advice on using medications or food additives. * This behavior should be addressed as soon as it appears. Coprophagia can be a health risk to your pet if he ingests other dog's feces. The possibility of contracting disease or parasites is likely.	<urn:uuid:30616252-72c3-462f-9d34-fbeeaf85bafb>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://humanebroward.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/behavior-handout-coprophagia.pdf	2024-02-27T16:43:15+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00684.warc.gz	309,183,760	557	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999175	eng_Latn	0.999175	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2638 ]	[ 2.28125 ]	1	7
Sucrose The most familiar disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar) obtained from sugar beets and sugar cane. Sugar cane was grown domestically as early as 600 B.C. in India. Words 'sucrose' and 'sugar' comes from Sanskrit word 'Sarkara'. Sucrose was encountered by the soldiers of Alexander the Great, who entered India in 325 B.C. In later centuries, the use of sucrose was spread by the Arabs and the Crusaders. Sugar cane was introduced into New World by Columbus, who brought some to Santo Domingo in 1493. In the 1700's it was discovered that certain beets also contain high levels of sucrose. Sucrose consists of a D-glucose subunit and a D-fructose subunit linked by a glycosidic bond between C-1 of glucose (in the -position) and C-2 of fructose (in the -position). Unlike the disaccharides discussed earlier it is a non-reducing sugar and doesn't exhibit mutarotation because the glycosidic bond is between anomeric carbons of glucose and fructose i.e. it lacks a hemiacetal group and is not in equilibrium with aldehyde or keto group. It has a specific rotation of +66.5 o , on hydrolysis it yields equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose and has a specific rotation of -22.0 o . Due to this change in the sign of specific rotation, a 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose is called invert sugar. The enzyme that catalysed the hydrolysis of sucrose is called invertase. Honeybees have this enzyme, the honey they produce is a mixture of sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Because fructose is sweeter than sucrose, invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose. A synthetic invert sugar called Isomerose is prepared by the enzymatic isomerisation of glucose in corn syrup. It has commercial use in the preparation of ice cream, soft drinks, and candy. Sucralose Sucralose is an artificial sweetner and a sugar substitute. It was first discovered in 1976 by chemists at Tate & Lyle in an interesting manner. Two researchers Leslie Hough and Shashikant Phadnis at Queen Elizabeth College (now part of King's College London) while researching novel uses of sucrose and its synthetic derivatives, Phadnis was told to "test" a chlorinated sugar compound. Phadnis thought Hough asked him to "taste" it, so he did. He found the compound to be exceptionally sweet and the company L3 got it patented. It is now used to sweeten soft drinks. It is also used in canned fruits wherein water and sucralose take the place of much higher calorie corn syrup -based additives (Source: Wikepedia). Sucralose is largely considered shelf-stable and safe for use at elevated temperatures (such as in baked goods). It is produced by chlorination of sucrose, if three of its OH groups are replaced by chlorine atoms, a compound ‘sucralose’, 600 times as sweet is produced: less of it is needed to get the same sweet taste and the chlorines reduce the rate of metabolism so that much less fat is made, it does not promote dental cavities, is safe for consumption by diabetics and nondiabetics, and does not affect insulin levels benefit is lacking for long-term weight loss . However, evidence of with some data supporting weight gain and heart disease risks. Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) Glucose, a reducing sugar, can react with haemoglobin to form glycosylated haemoglobin. Changes in amount of glycosylated haemoglobin can be used to monitor the long term control of diabetes mellitus. As a person's blood sugar becomes higher, the level of glycosylated haemoglobin is increased in the red blood cells of persons. The glycosylated haemoglobin level is measured primarily to determine the three months average blood sugar level and can be used as a diagnostic test for glycemic control in people with diabetes. HbA1C Level 5.7 – 6.4 %: High risk > 6.5 %: Diabetic Polysaccharides Most carbohydrates found in nature occur as polysaccharides, polymers of medium to high molecular weight. Polysaccharides, also called glycans, differ from each other in the identity of their recurring monosaccharide units, in the length of their chains, in the types of bonds linking the units, and in the degree of branching. Unlike proteins, polysaccharides generally do not have definite molecular weights. This difference is a consequence of the mechanisms of assembly of the two types of polymers. Unlike proteins synthesis on a template (messenger RNA) of defined sequence and length, by enzymes that follow the template exactly, for polysaccharide synthesis there is no template; rather, the program for polysaccharide synthesis is intrinsic to the enzymes that catalyze the polymerization of the monomeric units, and there is no specific stopping point in the synthetic process. Homopolysaccharides Homopolysaccharides contain only a single type of monomer; heteropolysaccharides contain two or more different kinds. Some homopolysaccharides serve as storage forms of monosaccharides that are used as fuels; starch and glycogen are homopolysaccharides of this type. The most important storage polysaccharides are starch in plant cells and glycogen in animal cells. Both polysaccharides occur intracellularly as large clusters or granules. Starch and glycogen molecules are heavily hydrated, because they have many exposed hydroxyl groups available to hydrogenbond with water. Most plant cells have the ability to form starch, but it is especially abundant in tubers, such as potatoes, and in seeds. Other homopolysaccharides (cellulose and chitin, for example) serve as structural elements in plant cell walls and animal exoskeletons. Starch Starch contains two types of glucose polymer, amylase and amylopectin. The former consists of long, unbranched chains of D-glucose residues connected by ( -1-4) linkages. Such chains vary in molecular weight from a few thousand to more than a million. Amylopectin also has a high molecular weight (up to 100 million) but unlike amylose is highly branched. The glycosidic linkages joining successive glucose residues in amylopectin chains are ( -1-4); the branch points (occurring every 24 to 30 residues) are ( -1-6) linkages. Glycogen Glycogen is the main storage polysaccharide of animal cells. Like amylopectin, glycogen is a polymer of ( -1-4)-linked subunits of glucose, with ( -1-6)-linked branches, but glycogen is more extensively branched (on average, every 8 to 12 residues) and more compact than starch. Glycogen is especially abundant in the liver, where it may constitute as much as 7% of the wet weight; it is also present in skeletal muscle. In hepatocytes glycogen is found in large granules, which are themselves clusters of smaller granules composed of single, highly branched glycogen molecules with an average molecular weight of several million. Such glycogen granules also contain, in tightly bound form, the enzymes responsible for the synthesis and degradation of glycogen. Because each branch in glycogen ends with a nonreducing sugar unit, a glycogen molecule has as many nonreducing ends as it has branches, but only one reducing end. When glycogen is used as an energy source, glucose units are removed one at a time from the nonreducing ends. Degradative enzymes that act only at nonreducing ends can work simultaneously on the many branches, speeding the conversion of the polymer to monosaccharides. Why not store glucose in its monomeric form? Glucose, due to its water solubility, present as monomers within the cell exert more osmotic pressure (hypertonic) than a single glycogen molecule (as Glycogen is insoluble), resulting in entry of water in the cells by endosmosis that might rupture the cell. Glycogen on the other hand is osmotically more stable. Furthermore, with an intracellular glucose concentration of 0.4 M and an external concentration of about 5 mM (the concentration in the blood of a mammal), the freeenergy change for glucose uptake into cells against this very high concentration gradient would be prohibitively large. Dextran Dextrans are bacterial and yeast polysaccharides made up of ( -1-6)-linked poly-Dglucose; all have ( -1-3) branches, and some also have ( -1-2) or ( -1-4) branches. Dextran can be produced from sucrose by certain lactic acid bacteria present in mouth. About 10% of dental plaque is composed of dextran. Medicinally it is used as an antithrombotic (antiplatelet), to reduce blood viscosity, and as a volume expander in Hypovolemia (a codition in which the liquid portion of the blood (plasma) is too low). In laboratory, it is used in some size-exclusion chromatography matrices; an example is Sephadex. The dextrans in these products are chemically cross-linked to form insoluble materials of various porosities, admitting macromolecules of various sizes. Cellulose Cellulose, a fibrous, tough, water-insoluble substance, is found in the cell walls of plants, particularly in stalks, stems, trunks, and all the woody portions of the plant body. Cellulose constitutes much of the mass of wood, and cotton is almost pure cellulose. Like amylose and the main chains of amylopectin and glycogen, the cellulose molecule is a linear, unbranched homopolysaccharide, consisting of 10,000 to 15,000 D-glucose units. But there is a very important difference: in cellulose the glucose residues have the configuration whereas in amylose, amylopectin, and glycogen the glucose is in the configuration. The glucose residues in cellulose are linked by ( -1-4) glycosidic bonds, in contrast to the ( -1-4) bonds of amylose, starch, and glycogen. This difference gives cellulose and amylose very different structures and physical properties. As a consequence of its -linkages, amylase forms a helix that is extensively hydrogen bonded and, as a result, starch is soluble in water. -linkages in cellulose cause the molecules to form intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Consequently, they are less extensively bonded to water and line up in linear arrays. The linear molecules form intermolecular hydrogen bonds and, as a result, cellulose is not soluble in water. The bundles of polymer chains causes cellulose to be an effective structural material. Glycogen and starch ingested in the diet are hydrolyzed by -amylases, enzymes in saliva and intestinal secretions that break ( -1-4) glycosidic bonds between glucose units. Most animals cannot use cellulose as a fuel source, because they lack an enzyme to hydrolyze the ( -1-4) linkages. However, bacteria that possess glucosidase inhabit the digestive tracts of grazing animals and secretes cellulase, which hydrolyzes the ( -1-4) linkages, thus they are capable of using cellulose as food only indirectly. So cows can eat grass and horses can eat hay to meet their nutritional requirements for glucose. Termites also harbour bacteria that readily digest cellulose (and therefore wood). Structure of Cellulose Chitin Chitin is a linear homopolysaccharide composed of N-acetylglucosamine residues in linkage. The only chemical difference from cellulose is the replacement of the hydroxyl group at C-2 with an acetylated amino group. Chitin forms extended fibers similar to those of cellulose, and like cellulose cannot be digested by vertebrates. Chitin is the principal component of the hard exoskeletons of nearly a million species of arthropods insects, lobsters, and crabs, for example - and is probably the second most abundant polysaccharide, next to cellulose, in nature. Heteropolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides provide extracellular support for organisms of all kingdoms. For example, the rigid layer of the bacterial cell envelope (the peptidoglycan) is composed in part of a heteropolysaccharide built from two alternating monosaccharide units. In animal tissues, the extracellular space is occupied by several types of heteropolysaccharides, which form a matrix that holds individual cells together and provides protection, shape, and support to cells, tissues, and organs. Bacterial and Algal Cell Walls The rigid component of bacterial cell walls is a heteropolymer of alternating ( -1-4)linked N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid residues. The linear polymers lie side by side in the cell wall, cross-linked by short peptides, the exact structure of which depends on the bacterial species. The peptide cross-links weld the polysaccharide chains into a strong sheath that envelops the entire cell and prevents cellular swelling and lysis due to the osmotic entry of water. Agarose Certain marine red algae, including some of the seaweeds, have cell walls that contain agar, a mixture of sulfated heteropolysaccharides made up of D-galactose and an Lgalactose derivative ether-linked between C-3 and C-6. The two major components of agar are the unbranched polymer agarose (Mr ~120,000) and a branched component, agaropectin. The remarkable gel-forming property of agarose makes it useful in the biochemistry laboratory. When a suspension of agarose in water is heated and cooled, the agarose forms a double helix: two molecules in parallel orientation twist together with a helix repeat of three residues; water molecules are trapped in the central cavity. These structures in turn associate with each other to form a gel - a three-dimensional matrix that traps large amounts of water. Agarose gels are used as inert supports for the electrophoretic separation of nucleic acids, an essential part of the DNA sequencing process. Agar is also used to form a surface for the growth of bacterial colonies. Another commercial use of agar is for the capsules in which some vitamins and drugs are packaged; the dried agar material dissolves readily in the stomach and is metabolically inert. Glycosaminoglycans The extracellular space in the tissues of multicellular animals is filled with a gel-like material, which holds the cells together and provides a porous pathway for the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen to individual cells. The extracellular matrix is composed of an interlocking meshwork of heteropolysaccharides and fibrous proteins such as collagen, elastin, fibronectin, and laminin. These heteropolysaccharides, the glycosaminoglycans, are a family of linear polymers composed of repeating disaccharide units One of the two monosaccharides is always either Nacetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine; the other is in most cases a uronic acid, usually D-glucuronic or L-iduronic acid. In some glycosaminoglycans, one or more of the hydroxyls of the amino sugar are esterified with sulfate. The combination of sulfate groups and the carboxylate groups of the uronic acid residues gives glycosaminoglycans a very high density of negative charge. To minimize the repulsive forces among neighboring charged groups, these molecules assume an extended conformation in solution. The specific patterns of sulfated and nonsulfated sugar residues in glycosaminoglycans provide for specific recognition by a variety of protein ligands that bind electrostatically to these molecules. Glycosaminoglycans are attached to extracellular proteins to form proteoglycans.	<urn:uuid:c204af63-ddae-4a85-8004-b199e74e8b6c>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://chemistry.du.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Carb-L3.pdf	2024-02-27T16:57:13+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474676.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227153053-20240227183053-00685.warc.gz	7,337,647	3,543	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995316	eng_Latn	0.996129	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2270, 3765, 5529, 7271, 8683, 11345, 13583, 14962 ]	[ 2.171875 ]	2	0
Chapter 8 Urban Environment Introduction Urban areas play an important role in economic, political, and cultural development. The concentrated population and production in urban areas leads to greatly reduced unit costs in providing and managing basic infrastructure and services, better employment and livelihood opportunities, and easier participation in the political process. The same concentration, however, makes urban areas consumers of resources and producers of pollution, resulting in a wide range of environmental problems in the cities and beyond. sites, and greenery and open space at the periphery. The old settlements were located at relatively higher elevations and surrounded and separated from each other by agricultural land; almost all waste was biodegradable, and sewage was used in agriculture. Until fairly recently, except for sanitation, the environmental quality of the Valley towns was excellent (HMG/UNDP 1994). In the process of rapid growth, Nepal's urban areas now face all the abovementioned problems of infrastructure and service deficiency, and environmental management. Historically, cities grew gradually over long periods of time, which provided time and opportunity to address their emerging needs. In the past half-century, the pace of urbanization in developing countries has accelerated greatly. Often, rapid urban growth has taken place without matching expansion of the infrastructure, services, and facilities necessary for an adequate and healthy urban environment, and without adequate planning or regulation. This has caused deterioration in urban environmental quality. Urban areas commonly face shortages of safe drinking water and inadequate provision of sanitation, solid waste collection and disposal, drains, paved roads; and other forms of infrastructure and services necessary for a healthy environment. This results in bad water and air quality, unmanaged or mismanaged waste, and increasing noise pollution. Urban areas also face problems in controlling encroachment into public spaces and degradation of cultural sites and heritage. Rapid urban growth in itself need not produce serious environmental problems provided environmental implications are considered in a systematic, timely, and adequate way. Kathmandu Valley is the most urbanized region in Nepal and its urban areas have been important economically, administratively, and politically for hundreds of years. The urbanization of Kathmandu Valley goes back over 1500 years, and the old towns of the Valley are characterized by a strong cultural history and pattern—dense settlement with courtyards as in-town open space, squares as intervening open spaces, temples and other cultural Urban Growth and Features Urban Settlements The municipalities designated by the Ministry of Local Development are the areas in Nepal formally defined as urban. The criteria for designating municipality status have been revised several times since 1952 (Table 8.1). The current definition is given by the Local Self Governance Act 1999, which classifies municipalities into three hierarchical levels: metropolitan city, sub-metropolitan city, and municipality. At present there are 1 metropolitan city (Kathmandu), 3 sub-metropolitan cities (Biratnagar, Lalitpur, Pokhara, and Birganj), and 53 municipalities. The density, contiguity, and occupational structure of the population—which are generally accepted criteria for defining urban areas—have never been considered in designating municipalities Crowded Kathmandu NEFEJ Table 8.1: Criteria for Urban Status Act or Guidelines in Nepal. Population size, revenue generation, and availability of facilities and services appear to be the basis for designating a settlement as an urban or municipal area. These criteria, however, have not been strictly and consistently applied over the decades in assigning municipality status to a locality. Some areas have been classified, de-classified, and re-classified as municipalities over the past 50 years, and the territorial boundaries of many settlements have been re-drawn to include surrounding rural areas to meet the population size criteria. This might have been motivated by political interests. As a result, significant parts of the territories of several formally defined municipalities may not exhibit an urban character, while other settlements like small or emerging towns not yet formally defined as municipalities may show a more urban character. Population Trends Nepal is one of the least urbanized countries in the world. In 2001, the last year for which reliable statistics are available, 14% of the population lived in urban areas. However, the rate of urban growth has been fast in recent decades: the rate of urbanization increased markedly from the 1970s onward and is among the highest in Asia and the Pacific. Between 1952 and 2001, the number of formally designated urban centers grew from 10 to 58, with a corresponding increase in urban population from 0.2 million to 3.2 million; a sixteen-fold increase. The Criteria urban population was only 3% in 1952 (Table 8.2). The ratio of urban population to total population has increased progressively, and the annual average growth rate of urban population exceeded the national population growth rates throughout the period from 1952 to 2001. One projection suggests that Nepal's urban population will be more than 6 million by 2011, the 58 municipalities will contain over 20% of the national population, and 16 towns will exceed 100,000 population (Joshi 1999). In general, urban growth is expected to continue rapidly. According to the ADB (2000), the major reasons for rapid growth in Nepal's urban population include the following: (i) High levels of rural to urban migration: the general trend of migration in Nepal is from Hill/Mountain regions to the Terai (plain) and from rural to urban. The insurgency that began in 1996 has significantly accelerated rural-urban migration; (ii) A high population growth rate; (iii) Extension of existing municipal boundaries; and (iv) Designation of new municipalities. With increasing urbanization, the urban economy is growing at a rate of 6.4% per annum, more than double that of the rural economy, and the contribution to the national economy is estimated to be around 60% of gross domestic product (GDP) (Nippon Jogesuido Sekkei 2002). Table 8.2: Summary of Urban Growth Trends in Nepal 1952/54 a–2001 — = not available , km 2 = square kilometer a Census of 1952/54 cover ed two Nepali years, approximately mid April 1952 to mid April 1954 Source: Sharma (2003) pp. 375–412. Pattern of Urbanization Urbanization has not occurred evenly throughout the country (Table 8.2). Kathmandu, the capital city, is the main urban center and dominates in terms of concentration of population and economic activities; it has been growing at a very high annual rate in excess of 7% (Nippon Jogesuido January 2002). The Hill/Mountain region remains the least urbanized in the country, and Kathmandu Valley consistently remains the most urbanized region, although its share of urban population has been declining and has been exceeded by the Terai region since 1981. In general, regions with low levels of urbanization have been experiencing faster urban growth and regions experiencing slower rates of urban growth are the ones where the existing level of urbanization is higher. Over 39% of Nepal's urban population in 2001 resided in metropolitan and sub-metropolitan areas with populations over 100,000. Nepal currently has 45 urban areas with populations between 20,000 and 100,000, against only 6 in 1971. These contain over 54% of the urban population. Several of these are district headquarters, which have been important trade centers with long histories. In 2001, only about 4% of the urban population lived in the eight urban centers with populations between 10,000 and 20,000. There are many small market towns with populations under 10,000. Although there is no adequate information available on their population and growth rates, it is clear that these are growing quite fast. They now frequently contain significant populations and appear more urban than the outskirts of many designated municipalities. These small market towns are not yet classified as urban areas. New roads, improved accessibility, and infrastructure development led to their emergence as towns, and several of the newly emerged small towns are on highways and feeder roads. Many of these had been only small rural trading centers, villages, or did not exist until a few decades ago. They generally lack basic infrastructure to accommodate the rapidly increasing population pressure (newspaper articles, personal communication and observation, and Joshi 2000). Only Kathmandu has reached a population of 500,000 inhabitants or more, and at present only five urban areas—Biratnagar, Birganj, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Pokhara—have populations exceeding 100,000. Except for Kathmandu, all have populations less than 175,000. Nepal's population size and urbanbased economy are small and would not be conducive to larger cities. Migration is likely to be greatest to those urban areas where land for housing is comparatively cheap, where there are employment and livelihood opportunities, and where there are reasonable urban facilities such as education, health, and communications. This logic, and the past trend, suggests that urban areas with current populations in the range of 50,000 to 100,000 are likely to be the preferred destinations for migration. The trend in the last three decades also supports this argument: between 1971 and 2001, population in urban areas of 50,000 to 99,000 grew from 13% to 24% of the total urban population, whereas the percentage declined among all other sizes. The typical population of Nepalese towns in the next decade or so is likely to be 100,000 to 200,000. Most of Nepal's urban centers are unlikely to have populations exceeding 300,000 in the next 10 to 15 years. Most urban areas are not very densely populated in terms of persons per unit area (Table 8.2). The urban areas of Kathmandu Valley are the most densely populated in Nepal. Urban densities in some of the municipalities, particularly in the Hill/Mountain region, are only slightly higher than that of rural areas. For example, the density of Triyuga and Amargadi municipalities is 172.8 and 132.5 persons per square kilometer, respectively, which is comparable with the rural density (Sharma 2003). Population densities may be higher in smaller or emerging towns that are not yet classified as urban areas. Several municipalities exhibit a more rural than urban character because of expansion of boundaries of the existing towns in the process of gaining municipal status to include population on the fringes that was hitherto classified as rural. Some municipalities are not even linked with the rest of the country by road, and the outskirts of many municipalities can be reached only by a walk of 3–4 hours. Emerging Problems Most urban areas of Nepal have cultural and heritage sites of varied nature including historical settlements, monuments, religious sites (temples, monasteries, and others) and ponds and public taps. These are of local, national, and international significance; some are listed as World Heritage Sites by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (including the Pashupatinath temple, Boudhanath, Swayambhunath, palace areas of Hanuman Dhoka, Patan, and Bhaktapur, Changu Narayan temple, and Lumbini). However, according to IUCN (1999) "the physical state of the cultural and heritage sites and the monuments in Kathmandu Valley is fast deteriorating". The cultural and heritage sites along rivers are the worst affected. Emergence of urban slums and squatter settlements in Nepal's cities is relatively new and still small in size compared with other cities in South Asia. There are no adequate data on slum dwellers in Nepal nor is there a definition of "slums". However, the number of squatter settlements in major urban areas has been increasing in the last few years; it is most conspicuous in Kathmandu Valley. In 1985 the number of squatter settlements in the Valley was 17 with an estimated 3,000 inhabitants; this grew to 33 with an estimated population of 15,000 in 1990 (Pradhan 2004); and to 44 in 2002 (Baniya 2002). Pathibhara is the largest recorded squatter settlement with 187 households and 2000 family members. All these squatter localities and some of the core areas of Kathmandu are said to be slums due to lack of basic sanitation and utility facilities. The emergence and expansion of the squatter settlements has been encroaching upon riverbanks, public lands, lands belonging to temples or other religious/cultural sites, agricultural land, and forest areas. Urban Infrastructure Roads and Traffic In 2000, the total road length in the urban areas of Nepal was 2,051 km, of which blacktopped, graveled, and earthen road lengths were 930 km, 600 km, and 521 km, respectively (CBS 2002). There is considerable variation in the length and status of urban roads in municipalities depending on their size and location. For example, Waling has only 8 km of road within its territory whereas Kathmandu has 800 km (SWMRMC 2004). Some municipalities are completely devoid of blacktopped roads, and some are not even linked with the national road network. Urban traffic in Nepal is typically a mix of traffic types including automobiles, cycle rickshaws (manual three-wheeler), bicycles, and even animaldrawn carts. The numbers and composition of traffic vary from municipality to municipality. Rickshaws and bicycles are most conspicuous in the Terai towns, whereas cars and motorcycles make up over half of all motor vehicles in Kathmandu. Most of the growth in motor vehicle fleets is concentrated in Kathmandu Valley. In March 2004, for example, the number of registered automobiles in Nepal was 418,910, of which about half were in Kathmandu Valley (DOTM 2005). Water Supply In 2000, about 78% of the people living in urban areas had access to an improved water supply within 15 minutes of home (WaterAid Nepal 2004). However, there is significant variation in the coverage, service level, and qualities of supplied water between and within urban areas. A survey conducted in 2002 in nine municipalities outside Kathmandu showed that piped water supply coverage varied from 7% to 65% of households (Nippon Jogesuido 2002). Groundwater is the main source of water in the Terai and is generally adequate in terms of quantity; hill towns are served from surface sources and generally face serious water availability problems. Quality of supplied water is quite often a concern; arsenic content has become an alarming issue in many rural water supply schemes in the Terai, whereas biological contamination is generally the main concern where surface water is used. Except for a few towns such as Dhulikhel, Damak, and Mechinagar, water supplies are intermittent, with water available only a few hours a day (ADB 2000). Inadequate quantity, non-uniform distribution of water, unreliability of supply, and high rate of unaccounted for water (due to leakage and illegal connections) are major issues related to water supply in the urban areas of Nepal. The rate of unaccounted for water is particularly high in Kathmandu (IUCN 1999; ADB 2000). Sanitation and Drainage In 2000 sanitation coverage in urban areas of Nepal was 67% of the population (WaterAid Nepal 2004). The provision of sanitation infrastructure is generally very poor: a significant proportion of the urban population outside Kathmandu is still not connected to wastewater or sewerage systems. In smaller towns, households are either without sanitation facilities or served by septic tanks or pits, or illegally use storm water drains as sanitary sewers. Wastewater treatment facilities are very limited, and where provided they suffer from chronic disrepair, maintenance, and operation problems, and are often non-functional. For example, three sewage treatment plants in Bhaktapur and Lalitpur are not functioning. Sewerage systems, often combined with storm water drainage systems, only exist in some urban areas; and their coverage is limited. The combined sewerage systems in Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur cover approximately 13,000 households (ADB 2000). A 2002 survey in nine small towns outside Kathmandu revealed that, in general, only parts of town centers have storm drainage; some are covered but most are uncovered (Nippon Jogesuido 2002). In these towns, the total length of storm drains varied from 2 to 22 km. During the rainy season, drainage is a serious problem, particularly in the urban areas of the Terai. Solid Waste Solid waste is generally very poorly managed by municipalities in Nepal (ADB 2000). More than half of the municipalities have not even identified or proposed sites for land-filling their wastes, let alone carrying out proper land-filling. In general, waste is collected, transported, and disposed of by municipalities. Lack of resources—including human resources, infrastructure, and equipment—is a common problem faced by municipalities in attempting to manage solid waste. Siting and operation of landfills is highly sensitive and controversial. Many municipalities have worked in partnership with the private sector, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), and community groups in Abandoned Chamber Built for Burning Medical Waste managing solid waste. They are particularly involved in awareness, waste collection, and street cleaning. Some NGOs have piloted door-to-door collection, composting, and recycling (NEFEJ 2004). One emerging concern is the management of hazardous wastes. There is no clear state policy on this. Medical waste, obsolete pesticides, batteries, effluent, and byproducts of industries are the main sources of hazardous waste. Few health institutions have autoclaves and incinerators: and where they exist they are quite often not in operation. Urban Environmental Concerns Solid Waste Quantity and Nature The municipalities of Nepal generate over 1,350 tons of solid waste every day. Kathmandu alone generates 383 tons/day, slightly less than one-third of the total municipal waste. Household waste constitutes about 75% of municipal waste. The municipal waste varies from 0.11 to 0.93 kg per person per day, with an average of 0.34 kg per person per day (SWMRMC 2004). The households on the outskirts of the smaller towns (which, although falling within the municipality boundary, are rural in nature) reuse most of their waste for feeding animals (pigs and cattle). With the change in consumption patterns and lifestyle of urban inhabitants, the composition of solid waste has been changing over the years, from traditional organic materials to papers, plastics, glass, metals, and packaging materials. Even so, about twothirds of municipal waste is still organic or biodegradable although the composition varies from municipality to municipality. A recent study (SWMRMC 2004) showed the following average composition of the solid waste generated in Nepalese municipalities: (i) Organic material 66% by wet weight (with a range of about 39 to 95% from municipality to municipality); (ii) Metal, glass, paper, and plastic combined, 20% by wet weight (range 5 to 50%); plastic alone constitutes 7.6% (range 1.6% to 21%); (iii) Inert material 9.6% (range 0 to 37%); and (iv) "Other" (including medical waste) about 5%. Management Practices and Concerns Solid waste is the most conspicuous environmental problem across Nepal's urban areas. According to ADB (2000), until the 1980s, municipal solid waste management problems were negligible other than in Kathmandu Valley—most of the waste generated being organic and thus managed at the household level. Sweepers clean the streets and open spaces, collecting the waste into roadside heaps using brooms, picks, shovels, and wheelbarrows; waste is also picked up from roadside heaps or bins and transported to disposal points by tractors and trailers, power-tillers, rickshaws, or other waste transportation vehicles. However, the solid waste collection rate is generally low. On average only 35% of municipal waste is collected; but rates vary from about 7% to as high as 86% from one municipality to another (SWMRMC 2004). Disposal of waste is haphazard. Even the capital city dumped waste along the riverbanks until very recently. Almost all municipalities currently lack any landfill site; Pokhara municipality started disposing of solid waste at a landfill site after a long negotiation with the people residing in the neighborhood, and the Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilisation Center recently reached agreement with the local people to dispose of the capital city's waste at Sisdole for two years, by which time a long-term site is expected to be ready at Okharpauwa. Sisdole Landfill Site for Kathmandu Refuse Random and insanitary collection and disposal of urban solid waste in Nepal is the result of lack of long-term perspective; deficiency in the planning, provision and operation of infrastructure; insufficient public lands that can be accessed for waste disposal purposes; and absence of a holistic and integrated system for solid waste management. Solid waste management is generally understood as sweeping the street and dumping waste in places where it receives no public opposition. Hence, waste is commonly dumped on public land, forest, riverbanks, and other places ill-suited for this purpose. Irregularity of collection is common, with heaps of garbage found piled up on the streets. Sanitary Landfill Site and Land-filling Land-filling is a commonly used method for solid waste disposal. A landfill site is first selected considering present use and value of land; available area and potential life of landfill; the site's soil and topography, geology, and hydrology; haulage distance; and settlements near the site. The selected site is developed into a proper landfill site by providing drainage, access, and other structures and facilities necessary for a landfill operation. Operation involves laying the waste in layers, compacting it, and covering it with earth at the end of each day's operation. Many landfill sites around the world have been poorly engineered and operated, and hence face vociferous public opposition and criticism for their adverse environmental impacts. The decomposition of the organic matter in a landfill site produces highly polluting liquid, called leachate, and gases (mainly methane and carbon dioxide). Leachate can percolate down, causing groundwater pollution. Methane is a combustible gas and explosive when its concentration in air is between 5% and 15%. Methane can accumulate below buildings or other enclosed spaces on or close to a landfill, posing risk of explosion. Other common concerns related to land-filling are odor; litter blown by the wind; scavenger birds, rodents and insects attracted by the organic refuse; and dust and noise generated by the heavy trucks and equipment used in transporting waste and operating the landfill. Because of the concerns arising from poor operation and management, siting and operation of landfill sites is a very sensitive public issue in Nepal. For a decade or so Kathmandu city has been facing a severe problem in disposing of its solid waste. In the early 1990s, people near the then-existing landfill site at Gokarna opposed the landfill and obstructed its operation many times, resulting in waste accumulation on the streets of Kathmandu for several days, or inappropriate disposal of waste along the riverbanks. Later when the life of the Gokarna landfill site was finished, no other landfill site could be identified within the Valley due to public opposition, and Kathmandu's refuse continued to be disposed of along the riverbanks. In 2005, authorities reached an agreement with local people to operate a short-term (2-year) landfill at Sisdol with a plan to prepare a long-term landfill site at Okharpauwa in the same locality. Shortcomings in planning and design as well as poor operation and management are the primary causes of public opposition to landfill sites. State-of-the art practice requires improvements in the way landfill sites are planned, designed, operated, and managed. A landfill site needs to have a buffer zone separating it from settlements and public places, a liner should be placed at the bottom of the landfill site to control flow of the leachate to the groundwater, leachate should be collected and treated, and gases (particularly methane) need to be collected and either safely vented or used as fuel, in addition to compaction and daily covering of the waste put in layers. Besides, waste may be segregated into decomposable, reusable, recyclable, and the rest. Not all waste needs to be land-filled: decomposable waste can be converted into compost, and reusable and recyclable waste could be sold. The decomposable fraction of waste typically exceeds 60% in Nepal and is the one that produces leachate, gases, and attracts birds and insects. Separating this from the remaining waste not only reduces the volume to be land-filled (thus increasing the life of the landfill), but also reduces the chances of adverse environmental problems and public opposition. Open Dumping of Medical Waste Lalitpur Municipality Such a state has many adverse environmental consequences. In the first place, it is aesthetically bad, causes bad smells, and is a nuisance to the public. Refuse also attracts animal scavengers and pests, can be a breeding place for disease-vectors, and can be hazardous to human health. Uncollected refuse gets into drains and blocks them, causing disruption to drainage and sewerage systems. Irregular collection encourages people to burn waste which contains plastics and chemicals—the resulting emissions have long-term health implications. The refuse also produces leachate that can contaminate surface water and groundwater if not handled properly. Haphazard solid waste collection is also a source of air pollution. Overall, unmanaged solid waste not only causes significant adverse impacts on public health and the environment but also deterioration in the quality of life of people. In most municipalities, hazardous wastes are commonly mixed and dumped along with municipal waste. Most commonly, industrial waste is either burned, dumped, drained in a river, or mixed with municipal waste. Similarly, hospital waste is either burned in a chamber within the hospital compound or mixed with municipal waste (SWMRMC 2004). Mixing such wastes with municipal waste renders the latter hazardous and potentially infectious. Solid waste in Nepalese urban areas could be better managed by adopting a more holistic and integrated approach that internalizes the concept of the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle). Some elements of this have been tried on a limited scale in Nepal, although these remain unguided, uncoordinated, or isolated and out of the mainstream solid waste management practice. For example, there are several small-scale recycling industries using waste plastics as raw materials, and paper is recycled in a paper mill and also by some NGOs (NPC and UNDP undated). Scavengers collect beverage bottles, which are mostly reused, and metal scraps, which are recycled in factories in India and Nepal. Bhaktapur municipality has been composting its solid waste for some time now; a compost plant of about 13 tons/day was operational until a few years back in Kathmandu, and several NGOs and community groups in different urban areas have Solid Waste Management by an NGO The Women Environment Preservation Committee (WEPCO) is a nonprofit NGO formed in 1992 by a group of enthusiastic women from Kupondole, Lalitpur. From its beginning, WEPCO has been actively and continuously involved in solid waste management in the Kupondole area of Lalitpur Municipality. The solid waste management it practices and promotes is more than just collection and disposal of waste; it incorporates the concept of recycling and converting waste into resources. WEPCO provides doorto-door waste collection service to about 80% of the area households, for which each household pays a monthly charge. The biodegradable fraction of the waste is converted into organic compost. WEPCO also recycles paper collected from different sources. WEPCO has shown an example on a small scale of how "waste" may be better managed by also considering it as a "resource". WEPCO is also active in training and disseminating the experiences and lessons learned to other NGOs and community groups, raising community awareness on the 3Rs, and promoting composting at household level. WEPCO is working in partnership with Lalitpur Municipality and the private sector. In recognition of the work done, WEPCO was awarded the MOPE Environment Award 1996, UNEP Global 500 Environment Award 2003, and World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF) Nepal Program Abraham Conservation Award 2003. (Source: personal communication with WEPCO). initiated door-to-door waste collection and smallscale composting, including vermi-composting as well as briquette production (NEFEJ 2004). All these indicate that waste can be converted into a resource, provided the right policy and approach are followed. Water Pollution Water pollution is a serious environmental issue in Nepalese urban areas. Pollution of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds, groundwater, and drinking water supplies are common. Deficiency in wastewater and solid waste facilities and their mismanagement have often resulted in pollution of surface and groundwater. Using storm water drains as sanitary sewers is a widespread practice in Nepal. Sewerage systems, often combined with storm water drainage systems, exist in a number of urban areas such as in greater Kathmandu and Bhaktapur, although their coverage is inadequate and they are in a poor state of maintenance. Greater Kathmandu and Bhaktapur are the only urban areas with sewage treatment plants; however, these plants are not functioning and the untreated sewage is discharged directly into rivers. Major polluting industries, such as tanneries, sugar, paper, canning, cement, breweries, and pharmaceutical industries, are invariably located in or near urban areas and often dispose their waste, Bagmati River Pollution The Bagmati River with its tributaries—the Bishnumati, Manohara, Dhobikhola, Icchumati (Tukucha), Nakkhu, Hanumante, Karmanasa, and Godavari—is the main river in Kathmandu Valley. The Bagmati River system is extremely important for both the Valley and downstream areas. The river system has been the Valley's main source of water for drinking and irrigation, and an important component of its ecosystem. It also has tremendous religious, cultural, and social significance—the river is worshipped by millions of Hindus in Nepal and India. Several temples (including Pashupatinath), ghats, and maths are located along the banks of the Bagmati River and its tributaries. People perform various religious and cultural activities and rituals, and take holy ablution there. It is often referred to as the Ganges of Nepal. Over the last few decades, the Bagmati's condition has gradually deteriorated and it has become the most polluted river in Nepal. Direct disposal of untreated sewage and throwing garbage into the river system, withdrawal of sand, tapping river water to meet the water demand of the increasing population as well as of the increasing number of factories, and encroachment of the river banks are the main causes of the degradation and extreme pollution. During the dry season, the volume of water is so reduced and the river is so polluted that it looks like an open sewer. One study conducted by the Environment and Public Health Organization (Dhakal 2003) showed that the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is in excess of 400 mg/l within the city and immediate downstream areas. This is alarming, as the normal COD of river water is around 40 mg/l. However, as the river flows out from the Valley, the pressure on it reduces considerably and due to natural selfpurification processes, the COD is reduced to 25 mg/l by the time it reaches Gaur in Rautahat. The effects of this extreme pollution are many. The most visible is aesthetic: a highly polluted, sewage-filled, black stream flowing through the heart of the city obviously destroys the city's beauty. Pollution has also affected cultural and religious activities and rituals—ritual bathing is almost a thing of the past, and people do not use river water even when performing puja. The health of the people living along the banks is also at risk. Villagers immediately downstream of Kathmandu have now stopped using the river water for irrigation, and fishermen have stopped their traditional occupation, as there are no fish left in the river. The river is almost dead, and aquatic life is almost nonexistent when the river reaches Chobhar area (Dhakal 2003; Phuyal 2003). including toxic waste, to roadside drains and open spaces. The only industrial wastewater treatment plant, at Hetauda, often encounters operational difficulties (ADB 2000; IUCN 1992). Thus, the rivers have become major places for disposal of untreated sewage and industrial effluents, as well as urban solid waste dumping. This is the principal cause of surface water pollution. As a result, many rivers in urban areas have practically become open sewers, especially during the dry season. The adverse effects of this are many, such as eutrophication affecting river ecology and aquatic life, and making the water unfit for most human uses including bathing and irrigation. The effects are not confined to urban areas, but can be felt for long distances downstream. Groundwater in most urban areas is contaminated due to seepage from pits and septic tanks, and open defecation. Studies of water quality from shallow aquifers throughout Nepal have found that the fecal coliform contamination consistently exceeds World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for water for human consumption (ADB 2000). Drinking water supplies are often polluted through runoff into storage sites or cross-leakages between overloaded sewer lines and water pipes (IUCN 1991). Sewage is the primary cause of drinking water pollution. Nearly one-third of the urban population of Nepal do not have direct access to a piped water supply. The availability of improved water supply, including non-piped, within 15 minutes of walking distance is nearly 80% (WaterAid Nepal 2004; CBS 2004). Even those with access do not necessarily have adequate water. The quantity of water delivered by the water supply system is mostly below 50 liters per capita per day and the quality often falls below WHO recommendations (ADB 2000), mainly due to bacteriological contamination caused by poor sanitation facilities. Unserved households obtain water from traditional water sources such as wells, rivers, springs, or ponds. These sources are typically unprotected, and water quality is usually poor. Water pollution is the most serious public health issue in Nepal. Contaminated drinking water and lack of sanitation facilities result in worsening public health conditions, deteriorating quality of life, and increased economic costs to society. While this affects people of all income levels, the poor are most vulnerable. They have few resources or alternatives to protect themselves from such adverse impacts as seasonal drying out of surface water sources, pollution of groundwater, or spread of sanitation-related diseases. Drainage Drainage to cope with surface runoff is often deficient in Nepalese urban areas. This is most evident during the rainy season; the limited lengths of drains that exist in urban areas are often filled with waste, including plastics and dirt. As a result, the surface runoff either infiltrates the ground or flows into natural drains through streets and lanes, leaving the towns muddy and dirty. Urban areas in the Terai (where the natural gradient is very flat) often experience serious drainage problems: flooding and rise in groundwater tables are common. This renders the existing wastewater disposal system ineffective. These deficiencies obviously pose a serious threat to the health and sanitation of the residents. Hill municipalities also suffer from lack of drainage, although to a lesser extent than the Terai towns. According to ADB (2000), more than 25% of households of greater Kathmandu and 32% of those of Bhaktapur suffer frequent flooding. Air Pollution Air pollution is emerging as a serious concern in the major urban areas of Nepal in general and in Kathmandu Valley in particular (see Chapter 7). The deterioration in urban ambient air quality results from vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, burning solid waste including plastics, construction work, poor maintenance and narrow roads, and adulteration of fuel. In urban areas total suspended particles (TSP) and PM10 (particulate matter smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter) are the major concerns. Other pollutants such as SO 2 and NOx are also increasing although still below Nepal's Ambient Industrial Air Pollution, Kathmandu Air Quality Standards and WHO guideline levels. In areas where traffic is high, TSP and PM10 generally exceed national and WHO guideline values. This indicates that the major source of TSP and PM10 is road traffic; the condition of vehicles and of the road surface are contributing factors in addition to the type and quality of fuel. Industries probably follow as the next major source of urban air pollution. Air quality monitoring in Kathmandu shows that the air is routinely not clean enough to breathe in places like Putalisadak, Patan, and Thamel. Pollution also regularly obstructs the visibility levels of the scenic landscape of the Himalayas. According to a study, the number of foggy days in Kathmandu has increased from about 35–40/year in 1970 to more than 60/year in 1993, the most recent year for which reliable statistics are available (URBAIR 1996). Kathmandu Valley is particularly vulnerable to air pollution due to poor dispersion chances in its bowl-shaped topography. In the smaller urban areas, indoor air pollution resulting from use of biomass fuel, firewood, cow dung cake, and crop residues is at present of more concern than outdoor air pollution. Adverse effects of air pollutants on human health can be acute or chronic. Respiratory infection is among the top five diseases in Nepal, occurring mainly due to prolonged exposure to smoke and dust (CBS 1998). Acute respiratory infections (ARI) continue to be one of the leading causes of death among young children, causing over 30% of deaths in children under five years of age (DOHS 2001). In Kathmandu Valley, 3.6% of the respiratory diseases among children are estimated to be caused by TSP (IUCN 1999). Air-pollution-related ailments such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and asthma are now becoming very common in Kathmandu Valley (IUCN 1999). Traffic Congestion The number of motor vehicles in the larger urban centers has increased rapidly in recent years. This has not been matched by provision of roads and infrastructure, leading to persistent traffic congestion, particularly in Kathmandu Valley towns. Urban development is taking place without adequate planning or provision of transport infrastructure, and with inadequate consideration of the nature and composition of the traffic. Urban roads are commonly narrow and crooked, and the road network function is poor. There is no or insufficient parking space. The mixture of vehicle types, poor driving, bad parking, and roadside trading add to traffic congestion. The consequences of this are longer travel times, greater levels of air and noise pollution, and less efficient fuel consumption (ADB 2000; Adhikari 1998; UNEP 2001). Noise Pollution Noise is becoming a significant form of pollution in urban areas. It is a public nuisance and affects people's health physically and psychologically (by increasing irritation, tension, nervousness, and anxiety). Transport noise, industrial noise, and community or neighborhood noise represent the leading forms of noise pollution in Nepal (IUCN 1991). Prolonged exposure to high noise levels may cause permanent hearing loss. Industrial noise is also a significant occupational hazard. Many noise-sensitive sites such as colleges and hospitals are also subject to much higher levels of noise than acceptable. Like air pollution, noise is on the increase in municipal and industrial areas. Sources of significant noise include traffic, industries, use of heavy machines and tools in construction and commercial activities, and use of loudspeakers for prayer in the early morning hours. Conflicting land use in urban areas has contributed to noise pollution where residential use is mixed with noise-causing industries (ADB 2000). Transportation is one of the predominant sources of noise pollution. Power tillers, buses, heavy trucks, and three-wheelers are significant contributors to noise pollution in municipal areas (UNEP 2001). Road traffic noise levels in Kathmandu range from 70 to 100 decibels (dBA). The noise level in industries such as textile, metal works, cement, and flour mills is very high, with noise levels exceeding 90 dBA (IUCN 1999). People living around airports are subject to high levels of noise produced by aircraft. Impacts on Heritage Sites, Open Spaces, and Agricultural Land In the urban areas of Nepal, open spaces traditionally exist in the form of public/community spaces around cultural and heritage sites as well as in religious forested clumps and pond areas. In many smaller towns, open space also provides fortnightly, weekly, or bi-weekly market sites. Provision of public parks, playgrounds, and green open space, although found in a few urban centers, is not common in Nepal's urban planning and development. Traditional open spaces are treated as "no man's land". Heritage sites and open spaces are under increasing pressure as haphazard urbanization continues. The historical and cultural sites are deteriorating due to pollution, emerging building has defaced historical and cultural monuments, and encroachment of the open space and premises of these sites is common (HMG/UNDP 1994; Adhikari 1998; IUCN 1999). Urbanization invariably brings about land-use change. Loss or degradation of fertile agricultural land as a result of unguided urban development is a long-term concern. Urban areas of Kathmandu Valley have expanded at the cost of agricultural land. According to Karki (1998), between 1984 and 1994, the urban area in the valley increased from 3096 ha to 8378 ha and 5282 ha of fertile agricultural land was lost in the process of unplanned urbanization. If this trend continues, by the year 2020, all the prime agricultural land in Kathmandu valley will be urbanized. The loss of agricultural land in Kathmandu Valley is an important indication of what may happen in other urban areas as they grow haphazardly. Policies and Initiatives Policy There is no specific policy for the urban sector in Nepal, although the significance of the urban sector rises consistently. Urban development is multisectoral and the urban policy thrust can be derived from the sectoral policies. The sectoral policies, plans, and related legislation and regulations provide a basic framework for urban development and environmental safeguards in urban areas. Some relevant legislation and policies include the following: (i) Local Self-governance Act 1999: empowers municipalities to administer and manage local resources, and to prepare and implement programs. The Act is intended to develop municipalities as self-governing autonomous urban local bodies playing an effective role in overall urban development. (ii) Town Development Fund Act 1997: facilitates financing of urban infrastructure projects in municipalities or urbanizing villages. (iii) Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilisation Act 1987: regulates collection, recycling, and disposal of solid waste in municipal areas. (iv) Industrial Enterprises Act 1992: controls the establishment of industries and regulates licenses for establishment, expansion, and modernization of industrial enterprises. (v) Environment Protection Act 1996: requires environmental assessment of proposed projects, empowers the Government to provide incentives to any activity that has positive impacts on the environment, and has provisions for polluters to compensate persons suffering from polluting activities. (vi) Ancient Monument Protection Act 1956: protects ancient monuments and other objects of archaeological, historical, and artistic importance, and empowers the Government to declare any area where an ancient monument is located as a Protected Monument Zone. (vii) Nepal Drinking Water Supply Corporation Act 1989: sets up Nepal Drinking Water Corporation, a body responsible for supplying clean drinking water to municipalities and to areas specified by the Government, and to manage drainage systems in municipal areas. (viii) Local Administration Act 1971, Land Acquisition Act 1977, and Vehicle and Transport Management Act 1992 have provisions that are relevant for urban management. (ix) The National Solid Waste Management Policy, National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, and Shelter Policy are important in the planning, development, and management of urban infrastructure. (x) The Nepal Urban Sector Strategy 2000 is an important step towards recognizing the increasing significance of urban areas in Nepal. Roads; Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilisation Center; Nepal Telecommunications Corporation; and Nepal Electricity Authority. As responsibilities are scattered and many agencies are involved in the planning, provision, and management of urban infrastructure and services, coordination is extremely difficult. Institutional confusion arising from provisions in various legislations regarding the responsibilities, authorities, and handling of resources is a prominent issue. Urban development and management in Nepal lack an integrated holistic approach, and long-term vision. Recently, after enactment of the Local Self-Governance Act, municipalities are being increasingly empowered to manage their urban areas and to assume the urban governance role. The municipalities, however, are generally constrained by a lack of capacity and resources. As a result, urban areas of Nepal continue to grow spontaneously and haphazardly. At present there is no information available regarding the level of investment by municipalities in the environmental and infrastructure sectors. However, solid waste management, building drains, and plantation are some areas in which municipalities commonly invest. While these policies and legislation provide a basic framework for urban planning and management as well as environmental safeguards in urban areas, there are difficulties at the implementation level. First, these acts need to be streamlined, made coherent, and ambiguities removed. Provision of urban infrastructure in Nepal has been largely driven by central institutions such as the Nepal Water Supply Cooperation; Department of Lack of financial resources is a critical constraint currently faced by Nepalese municipalities. Local development fees (LDF) and grants are the two major sources of revenue for municipalities (Table 8.3). LDF are collected by the central Government and transferred to the municipalities through the Ministry of Local Government. Almost all municipalities are highly dependent on LDF and grants; they are generally weak in mobilizing local revenue sources. Bhaktapur municipality has introduced a "Tourist Entry Fee", which generated more than 44% of its revenue in one Table 8.3: Consolidated Revenues and Ex penditures of Municipalities FY 2004 DDC = District Development Committee, HMG = His Majesty's Government of Nepal, TDF = Town Development Fund Source: Chhetri and Pradhan (2005) Land Pooling for the Proposed Outer Ring Road in Kathmandu His Majesty's Government of Nepal and the People's Republic of China recently agreed to construct an "outer ring road" (approximately 66 km in length) in Kathmandu Valley. The current ring road was constructed 30 years ago also with Chinese assistance. The outer ring road (ORR) is expected to connect old settlements of Kathmandu Valley, provide space for a bulk supply line for the Melamchi Water Supply Project and for electricity transmission lines, and at the same time relieve traffic pressure in the main city areas by providing alternative by-passes. The road will have 60 m as right of way; space will be reserved for fast-track vehicles, bicycle track, water supply and electricity lines, and a green belt. Over 325 ha of land is thus required. Acquiring this land giving compensation at market rates would be too costly, and at the same time acquisition would take a long time due to compliance with the acquisition and compensation process. Keeping this in mind, a "land pooling" approach has been proposed to readjust the land with participation of the affected people. Land pooling is a participatory process of land readjustment and development that has been practiced for urban expansion in Nepal for the past few years. Using this approach, a corridor of 560 m width (250 m left, 250 m right, and 60 m wide road) will be temporarily taken from landowners for development purposes. The land will be developed providing access, constructing basic infrastructure, and separating space for the road, service track, open spaces, and bicycle track. The land owners will contribute the space proportionately, based on defined criteria, and in return will receive developed plot(s) of land. The project expects that obtaining the land required for the road through land pooling in the 560 m corridor would help control urban sprawl, as the returned land would be developed. Critics of the project, however, feel that the outer ring road will further damage Kathmandu Valley by stimulating uncontrolled urban sprawling as has been done by the existing ring road constructed three decades ago. Source : Personal communication with Mr. Kishore Thapa, Project Manager, Outer Ring Road Land Development Project; Devkota and Ghimire (undated); Joshi (2004); DUDH (2005) year (Chhetri 2004; Chhetri and Pradhan 2005). Nepal's accession to the World Trade Organization may require abolishing LDF, as this is against the spirit of the Organization. In the absence of LDF, municipalities will have further financial difficulties and many may be unable to cover administrative expenditures. Strengthening the financial resources of municipalities should therefore be at the top of the agenda of empowering and strengthening municipalities to meet environmental responsibilities. There have been attempts in the past at planned development of urban areas. For example, Rajbiraj, Dipayal, Birendranagar, and Bharatpur were initially planned, but planning control quickly disappeared and they soon began to take haphazard routes to growth (Adhikari 1998). Tikapur town planning scheme, the only comprehensive effort to plan a new town in Nepal, was never implemented as envisioned (Adhikari 1998). Although master plans for Kathmandu have been prepared, implementation of these has been weak and generally unsatisfactory. Structure plans were prepared between 1988 and 1991 for all the 33 municipalities of the time. However, these were not adequate as the content was limited to general policy statements and details were not worked out (Joshi 2000). Guided Land Development and Land Pooling are two notable government initiatives to plan and guide urbanization of some municipalities. These aim to facilitate adjustment of land plots in a participatory process so that space is provided for urban infrastructure—roads, water supply, drainage, electricity, and telephone. Integrated action planning is also practiced in several municipalities as an approach to planning urban areas by the people who live there. Community meetings are the cornerstone of this approach. Other features are mobilization and participation of the community in the identification, prioritization, and programming of municipal development activities and making the planning process more people oriented (Thapa undated; personal communication with the agencies concerned). Urban Development through Local Efforts is an initiative to strengthen municipalities in their roles and functions, and to promote participation by the people (UDLE 1992). There are several small-scale isolated initiatives in improving urban quality, e.g., in converting wastes into resources, and improving greenery (NEFEJ 2004). Future Directions The urban environment is broad and integrated and therefore urban environmental management should use a broad integrated perspective, rather than the conventional narrow approach of dealing with sectoral issues separately. There are obvious linkages among various urban infrastructures and services; synergistic positive effects could be enormous if these were to be integrated and coordinated properly. For example, solid waste management is linked with air pollution, functioning of drainage, public health, and aesthetics. A truly integrated and holistic approach should be promoted if urban Vehicles are a major source of urban pollution: clockwise from top-bus in Kathmandu; protesting against pollution; clean SAFA tempos Min Bajracharya B. Pradhan environmental planning and management are to succeed in making urban areas better places to live. Obviously, this should not be limited to integrated and coordinated provision of infrastructure and services, but also include wider concepts of integration. It is necessary to: (i) introduce land-use planning with due consideration to environmental attributes including urban ecology and heritage; (ii) integrate and coordinate planning and management of urban infrastructure and services; (iii) promote waste reduction, reuse, and recycling and other environmentally friendly practices; (iv) raise awareness of people regarding environment, health, and appropriate practices and behaviors; (v) promote participation and partnership with people, communities, NGOs, communitybased organizations, the private sector, and civil society in environmental planning and management; (vi) address urban poverty and needs of the urban poor; and (vii) introduce the "polluter pays" principle. Most past efforts in planning and providing urban infrastructure and services have been sectoral—uncoordinated rather than integrated. Important lessons regarding urban environmental management in Nepal can be derived from past activities including planning approaches and donorsupported programs as well as small-scale environmental activities of NGOs. The latter include converting wastes into resources (through composting, making briquettes from waste, paper recycling, management of solid waste by communities), promoting alternative approaches to waste/sewage treatment, and addressing the needs of the urban poor including those in slums and squatter communities. The informal sector can play an important role in urban life and livelihoods. Integrated urban management should also include strengthening this sector. Municipalities, local bodies, and competent authorities must be strengthened if integrated urban environmental management is to be achieved. Appropriate tools, and human and financial resources must all be developed. Clear urban development policies and legal frameworks may be necessary for promoting land-use planning, participation by the stakeholders, and ensuring coordination and cooperation. Quite often environmental problems are political and economic, arising not from shortage of environmental resources (e.g., land or fresh water) but from political or economic factors that inhibit certain groups' access to them. Most environmental problems cannot be solved without effective local institutions. In the long run, a competent, representative, inclusive, and democratic local government is the key for effective proactive environmental management in urban areas. Decentralization and empowering municipal governance are the top priorities if disjointed sectoral activities are to be coordinated under an able, technically competent, and financially viable urban management and development authority. To date, power lies with sectoral line agencies which control resources and influence legislation. This central control has not worked satisfactorily and is unlikely to improve in future. It is therefore essential for devolution of authority to take place in a very fundamental way, ensuring transfer of power and resources to local units, enhancing municipal capacity, ensuring participatory processes to working with communities, and fostering partnership with NGOs and the private sector. Bibliography Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2000. Technical Assistance Final Report on Nepal Urban Sector Strategy, Volume 1: Main Report. Kathmandu: His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, Department of Housing and Urban Development, and Asian Development Bank . Adhikari, A. P. 1998. Urban and Environmental Planning in Nepal—Analysis, Policies and Proposals. Kathmandu: The World Conservation Union (IUCN). Baniya, I.C. 2002. "Problems, Prospects and Policy Measures in Slums and Squatters: A Case Study of Jagriti Tole and Hyumat Tole, Kathmandu." A Seminar Report, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Institute of Engineering, Kathmandu. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 1998. A Compendium on Environment Statistics 1998. Kathmandu. ———.2002. A Handbook of Environment Statistics, Nepal 2002. Kathmandu. . ———.2004. Handbook of Environment Statistics 2003 Kathmandu. Chhetri, R. B. 2004. "Pros and Cons—Nepalese Municipal Finance." Unpublished report, Urban Development Through Local Efforts Project, German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Kathmandu. Chhetri, R. B., and S. Pradhan. 2005. "Financial Analysis of Nepalese Municipalities (1999/2000 to 2003/04)." Unpublished report, Urban Development Through Local Efforts Project, German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Kathmandu. Department of Health Services (DOHS). 2001. Annual Report 2000/01. Kathmandu. Department of Transport Management (DOTM). 2005. Unpublished data accessed from record files, Department of Transport Management, Kathmandu. Department of Urban Development and Housing (DUDH). 2005. "Outer Ring Road Land Development ProjectConcept Paper." Third draft (unpublished), His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, Kathmandu. Devkota, N. and D. Ghimire. Undated. "Outer Ring Road in the Kathmandu Valley—Part of Development Plan or a Plan in Itself?" Unpublished report, Kathmandu. Dhakal, S. 2003. "Bagmati Under Threat." Spotlight (23)1 June 27–July 03. Available: http:// www.nepalresearch.org/archive/ nature/pollution/ archive His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 1994. "Urban Environment Program: Main Document." Unpublished report, Environment Protection Council, Urban Environment Management Committee, Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning, Kathmandu. IUCN (The World Conservation Union). 1992. Environmental Pollution in Nepal: A Review of Studies. Kathmandu: His Majesty's Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission-National Conservation Strategy Implementation Programme. ———.1999. Environmental Planning and Management of the Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu: His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environment. Joshi, J. 1999. Housing and Urban Development in Nepal: Analysis and design of participatory development process. Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi. ———.2000. Planning for Sustainable Development: Urban Management in Nepal and South Asia. Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi. Joshi, P.S. 2004. "Future of Kathmandu Valley—The Planning Initiatives, Containment Policy and Proposed Outer Ring Road." In Voices of Cities, 4(2) edited by B. Mainali, Municipal Association of Nepal, Kathamandu. Ministry of Law and Justice (MOLJ). 1999. Local SelfGovernance Act 2055 (1999). Kathmandu. National Planning Commission (NPC) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). undated. "Sectoral Reports for Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal." Draft report. His Majesty's Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission and United Nations Development Programme, Kathmandu. Available: http://www.scdp.org.np/sdan Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ) and Environment Support Fund (ESF). 2004. Project Completion Report. Environmental Support Fund for Non-Governmental Organisations and CommunityBased Organisations in Nepal, Kathmandu. Nippon Jogesuido Sekkei Co Ltd Japan et al. 2002. "Urban and Environmental Improvement Project Nepal." Final Report: Volume I Main Report. Kathmandu, Asian Development Bank and His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. Phuyal, S. 2003. "How Have-nots are Forced to Pay for Crimes of Haves." Kathmandu Post, June 1. Available: http://www.environmentnepal.com.np/ articles_d.asp?id=133 Pradhan, P.K. 2004. "Population Growth, Migration and Urbanisation, and Environmental Change in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal." In Environmental Change and its Implications for Population Mitigation edited by J. Unruh, M. Krol and N. Kliot Kluwer The Netherlands: Academic Publishers. Sharma, P. 2003. "Urbanisation and Development." In Population Monograph of Nepal Volume I. Kathmandu: His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics. Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilisation Centre (SWMRMC). 2004. "A Diagnostic Report on State of Solidwaste Management in Municipalities of Nepal." Final Report. Lalitpur. Thapa, Kishore (N.D.). "Urban Land Pooling Policies in Nepal and Experiences in Implementation, Kathmandu, Nepal." Unpublished. Urban Development Through Local Efforts (UDLE). 1992. Urban Environmental Guidelines for Nepal. Kathmandu: Urban Development Through Local Efforts Project, German Technical Cooperation (GTZ). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2001. Nepal: State of the Environment 2001. Bangkok: United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Resource Center for the Asia Pacific. URBAIR. 1996. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia, Kathmandu Valley Report. The International Bank of Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank, Washington DC. WaterAid. 2004. The Water and Sanitation Millennium Development Targets in Nepal: What do they mean? What will they cost? Can Nepal meet them? Lalitpur.	<urn:uuid:339e00a3-955e-4c65-a934-8f6f5b139492>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://lib.icimod.org/record/20748/files/c_attachment_20_65.pdf	2019-06-19T09:49:59Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00432.warc.gz	104,624,456	12,859	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.972385	eng_Latn	0.9969	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3537, 6376, 8649, 13815, 17563, 21735, 26391, 30488, 35355, 40048, 44850, 48223, 53580, 53742, 58490, 62978 ]	[ 2.125, 1.3671875 ]	1	0
Back to School Basics - Easing the adjustment to school routines Sleep Habits Help your children adjust their bodies into school routines by starting about 2 weeks before the start of school. Reading Reading is important whether you read with your child or they read by themselves; it will keep their mind sharp. Reading is an all-year-long activity, taking a break for summer is unnecessary and should be discouraged. Create Enthusiasm Try to involve your child(ren) as much as possible in the preparations for going back to school: * School Supplies. Go through your home first to see what you may already have that is on the supplies list. You may be surprised to find that you have cut your shopping list down to a more manageable, budget friendly amount. Don't buy items just because they look nice or are cheap, consider their quality and durability. Watch for sales and shop around to get the best for less. * Shoes. Proper footwear is essential. Your child will most likely need two pairs, one for indoor and one for outdoor. (A third pair may be required for gym.) While style is important to your child, comfort, fit, quality and durability are what really counts. * Clothing. We would all love to be able to give our kids a new wardrobe for a new school year, but being practical, one new outfit (and maybe a pack of new socks and underwear) should do the trick. If you normally buy more than one outfit consider buying one new outfit to start and then once they have been to school, have your child decide if there is anything they may have seen other children wearing that they would like to have. Or the opposite, something they want to be sure not to wear. * Healthy Breakfasts and Lunches. You want your child to have the best possible start to their day and enough nourishment for them to sustain themselves at school. An easy way to do this is by having several choices for them to choose from, taking into consideration that most schools are peanut free, read the label carefully. Remove Some Morning Stress! Preparing the night before is a sure bet for a smooth start to their day. Have your child help pack their lunch, set out their clothes and supplies. While you can't control everything that may happen, like the bus being late, you can be sure your child will be prepared for learning. Phone: 613-735-2116 \| Toll Free: 800-661-0340 \| firstname.lastname@example.org \| www.valleyefap.com	<urn:uuid:e94533f8-708f-4d67-b38e-5594b16e42dd>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://www.keepanopenmind.ca/userfiles/file/Back%20to%20School%20Basics%20-%20Easing%20the%20adjustment%20to%20school%20routines.pdf	2019-06-19T09:33:07Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00430.warc.gz	261,235,761	512	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998369	eng_Latn	0.998369	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2410 ]	[ 2.125 ]	1	1
SSA KINS Philosophy Overview Southern Soccer Academy supports GA Soccer's Kicking Is Not Soccer (KINS) philosophy for Under-6 to Under-12 soccer players. For most, the Recreational Program at these ages is essentially the players' first experience with the game of soccer, so it important for the players to be given the opportunity to develop in a fun and purposeful environment. Main Objectives First Objective: To promote and emphasize the skill of dribbling at the U6 through U12 age groups, and discourage aimless kicking of the ball. When young players are conditioned to just kick the ball forward as far as possible, their skill development is stunted, making it harder for them to reach their true potential. Dribbling is the foundation and preparation for all the other fundamental skills of soccer, such as controlling, passing, and shooting. Laying the proper dribbling foundation at the youngest years will enhance the players' ability to improve all soccer skills. No matter what level the players will end up playing, recreational or select, they will derive increased pleasure from the game if they can control the ball better and become more adept at manipulating it. Second Objective: To promote decision making by the players on the field and reduce their dependence on adults for problem solving. Soccer is a player's game, meaning that it's the player who must make the decisions on the field. Therefore, frequent positive reinforcement (praise and encouragement) should be given but limited instruction. Role as a Parent It's often hard for you to watch your child lose the ball in front of his/her own goal and for the other team to score. So, the next time your child has the ball in his/her half, you can't help it and shout "kick it!" But every time they kick it, they lose another opportunity to learn to dribble. Therefore, instead of using the words 'kick it' during the games or the practices, replace this with'Soft First Touch' and 'Keep It Close'. Every time your child goes to the ball, his/her first touch on the ball should be a soft one, providing the opportunity to dribble. Dribbling and Passing There is a strong correlation between the ability to dribble and the ability to pass. Typically, the best dribblers in the team are also the best passers. This is because both of these skills require the ability to shift body weight quickly from one foot to the other and balance on one foot while propelling the ball with the other. Once a player becomes a good dribbler, he/she automatically starts to look up and survey the field in between touches, increasing the chance of a pass.	<urn:uuid:4e4d6806-3076-40d2-a25a-482ca0161169>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://bsbproduction.s3.amazonaws.com/portals/1421/docs/ssacentral/coachandparentinfo/kinnsphilosophy.pdf	2019-06-19T09:30:26Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00431.warc.gz	368,251,663	600	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998512	eng_Latn	0.998512	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2630 ]	[ 3.296875 ]	1	1
PROGRAM TOOLKIT Table of Contents BE SURE TO FOLLOW US ON SOCIAL MEDIA. @INSUFFRAGE100 @INSUFFRAGE100 INDIANA SUFFRAGE CENTENNIAL Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit On Aug. 26, 1920, Hoosier women won the right to vote. At first glance, the meaning behind that statement is simple. But the real story goes much deeper. In Indiana, almost seventy years passed between the first calls for women's voting rights and the passage of the 19th Amendment. And, though momentous, 1920 is just one milestone in a long and ongoing journey, and access to the voting booth is just one part of what it means to be an equal part of the democratic process. The Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial, catalyzed by Indiana Humanities, the Indianapolis Propylaeum, the Indiana Historical Society and the Indiana Historical Bureau, working with many grassroots and local partners, marks the anniversary of the 19th Amendment. We invite Hoosiers to honor the ideas and ideals that fueled the suffrage movement in Indiana, and the people who led the way; to engage in a conversation about inclusion, equity, perseverance and power; to consider what remains to be done to ensure that our democracy truly includes everyone; and to identify and act on the lessons of the women's suffrage movement. OUR GOALS * To inspire Hoosiers to think, read and talk about the history and significance of women's suffrage * To drive and discover scholarship about women's suffrage and political participation in Indiana * To highlight Hoosiers who played a role in the suffrage movement in Indiana and nationally * To encourage everyone to vote and engage fully in the democratic process * To inspire civic action and persistence among kids and teens today In the following pages, you'll find information and tips to help you plan public programs that commemorate the centennial of suffrage in Indiana and an overview of available resources from the Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial organizers. Thank you for your help to make the most of this important anniversary! GETTING STARTED Here are a few steps to consider early in your planning process: Define clear objectives for your event What do you hope people will know or do as a result of attending your event? See the "Big Ideas" on page 4 for a few of our ideas to spark your planning. Identify your target audience How many people will likely attend? What kinds of people do you hope will show up? Determine venue options Start looking early and consider location, parking, capacity, layout, accessibility, costs, acoustics, and amenities. Recruit partner organizations Consider forging new relationships and strengthening current ones with other local nonprofits or government organizations, universities, and businesses. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit Budget for your event Anticipate the cost of presenter fees, snacks, design and printing, advertising, equipment or space rental, etc. Be sure to get quotes from multiple businesses and obtain contracts from vendors. Once you have a budget, you can determine if you need to raise additional money through grants or sponsorships. Two places to start if you're looking for grants: Indiana Humanities and your community foundation. Create marketing communications strategies Keep the goal of the program and your audience in mind. Will fliers or posters work best? Would a sponsored post on Facebook get the word out? Does your intended audience read the paper or listen to the radio? Are there partners with big mailing lists or upcoming meetings where you could spread the word? Ideally, start getting the word out at least two months in advance. The Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial website includes a free branding guide and logos to help you design eyecatching, professional materials that align to the look and feel of our materials. Add your event to the Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial calendar When you have finalized the details of your program, add it to our online calendar so anyone across the state can find it. BIG IDEAS The Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial is focusing its efforts on getting Hoosiers to think, read and talk about the following ideas. As you plan your programs, you might consider how to align it to one or more of these big ideas. * Today, women's suffrage seems like an obvious component of democracy. One hundred years ago, it was a controversial idea that even some women opposed. Championing it required courage, perseverance and organized activism. * The centennial of women's suffrage is an opportunity to honor the Hoosiers who played a role in the suffrage movement. * Like all social movements, suffrage was an imperfect process. Activists disagreed over strategy and tactics, and women of color and working-class women didn't always have a seat at the table. One of the lessons is that forming "a more perfect union" is and always has been messy. * While the 19th Amendment gave women access to the voting booth, the struggle for full equality continues. Today, we all can learn from the women who fought for the vote as we fight to ensure equality for all. * As we acknowledge the impact suffrage had on women, we also should consider where our laws, culture and institutions might be keeping others from fully engaging in our democracy. * The role of Hoosiers in the suffrage movement is a story that isn't fully known or told. This is Indiana's opportunity to delve into that history and capture it for future generations. PROGRAM IDEAS Whatever you do, be creative and make it meaningful! Hosting a women's suffrage event is an opportunity to build new relationships with organizations (as partners) and individuals (as participants) in your community. At every step if the process, let that goal guide your decisions. Below are some ideas to get you thinking about how your community can get involved: Host a scholar talk We're putting together a selection of talks by smart and engaging experts and trailblazers who are ready to come to your community to deliver a compelling and deeply researched talk. Starting in Fall 2019, organizations can apply to Indiana Humanities for funds to book a speaker for events in 2020. In the meantime, research who might be in your county or a nearby university to give a talk. Create a book club Hold an old-fashioned book discussion of any of the books on pages 9. We recommend building your discussion around one or two key themes (see p. 4 for Big Ideas). You can plan a monthly club throughout 2020, or add one or two titles from the list to your existing book club. We recommend Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit finding a facilitator with a little expertise who can help keep the group on track! Many titles are available through Indiana Humanities' free lending library of book sets, Novel Conversations. Organize a panel discussion Many urgent ideas are raised by the commemoration of women's suffrage—see the big ideas on page 4 for examples. Consider inviting representatives of organizations that address voter access, women's issues and civic engagement to reflect on the meaning of the suffrage centennial, or organize a line-up of experts on a particular moment (the fight for the 19th Amendment or the effort to pass the Equal Rights Amendment, for instance). Host a film screening + discussion Host a screening (see film suggestions on in Appendix B) followed by a facilitated discussion focused around one or more of the big ideas (p. 4) Like this idea? Do three or more and make it a series! Engage kids who aren't ready to understand political nuance In the teacher toolkit, available from the Resources page of the Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial website, you can download lists of books appropriate for elementary, middle and high school. Book a traveling exhibit. The Indiana Historical Society is creating a new traveling exhibit about the suffrage movement in Indiana. The exhibit will be free to history organizations and $100 for libraries, community centers and other places. Bookings for the new exhibit will open in Fall 2019. Host a voter registration drive and/or other non-partisan voter education events. What better way to honor the work of the suffragists than to engage voters today. If you do plan to host a registration drive, contact your county clerk or the League of Women Voters to get expert advice and make sure you comply with Indiana laws. Help women get engaged in the political process. There are numerous national and statewide organizations that focus on helping women get involved in the political process, as volunteers and candidates. Consider hosting a workshop tied to the suffrage centennial. Plan a field trip There will be programs taking place across Indiana throughout 2020. Plan a field trip for children, teens or adults that includes transportation, admission and even a boxed lunch. Use time on the bus to watch a film or have a discussion! Dedicate a historical marker Know of a historically significant woman or space related to women's suffrage and/or politics in Indiana? Consider researching and/or funding a historical marker in your community through the Indiana Historical Bureau Marker Program. Attend the Hoosier Women at Work Conference Many 2020 conferences will have an emphasis on women's history because of the centennial, but Hoosier Women at Work will be hosting its fourth annual conference that focuses solely on the history of Indiana women. The 2020 conference will take place on March 7, 2020 at the Indiana Historical Society. Make it a program: Organize a group to attend the conference and host a facilitated discussion afterward to debrief! Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit APPENDIX A: "AN ACT OF TARDY JUSTICE": THE STORY OF WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE IN INDIANA "An Act of Tardy Justice": The Story of Women's Suffrage in Indiana In 1851, Winchester native Amanda Way called for a women's rights convention—the kick off to a 69-year effort to guarantee women's right to vote in Indiana. Between then and the moment when Gov. James P. Goodrich, also a Winchester native, oversaw the state's ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, Indiana women organized, marched, petitioned and sometimes resisted. There were ups and downs along the way, including two major wars and a brief moment in 1917 when it seemed the state would beat the nation in the race for women's suffrage—an exciting summer when Indiana women flooded the polls before the franchise was snatched from them again. In 1920, Hoosier women's continuous and tireless work paid off and their goal was realized. On January 16, the Indiana General Assembly approved the national amendment for women's suffrage; then, at last, on August 26, the U.S. Congress approved the final paperwork ratifying the change to the Constitution. Circa 1910s. Women gained the right to vote when the19th Amendment was ratified on August 18, 1920. Suffragist activists marched and lobbied for years before this was accomplished. This photo shows suffragists in Auburn, Indiana. Image courtesy the Indiana Historical Society. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit Indiana Quaker women and men were central to the start of the story. Early on, suffrage was one of a number of women's rights for which Quakers advocated. These demands also included improved property rights, access to the same jobs and education as men, and equal pay for equal work. Only three years after Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and Frederick Douglass attended the famous Seneca Falls Convention in New York in 1848, Hoosier women met in Dublin, Indiana, and formed the Indiana Woman's Rights Association (IWRA). It's widely considered one of the first state-level suffrage organizations. The IWRA met annually through 1859, the same year that three suffragists presented the first women's suffrage petition to the Indiana legislature. However, due to the Civil War, the voting rights movement got sidetracked. Though the editors of Peru's The Mayflower found a way to support both the war and suffrage and continued to publish in the early 1860s, many women turned their attention to supporting the war effort. Here and around the country, suffragists saw the mobilization toward war as an opportunity to prove their "fitness" for suffrage, throwing themselves into volunteer work to support Union men on the field and their families at home. Yet when the war was over, despite women's support of men, neither Congress nor the Indiana General Assembly recognized women's hard work and devotion. The battle off the field, for the right to vote, would continue. A Galvanizing Defeat The IWRA began meeting again in 1869, the first year that historians can document that African American women attended Indiana women's suffrage meetings. Over the next fifty-odd years, their attempts to secure the vote were continually hampered by the Indiana Constitution itself. Its structure made it difficult for women to gain the vote through the state legislative process. Any amendment to the state constitution had to be approved by two separate legislative sessions—yet the state legislature convened only every other year. Therefore, it took at least two years to amend the constitution, making the challenge steeper for suffragists and giving their opponents more time to organize and kill any proposed suffrage law or amendment. This challenge reared its head in 1881, when Indiana legislators approved an amendment granting Hoosier women the right to vote. But when the Indiana General Assembly reconvened in 1883, it was discovered that the 1881 law had mysteriously not been recorded in the official legislative record from the previous session. Thus, according to the Indiana Constitution, the suffrage amendment couldn't be voted on a second time because it officially didn't exist. Nevertheless, They Persisted Image courtesy the Indiana Historical Society. Though Hoosier suffragists had deployed various political tactics leading up to the debate of 1881–83, they got even more organized and learned even more ways to hone their political skills. Though it would take men making legislative actions to get women the right to vote, it was women themselves who agitated, pushed and persisted. Suffragists presented petitions and gave speeches to several sessions of the state legislature. Indiana women asked for and were assigned offices at the state house so they could lobby legislators; to keep up the pressure, they learned how to call in extra suffragists at a moment's notice. Susan B. Anthony, during one of several visits to the Hoosier state, asked a joint session of the general assembly to request a national suffrage amendment, memorably declaring, "I want the politicians of Indiana to see that there are women as well as men in this State, and they will never see it until they give them the right to vote. Make the brain under the bonnet count for as much as the brain under the hat." Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit Indiana women also formed powerful and well-organized groups, including the Woman's Franchise League, the Legislative Council, and the Indianapolis Equal Suffrage Society. By 1912, African American Hoosier women had formed their own suffrage associations, one of these meeting for the first time in the home of Madam CJ Walker. Circa 1860s. May Wright Sewall is pictured as a young woman in this cased image. Born in Wisconsin in 1844, Sewall came to Indiana in the early 1870s. She was a teacher, having founded the Indianapolis Girls' Classical School with her second husband. She was also a reformer, and served as a close ally to such national suffrage leaders as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. Sewall helped found the Indianapolis Equal Suffrage Society in 1878 and also helped establish several Indianapolis organizations including the Indianapolis Woman's Club, the Indianapolis Propylaeum, the Art Association of Indianapolis (later known as the Indianapolis Museum of Art), and the Contemporary Club. Image courtesy the Indiana Historical Society. In the midst of all of this activity and the constant setbacks, World War I broke out (the U.S. didn't enter the war until 1917). Like most of their counterparts across the nation, the majority of Hoosier suffragists answered the call to support the Great War. But they learned a lesson from the suffrage movement during the Civil War. This time, they made suffrage a part of the plan to "make the world safe for democracy." Suffragists knitted socks for soldiers, raised money for Liberty Loans and spoke in support of the war to various civic groups. But unlike during the 1860s, they participated in these efforts while also agitating for suffrage. Activists cannily connected their cause to the surge of wartime patriotism and rhetoric around the idea of "duty." Given the increasing power of the suffrage movement and the heightened expectations raised by World War I, progress appeared favorable in 1917. Thanks to continued and increasing agitation in Indiana and nationally, the Indiana General Assembly actually passed three laws favored by suffragists during the 1917 session. The first called for a convention to be held in September, for the purpose of drafting a new state constitution (with the hopes that the new constitution would include women's suffrage). The second law amended the current state constitution to allow for women's suffrage (which in order to become effective would have to be passed again by the 1919 legislature and approved by a majority of voters—though the passage of the constitutional convention bill and the prospects of a new state constitution appeared to make this law moot). The third law offered Indiana women partial suffrage, giving them the right to vote for presidential electors, for some state offices and in municipal elections Thus, even with setbacks at the state level in 1917, and again at the federal level (the U.S. Senate failed to pass a federal amendment in 1918), women kept driving toward their goal. that very year. Just as important, it also gave them the right to vote for delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention and for ratification of the new constitution. Imagine the scene: Thousands of Indiana women celebrating their victories, rushing out to register to vote over the course of the summer of 1917. Women in their eighties and nineties joined younger women at clerks' offices around the state. The first women to vote in the state were in Warren County; Mrs. JE McCloud was at the head of the line, thus was possibly the first woman to cast a ballot in the state. In Columbus, two African American women were the first women to register. "There was a boom Tuesday afternoon in the matter of registration… when a long file of women entered the courthouse," remembered Natalie Parker, the president of the Porter County Woman's Franchise League; by the end of the summer, 80 percent of all registered voters in Porter County were women. Then came the next setback, which for Indiana women was possibly even more difficult to endure than the 1881–83 debacle. Men who opposed women's suffrage challenged both the constitutional convention law and the partial suffrage law, and in separate rulings the Indiana Supreme Court found them to be unconstitutional. There would be no opportunity to introduce suffrage in a new state constitution, and women were stripped of their partial suffrage rights effective October 26, 1917. The constitutional amendment law still stood, but that meant restarting a long, slow process. Home Stretch The defeat of the 1917 effort heightened the importance of a federal suffrage amendment. Suffragists around the country had long debated whether state-level or federal action was the way to accomplish their goal, but by 1915, many Indiana activists, along with their sisters around the country, had coalesced around Carrie Chapman Catt and the National American Woman Suffrage Association's "Winning Plan." This plan had state-level suffragists campaigning for individual states to expand the franchise while also putting pressure on Congress to pass a federal amendment. Thus, even with setbacks at the state level in 1917, and again at the federal level (the U.S. Senate failed to pass a federal amendment in 1918), women kept driving toward their goal. "Real patriotism," Mrs. Richard E. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit Edwards, the president of the Woman's Franchise League of Indiana, wrote, "demands that we serve the Government no matter how out of patience we get with state authorities." In 1918, Indiana suffragists set themselves the task of recruiting 100,000 members and 700,000 signatures petitioning Congress to pass a suffrage amendment. Mrs. Fred H. McCulloch of Fort Wayne, the chairwoman of this effort, said it would "be the instrument by which we can do it." So, with this final wave of pressure from suffragists, the U.S. Congress finally approved the 19th Amendment and sent it to the states for ratification after World War I ended. Indiana became the 26th state to ratify it, on January 16, 1920. It went into effect on August 26, eight days after the two-thirds majority for ratification had been achieved. Indiana women had been everywhere in the fight for suffrage. Women like Dr. Mary Thomas, Amanda Way, May Wright Sewall, Grace Julian Clarke, Helen Gougar, Zerelda Wallace, Dr. Amelia Keller, Martha McKay, Sara Messing Stern, Dr. Hannah Graham, Laura Donnan, Carrie Barnes, Mary Nicholson, Luella McWhirter, Marie Edwards, Charity Dye, Harriet Noble, Sara and Eldena Lauter, Emma Swank, Frances Berry Coston, Ida Husted Harper, Mary Garrett Hay, and Elizabeth Boyton Harbart worked for suffrage in the state and across the nation. They surely agreed with Governor Goodrich when, in 1920, he described the ratification of the 19th Amendment as "an act of tardy justice." Dr. Anita Morgan, IUPUI 2019 Dr. Anita Morgan teaches history at IUPUI and is working on a book-length project about the suffrage movement in Indiana. APPENDIX B: FURTHER READING + VIEWING Books suitable for early readers can be found in the Teacher Toolkit, available from the Resources page of the Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial. Here is a selection of books about suffrage and women's political activism in Indiana and nationally for teens and adults. Use the book lists to plan events, create a library display or learn on your own. TEENS BOOKS A Woman in The House (And Senate): How Women Came to the United States Congress, Broke Down Barriers, and Changed the Country by Ilene Cooper (ages 8-14) For the first 128 years of our country's history, not a single woman served in the Senate or House of Representatives. All of that changed, however, in November 1916, when Jeannette Rankin of Montana became the first woman elected to Congress—even before the 19th Amendment gave women across the U.S. the right to vote. Alice Paul and the Fight for Women's Rights by Deborah Kops (ages 10-17) Alice Paulm reignited the sleepy suffrage moment with dramatic demonstrations and provocative banners. After women won the vote in 1920, Paul wrote the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which would make all the laws that discriminated against women unconstitutional. A Question of Courage by Marjorie Darke (ages 11-14) Emily's life changes as she joins the suffragette movement to win votes for women. She learns much about life and politics, friendship and courage and has her first romance. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: A Friendship that Changed the World by Penny Colman (ages 12-18) In the Spring of 1851 two women met on the street corner in Seneca Falls, New York—Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a thirty-five-year-old mother of four boys, and Susan B. Anthony, a thirty-one-yearold, unmarried, former school teacher. Roses and Radicals: The Epic Story of How American Women Won the Right to Vote by Susan Zimet and Todd Hasak-Lowy (ages 10+) Celebrates suffrage as a captivating yet overlooked piece of American history and the women who made it happen. The Feminist Revolution—a Story of the Three Most Inspiring and Empowering Women in American History: Susan B. Anthony, Margaret Sanger, and Betty Friedan by Jules Archer (ages 12+) Offers biographies of Susan B. Anthony, Margaret Sanger, and Betty Friedan, with a full background of the political organization they worked for and against. Things a Bright Girl Can Do by Sally Nicholls (ages 12-14) Three young women are suffragettes in England, campaigning for equality and the right to vote. When a foreign Archduke is assassinated, everything changes with WWI—but not in the way they hoped or imagined. Votes for Women!: American Suffragists and the Battle for the Ballot by Winifred Conkling (ages 12-16) From Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who founded the suffrage movement at the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, to Sojourner Truth and her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, to Alice Paul, arrested and force-fed in prison, this is the story of the American women's suffrage movement and the private lives that fueled its leaders' dedication. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit Wheels of Change: How Women Rode the Bicycle to Freedom (With a Few Flat Tires Along the Way) by Sue Macy (ages 10+) Take a lively look at women's history from aboard a bicycle, which granted females the freedom of mobility and helped empower women's liberation. Through vintage photographs, advertisements, cartoons, and songs, this book transports readers to bygone eras to see how women used the bicycle to improve their lives. With Courage and Cloth: Winning the Fight for a Woman's Right to Vote by Ann Bausum (ages 10+) Chronicles the story of the women's suffrage movement in America, using compelling period photographs—including some never before published—to illustrate the vivid narrative. FILMS Not For Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony (2005) Ken Burns directed this PBS documentary on two of the pioneering figures in the women's rights movement. One Woman, One Vote (1995) This PBS program documents the struggle which culminated in the passing of the 19th Amendment in the U.S. Senate by one vote. Witness the 70-year struggle for women's suffrage and discover why the crusaders faced entrenched opposition from men and women who feared the women's vote would ignite a social revolution. She's Beautiful When She's Angry (2016) A provocative, rousing and often humorous account of the birth of the modern women's liberation movement in the late 1960s through to its contemporary manifestations in the new millennium, direct from the women who lived it. Suffragette (2015) In 1912 London, a young working mother is galvanized into radical political activism supporting the right for women to vote, and is willing to meet violence with violence to achieve this end. PODCASTS "Night of Terror" Podcast Series / Turning Point Suffragist Memorial "Suffragists' Night of Terror at the Occoquan Workhouse" / Stuff You Missed in History Class, Nov. 8, 2017. The History Chicks / Multiple suffrage-related episodes "Victoria Woodhull: Little Queen for President" / Stuff You Missed in History Class, March 28, 2011. ADULTS BOOKS American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Blacks in the Diaspora) by Rosalyn Terborg-Penn This comprehensive look at the African American women who fought for the right to vote analyzes the women's own stories and examines why they joined and how they participated in the U.S. women's suffrage movement. A Perfect Union: Dolley Madison and the Creation of the American Nation by Catherine Allgor This book overviews how Dolley manipulated the constraints of her gender to construct an American democratic ruling style and to achieve her husband's political goals. Leaves readers with a story about our past and a model for a modern form of politics. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 10 A Strong-Minded Woman: The Life of Mary A. Livermore by Wendy Hamand Venet Venet reconstructs Mary Livermore's remarkable story and explores how and why she became so renowned in her day. A leading figure in the struggle for woman's rights as well as in the temperance movement, she was as widely recognized during her lifetime as Susan B. Anthony, and for a time the most popular and highly paid female orator in the country. Yet few today remember even her name. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft In an era of revolutions demanding greater liberties for mankind, Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was an ardent feminist who spoke eloquently for countless women of her time. First published in 1792, her book created a scandal in its day, largely, perhaps, because of the unconventional lifestyle of its creator. Today, it is considered the first great manifesto of women's rights. A Woman's Crusade: Alice Paul and the Battle for the Ballot by Mary Walton With her daring and unconventional tactics, Alice Paul eventually succeeded in forcing President Woodrow Wilson and a reluctant U.S. Congress to pass the 19th Amendment. Here is the inspiring story of the young woman whose dedication to women's rights made that dream a reality. Indiana's 200: The People Who Shaped the Hoosier State by Linda C. Gugin and James E. St. Claire Written by historians, scholars, biographers, and independent researchers, the biographical essays will enhance the public's knowledge and appreciation of those who made a difference in the lives of Hoosiers, the country, and even the world. Campaign Crossroads: Presidential Politics in Indiana from Lincoln to Obama by Andrew E. Stoner A look back over the varied, sometimes important, sometimes irrelevant, but always interesting presidential campaign cycles in Indiana history. Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States by Eleanor Flexner and Ellen Fitzpatrick The struggle for women's voting rights was one of the longest, most successful, and in some respects most radical challenges ever posed to the American system of electoral politics. This book tells the story of the great social movements in historical. Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American Life by Lori D. Ginzberg In this subtly crafted biography, Ginzberg narrates the life of a woman of great charm, enormous appetite, and extraordinary intellectual gifts who turned the limitations placed on women like herself into a universal philosophy of equal rights. One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Women's Suffrage Movement edited by Marjorie Spruill Wheeler Companion book to the PBS American Experience documentary by the same name, this anthology is the most comprehensive collection of writings—contemporary and historical—on the woman suffrage movement in America. Selling Suffrage by Margaret Finnegan Pathbreaking study of woman suffrage from the 1850s to the 19th Amendment in 1920. Reveals how activists came to identify with consumer culture and employ its methods of publicity to win popular support through carefully crafted images of enfranchised women as "personable, likable, and modern." Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women's Rights Movement by Sally G. McMillen McMillen unpacks, for the first time, the full significance of the revolutionary convention that changed the course of women's history. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 11 Suffragists in Washington, D.C.: The 1913 Parade and the Fight for the Vote by Rebecca Boggs Roberts The Great Suffrage Parade was the first civil rights march to use the nation's capital as a backdrop. Roberts narrates the heroic struggle of Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party as they worked to earn the vote. The History of Woman Suffrage by Susan B. Anthony and Idea Husted Harper Produced by the women themselves, it is a history of the women's suffrage movement, primarily in the United States. Harper, a Hoosier, was hand-picked by Anthony to write the history. The Woman's Hour: The Great Fight to Win the Vote by Elaine Weiss Following a handful of remarkable women who left their respective forces into battle, this book is an inspiring story of activists winning their own freedom in one of the last campaigns forged in the shadow of the Civil War, and the beginning of the great 20th century battles for civil rights. Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government by Catherine Allgor In the days before organized political parties, the social machine built by early federal women helped to ease the transition from a failed republican experiment to a burgeoning democracy. When Hens Crow: The Woman's Rights Movement in Antebellum America by Sylvia D. Hoffert Using speeches, pamphlets, newspaper reports, editorials and personal papers, Hoffert discusses how ideology, language, and strategies of early woman's rights advocates influenced a new political culture grudgingly inclusive of women. Women Against Women: American Anti-Suffragism, 1880-1920 by Jane Jerome Camhi Looks at three overlapping groups of women: maternal reformers, women writers and imperialist ladies. These women are then followed into action as campaigners in their own right, as well as supports of anti-suffrage men. Women Will Vote: Winning Suffrage in New York State by Susan Goodier and Karen Pastorello Celebrates the 2017 centenary of women's right to full suffrage in New York State. Goodier and Pastorello highlight the activism of rural, urban, African American, Jewish, immigrant, and European American women, as well as male suffragists. Winning the Vote: The Triumph of the American Woman Suffrage Movement by Robert Cooney Presents the American woman suffrage movement clearly and chronologically with emphasis on the fascinating personalities and turbulent political campaigns of the early 20th century. by Jean H. Baker Women and the U.S. Constitution, 1776-1920 In the drafting of the U.S. Constitution, gender was a non-issue. Women played no role in the authorship of either the original 1878 document or the Bill of Rights, and were largely excluded from the Constitution's application. FILMS Iron Jawed Angels (2004) Defiant young activists take the women's suffrage movement by storm, putting their lives at risk to help American women win the right to vote. Not For Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony (2005) Ken Burns directed this PBS documentary on two of the pioneering figures in the women's rights movement. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 12 One Woman, One Vote (1995) This PBS program documents the struggle which culminated in the passing of the 19th Amendment in the U.S. Senate by one vote. Witness the 70-year struggle for women's suffrage and discover why the crusaders faced entrenched opposition from men and women who feared the women's vote would ignite a social revolution. She's Beautiful When She's Angry (2016) A provocative, rousing and often humorous account of the birth of the modern women's liberation movement in the late 1960s through to its contemporary manifestations in the new millennium, direct from the women who lived it. Suffragette (2015) In 1912 London, a young working mother is galvanized into radical political activism supporting the right for women to vote, and is willing to meet violence with violence to achieve this end. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 13 APPENDIX C: MAY WRIGHT SEWALL FELLOWSHIPS In honor of the centennial of women's suffrage, Indiana Humanities is pleased to offer a new research fellowship of $2,500 to support new humanities research on Indiana women's participation in local, state and national politics leading up to and since the 19th Amendment. Our purpose is to commemorate suffrage by illuminating the difficulties women of different background and means faced politically before, during and after 1920. GOALS * To increase knowledge of Indiana women's participation in local, state and national politics, including the battle for suffrage, women as voters, women running and/or holding elected office, women as organizers and activists engaged in political causes and/or women as shapers of political ideas and culture. * To increase the amount and quality of scholarship on Hoosier women of color and workingclass women, in particular, as it relates to the issues and ideas outlined above. * To increase the use of Indiana-based archives and collections by humanities scholars and researchers. * To deepen and complicate our understanding of the past and the degree to which Indiana women were of, behind or ahead of their times. For more information on eligibility, requirements and how to apply, download the call for proposals from the Resources page of the Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial website. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 14 APPENDIX D: ACTION GRANTS Indiana Humanities offers a variety of grants to support public humanities programs across the state, including great ideas to mark the suffrage centennial. Several kinds of grants are available: * Action Grants (up to $3,000, offered on a rolling basis) * Historic Preservation Education Grants (up to $2,500, offered twice a year) * Innovation Grants (up to $10,000, offered once a year) * Collaboration Grants (up to $20,000, offered once a year) Full guidelines and application information can be found on the Indiana Humanities website. A few things to keep in mind: WHAT WE SUPPORT Indiana Humanities' mission is to encourage Hoosiers to think, read and talk, and we like to support projects that do just that—projects that help people learn new information, consider different perspectives, share ideas and understand one another better. Programs may come in a variety of formats—workshops, presentations, reading/discussion programs, exhibitions, podcasts, film documentaries and more—as long as they're open to the public and utilize the humanities as a tool for engagement. ELIGIBILITY You must apply on behalf of an Indiana-based tax-exempt organization. Schools, public libraries, churches, community organizations and government entities are eligible. Organizations are eligible for one Action Grant each calendar year. REQUIREMENTS Your project must: * Contain a strong focus on the humanities. * Include humanities scholars in planning and implementation. * Be intended for a public audience. * Be presented at a site that is accessible according to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). * Include a plan for execution. * Demonstrate at least one-to-one match in cash or in-kind contributions from your organization or other sources. * Begin after notification is received from Indiana Humanities. * Be completed within a year of the award date. HOW TO APPLY For complete details and to apply, visit www.IndianaHumanities.org/grants or contact George Hanlin, Director of Grants, email@example.com or 800-675-8897, extension 128. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 15 APPENDIX E: COMING SOON Plans are in the works for a new speakers bureau and a new traveling exhibit about women's suffrage and political participation in Indiana. Both will be ready in time for 2020 programs. SPEAKERS BUREAU In the fall, Indiana Humanities will release a catalogue of available talks by Indiana scholars, experts and trailblazers, on different aspects of suffrage and political participation in Indiana. At that time, applications will open to book a speaker in your community. If awarded, Indiana Humanities will cover the speaker's $400 fee; host organizations agree to cover any requested travel costs by the speaker. Thanks to Hillenbrand and Lilly Endowment, Inc., we'll be able to fund at least 30 talks across the state. TRAVELING EXHIBIT Thanks to Lilly Endowment, Inc., Indiana Historical Society will be creating a new traveling exhibit about the suffrage movement in Indiana. More information about the exhibit and how to book it will be released in the fall, with the exhibit available to be booked starting in January 2020. The exhibit will be free to history organizations and cost $100 for other non-profits like schools, libraries and community centers. Indiana Women's Suffrage Centennial \| Program Toolkit 16	<urn:uuid:3cc3819f-9236-4c5d-a410-b9a477e0aceb>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://indianasuffrage100.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/IWSC-Program-Toolkit-v4.pdf	2019-06-19T09:33:33Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00431.warc.gz	81,642,141	8,530	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.947868	eng_Latn	0.998324	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 15, 191, 2843, 6693, 9786, 13017, 17975, 22195, 25346, 28167, 31613, 34798, 35684, 37130, 39292, 40547 ]	[ 2.59375, 2.40625 ]	4	0
Chloramine Conversion FAQ's What are Chloramines? Currently, the District uses low levels of chlorine to disinfect the drinking water. Chlorination is eﬀective at killing bacteria and viruses that may be harmful when ingested. Chloramine is created when ammonia is added to chlorinated water in controlled doses. Why is the District changing to Chloramines? The WISE Project is a ﬁrst-of-its-kind partnership with South Metro Water, Denver Water and Aurora Water that bolsters water supplies to the south Denver suburbs while maximizing existing water assets in Denver and Aurora. The Pinery Water and Wastewater District is a participant in this revolutionary water supply project. It has been investing in infrastructure improvements for the last several years to deliver renewable and reusable WISE water to the District. One of the ﬁnal steps to be ready to accept WISE water is to transition the District's water disinfection system from Chlorine to Chloramine. Chloramines help reduce the level of certain potentially harmful byproducts that may be created by disinfecting with just chlorine. In addition, chloramines last longer in the distribution system, meaning the water remains safer, longer. When will this conversion take place? The District is currently targeting the third week in March 2018 to convert the entire water supply from chlorine to chloramine. Is this a new treatment method? No. Many water utilities across the country have been using chloramine disinfection for decades; Denver Water has actually used this method since 1917! Some other local water providers using chloramines include the Town of Castle Rock, Centennial Water and Sanitation District (Highlands Ranch), Aurora Water, Castle Pines, Thornton and the City of Westminster. Will I notice a change in my water? Customers shouldn't notice any change in the water as chloraminated water has no odor or taste. With that being said, the chlorine smell and taste in our water should be less apparent. Is it safe to wash open wounds with chloraminated water? Yes. Chloraminated water is completely safe to use on cuts and open wounds. Are there any individuals that should pay special attention to the change? Chloraminated water is perfectly safe for drinking, cooking, bathing and other daily water uses. There are two groups of people who need to take special precautions with chloraminated water such as those who use tap water for kidney dialysis machines and ﬁsh/amphibian owners. Chloramines (like chlorine) are harmful when, rather than being ingested, they go directly into the bloodstream. Why is chloramine harmful for ﬁsh and amphibians? Fish, as well as some amphibians and reptiles, pass water through their gills, directly into the bloodstream. Chloramines can be removed from water with inexpensive water treatment products (drops or tablets) or speciﬁed carbon ﬁlters. These products are readily available at most pet supply stores. Does my home water softener remove chloramines? Most home water softeners are not designed to remove chloramines. Will my faucet ﬁlter remove chloramines? Yes. However, it must be a high-quality granular activated carbon ﬁlter with enough contact time. Can Chloramines be removed by boiling water? No. Boiling water will not remove the chloramines from the water. Is chloraminated water safe for plants and animals that do not live in water, like my pet dog or cat? Chloraminated water is as safe as chlorinated water for plants and animals that do not live in water. Chloramine is only dangerous for ﬁsh, reptiles, shellﬁsh, and amphibians that take water directly into their bloodstream. If chlorine and ammonia are toxic to mix at home, why is it safe to drink chlorine and ammonia in the form of chloramine? Household chemical cleaners such as chlorine bleach and ammonia are sold as highly concentrated solutions. The hazardous mixture of these chemicals is due to their high concentrations. The concentrations of chlorine and ammonia added to drinking water for disinfection are very low; so low that concentrations are expressed in "parts per million" or ppm. For reference, one ppm represents about 5 tablespoons in a 20,000 gallon swimming pool. Information for Kidney Dialysis Patients Why do dialysis patients need to take special precautions? Kidney dialysis patients can safely drink, cook and bathe in chloraminated water. However, just as with chlorine, chloramine can harm kidney dialysis patients during the dialysis if it is not removed before the water mixes with the patient's bloodstream. How can people with home dialysis machines remove chloramines? There are two ways to remove chloramines – either by adding ascorbic acid or using a granular activated carbon ﬁlter. You should ﬁrst check with your physician, who will probably recommend the appropriate type of water treatment. Often, home dialysis service companies can make the needed modiﬁcations. How are chloramines removed before the dialysis process? Dialysis equipment may need to be upgraded to remove chloramines. To accomplish this, either add a dechloramination chemical or use a granular activated carbon ﬁlter. Dialysis facility operators can ﬁnd assistance from physicians, dialysis equipment service companies and the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. Information for Fish/Amphibian Owners How do chloramines impact water used for ﬁsh, reptiles, shellﬁsh and amphibians? Chloramines must be removed from any water to be used for ﬁsh tanks or ponds. Like chlorine, chloramines are toxic to saltwater and freshwater ﬁsh, reptiles, turtles, and amphibians. These animals take chloramines directly into their bloodstream through their gills and therefore must be protected. What can aquarium or pond owners do to remove the chloramines? Households, restaurants, and commercial ﬁsh tank owners will need to change their current chlorine removal process to remove chloramines instead. The appropriate dechloraminating products or carbon ﬁlteration equipment for removing chlorine and ammonia should be available at pet and aquarium stores. Home remedies such as boiling water, using salts, and having water sit still for a while are not eﬀective methods to remove chloramines. Unlike chlorine, which only takes a few days to dissipate when remaining still, chloramines stay in the water for a few weeks. The best way for ﬁsh owners to remove chloramines is to use a conditioner that contains a dechloraminating chemical.	<urn:uuid:08cdd72e-6e98-405d-a3b1-2df486386337>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://pinerywater.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Chloramine-Conversion-FAQ-1.pdf	2019-06-19T08:41:19Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00432.warc.gz	553,161,363	1,337	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997302	eng_Latn	0.997399	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3066, 6498 ]	[ 2.203125 ]	1	2
Solihull online safety toolkit Online safety for parents and carers The Federation of St. Alphege Church of England Infant and Nursery School and St. Alphege Church of England Junior School What is online safety? The term 'online safety' reflects a widening range of issues associated with technology and a user's access to content, contact with others and behavioural issues ' ' Online safety is not just about technology It is also about safeguarding It is also about behaviour The world is changing What is changing for children? One in four children under eight owns a tablet 23% of children are seen on the internet before they're born 63% of children have a smartphone before they start secondary school 74% of eight- to 11-year olds has access to a tablet at home One in 10 children has a mobile phone before they're five What is changing for children? Health-related behaviour questionnaire in Solihull Year 2 78% use the internet for playing games 36% go on internet when parents not in room 12% use Facebook or Bebo 8% chat to people online that they’ve never met 62% say that their parents/carers have rules for use 67% have been told how to stay safe if chatting online What is changing for children? Health-related behaviour questionnaire in Solihull Year 4 and year 6 70% use the internet for playing games 75% go on internet when parents not in room 15% chat to people online that they've never met 76% say that their parents/carers have rules for use 91% have been told how to stay safe if chatting online 3% have had received a chat message that scared or upset them 82%watching YouTube, Netflix, Amazon Prime… What are the issues outside school? find help learn have fun connect discover create Online safety in school Safeguarding Safeguarding action may be needed to protect children and learners from: [x] neglect [x] teenage relationship abuse [x] physical abuse [x] sexual abuse [x] emotional abuse [x] bullying, including online bullying and prejudice-based bullying' [x] racist, disability and homophobic or transphobic abuse [x] gender-based violence/violence against women and girls [x] radicalisation and/or extremist behaviour [x] child sexual exploitation and trafficking [x] the impact of new technologies on sexual behaviour, for example sexting [x] substance misuse [x] issues that may be specific to a local area or population, for example gang activity and youth violence [x] domestic violence [x] female genital mutilation [x] forced marriage [x] fabricated or induced illness [x] poor parenting, particularly in relation to babies and young children [x] other issues not listed here but that pose a risk to children, young people and vulnerable adults. Effectiveness of safeguarding arrangements Children and learners are protected and feel safe . ' ' Staff and other adults working within the setting are clear about procedures where they are concerned about the safety of a child or learner. There is a named and designated lead who is enabled to play an effective role in pursuing concerns and protecting children and learners.' ' Children and learners are protected and helped to keep themselves safe from bullying, homophobic behaviour, racism, sexism and other forms of d i scrimination . ' ' ' Effectiveness of safeguarding arrangements [x] Pupils [x] Staff [x] Wider school community [x] Governors [x] Parents and carers Support and advice Online safety outside school What are the issues outside school? gaming social media/networking tablets mobile phones content contact Social media/networking Social media/networking Make it age-appropriate Check for more help – regularly Be you child's 'friend' Check links to games Restrict privacy settings Gaming - PEGI Gaming - online Make it age-appropriate Find out how you can report problems Don't share information Take care with headsets Consider 'real' friends only Use a nickname Consider age-locks if possible Phones Unsupervised internet access? Risk of loss or theft? Think about content control Text messaging (including images) Do you want to share your location? Image sharing? Tablets Think about setting up controls Find out how you can report problems Think about restricting purchases – especially in-app purchases Think about video calls and privacy Think about wi-fi issues,privacy and parenting Tablets Parental controls (iPad as an example) https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/keeping-children-safe/online-safety 10 What to do if (when?) something goes wrong Before it happens [x] Make sure your child trusts you and knows to tell you [x] Make sure you child knows to leave it [x] Never threaten 'no more internet' The worst things happen very rarely Other (less bad) things happen more frequently [x] Was it deliberate or accidental? [x] Was your child a victim or perpetrator? Or bystander? What to do if (when?) something goes wrong When it happens [x] Reassure your child [x] Listen to them about what they've seen [x] Look at what they've seen – with them? Without them? [x] Think about nature of incident [x] Think about who you might talk to - [x] School [x] Service provider [x] NSPCC or other support [x] Police/CEOP (101 or 999) 11 Think about boundaries and rules Think about your own behaviour Think about time restrictions Think about sharing rules with other parents Think about 'manners' Think about buying 'rules' Think about your digital footprint Ask yourself - 1. What do I look like? 2. Would I want this shared about me? 3. Am I giving away too much? 4. Would it pass the 'front page test'? 5. Is it a footprint or a tattoo? 12 Questions? 13	<urn:uuid:2c944611-499d-4a85-b497-b1e823656458>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://www.stalphege.solihull.sch.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ESTParentsCarersMeetingV05cStAlphegeWeb.pdf	2019-06-19T10:01:31Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00432.warc.gz	907,106,886	1,262	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.993873	eng_Latn	0.997608	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	false	docling	[ 484, 840, 1660, 1774, 3282, 3462, 3595, 3767, 4155, 4515, 5251, 5668, 5684 ]	[ 3.203125 ]	1	1
Issue 21 July 2008 Boys in Schools: Masculinities, Education and Gender Equality Helen Longlands IN THIS ISSUE 1-3 Boys in Schools: Masculinities, Education and Gender Equality 3 Letter from the Editors 4 Good at football or good at care? Boys struggle for status at school 5 Starting with the Self: Education for empowerment in India 6 Talking With Teachers: Supporting Our Sisters: Helping girls in Ghana get a second chance 6 Talking With Teachers: Teaching boys to be different in Jamaica 7 8 A Hopeful Future: Men learning from women leaders in Liberia Viewpoint: Kaduna, Nigeria: An uphill battle for change in masculinities which prevent education In 2008, UNESCO estimates that 72 million children worldwide are still out of school. Of these, 57% are girls. Globally, boys still enjoy a privileged position in terms of access to education, and for every 100 literate men there are still only 84 literate women. On average, once they have left school, boys and the men they become benefit from a broader range of job opportunities, higher salaries and greater political participation than women. This access to power also awards them advantages in more informal contexts such as the family. However, there are a great many discrepancies. Gender interacts with racial, social class and religious issues to affect boys' relationships to schooling, and so within and across different countries the issues regarding boys and education are varied, complex and often inconsistent. Many boys are still failing to gain access to quality education for reasons including poverty, displacement, migration, conflict, health, HIV and AIDS, disability, drug use, lack of physical and material resources, poor teaching or social and cultural attitudes. This limits the opportunities they have to enable them to develop the skills and knowledge they require in order to realise their potential in life. It can also exacerbate these problems further; lack of education can lead to unemployment, poor health and other social problems. For example, research from parts of sub-Saharan Africa emphasises the problem of outdated education systems which do not provide young men with the skills they need to enter the job market. In addition, many schools are sites where traditional and rigid gender stereotypes are reinforced. Research undertaken in the Caribbean highlights a critical problem of poor educational opportunities combined with social and cultural perceptions of masculinities which leads some boys to engage in violent 9 Recent Events: Caribbean discussion on Boys and Education 9 New Reports: A Study to Examine School- Related Gender-Based Violence in Malawi 10 10 11 12 Book Reviews: A Long Way Gone: The True Story of a Child Soldier Book Reviews: Children and Conflict in a Changing World Weblinks, Call for Papers and Letters Forthcoming Events behaviour and serious crime. Elsewhere, including Brazil, Cambodia and Uganda, street, mobile and marginalised children and youth often lack any kind of formal education; this increases their vulnerability to HIV and AIDS and drug misuse. In many wealthy countries, boys from low income families are among those children most likely to be failed by the education systems. Although they may have similar aspirations as other children, problems such as the feeling that achievement in education is too difficult or simply not worth it because the rewards are too few can lead many boys to become de-motivated by their school experiences. This can lead to higher than average exclusion rates particularly from secondary schools, and leaving school early with a lack of qualifications. Many initiatives regarding gender and education have tended to focus on girls. This is understandable given the extent of the problems that girls face. However, it is becoming increasingly recognised by organisations, policy makers and researchers working in the field of education that men and boys have a significant role to play in addressing inequalities. As such, various programmes have been successfully established in recent years which actively engage boys and young men in challenging existing practices & stereotypical understandings of masculinity. Dominant, aggressive or violent forms of masculinity have been especially targeted because of the effect that these associated behaviours have on individuals and societies as a whole. Not only for victims and perpetrators but also for non-perpetrators who are stigmatised by them purely because they are male. Successful programme approaches, such as the Stepping Stones participatory training programme which has been successfully implemented throughout many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, use education to challenge individual and collective perceptions of manhood through explicit discussions of masculinity and the role of men and boys in the issues the programmes are designed to address. These programmes are designed to be long term and provide sustainable changes in attitudes and practices. They emphasise the excuse for pupils to engage in schooling without jeopardising their own image through conforming to teacher pressure. The use of peer promoters is another method which has been successfully implemented in schools and universities such as the University of Western Cape in South Africa and schools in Nigeria to encourage young Men and boys have a significant role to play in addressing inequalities: various programmes have been successfully established in recent years which actively engage boys and young men in challenging existing practices and stereotypical understandings of masculinity. necessity for men and boys to be actively involved in addressing gender inequalities. They also advocate a collective approach. The Targeted AIDS Intervention programme in South Africa uses an education-based peer mentoring approach and football to engage young men between the ages of 11 and 18 in discussions about gender equality and women's rights, sexuality, HIV and AIDS and care-giving. It provides the opportunity for boys to critically reflect on issues regarding masculinities. It also encourages teachers and school leaders to participate in training workshops. Peer mentoring, as an approach to increase boys' positive participation in education, has also been used successfully in schools in other parts of the world including the UK and the Caribbean. In these instances, peer mentors are encouraged to be collaborative and supportive but also assertive and demanding, in order to provide a means/ Boys reading at a school in Cambodia: the provision of good quality resources in schools can encourage learning 2 men to rethink their masculine identities, and promote nonviolent, gender equitable attitudes and relationships. The 'peer promoter' approach offers boys and young men the opportunity to discuss issues in a 'safe space' without fear of being reproached, ridiculed or rejected by their friends. It also offers boys positive male role models from within their own peer groups. Many NGOs provide educational projects designed to reach marginalised groups of boys who often fail to access any sort of formal education. Through the 'Another Way to Learn' initiative, UNESCO is working with partner organisations in Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa and Asia to implement projects based on a holistic approach to community-based education and training. Many of these projects use drama to work with disadvantaged groups of young people including street and drug using children. For example, UNESCO has collaborated with The Ishara Puppet Theatre Trust – a leading puppet theatre in India – and the Salaam Baalak Trust – a New Delhi-based NGO – to work with young street dwellers. This project uses theatre workshops, including puppetry, collaborative script writing and performance, to teach basic literacy and other educational skills, and tackle issues that these children and many others like them face on a daily basis. The children then perform their plays in their own communities. A similar project called the Centre of Hope in Trinidad and Tobago uses participatory drama, music and role play to raise awareness, transmit information and build creative life-skills among the youth. This project targets young people from socially excluded and economically deprived communities who are particularly vulnerable to crime and drug use. Many of these are boys and young men who have dropped out of school early. Despite the successful work already occurring, there are many challenges restricting or preventing positive change – particularly the challenge of reaching those who are most vulnerable and disadvantaged. Newly enrolled boys and girls walk into their classroom in Kenya. Gender equality initiatives in education should work towards ensuring that all boys and girls are able to access good quality schooling. Credit: Ami Vitale/Oxfam Many boys who are disengaged with schooling do not want to be part of any kind of formal education programme. In some countries, including South Africa, Jamaica and the USA, programmes targeting adolescent boys involved in gang culture are faced with the problem that schooling or other forms of education do not necessarily offer the rewards that boys can reap from their involvement in crime (such as status, a sense of belonging or access to material wealth). Lack of adequate training of teachers to cope with the diverse needs of children, and negative teacher attitudes regarding gender, are serious issues which also need to be addressed. Boys will not engage with education or be encouraged back into schools where they experience harsh discipline – including high levels of corporal punishment – or where teachers and sometimes parents expect them to fail. Nor will they be encouraged to change their own understandings of and attitudes towards gender in school environments where teachers are covertly or overtly discriminatory and violent towards marginalised groups of children including girls and other boys. that resistance to change is a serious issue. The report from this meeting states that "boys in school in much of the world are aware that rules related to gender are changing, and that space must be made for girls. However, many school-going boys and male teachers resist change." Nationally, governments and public education systems have a crucial role to play in instilling a commitment to gender equality and challenging and changing oppressive gender norms. Governments must work with the societies they govern to develop a collaborative approach to addressing gender inequalities. Governments must join in partnership with organisations working with boys and girls, men and women, and establish relationships with other social institutions working towards change. At national and international levels, there is increasing recognition of the pressing need to address gender disparities and inequalities in education. Governments and partner organisations from around the world have pledged their commitment to the Millennium Goals and 'Education for All', but although progress is being made, the goals of parity and equality in education have not yet been met. In 2003, the UN held an Expert Group Meeting on the Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality. At this meeting the importance of actively engaging men and boys in gender equality initiatives was emphasised. However, it was also recognised Successful programme approaches in education must work towards changing, on a long term and sustainable basis, existing social norms regarding masculinity that can adversely affect not only the wellbeing of girls and women but also boys and men. In order to realise gender equality, organisations working with boys and men must not divert resources away from organisations that work with girls and women. They must be careful not to work at odds with these organisations but rather develop collaborative, supportive and unifying approaches. In this way, boys, men, girls and women may be empowered to challenge gender stereotypes and be actively and positively involved in the realisation of gender equality in and through education. Helen Longlands is currently researching masculinities and education as a doctoral student at the Institute of Education, University of London. She previously worked as a teacher in London Letter from the Editors The Education for All (EFA) gender agenda is often seen as focusing exclusively on girls. Meanwhile little attention is given to the difficulties some boys also face in accessing school and progressing well. In addition, concerns with gender equality associated with providing all children with the same education can obscure the ways in which teachers, pupils and school managers often assume all boys are the same, and expect particular forms of behaviour linked with being 'a real boy'. This might contribute to boys leaving school to earn money, tolerating harsh punishments or associating themselves with aggressive behaviour. This issue of Equals, supported by the Commonwealth Education Fund, looks at the challenges the EFA agenda faces with regard to masculinities, men, boys and education. It aims to set concern with boys' experiences of exclusion from school or lack of progression within a wider context of discussing gender equality in education. Articles explore some of the pressures on boys to perform in particular ways, and how this affects their individual experiences of school. They also highlight the ways in which, by embracing softer, more caring forms of masculinity, men and boys can support gender equitable education for girls and boys. Book reviews explore particular challenges for boys' education and equality in the context of conflict, where dominant forms of masculinity are often associated with war and violence. Achieving gender equality requires paying attention to boys and men as well as girls and women. This issue highlights some of the many different initiatives taking place around the world to engage men and boys in education and the promotion of gender equality. We would be very interested to hear about similar activities that you are involved in. Helen Longlands, Amy North and Elaine Unterhalter 3 Good at football or good at care? Boys struggle for status at school Jon Swain The journey from boy to man is unpredictable and frequently hazardous. How we understand men and gender and the development of boys has repercussions for work in education, health, policing and social services. I have researched young boys' identities, boys' own cultures and their interpersonal interactions in schools in the UK over the last ten years. Peer group popularity and status One of the most important features of school life for boys is their peer group. This gives meanings to everyday experiences. Through friends, boys tend to work out what it means to be a boy. Each peer group has boy has to be carefully negotiated, and performed, almost on a daily basis. One of the most important parts of school life for a boy (and girl) is the need to gain popularity, and this is connected to status. For boys this is linked to the search to achieve an acceptable form of masculinity. Boys' notion of status comes from having a certain position within the peer group hierarchy. This is determined by the number of resources they are able to accumulate. Some of these resources are intellectual, An integral component in the construction of dominant masculinities is for boys to show they are different from girls. Boys gradually learn at school that they risk being teased or bullied if they associate too closely with girls. its own cultural identity, or way of life, with its own shared rules, values and interests. like doing well academically; some are economic (money); some are social and involve language (interpersonal); some are cultural, like keeping in touch with the latest fashions, music, TV programmes, computer expertise or mobile phones. Boys need to work out within their own circle what is acceptable to say, how to say it, and what to do, or how to act. Being a Boys' masculine identities are linked to, and defined by, what they do with and to their Boys playing football in Tanzania: sporting success can help boys gain friends and status at school. Credit: Glenn Edwards/Oxfam 4 bodies. For many boys the most cherished resource will generally be physicality or athleticism in the form of strength, toughness, power, skill, fitness and speed. In research I did in London schools, I was interested in who was regarded as the 'ideal boy' and what kinds of resources these 'ideal boys' used to gain status. Sporting success (particularly in football) was a sign of successful masculinity, and high performance in sport and games (both on the field and in the playground) was the single most effective way of gaining popularity and status in the male peer group. One 11 year old boy explained how sporting ability gave the 'leading' boys the power to choose friends: "if you're not good at football you're not friends with anybody who's good at football. All the people who are good at football are the best people, like the most popular." Looking in-depth at the research in London schools is only one part of a global picture of boys' status. Other research concludes that there is no one overarching pattern of masculinity. We therefore need to think in terms of 'masculinities' rather than 'masculinity'. Masculinities are diverse, not only between but also within different settings. So for example, status and peer group pressures might take different forms in richer or poorer schools. Some forms of masculinity are dominant and others are marginalised or subordinated. Although dominant types of masculinity may appear to be exemplified in tough sporting heroes and action men, there are many other modes of masculinity. There are many forms of 'softer' or 'caring' masculinities that do not have the same profile. Dominant masculinities An integral component in the construction of dominant masculinities is for boys to show they are different from girls. Although the experiences of gender can be complicated, and can change between settings, masculinity is always constructed in relation to a dominant image of gender difference and ultimately defines itself as what femininity is not. Boys gradually learn at school that they risk being teased or bullied if they associate too closely with girls. This is part of their need to prove that they have the right masculine credentials as heterosexual boys. This is illustrated by the comments from boys in a London school who state that "it's fun, basically, to hate the girls and have wars with them. It's not cool to be seen with a girl, you would definitely get teased." Jon Swain is a Research Officer at the Institute of Education, University of London Starting with the Self: Education for empowerment in India Jyotsna Jha Boys underachievement is increasingly an issue in many developed and a few developing countries. Research conducted by the Commonwealth Secretariat shows that boys face as many gender stereotypical pressures and expectations as girls. They are expected to be the provider and protector, and to conform to the norms of masculinity which can be stifling. Real change in gender relations cannot come without influencing their thinking processes. They have to play an important role in women's empowerment in societies. Education for empowerment would entail an education that provides knowledge and skills, and socialisation of the kind which prepare and promote people to make strategic life-choices that were previously denied to them. First developed in rural India for accelerated learning for girls * Larger society/gender divides/hierarchy * Institutions * Ecology & Economy Topics covered in class look at cleanliness and interdependence in nature, marriage, health, inequality, and banking. Instead of an overload of information, the emphasis is on exploration of self and society through dialogue, role-play, games, stories and projects. Skills of verbal expression, information gathering, independent thinking, as well as vital information, are imparted. Success depends on dialogue between the teacher and the student, as well as between student and student, in conversations, The emphasis is on exploration of self and society through dialogue, role-play, games, stories and projects. Success depends on dialogue between the teacher and the student, as well as between student and student of a residential programme known as Udaan (the flight), the Social Learning Package (SLP) is one such approach to education. Care India, who pioneered the approach, felt that girls coming from deprived backgrounds needed structured curriculum not only in language, mathematics and science but something extra. They needed guidance to develop 'into self-confident individuals who could think critically, visualise their own potential and be conscious of their social responsibilities.' Social learning in the family or community is often an uncritical, unquestioning acceptance of narrow worldviews. SLP was conceived to provide a counter to this form of social education. It had the delicate task of encouraging a critical and democratic outlook in children whilst at the same time not alienating them from their own cultural environment. The early experiences and impact of the programme were very encouraging. The potential of the approach for boys as well as girls was evident. SLP provides a means for working with boys and girls on gender issues. It centres on the concept and framework of `relationships'. The self of the learner, either a boy or girl, is placed at the centre of several concentric circles which look at: * Self * Immediate family, friends, community, local environment discussions, and question and answer sessions. These conversations provide an opportunity for the teachers to examine their own beliefs and experiences and to let children develop and express their own views. CARE India collaborated with the government of Uttar Pradesh under the Janashala programme. This was a United Nations supported national programme for innovations in primary education in India. The package was introduced to nearly 200 co-educational State-run primary schools. An evaluation of the programme by the faculty of education from the Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi, India came with the following observations: * a positive change was witnessed in the nature of the teacher-student relationships and the ethos of the school from an authoritarian to a more democratic, open, friendly and dialogue oriented approach; * a shift in teachers' attitudes enabled them to see the potential within their learners and their capacity for growth; * teachers felt that the activities within the SLP gave children adequate scope to link the taught subject matter with their real world experiences; * for parents, the changes in their child/ children's personality, behaviour and attitudes, which were already visible, were matters of great pride, and they also developed a broader understanding of education including aspects of social learning and personality development; * children were beginning to show a spirit of freedom and curiosity about their environment and existing belief systems. They were more confident and had increased self-esteem. The Commonwealth Secretariat has collaborated with CARE India to develop the package for post-primary grades six, seven and eight. The success and potential of the package lies in its wide appeal and potential for application in diverse contexts. The government of Cyprus is adapting it and translating it into Greek. Thinking about gender equality is an important process for girls and boys in schools. SLP is one very practical way teachers can begin to do this. Jyotsna Jha is the Gender and Education Adviser at the Commonwealth Secretariat. More information on the SLP and the Commonwealth Secretariat's work on gender, boys and education is available at http://www.thecommonwealth.org/ Internal/33893/37058/173230/background/ Boys and girls engage in small group learning in India. Initiatives such as SLP help to develop a more democratic and cooperative approach to learning. Credit: David Kenningham/Oxfam 5 Talking With Teachers Supporting Our Sisters: Helping girls in Ghana get a second chance Issac Peprah In Ghana there are severe gender and regional disparities in primary school enrolment, particularly in rural and deprived urban communities. the family head, local church leaders and the Girl's Club management committee, with the active support of my brothers and I, to convince my mother to allow my sister to re-enter school. Happily, my sister completed her secondary and nursing training in 2006 and is currently working at a district hospital as a nurse. At the same time, she is pursuing a part-time degree course in mental health. Personally, I believe that there are many girls in Ghana who, like my sister, have lost their 'first educational chance' through similar situations and a range of other barriers that prevent girls from completing their education. It is essential that men actively support their sisters and other girls and women to break traditional barriers and negative social attitudes in order to enable them to develop their full potential. Girls, especially in poor and rural communities, are discriminated against when it comes to sending children to school. My own family's experience, and particularly that of my sister, has made me believe that men can play a crucial role in supporting the education of female family members and actively defend their right to go to school. My family is from the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana. My nuclear family included my mother, my father, their four sons and one daughter. Fortunately, all the sons were able to complete secondary education and each started a profession in carpentry, masonry and plumbing, except I who managed to struggle through secondary education and up through university. However, unfortunately for my only sister, she became pregnant during her final year at senior secondary level and had to stay on for one year to nurse her baby after delivery. After one and a half years, because she was a bright student, she decided to re-enter and continue her education. However, due to financial constraints and community attitudes towards 'young mothers', after the death of my father, my mother told her not to bother herself with schooling. It took almost two years of intensive negotiations, dialogue and discussions by Issac Peprah qualified as a teacher in Ghana. He is currently completing an MA in Gender, Education and International Development at the Institute of Education, University of London Teaching boys to be different in Jamaica Jason Lawrence-White In Jamaica boys underachieve at school. Boys do very poorly in their final year exams in secondary school. In primary school boys are more likely than girls not to reach the required level in English, maths and science. In colleges and universities, girls outnumber boys by about 4 to 1. Boys are more likely to drop out of school than girls. There is growing concern about gang culture and boys at school. Boys have to be 'boys'; they have to act, talk, walk and do boyish things. If they don't they are regarded as being 'sissies'. In some homes boys do not do anything that is regarded as house work - they do not make their beds, cook, clean or wash their clothes 6 because that is what girls are supposed to do. They can stay out as long and as late as they want to because they are boys and can protect themselves. They are not supposed to cry or show signs of weakness because this is a 'woman thing'. In schools they are expected to do subjects that are traditionally male-oriented. They are expected to be rough and play rough. Teaching in Jamaica I have seen boys considered to be 'sissies' bullied and excluded from friendship groups. These boys are mostly friendly with girls – other boys will not associate with them. When situations like these arise, I have to explain to my students that excluding someone from friendship groups on the assumption that they are 'sissy' is not good. I have to explain to them that because a boy does not do the things that they think all boys should do it does not make him different. In our Family Life Education class, I explain that helping with chores in the home does not make one a 'sissy' either. I explain that being different is a good thing as that is what makes us unique. Jason Lawrence-White teaches in Jamaica. He is currently completing an MA in Education, Gender and International Development at the Institute of Education, University of London A Hopeful Future: Men learning from women leaders in Liberia Abraham Conneh People of every rank and file in all nations are looking for models to emulate and for heroes to follow. Empowering women to take leadership roles is important to promote positive role models for women and girls, and to challenge stereotypes about the way men and women are expected to behave. Good leaders are able to champion the cause of education for girls and boys. The experience of my country, Liberia, has shown that in order to bring about change, it is important that men actively support and learn from women in positions of leadership. A challenging context Between its foundation in 1847 and 2006, Liberia had 21 presidents, all of whom were men. The Americo-Liberians or free slaves, who were returned to Liberia by the American Colonization Society, dominated the society. However, in 1989, poor leadership, bad governance, rampant corruption, the marginalization of productive economic activities and the loss of livelihood for whole communities. There was widespread destruction, loss of public and private property, and serious damage to physical and social infrastructures. Almost half of Liberia's pre-war population of about 2.5 million was displaced either internally or externally and about 180,000 people were killed. The conflict seriously weakened the country's economic and social policy-making organs and government institutions. The educational sector was seriously damaged. The war increased illiteracy through the closure of schools and training institutions. There was a complete disruption of the programmes and infrastructure of the education system. We are now left with an illiteracy rate of 70%, My country is recovering from an ugly past and is faced with a challenging present. However, thanks to positive leadership and a commitment by both men and women to support education for girls and boys, I believe that it has a hopeful future. unemployment of 80% and an HIV and AIDS prevalence rate of 5.6%. Seeds of hope In spite of this situation, men and of indigenous communities, tribalism pulled by the train of illiteracy plunged my country into a ruthless civil war. The war lasted 14 years and resulted in the disruption women in my country have demonstrated tremendous demand for education and commitment to exemplar leadership by electing into office, in 2006, the first female president of an African nation, Ellen Johnson The education experience of many boys and girls in Liberia is improving. Oxfam has helped provide new school benches and uniforms made by local craftspeople. Credit: Aubrey Wade/Oxfam Sirleaf. She has led urgent programmes for post war education reconstruction in Liberia with support from partners and NGOs. The rebuilt education sector is expected to contribute towards peace, conflict resolution, poverty reduction and meeting the needs of special groups such as demobilised and unemployed youths. In a country that has seen so much conflict, where certain dominant forms of masculinity have been associated with war and violence, many boys have to rethink and re-learn what it means to be male in order to help successfully re-build a peaceful society. Available statistics have consistently shown low school enrolment, especially for girls at primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. However, over the past few years we have seen tremendous improvement in the education sector which shows that the enrolment gap between boys and girls is gradually beginning to close. Despite this, adult illiteracy in Liberia remains high with only 26% women being literate compared with 50% men. We are therefore still far from achieving gender equality at all levels. However, we remain hopeful. Oxfam's work Since 1995, Oxfam has been working in Liberia with partners to support efforts in the country to reduce poverty and suffering with a focus on public health, livelihoods and education. Through our education work we are reaching 8,424 students (4,716 males, 3708 females) and 203 teachers (153 males, 50 females) in 12 schools within 3 counties (Monserrado, Margibi and Bong). We have seen a tremendous improvement among the students who have enrolled in the Accelerated Learning Program. We also work with Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs) in project schools. There is now increased awareness of the role of parents in advocating for support for their schools with the county education authorities. In addition, Oxfam is supporting the training of primary school teachers at the Monrovia Consolidated School System. We see all of these interventions as critical to leadership and employment opportunities for both men and women in Liberia. Education is the key to the social-economic growth for any people or nation, because an enlightened mind can never be enslaved. My country is recovering from an ugly past and is faced with a challenging present. However, thanks to positive leadership and a commitment by both men and women to support education for girls and boys, I believe that it has a hopeful future. Abraham Conneh is the Education Programme Officer for Oxfam GB Liberia 7 Viewpoint Kaduna, Nigeria: An uphill battle for change in masculinities which prevent education Colette Harris Much of the resistance to using a gender lens for social analysis occurs because this is seen to designate women and exclude men. This frequently occurs in development projects. Starting from the opposite end and viewing the world through the lens of masculinities produces a very different picture. Studies in the west have shown how working-class boys resist middle-class education. They see it as negating important elements of their manhood. But there has been little exploration of the relationship of masculinities to education in the global south. analyse issues around the endemic tensions between (Hausa) Muslims and local Christian groups. Central to the project has been young people's own analysis of local masculinities. In small group discussions we look at what it means to be a man. These are then written on flip-chart paper to serve as the basis for future analysis. This has exposed, among other things, ways in which these encourage engagement in violence and increase poverty. Since 2007, I have been implementing a non-formal education project in Kaduna, Nigeria, aimed at supporting youth to The educational levels of Hausa Muslims, both men and women, can be directly linked to masculinities. A Muslim man is expected to be educated Quranically but secular education is suspect since it has Conference Comments Politicising Masculinities: Beyond the Personal Emily Esplen Politicising Masculinities: Beyond the Personal What does it take to politicise existing work with men on gender? How can we get beyond stereotypes of women and men in order to truly transform oppressive gender orders? How can we re-frame our engagement with questions of masculinities and power so that new alliances can be created - bringing work on masculinities into the heart of movements for social and gender justice? questions grappled with at an exciting symposium on 'Politicising Masculinities', held in October 2007 in Dakar, Senegal, organised by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex. These were just some of the pressing 8 At this conference, which attracted leading figures from academia and NGOs working in the field of masculinities, exciting new thinking and possibilities emerged through conversations. Four key areas of discussion arose: new ways of theorising; male bodies long been viewed as related to Christianity and western imperialism. Some parents still fail to send even their sons to school. Consequently, many Muslims have poor skill levels and infrequently attend universities. This situation is resented because it decreases their employment potential; however at the same time it is accepted because it is seen as part of local culture. An important element in being a real man is control over family members, expressed in part through neither educating teenage daughters, nor allowing wives to enter employment, on pain of ridicule. Mockery and ostracism are significant ways in which communities discipline men. While today's economic pressures are seriously affecting the material situation in Kaduna and encouraging men to take secular education more seriously, as long as current definitions of masculinities remain valid it will be an uphill battle to produce significant change. Colette Harris is a Senior Lecturer in Conflict, Governance and Development at the School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia and sexualities; shaping policies and transforming institutions such as education; and mobilisation, activism and movement-building. Participants spoke of the need to find other ways of thinking about gender in order to better make sense of the complexity of boys', girls', men's and women's relationships and experiences. Participants highlighted the need to create spaces for men and women to talk about the uncertainties they experience in relation to their bodies and sexualities, while others discussed the practical strategies needed to promote men's greater mobilisation around structural inequities - such as capacitybuilding for men as activists. It was a unique gathering which offered an important opportunity: to inform and inspire a greater engagement by men in the struggle for gender justice and broader social change. A full report on the Masculinities Symposium is available at http://www.siyanda.org/docs/ esplen_greig_masculinities.pdf Recent Events Caribbean discussion on Boys and Education UNICEF and CARICOM William Neal "What is happening to boys in our education systems and what can we do about it?" were two of the guiding questions examined at a two day sub-regional meeting in Belize on 21-22 November, 2007. Keeping boys in education and learning is a concern for a number of countries across the Caribbean. Academics, practitioners, policy makers, school managers and teachers, and representatives from the Teachers' Union came from across the region to participate in the conference. Children and adolescents from a number of different Caribbean countries were interviewed, and compelling videos of their opinions and their demands that they be a part of the solution were shared with the participants. It is hoped that by highlighting the issue of boys' dropout and underachievement within the Caribbean education system, the region will look more urgently at key dimensions of equity and quality within education. And will it be forced to recognise the ways that masculine identities link with education trends and practices, such as high levels of exclusion. These interact with other factors including poor employment opportunities, family relationships, health and pervasive violence. It is now an opportune moment to examine how schools can better foster a culture of respect for each other, improve relations and encourage the sharing of responsibilities between men and women, and ultimately produce long lasting changes in gender relations. "The drop out rate of boys from our education system, their lower achievement in schools, is a gender dimension which has not received the attention is deserves. Gender is often defined as 'girls' or 'women' and it should encompass both males and females. It is time we assessed education with a gender-neutral lens – identifying the causes of the challenges and what needs to be done for both girls and boys to ensure their right to quality education; that they remain as long as possible in school and achieve to their fullest potential" said Rana Flowers, UNICEF Belize Representative. An array of factors that both inspire boys to remain in schools or propel them to leave were identified during the meeting. A major part of the challenge was recognised as securing the commitment to plan for and implement ongoing educational reform. All those involved in education including parents and children need to work together to realise the potential of schooling: that education is so much more than just 'going to school' and showing up for classes; that education can and should be empowering. Recommendations on the realisation that boys need to be socialised more positively from birth, encouraged to go to school and enjoy suitable and effective educational opportunities once in school. Schools must offer a curriculum that can be a djusted to support boys' needs, and the region must help boys to deal with the pressures they feel to conform to social pressures or pursue the short term of economic independence. The advice forms part of a twenty-point Declaration: Building Region Fit for Children. New Reports A Study to Examine School-Related Gender-Based Violence in Malawi USAID, January 2008 This report summarises the results of the participatory learning & action research conducted in the Machinga District in Southern Malawi through the USAID-funded Safe Schools Program. The objective of this program is to bring together all stakeholders, including children, to reduce school-related gender-based violence and create safe school environments for both girls and boys.The study, conducted in October and November 2005, shows that both girls and boys can be victims and perpetrators of gender-based violence. And corporal punishment is widely used in schools. The main perpetrators of violence in schools are teachers and boys. Some community members also abused children on the way to school. Although some systems of reporting gender-based violence in schools exist, the concept is not clearly understood. The effectiveness of the reporting structures Making Schools Inclusive: How change can happen Save the Children UK, 2008 The most disadvantaged children are those most likely to remain out of school. This report summarises Save the Children UK's experience in making schools more inclusive for children. It explores in detail the barriers to achieving inclusive education. And it poses questions about possible ways of delivering good quality, inclusive education for children from minority ethnic communities, disabled children, girls facing discrimination or children in conflictaffected areas. The book draws on practical learning from challenges in a variety of situations and presents programme examples from various low and middle income countries. These include Vietnam, Bangladesh, China, Somalia, Western Balkans, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, India, Morocco, Serbia, Kyrgyzstan, Peru and Brazil. These studies is questioned in the report. The report concludes that properly addressing schoolrelated gender-based violence requires interventions that tackle the 'push factors', such as the abusive nature of schools and the exploitative, gendered attitudes of teachers and the 'pull factors' of home life such as parental pressure on children to miss school in order to help in the home. Available at http://devtechsys.com/services showcase programmes that target specific groups of vulnerable children, build inclusive school communities, promote change throughout an education system and address financial barriers to inclusive education. Concrete examples and practical responses to real-life challenges are offered in this report. Available at http://www.savethechildren.org. uk/en/54_5432.htm 9 Book Reviews A Long Way Gone: The True Story of a Child Soldier Ishmael Beah, Harper Perennial, 2008, ISBN13: 9780007247097 Review by Elizabeth Baroudi As someone who has worked for more than 8 years in Sudan with child victims of war and conflict, I found this story to be typical of what is happening to many children. A Long Way Gone is the true life story anyone who wants to know what happens to child soldiers reads this book. When Ishmael was twelve he lived in a small village in Africa. He had only heard of a distant war when it reached his village. He was separated from his family and fled from the war. Before he saw his parents again the rebel army killed them and everyone else in the village. He then joined the army because he was tired of running and wanted revenge for his parents' deaths. of Ishmael Beah, a former child soldier from Sierra Leone who now lives in New York. This is an excellent account of the experiences of child soldiers and transports the reader to the war zone of Sierra Leone. I recommend that After two years of brutal fighting and drug use he found his way to a rehabilitation centre. Eight months later he moved in with his uncle in the capital. He went on a trip to the UN in Children and Conflict in a Changing World Machel Study 10 Year Strategic Review, UNICEF (2007) - A/62/228 Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) for Children and Armed Conflict, Radhika Coomaraswamy Review by Lyndsay Bird The Machel Study 10 Year Strategic Review produced by UNICEF and the SRSG for Children and Armed Conflict builds on the 1996 Machel Report that challenged the world to improve the care and protection of children affected by armed conflict. The 2007 report provides an overview of key issues, outlines findings from a strategic review, evaluates progress and provides a response on the way forward. from violating children's rights. Children increasingly bear the brunt of the consequences of war, through displacement or the murder or loss of kin. Although the direct consequences of war have received improved attention in the last decade, the indirect loss of services, particularly of education, has often been overlooked. The report highlights that much progress has been made through the improvement of legal and normative child rights frameworks and provision/relevance of demobilization and reintegration programmes which now include special measures for children. The prioritization of education for children affected by conflict has also been positively reinforced over the past 10 years. This has been helped by the establishment of the education cluster of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) which works within the framework of improving understanding of the importance of continuing education throughout an emergency. However, the report cautions that there is still much to be done to prevent armed groups 10 The report recommends that specific education initiatives for 'survivors' should target boys and men. However, there is a general lack of attention to the specific needs of boys as part of a balanced gender approach. 17 references are made to the issues affecting girls; 3 are made to the issues affecting boys despite the fact that many boys are targets for recruitment into armed forces and will have many subsequent needs. That special priority should be given to girls in order to address their needs in these contexts is rightly stressed. Yet similar emphasis is seldom placed on the particular issues facing boys (lack of education, stigmatisation and alienation) who have to reintegrate into societies that often condemn them. Whilst the report recognises that education New York to talk about children fighting in wars. Even though Ishmael had killed men in war, he changed his life by moving to America and graduating from college. Ishmael's ability to learn from his mistakes and the opportunities he had to educate himself and turn his life around are the reasons that he is still alive today. Ishmael is now a human rights advocate working for girl and boy child soldiers. The book shows that it's never too late to turn around your path in life. Elizabeth Baroudi is currently undertaking an MA in Education, Gender and International Development at the Institute of Education initiatives for former child soldiers should not create parallel structures that appear to 'favour' them, there must be recognition of the experiences that boys as well as girls have undergone. The report proposes a comprehensive response which centres on issues of strengthening protection systems, improving community based reintegration and transitional justice approaches, special concerns such as gender based violence, and prevention and peace-building. It states specific recommendations and advises that their implementation be reported within five years. It is now incumbent on member states to implement these recommendations. This report is a valuable update to the landmark Machel review of 1996, and provides concrete steps towards improving the lives of children affected by armed conflict. The second edition of the report due later this year will include greater insight into education and its role in conflict prevention and peace building. Lyndsay Bird is an Education Advisor for Save the Children Fund, UK Call for papers Gender: Regulation and Resistance in Education 2009 Gender and Education Association 7th Annual Conference 25-27 March 2009, Institute of Education, University of London The conference theme 'regulation and resistance' invites engagement with gender and feminism at every level of educational practice including politics, theorising, policy creation, research methodologies, pedagogical engagement and grass-roots activism. The conference draws together an exceptional range of international speakers working at the cutting edge of feminist and gender theory and research, and political and educational activism, including Deborah Britzman, Raewyn Connell and Gloria Ladson-Billings. The goal is to create a space for dialogue about gender and education that spans disciplinary, theoretical, political and national boundaries. You are invited to submit abstracts of no Weblinks The Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality Gary Barker, Instituto Promundo, Brazil This report was presented at a discussion to assess the progress of conclusions on the role of men and boys in achieving gender equality adopted by the Commission on the Status of Women in 2004. Available at: www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw51/panel%20men%20and%20 boys/Gary%20Barker%20-%20paper.pdf Positive Discipline in the Inclusive, Learning-friendly Classroom: A Guide for Teachers and Teacher Educators UNESCO Embracing diversity: Toolkit for creating inclusive, learning-friendly environments, Booklet 1 This toolkit for teachers, school administrators, and education officials provides practical guidelines on how to effectively manage students in the classroom by giving non-violent ways to deal with behavioural challenges positively and pro-actively. Available at: http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/appeal/IE/ Publications_and_reports/Pos_Dis-final.pdf Young Men and HIV Prevention: A Toolkit for Action Promundo Brazil This online guide emphasises the benefits of working with young men in HIV and AIDS prevention and provides practical information on how to design, implement and evaluate activities. Available at: http://www.promundo.org.br/352 A Directory of Civil Society Organisations Working in Partnership with Men to End Violence Against Women in the UNESCAP Region and Beyond UNESCO Asia and Pacific Region This comprehensive resource lists various organisations from around the world who are working towards ending violence against women. http://www.unescap.org/esid/GAD/Resources/NewTableEVAWM.pdf Child Soldiers Global Report, 2008 The International Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers This document details the current situation with regard to child soldiers and explains that not nearly enough is being done to end the use of children in war and conflict. http://www.childsoldiersglobalreport.org/ more than 300 words addressing the conference themes and sub-themes. The closing date for abstracts is September 30, 2008. Visit the website for the Gender and Education Association 2009 Conference, Institute of Education, London www.ioe.ac.uk/fps/genderconference09 Letters Thank you very much for the interesting newsletter, it has been very informative, and we look forward to receiving more. Phosile Tracy Sichinga Director, Training Community Initiative for Transformation (TRACIT), Malawi I was pleased to receive Issue 20 and am interested in the topics you cover. I wonder however whether the language could be made more reader-friendly. Terms such as "technisisation", disaggregating data or feminist activism are hard for the 'lay' person to understand. Could these be translated into simpler language without 'dumbing down' the meaning? Doreen Crawford, Pakistan Congratulations on the resumption of the Equals newsletter. I looked at the one you've sent and found it very informative and useful. Geeta Kingdon, Oxford, UK WRITE NOW! Do you have a particular view that you want to raise in Equals or a comment to make about the newsletter in general? Contact the Editors: email@example.com or by post: Amy North, EFPS, Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London WC1H OAL 11 Forthcoming events 3 – 8 August The XVII International AIDS Conference Mexico City, Mexico http://www.aids2008.org 10 -21 August Fourth World Youth Congress Quebec, Canada 8 September World Literacy Day 17 -19 September Asia Pacific Regional Policy Workshop on Overseas Development Aid for Education For All Manila, Philippines 19 September Convention on the Rights of the Child Day of General Discussion Geneva, Switzerland http://www.ineesite.org/page.asp?pid=1463 25 September UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon Global MDGs event New York September, 2008 UNESCO closing meetings on literacy Baku, Azerbaijan September, 2008 63rd Session of General Assembly (Review of literacy) New York November, 2008 11th International Forum of the Association of Women's Rights in Development (AWID) Cape Town, South Africa 23 - 3 April 2009 Men Engage Global Conference Rio de Janeiro, Brazil The Commonwealth Education Fund In 2001, British Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown announced the creation of a Commonwealth Education Fund (CEF) with a £10 million initial grant. CEF's main focus is on strengthening civil society's input into the Education for All (EFA) process to achieve international goals in low-income Commonwealth countries. In an unprecedented collaboration, ActionAid, OxfamGB and Save the Children UK agreed to act as co-managing agencies of the CEF. The CEF promotes the right to education by ensuring that governments fulfil their commitments through sound education policies, transparent and accountable financial procedures, and quality education provision that reaches the most marginalised girls and boys. 12 A special CEF project, the Gender Equity in Education Project (GEEP) is working with partners to help build their capacity to carry out gender analysis and advocate for gender equitable polices, budgets, and practices. This issue of Equals has been supported by the GEEP project. The CEF program itself will end in 2008, but it is hoped that recent research into sustaining funding for civil society advocacy in education will further this way of working at a national level beyond 2008. For more information visit: http://www.commonwealtheducationfund.org/ Contact Details Managing Editors: Elaine Unterhalter Sheila Aikman Beyond Access was set up in January 2003. Its main aims are: * To contribute to achieving MDG 3 – promoting gender equality and empowering women – by generating and critically examining knowledge and practice regarding gender equality and education * To provide appropriate resources to share and disseminate for the purpose of influencing the policies of government departments, national and international NGOs and international institutions including UN agencies Please contact us with any comments or enquiries: Amy North, Beyond Access, School of Educational Foundations and Policy Studies, Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, London WC1 OAL Tel: 0044 20 7911 5405 Fax: 0044 20 7612 6366 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Website: www.ioe.ac.uk/efps/beyondaccess or www.oxfam.org.uk/ resources/issues/education/ gender_equality.html The views expressed in this newsletter are entirely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the project, their partners or sponsors	<urn:uuid:bf0c9459-acf8-47bf-b8fc-631020f04137>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://www.ungei.org/resources/files/equals-issue-21-july-2008.pdf	2019-06-19T08:53:36Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00434.warc.gz	318,728,781	10,984	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995445	eng_Latn	0.998715	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3664, 8695, 14269, 18911, 24384, 28868, 34028, 38501, 44279, 49620, 53806, 57093 ]	[ 2.34375, 1.1953125 ]	2	0
Drama in the teenage brain Kathryn L. Mills 1,2 , Anne-Lise Goddings 1,3 and Sarah-Jayne Blakemore 1 1 Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK 2 Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA 3 Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK Reviewed by: The lives of teenagers are different from the lives of children. This period of life – adolescence – is a time of both social and biological changes. Social life becomes more complex during adolescence, and the teenage years are the period when we hone our skills for navigating the social world. These abilities are reflected in the changes occurring in the brain. We know that the areas of the brain involved in understanding other people and predicting their actions are undergoing changes during adolescence. As a result, this might be a period when we are more sensitive to signals from the people around us and the events in our social lives. WHAT IS ADOLESCENCE? Adolescence, which comes from the Latin word adolescere, meaning "to grow up," is used to describe the period of life between childhood and adulthood. It is commonly defined as starting around puberty and ending when an individual has developed an independent, stable role in society. Adolescence is not a new phenomenon. Ancient humans experienced adolescence and Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was one of the first to record and comment on the changes in the way people think and behave during this period. Characteristic behaviors of adolescence, such as heightened self-consciousness, novelty seeking, risk taking, and spending more time with friends, are all fundamental to the successful transition into adulthood. WE ARE PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE TO WHAT OTHERS THINK ABOUT US DURING ADOLESCENCE Social influences, like what other people think of us, play a big role in the way we feel and act. Scientists from around the world have shown that adolescents are particularly sensitive to their social environment. This can mean many things. For example, many adolescents care about the opinions (both good and bad!) of their peers or friends, sometimes even more than about those of family members. One way to measure how sensitive we are to the opinions and actions of others is by measuring how bad we feel after being excluded from a multiplayer game. One such game, called "cyberball," involves participants playing a game of "catch" with two other players. The participant can be included in the game of catch 1 or excluded by the other players. Figure 1 shows an example animation of what it would look like to be excluded in the cyberball game. When adolescents are excluded by other players in this game, they report feeling worse and more anxious than adults (although adults do not like being excluded either) [1]. Knowing that adolescents can feel differently to adults in social situations can help us understand how teenagers make decisions. Our actions, and the ways in which we choose to behave, are the result of a constant stream of decisions we are making. To make these decisions, we have to take all the information we have that is relevant and weigh up whether it is a good idea to act or not. This decision making process can be viewed as a kind of seesaw (see Figure 2). All of the reasons in favor of doing an action – the positive outcomes – are placed on the "Yes" side of the seesaw, while the negative outcomes are placed on the "No" side. Older children and adolescents can perceive just as well as adults whether something good or bad is likely to happen as a result of an action, a process called risk perception. This decides which side of the seesaw the outcome goes on. One thing that may differ between adolescents and adults is how much value they place on the good and bad outcomes, or how "heavy" each of the outcomes is on the seesaw. Adolescents tend to rate potential rewards as very high, which may make the perceived benefits (good outcomes) outweigh the perceived risk (bad outcomes). Every time we make a decision, we weigh up the good and bad outcomes. For example, when thinking "Should I smoke a cigarette?" we consider bad outcomes like health risks, but might also think that smoking gives us a positive feeling ("kick"). We also consider the social outcomes of our decisions. In this example, our friends and family might be upset or disapprove of our smoking, so that becomes a negative outcome, and we choose "No" (Option B). Alternatively, we might think that smoking will make us popular, a positive outcome, and we choose "Yes" (Option A). There are many outcomes of a decision. While some outcomes of risky decisions are clearly positive or negative and remain relatively stable (e.g., serious health risks from smoking), the value of other outcomes of a decision might vary depending on the social environment. For example, even though we understand the extensive health risks of smoking, the social outcomes of smoking are variable. Socially, smoking can lead to peer acceptance and popularity, but can also lead to social stigma and disapproval, depending on the attitudes and opinions of your group of friends and your family (see Figure 2). Social outcomes vary between individuals and can be the reason that the decision-making seesaw tips one way or another, changing the decisions we make and the way we act in different socials contexts. The seesaw model can help explain why different people make different choices by highlighting the value of social outcomes in decision making. These social outcomes are thought to be particularly important in adolescence [2]. Using this model might make it easier to understand why teenagers (and children and adults!) make risky decisions. HOW DOES THE BRAIN CHANGE IN ADOLESCENCE? Scientists have begun to link these changes in thinking and behavior to changes occurring in the adolescent brain. We know that the brain is changing both in its function (how it processes information) and its physical structure (or anatomy). A number of studies have explored what is happening in the brain when we try to understand the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of others. These studies use a technology called Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), which allows us to see what is happening in the living human brain. One MRI technique, functional MRI, uses powerful magnetic fields to detect the level of blood flow in the different regions of the brain. Areas activated during an activity need more oxygen to help them work, and this oxygen is transported around the body in red blood cells. Functional MRI measures how much blood is being sent to an area of the brain to determine whether that area is activated during an activity. The signal it measures is call the BOLD signal. In our lab, we compared BOLD signal when people were reading emotional sentences [3]. Some emotions make you think about someone else's opinion, e.g., embarrassment and guilt (see Figure 3). For example, you only feel guilty or embarrassed when you understand how someone else might be thinking about you; guilt and embarrassment are therefore social emotions. Other emotions do not involve thinking about someone else's opinion, e.g., disgust and fear. Studies like this have found that specific brain areas are involved in the social part of feeling emotions, and that this changes during adolescence. While adolescents and adults can feel and describe these emotions equally well, there is a different pattern of brain activity when they do so. Some areas generate more activity in adolescents and others generate more activity in adults. And within adolescence, some of the brain changes associated with social emotions relate to other developmental processes like puberty. We do not know why this changing pattern of brain activity occurs during adolescence, but these studies provide clear evidence that the brain is still developing. To understand more about the development of these "social brain" areas, we can also look at how their physical structure changes in adolescence. We can do this using another kind of MRI called structural MRI, which visualizes the structures that make up the brain. Different parts of the brain contain different amounts of water, which is made up of hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms. When these atoms are put in a large magnetic field like the one produced by the MRI scanner, they emit characteristic energy patterns, depending on which structure they are a part of. The scanner detects these differences, and uses them to construct a 3D image of the scanned area of the body. A study from our lab looked at the brains of a large group of children, adolescents, and adults aged 7–30 [4]. The physical structure that we measured is called cortical gray matter volume, which is an approximate measure of the brain cells and their connections, as well as supporting cells found on the outer-most layer of your brain (the cortex). We found that these social brain areas continue to develop structurally throughout adolescence, before relatively stabilizing 3 in the early twenties (see Figure 4). In other words, the structure of these social brain areas is still changing between childhood and adulthood. FIGURE 4 - Social brain structural changes. These four areas of the brain (highlighted in different colors) are involved in understanding the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of others. The structure of these areas changes throughout adolescence. The graphs show how gray matter volume is changing across age (x-axis) in percentages (y-axis). IS ADOLESCENCE A SENSITIVE PERIOD? Adolescence is a time of opportunity for learning new skills and forging an adult identity. We now have a body of scientific evidence demonstrating that the adolescent brain is continuing to develop. This ongoing change, particularly in areas of the brain involved in understanding other people, might indicate that adolescence is a time when our brains are especially sensitive to social learning and experiences. Perhaps the abilities that emerge during adolescence enhance social signals or allow them to be more easily integrated into other processes. If this is the case, then the complexities of the adolescent environment, and the opportunities available to young people, may have a significant impact on how young people's brains are shaped. GLOSSARY Adolescence the period of life between childhood and adulthood. BOLD signal a measurement of how much blood is being sent to a brain area, used to determine brain activity by functional MRI. Cortical gray matter a type of brain tissue found on the outer-most layer of your brain. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) a technology that allows us to safely image body parts (like the brain) in living creatures (like humans). MRI can help us study both the structure of different body parts and the way they work (function). Novelty seeking trying out new or unfamiliar actions. Puberty the biological developmental process causing a child's body to mature into an adult body capable of producing children. Risk perception the ability to know whether something good or bad is likely to happen as a result of an action. Self-consciousness the awareness of oneself, and how other people might think about you. REFERENCES 1. Sebastian, C. L., Viding, E., Williams, K. D., and Blakemore, S.-J. 2010. Social brain development and the affective consequences of ostracism in adolescence. Brain Cogn. 72:134–45. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2009.06.008 2. Blakemore, S.-J., and Mills, K. L. 2014. Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing? Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65:187–207. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202 3. Goddings, A.-L., Burnett Heyes, S., Bird, G., Viner, R. M., and Blakemore, S.-J. 2012. The relationship between puberty and social emotion processing. Dev. Sci. 15:801–11. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01174.x 4. Mills, K. L., Lalonde, F., Clasen, L. S., Giedd, J. N., and Blakemore, S.-J. 2014. Developmental changes in the structure of the social brain in late childhood and adolescence. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 9:123–31. doi: 10.1093/scan/nss113 Submitted: 24 February 2014; Accepted: 24 March 2014; Published online: 24 April 2014. Citation: Mills, K L., Goddings, A-L. and Blakemore, S-J. (2014). Drama in the teenage brain Front. Young Minds. 2:16. doi: 10.3389/frym.2014.00016 Copyright © 2014 Mills, Goddings and Blakemore. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. REVIEWED BY: Gen, 9 years old My name is Gen, and I enjoy drawing, gaming, piano, and reading. I love my Dad and he is a biologist. I like science, literacy, and history at school. AUTHORS Kathryn L. Mills I study the human brain and how it develops between childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. I am particularly interested in how we navigate the social environment during the teenage years. Outside of the lab, you will likely find me playing ping pong or walking around London. Anne-Lise Goddings I am a children's doctor and became fascinated by how the teenage brain develops after spending lots of time speaking to young people who I met in hospital. I am particularly interested in knowing how hormone levels in our bodies affect brain development in adolescence, and in trying to work out what makes all of our brains develop differently. I have always wanted to learn to play the piano, and this year have finally had my first lesson. It is definitely challenging my brain! Sarah-Jayne Blakemore Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London. My research focuses on the development of how we understand other people. I am also interested in how the brain matures to enable cognitive control – a collection of brain processes that guide thought and behavior to achieve our goals or plans.	<urn:uuid:5391f83f-a57b-4cc2-979b-73f35d1022a6>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://fjfsdata01prod.blob.core.windows.net/articles/files/124466/pubmed-zip/.versions/2/.package-entries/frym-02-00016-r1/frym-02-00016.pdf?sv=2015-12-11&sr=b&sig=DYO11zJ5ICocWRoWVYJJqTcoS8hT7avNA5u%2BYHzh%2F4s%3D&se=2019-06-19T09%3A04%3A39Z&sp=r&rscd=attachment%3B%20filename%2A%3DUTF-8%27%27frym-02-00016.pdf	2019-06-19T09:04:09Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00437.warc.gz	414,849,328	3,022	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.995801	eng_Latn	0.997057	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2533, 5774, 9126, 12920, 14247 ]	[ 3.6875 ]	2	0
Our topic this half term is "Why were castles built?" Homework: Homework will continue to be sent out each Friday; to be returned by the following Friday. Spellings: Spellings will continue to be given out each Tuesday. A spelling test will take place the following Monday. Your continued support in preparing for the test is gratefully appreciated. Reading: During the first term, Class 2JP met the 'Must, Could and Challenge' on a number of occasions. Moving forward, I am challenging the class to continue in this positive direction. Please continue to read a few pages of your child's home reading book every night and sign the reading record after your child has read. You can also support your child's learning by asking a few questions about the book. PE: PE lessons will be on Tuesdays and Fridays. Please make sure your child has full PE kit in school on these days. Children should bring trainers that they can wear for PE outside. Please remember earrings should not be worn on PE days. Class 2JP-Spring 2 Welcome back after the half term holiday. I would like to take this opportunity to tell you about the topics your child will be studying during this half term. Literacy: Our main areas of study will be: Numeracy: -Fantasy Stories -Non Chronological reports -Diaries -Instructions During literacy your child will be focusing on grammar, punctuation and guided reading. Science: In Science our main topic will be ' electricity'. The children will identify and describe the uses of everyday appliances and research 'why do we need to be careful with electricity?'. The children will learn about simple series circuits involving batteries, wires, bulbs and other components and they will have the opportunity to investigate how a switch can be used to break a circuit. Our main areas of study will be: -Calculation -Addition and Subtraction -Fractions -Measurement - Problem solving and reasoning Your child will also be learning relevant number facts. I would appreciate any support you can provide with this at home. Please see the reverse side of this newsletter for the relevant number facts. RE: In RE, we will be retelling the story of Easter, exploring the different ways how Christians show their beliefs about Jesus at Easter. We will also spend time reflecting on the sadness of Easter but the happiness of the resurrection. Music: During music lessons the children will continue to learn about the language of music through playing the glockenspiel. The learning will be focused around exploring and developing their musical skills . ICT: During ICT we will be using the internet to research information about different Castles. Art/ DT: The children will continue using a range of different software e.g. word processing and art packages. The children will also continue to develop their understanding of E-Safety. History: As historians the children we will be investigating Castles. They will be researching when and why castles were built, who lived in them ,what life was like and what has happened to castles since the medieval period . The children will have opportunities to ask questions about the castles and will use a range of secondary sources e.g. pictures, books and ICT to help them find the answers. The children will present information in a range of different written styles. During our Art and DT lessons we will be designing and making a personalised 'coat of arms' and making a moving jousting picture. And finally…Please feel free to come and speak to Mrs Acey, Mrs Smithson or myself, either before of after school if you have any queries.	<urn:uuid:9ef3469c-1565-4ee2-a14a-e3daf33cd65c>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://www.stjameshullacademy.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Year-2-Newsletter-Spring-Term-2-2019.pdf	2019-06-19T09:10:54Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00435.warc.gz	297,433,131	742	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999144	eng_Latn	0.999144	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3630 ]	[ 2.828125 ]	1	0
Perimeter Of Compound Shapes mathematics (linear) 1ma0 area of compound shapes - mathematics (linear) – 1ma0 area of compound shapes materials required for examination items included with question papers ruler graduated in centimetres and nil millimetres, protractor, compasses, pen, hb pencil, eraser. tracing paper may be used. instructions use black ink or ball-point pen. fill in the boxes at the top of this page with your name, centre number and candidate number ... to calculate the area/perimeter of compound shapes. - to calculate the area/perimeter of compound shapes. 10cm 2cm 7cm 15cm 10cm 8cm 5cm 10cm 11cm 3cm 5cm 9cm 5cm 6cm 5cm 2cm 3cm 9cm 2cm 3cm 4cm 8cm 5cm 8cm 3cm 5cm 12cm find the perimeter and area of the following compound ... - copyright: mathinenglish answers find the perimeter and area of the following compound shapes (not drawn to scale). ... title: compoundrectangles(2) created date: 11/30/2013 8:13:57 am 9 areas and perimeters mep y7 practice book a - find the perimeter and area of this rectangle making clear which units you have decided to use. 9. a rectangle has an area of 48 cm2. the length of one side is 6 cm. find the perimeter of the rectangle. 10. a rectangle has a perimeter of 24 cm and an area of 32 cm2. what are the lengths of the sides of the rectangle? 9.4 area of compound shapes we illustrate this method with an example ... area and perimeter of compound shapes - math-drills - math-drills math-drills math-drills math-drills f e d c a b 12.1 in 22.2 in 11.5 in 10.1 in a b d c 20.2 mm 3.1 mm f e g d h c a b aqa - module 5 area of compound shapes - sheffield maths - 1. rectangles and squares for each of the following shapes find the lengths of any missing sides and then find the perimeter and area of the shape. name area and perimeter - primary resources - 5 cm 1 cm 14 cm 10 cm 8 cm 4 cm (you don't need to do the perimeter for this one) area _____cm2 5 cm 8 cm 5 cm 9 cm perimeter _____cm perimeter of 2d shapes - mathster solutions for the assessment perimeter of 2d shapes 1) perimeter = 76 cm 2) perimeter = 88 cm ... title: print layout - mathster created date: 20140105103240z area and perimeter of l shapes sheet 1 - math worksheets 4 ... - 110 in 220 yd 2200 ft 290 ft 1150 ft 174 ft 231 in 70 in 292 yd 110 yd 96 in 52 in 3000 yd 240 yd 69 ft 58 ft find the area and perimeter of each shape. mathematics (linear) 1ma0 simple perimeter, area & volume - 1. a shaded shape is shown on the grid of centimetre squares. (a) work out the perimeter of the shaded shape. .... (1) (b) work out the area of the shaded shape. topic check in - 10.02 perimeter calculations - topic check in - 10.02 perimeter calculations. 1. calculate the perimeter of a square with sides 6 cm. 2. calculate the perimeter of a rectangle with sides 5 area and perimeter of revise geometry and measures ... - area and perimeter of compound shapes • a compound shape is made up from other, simpler shapes. • to fi nd the area of a compound shape, divide it into basic shapes. perimeter area perpendicular compound key words 1. find the perimeter of a rectangle with width 5cm and length 7cm. 2. find the area of a rectangle with width 9cm and length 3cm. give appropriate units in your answer. 3. find ... perimeter - irregular shapes sheet 1 - math worksheets 4 kids - perimeter = 21 in perimeter = 37 ft perimeter = 29 yd perimeter = 18 yd perimeter = 28 in perimeter = 52 ft perimeter = 27 ft perimeter = 70 yd perimeter = 55 in 9 area, perimeter and volume mep y9 practice book b - 9 area, perimeter and volume rectangle all angles are right angles ( ) opposite sides have the same length 90° square all the sides have the same length all angles are right angles ( )90° parallelogram opposite sides have the same length rhombus all the sides have the same length diagonals bisect at right angles trapezium kite diagonals intersect at right angles isosceles triangle two sides ... method statement: site set up: compound, parking ... - n60 balla to claremorris road realignment site set up:at heathlawn scheme method statement: date compound, parking & material storage ident no. 7/5/14 perimeter & area - mr-mathematics - perimeter & area worksheets . contents . differentiated independent learning worksheets • perimeter of shapes page 20 • area of rectangles page 30 • area of irregular shapes page 40 • area of triangles page 50 • area of parallelograms and trapezia page 60 • area of compound shapes page 70 • circumference of circular shapes page 80 • area of circular shapes page 90 • arc ... exam style questions - corbettmaths - name: exam style questions ensure you have: pencil, pen, ruler, protractor, pair of compasses and eraser you may use tracing paper if needed guidance area and perimeter - mathster - solutions for the assessment area and perimeter 1) area = 4 cm2, perimeter = 10 cm 2) area = 5 cm2, perimeter = 12 cm ... title: print layout - mathster created date: 20140105104643z area and perimeter - nrich - area and perimeter cut into 8 separate cards . author: liz woodham created date: 6/26/2013 12:00:36 pm ... perimeter of compound shapes worksheet mathswithmum perimeter of compound shapes calculate the perimeters of the following compound shapes a) b) perimeter = perimeter = elementary mathematics - the open university - perimeter of, and then their method of finding it out. write these answers on the blackboard (leave these write these answers on the blackboard (leave these answers on the blackboard – you can use these in activity 2), or ask the students to come and write them area and perimeter - nrich - area and perimeter cut into 8 separate cards . author: liz woodham created date: 6/26/2013 12:00:16 pm ... area and perimeter of compound shapes - math-drills - math-drills math-drills math-drills math-drills e d c a b 18.3 cm 4.5 cm 5.7 cm 15.1c m g e c d a b f 19.6 in 6.1 in 9.8 in 9.8 in perimeter, area and volume of regular shapes - perimeter of regular polygons perimeter means the total length of all sides, or distance around the edge of a polygon. for a polygon with straight sides this is the sum of all sides. 9-1 crossover problem: compound area - access maths - accessmaths 9-1 page 1 / 3 page 1 / 3 crossover problem: compound area all the corners of the shape are right angles. the perimeter of the shape is 48 m. perimeter and area - summary - university of utah - perimeter and area - summary 10-a a circle's perimeter is called its circumference. 1. the perimeter of an object in a plane is the length of its boundary. perimeter of compound shapes worksheet answers - mathswithmum perimeter of compound shapes answers a) b) perimeter = perimeter = c) d) perimeter = perimeter = area / perimeter worksheet homeschool math - area / perimeter worksheet 1 a. find the area and perimeter of the shape. 9 4 2 7 4 4 2 a. find the area and perimeter of the shape. 2 8 5 5 2 5 11 3 a. find the area and perimeter of the shape. pre ctivity composite figures preparation - pcrest3 - sect on . — compos te f gures area of a regular polygon the area of a regular polygon can be found using the perimeter (p) and the distance from the center geometry notes - asu - geometry notes perimeter and area page 4 of 57 the area of a shape is defined as the number of square units that cover a closed figure. for most of the shape that we will be dealing with there is a maths year 7 - st john the baptist school, woking - perimeter & area of compound shapes 1. work out any missing lengths you need. 2. calculate the perimeter of each shape. 3. calculate the area of each shape, showing all your working. introduction to compound channel flow analysis for floodplains - a suncam online continuing education course introduction to compound channel flow analysis for floodplains by kelly mcatee, p.e., leed a.p. delivery guide mathematics - ocr - compound units (e.g. for speed, rates of pay, unit pricing). know and apply in simple cases: speed = distance ÷ time density = mass ÷ volume use and convert other compound units (e.g. density, pressure). r11, know and apply: density = mass ÷ volume use and convert compound units in algebraic contexts. n13, r1, r11, g14 10.01c maps and scale drawings: use the scale of a map, and work with ... the area and perimeter pack - teachingideas - some shapes are made by joining two or more shapes together. these are called compound (or composite) shapes. 6m 4m 3m 5m 3m 9m to find the perimeter, add the rectangles with the same numerical area and perimeter - rectangles with the same numerical area and perimeter mathematics task suggested use this mathematics task is intended to encourage the use of mathematical practices. calculating compound shapes: maths : year 6 : autumn term - calculating compound shapes: maths : year 6 : autumn term learning objective overview assessment questions resources lesson 1 to recognise that shapes with the same area can have different perimeters, and vice versa. children will consider the ways in which shapes of different dimensions may have the same area or the same perimeter. they may then investigate how altering the construction of ... worksheet 69: area of composite shapes (learning number ... - worksheet 69 area of composite shapes to find areas of composite shapes with straight edges: split the shape into rectangles and triangles; find the areas of the individual bits; add or deduct the areas to get the total area. we use formulae to calculate area. if a rectangle measures 5m by 3m, its area is 5 x 3 = 15 m2 (square metres). if a square is 12 mm along each side, its area is 12 x 12 ... perimeter and area of complex figures - eduplace - perimeter and area of complex figures find the area and the perimeter of the complex figure. separate the complex figure below into two rectangles to find the area. use the formula for the area of a rectangle. solution: area of the complex figure is: 45 m2 + 50 m2 = 95 m2 you can find the perimeter by adding the lengths of the sides. solution: perimeter = 9 m + 5 m + 4 m + 10 m + 5 m + 15 m ... area and perimeter - miss b's resources - area and perimeter missbsresources the perimeter is the _____ of a shape. the area is the _____ of a shape. calculate the area of the shaded shape. mathswatch worksheets foundation questions - 33 area and perimeter f g to e 33 34 volume of cuboids f g to e 34 35 converting metric measures f g to e 35 36 triangles, quadrilaterals & other polygons f g to e 36 37 names of solids f g to e 37 38 tessellations f g to e 38 39 isometric drawing f g to e 39 40 the probability scale f g to e 40 41 the averages f g to e 41 42 pictograms f g to e 42 43 conversion graphs f g to e 43 ... foundation check in - 10.02 perimeter calculations - foundation check in calculations 1. calculate the circumference of a circle of radius 6 2. calculate th e perimeter of the shape below. 3. calculate the perimeter of the shape below area with algebra how to - justmaths - checklist ready to be marked ? q1. the diagram shows a triangle. 3x in the diagram, all the measurements are in metres. the perimeter of the triangle is 56 m. sociological theory an introduction to the classical tradition ,social psychology term papers ,social policy in sub saharan african context in search of inclusive development social policy in ,social justice philanthropy approaches and strategies of funding organizations ,social security programs and retirement around the world micro estimation ,social methods and microeconomics contributions to doing economics better ,social psychology 8th edition aronson ,social networking recruitment belton amanda ,social science introduction study society ,sociolinguistic attitudes in india ,social science grade 7 exam papers ,social psychology chapter 18 study answers ,social work skills for beginning direct practice text workbook and interactive web based case studies 3rd edition connecting core competencies ,social psychology david myers google books ,socio economic and political problems of tea garden workers a study of assam ,social marketing new imperative for public health ,sociolinguistic description of detroit n ,socialization and learning at work a new approach to the learning process in the workplace and society ,social security life wilbur cohen ,social responsibility a selection of passages for the study of the teaching of j krishnamurti ,social psychology of prejudice ,social media mining and social network analysis emerging research ,sociolinguistics and corpus linguistics 1st edition ,social page 2 / 3 page 2 / 3 Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) innovation and territorial development ,social studies skills ,sociedad y cultura contemporanea de lina m torres book ,sociology 3rd edition a canadian perspective ,socioanalytic methods discovering hidden organisations ,social networking teachers blame facebook and twitter for ,social work administration and development ,social issue research paper example ,society adolescent self image rosenberg morris princeton ,sociolinguistics and language education new perspectives on language and education ,social media mastery by eric worre network marketing pro book mediafile free file sharing ,society basics new mysoclab pearson ,social transformation in central asia a case study of uzbekistan ,social movements and free market capitalism in latin america telecommunica tions privatization and the rise of consumer protest ,social psychology power ng sik hung ,social psychology myers 10th edition ,social work aswb clinical exam a comprehensive study for success ,social psychology interdependence interaction and influence ,social movements 1768 2012 tilly charles ,sociology 6th edition by giddens anthony published by polity press paperback ,sociological explanations crime deviance barry cartwright ,social psychology aronson wilson akert 8th edition ,social tourism perspectives and potential 1st edition ,social perspectives in mental health developing social models to understand and work with mental di ,social studies worksheets and answers ,social work and hiv the canadian experience ,social stratification change india yogendra singh ,social psychology exploring universals across cultures ,sociolinguistic perspectives papers on language in society 1959 1994 ,social media metrics for dummies ,social problems census update 12th edition ,social theories of risk and uncertainty an introduction ,social work and child welfare politics through nordic lenses ,social variation and the latin language ,social studies level f reading power modules lev ,social justice and the city david harvey ,social psychology 9th edition by kassin exam ,social psychology david myers 10th edition ,social security disability practice 2009 ,sociedad filosofo aprendiz brenifier oscar ,social psychology edition 8 ,social movements in twentieth century iran culture ideology and mobilizing frameworks ,social studies cxc past papers ,social network analysis history theory and methodology ,sociologie organisations philippe bernoux seuil ,society and ideology in india essays in honour of prof r s sharma 1st edition ,sociology 12th edition schaefer ,social support theory research and applications ,socialist europe and revolutionary russia perception and prejudice 1848 1923 ,social interactive television immersive shared experiences and perspectives ,society and technological change 6th edition ,social psychology and organizational behaviour ,social system and the dalit identity ,social studies questions and answers 7th grade ,sociology 11th eleventh edition richard schaefer ,social media how to engage share and connect regina luttrell ,social policy for effective practice ,social issues in computing computer science and applied mathematics ,social policy an anarchist response ,society and the adolescent self image ,sociological theory construction ,social media anxiety by zanna ren on prezi ,social psychology david myers 11th edition book mediafile free file sharing ,society and discourse how social contexts influence text and talk ,social media marketing paper ,social unrest and popular protest in england 1780 1840 ,social welfare policy regulation and resistance among people of color ,socio economic conditions of the tribal under the british rule 1903 1936 1st edition ,social resilience in the neo liberal era ,society against the state essays in political anthropology ,sociological perspectives 1st edition ,social work exam study ,socialism and the irish rebellion writings from james connolly ,social problems readings ,social stories being bossy ,social media master social media marketing facebook twitter youtube instagram social media social media marketing facebook twitter youtube instagram pinterest Related PDFs: Theory Of Quantum Liquids , , Thermal Energy And Heat D Answer Key , , Theory Applications Harmonic Integrals Hodge W.v.d , , Theory Verification Sociology Zetterberg Hans L , , Theory Of Functions Of A Real Variable , Theory Of Orbits Perturbative And Geometrical Methods , , Thermal Engineering Rk Rajput , , Theory Of Neutralization And The Archiphoneme In Functional Phonology , , Theosophical Articles And Notes Reprinted From Original Sources , , Thermal Heat Bridge Calculation With Software Antherm , , Thermal Energy Concept Map Key Terms , , Thermal Physics Solutions Kittel , , Thermal Decomposition Of Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate , Theory Of Machines And Mechanisms Solution , , Theras And His Town , , Theory Of Plates Vol Ii , , Theory Groups Rotman Joseph J Allyn , , Theory And Experiment Recent Insights And New Perspectives On Their Relation , Theres More To Life Than This Healing Messages Remarkable Stories And Insight About The Other Side From Long Island Medium Teresa Caputo , , Theory Of The Novel A Historical Approach Michael Mckeon , , Theory Elementary Particles J Hamilton Oxford , , Theory Of Heat Radiation The History Of Modern Physics 1800 1950 Vol 11 , , Theory And Analysis Of Elastic Plates And Shells Second Edition , , Thermal Measurements In Electronics Cooling , , Theory Practice Counselling Psychology Richard Nelson Jones , , Theory Crystal Dislocations Nabarro F.r.n Oxford , , Theory Of Consumer Behaviour , , Theory And Practice Of Group Counseling , , Theory Practice Counseling Psychotherapy Textbook , , Thermal Physics , , Thermal Energy And Heat Workbook Answers Wordwise , , Thermal Physics Schroeder , , There Is A Carrot In My Ear And Other Noodle Tales Sitemap \| \| Best Seller \| \| Home \| \| Random \| \| Popular \| \| Top page 3 / 3 page 3 / 3	<urn:uuid:047a1377-dd58-40fd-92e2-4f848f50b9a4>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://bathroomcost.co.uk/-perimeter-of-compound-shapes.pdf	2019-06-19T09:27:40Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00437.warc.gz	342,495,090	4,289	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.965504	eng_Latn	0.97488	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 6202, 12522, 18538 ]	[ 3.78125 ]	1	0
! Search... SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT & SOCIETY PEACE & SECURITY HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS HUMAN RIGHTS MORE Australia and Africa Search Pre-colonial Past to Manage Climate Future DEVELOPMENT & SOCIETY : Biodiversity, Climate Change, Indigenous People, Land Management, Traditional Knowledge 2015•03•03 Catherine Monagle United Nations University Email # Share Although located on opposite sides of the world, Australia and southern African countries share colonial histories in which newcomers prevented indigenous people from employing age-old practices of using fire to manage their lands. 日本語 This was because in the temperate European countries the settlers had left, fire was often seen as an evil to be avoided and suppressed at all costs. It was assumed that the newly settled territories were wild places where the first peoples exercised no control or custodianship over nature. Many indigenous people, however, in savanna lands across Australia and southern Africa, had been purposefully lighting fires for countless generations before the newcomers introduced formal proscriptive laws and regulations. Indigenous people on both continents did this for many reasons. Fire was not only employed to follow ceremonial practices, but also to ensure that these fire dependent landscapes were able to support the plants and animals upon which the people relied. Traditional knowledge had taught them that early season burning prevented the accumulation of vegetation that fed destructive late season wildfires and would also have decimated the local biodiversity. Now, new innovative methods of land management developed in northern Australia, combining traditional aboriginal knowledge with contemporary landscape management techniques, are tapping into carbon abatement funding to bring back traditional management. Where once the traditional owners of Arnhem Land (aboriginal-owned land in the Northern Territory of Australia) would have walked through the country lighting managed fires on foot, now such age-old approaches are being combined with dropping firelighters from helicopters. "My parents told me from an early age that we need to burn our land," says senior ranger and Arnhem Land traditional owner Dean Yibarbuk. A group of Australian indigenous rangers who travelled to Namibia last month told a gathering of land managers from several Southern African nations — including Namibia, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Botswana — how the Australian model has been working. The group had come together to gauge whether the Australian's experience could be adapted in other parts of the world. This exchange was hosted by the United Nations University Traditional Knowledge Initiative (UNU-TKI) (http://www.unutki.org) and Namibian community-based natural resource management NGO Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC). Namibian rangers discussed fire management with indigenous Australian fire ecologists. From left to right: Shaun Ansell, Wardekken Land Management Australia; Singwanga Matambo, a Namibian Parks Ranger; Nigel Gellar, Wardekken; Dean Yibarbuk, Wardekken. "My parents told me from an early age that we need to burn our land," said Dean Yibarbuk, a senior ranger and Arnhem Land traditional owner at the workshop in the Namibian town of Swakopmund. "Without early burning in the cooler season, the plants would grow up and stop our people and animals from walking through the land. Then the fire fuel would build up and the whole place could go off like a bomb if there was a lightning strike." An Australian government-funded initiative implemented by UNU has found that many savanna lands across Southern Africa, Latin America and the Asia-Pacific region share traditional practices of using fire to manage the land. In recent times, however, these practices have often been lost — leading to an accumulation of flammable ground vegetation that facilitates late dry season destructive wildfires and, ultimately, higher global emissions. This initiative is designed to share Australia's early burning experience using indigenous knowledge with government officials and local communities in other countries and explore the viability of adapting this experience to set up similar emissions abatement models in these diverse other contexts. There are clear gains to be made in battling climate change from using early season burning in savanna areas to reduce the release of greenhouse gases. Powerful tool for battling climate change Currently, savanna fires are responsible for approximately 12 percent of the globe's annual methane (CH4) emissions and 28 percent of annual nitrous oxide (N20) emissions. While both gases are less prevalent than carbon dioxide (CO2) they are far more potent. Methane produces about 21 times as much warming as carbon dioxide, while nitrous oxide is 300 times more effective at trapping heat. Studies in Australia show the management of savanna through early burning can reduce methane and nitrous oxide emissions by more than 30 percent. Ongoing research is also investigating what amount of emissions reductions could be brought about via the carbon sequestration provided by aiding biomass accumulation. Early indications suggest it might be as much as five to 10 times greater than the abatement from methane and nitrous oxide alone. Globally it has been suggested that this abatement method could reduce global greenhouse emissions by as much as 1 GtCO2e/year. It could also make a significant contribution to the Bonn Challenge (http://www.bonnchallenge.org/content/challenge) of restoring 150 million hectares of degraded forests by 2020, as well as the more recent endorsement by the New York Declaration on Forests (http://www.un.org/climatechange/summit/wp- content/uploads/sites/2/2014/09/FORESTS-New-York-Declaration-on-Forests.pdf) to cut natural forest loss in half by the same year. While also providing strong benefits to biodiversity, this approach to cutting emissions can also provide job opportunities for remote communities around the world. Professor Opha Pauline Dube, from the University of Botswana, told the workshop that one of the major challenges in re-introducing indigenous fire management practices in southern Africa is political will. Opha Pauline Dube speaks at the Southern Africa Regional Workshop. "We have to persuade policymakers that not all fires are bad and that we can fight 'bad fires' with fire," she said. She added that achieving the level of funding required to reintroduce sustained fire management will be challenging, given the myriad of development challenges demanding the attention of national governments and overseas donors. The indigenous rangers at the workshop emphasized the importance of community support and traditional connections to the land in their work with the West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (WALFA) project in Australia's Northern Territory. The WALFA project, which employs over 200 local people, provides an impressive example of multinationalfunded carbon abatement in land management. In 2006 US oil and natural gas company Conoco Phillips agreed to provide $17 million over 17 years to buy abatement from early savanna burning conducted by indigenous groups on indigenous-held lands as an offset requirement linked to opening a liquefied natural gas plant in Darwin. Whether similar arrangements tapping into international resource companies' sense of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) can be achieved in southern Africa, or other parts of the world, is now being explored. Valuable to human and environmental well-being Getting savanna lands back under control to prevent subsistence farmers from becoming trapped in spirals of increasing poverty is an urgent matter, stressed Garth Owen-Smith, a technical consultant and the former founding co-director of Namibian-based IRDNC. "Fifty years ago, parts of Namibia were good cattle country," said Owen-Smith. "Now bush encroachment in the northeast and central savanna areas means the grasses have died out and cattle cannot travel through the country. The most effective tool to manage this bush encroachment is fire." Government officials and indigenous fire ecologists from three continents shared ancient fire knowledge and modern management practice the UNU Learning Exchange in North East Namibia, December 2014. During an IRDNC-hosted field trip before the Swakopmund workshop, nine international delegates saw an example of this firsthand in Namibia's Bwabata National Park, where indigenous people have been using their traditional fire practices for centuries. The group also visited parts of the East Zambezi Region to observe a community-based planned early burning project that IRDNC initiated in 2007 in partnership with government and communities. The visit provided the Australian indigenous rangers and local Kwhe peoples a chance to share firsthand their similar knowledge of ancient fire management. A major advantage of the savanna fire management practices pioneered in northern Australia is the way they tie together a number of different strands of human and environmental well-being. Not only do they reduce emissions, improve ecological health and biodiversity, but they are supporting local communities' welfare by creating employment and enterprise development opportunities through more effective and secure land management. There are also indications that better managed savanna lands can lead to ecological benefits in adjoining landscapes, such as helping to prevent the further degradation of rainforest. "Research in Australia has demonstrated how savanna fire management can prevent encroachment into rainforest by protecting rainforest margins and can preserve rainforest pockets within savanna woodlands that may otherwise be destroyed by late-season fires," said Sam Johnston, head of the United Nations University's Traditional Knowledge Initiative. "We are exploring the extent to which this is also the case at the savanna and rainforest junctures that are similarly found across South America and Asia. In some cases, poor fire management can lead to patches of rainforest disappearing all together." Johnston added that in addition to Southern Africa and Latin America, his team is also exploring the possibilities of using traditional savanna fire management practices in Australia's Asian neighbourhood, including Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea and Myanmar. Such opportunities offer not just a chance to generate emissions reductions that can lead to real global impacts, but also allow the original peoples of savanna lands to explore the traditional land practices they share across distant geographical and cultural divides. ♦ Learn more about landscape restoration and the Bonn Challenge in this video: (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) Australia and Africa Search Pre-colonial Past to Manage Climate Future by Catherine Monagle (http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/australia-and-africa-search-pre-colonial-past-tomanage-climate-future) is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/). Email " Tweet # Share JOIN THE DISCUSSION BELOW $ AUTHOR Catherine Monagle United Nations University Catherine Monagle is a programme manager and Senior Fellow with the Traditional Knowledge Initiative of the UNU Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNUIAS (http://ias.unu.edu/en/)). An Australian national, Monagle graduated with degrees in science (ecology and evolutionary biology) and law from Monash University, and undertook studies in international law at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands. She holds a Master of Laws from the Australian National University and was admitted to legal practice in the Supreme Court of NSW. Monagle has particular expertise at the intersection of international law, natural resource management, biodiversity, genetic resources, climate change, traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights, and has an interest in science in environmental regulation. In these areas she has advised governments, international organizations and NGOs. She is currently acting as Secretary of the Expert Taskforce on Global Knowledge Governance being undertaken by the Global Economic Governance Programme of Oxford University. She is also currently reviewing legislative frameworks for the protection of the marine environment in Australia, and working with traditional owners in managing intellectual property rights and interests in the context of biodiversity and natural resource management in the North of Australia. RELATED ARTICLES Farming with Fire: Revaluing a Japanese Agricultural Tradition HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS 2013•05•03 %3 Takashi Kurata Research Institute for Humanity and Nature Reinventing Fire SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010•01•22 %4 Amory B. Lovins Rocky Mountain Institute Fighting Carbon with Fire DEVELOPMENT & SOCIETY 2009•09•10 %2 Dean Yibarbuk Warddeken Land Management Join the Discussion	<urn:uuid:85a71134-b296-4fb0-888f-207265347e11>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://i.unu.edu/media/tfm.unu.edu/news/201/UNU-Our-World_2_0-3-March_2015.pdf	2019-06-19T08:52:54Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00436.warc.gz	481,164,791	2,509	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.953955	eng_Latn	0.994574	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 609, 2908, 4500, 6317, 7655, 9442, 10857, 12529, 13133 ]	[ 2.15625 ]	3	0
Anglican Church of Canada Published for the Church by Scouts Canada and Girl Guides of Canada RE L I G I O N I N LI F E PRO G R A M Membership in the Girl Guides of Canada and Scouts Canada i s open to all girls and boys who wish to make the promise, regardless of race, colour or creed. The purpose of the G u i d e / S c o u t p r ogram is to assist girls and boys to develop physically, socially, spiritually and mentally to be responsible citizens of their country. The Religion in Life program has been established to assist in the spiritual growth of each member, youth and adult alike, and to participate actively in their own religious denomination. Girl Guides of Canada and Scouts Canada uphold the principle that specific religious instruction is the reponsibility of parents and religious authorities. PU R P O S E The purpose of this program is to provide Anglican Scouts o r G u i d e s with an opportunity to explore their faith, to make it a basic part of their personal life, and to share it with others. T H E E MBLEM The Christian Religion in Life emblem consists of a great circle, the symbol of eternity. In the circle are the first and last letters of the Greek Alphabet, A l p h a and O m e g a, a symbol of God, and a reminder that the worship and service of God form an essential part of life from beginning to end. RE QU I R E M E N T S The requirements for the Religion in Life program differ in each faith and denomination and are prepared nationally by the Churches or religious bodies to suit their particular needs. IN S T RU C T I O N The instruction of a candidate desiring to qualify for en emblem is the responsibility of the candidate's own spiritual advisor or his/her appointee. PR E S E N TAT I O N Presentation of the emblem is made by the candidate's spiritual advisor, and can form an impressive part of a regular G u i d e o r S c o u t meeting, a church service, or a special evening for parents. STAG E S The Religion in Life program is in five progressive stages, colour-coded and adapted to the age groups concerned. Stage 1 — Yellow Border (about 7–8–9) Stage 3 — Blue Border (about 13–14–15) Stage 2 — Green Border (about 10–11–12) ``` Stage 4 — Red Border (15+) Stage 5 — Purple Border (Adults) ``` Candidates may start at any stage appropriate to their age and capabilities. Only one emblem — the latest stage earned is w o r n . WH E R E OB TA I NA B L E The emblem may be obtained from provincial offices or through regular badge channels. WH E R E WO R N Girl Guides of Canada — see Policy, Organization and Rules. Scouts Canada — see By-Law, Policies and Procedures. PR E PA R AT I O N The approach for each S c o u t or G u i d e will depend on their age and development. Essentially, each member should take a step in growth to prepare to receive the Emblem. As much help as possible should be provided by the Rector or Spiritual Advisor; the Scout Leader/Guider and the parents to underline that each person's Faith pervades all facets of life. The S c o u t and G u i d e should recognize a challenge, but not be faced with expectations beyond their ability. As with the entire Guiding/Scouting program, this Emblem offers a vehicle for Youth Ministry and Mission. There is embodied in these outlines a rich opportunity for the Priest, or the Spiritual Advisor to share in the boy's or girl's life and to share his/her faith with the boy or girl. BA S I C EX P E C TAT I O N S F O R A L L STAG E S To be applied according to the age of the youth member A. Wo rs h i p — Church School attendance could be considered acceptable, especially for younger members. — Worship regularly with his/her Parish. — As the Parish and/or parents permit, each youth member should become a communicant at the earliest opportunity. B. Learn i n g — Be involved in or have completed the Christian Education programs in the parish such as Church School classes, or as may be offered by his/her Parish. C. Serve the Church — Be of service to the Parish Church, through such activities as being a Server, Choir member, (junior) Sidesman, etc. D. Service to Others — Be of service to others through community action and service, such as through opportunities offered by the pack, troop, company or crew, whether as direct help to individuals; or protecting the environment. These are c o n t i n u i n g ways in which the youth members reflect their Faith in daily life. It is not intended that shortlived burst of activity or involvement be acceptable. Rather, they should already be regular in such habits. If, as may well be the case, these patterns are new, they should show continuity in their newfound habits. YE L L OW STAG E ( AG E S A B O U T 7 – 8 – 9 ) Fulfill the Basic Expectations, and: 1 . Know, and have an understanding of the Lord's Prayer. 3 . Identify and explain the purpose and use of: 2 . Read, with whatever help is required, and be able to answer questions on a selected Bible passage, such as: Luke 15; Luke 6:23–38; Luke 2:39–52; I Corinthians 13:1–13. a ) A l t a r c ) P u l p i t as they are found and used in the Parish Church. b)Lectern d ) F o n t 4 . Describe and discuss an Outreach Project undertaken or funded by the Parish. GR E E N STAG E ( AG E S A B O U T 1 0 – 1 1 – 1 2 ) Continue to fulfill the Basic Expectations, and: 1 . Know, and have an understanding of either the Apostles' Creed, or the Nicene Creed. a ) Baptism as Christian Initiation (and how it leads to Confirmation) 2 . Explain what is a Sacrament, and discuss: b ) the Eucharist as Liturgy of Celebration. 4 . Assist in planning and leading a Scout's/Guide's Own service — This might be preceded by leading in prayer at meetings of the troop or company. 3 . With the help of a summary (as may be found in a commentary of the Bible), tell the Spiritual Advisor of his/ her understanding of one of the four Gospels. (With some specific reference to Scripture). BL U E STAG E ( AG E S A B O U T 1 3 – 1 4 – 1 5 ) Continue to fulfill the Basic Expectations, and: 1 . Identify the specific Biblical references in the Prayer of Consecration (as used in the Parish); and discuss the prayer in its fullness. 3 . Discuss one of: St. John 1:1–14; St. John 20:1–10; Acts 2:1–28; Ephesians 4:1–16 or other such passage as may be agreed upon by the young person and the Spiritual Advisor. 2 . With the Spiritual Advisor, develop and use a daily plan of Prayer and Bible reading. 4 . Share his/her Faith and its relevance to his daily life, with his/her company. 5 . Understand the various orders of Ministry in the Church: Bishop; Priest; Deacon and Laity; and discuss the duties of these orders in the life of the Church. RE D STAG E ( AG E A B O U T 1 5 + ) Rovers/Rangers are expected to participate as adults in fulfilling the Basic Expectations of Worship, Learning, and Service to Church and the World. G row t h a ) Bible knowledge A Quest for Faith Journey should be prepared in consultation with the Priest or Spiritual Advisor. The Quest or Faith Journey should encompass four distinct areas: b ) Fundamentals of the Faith d ) Knowledge of the Anglican Church of Canada; its structure, organization, and how it relates to other Christian bodies and political institutions. c ) Outreach, it's importance and purpose to the life of the Christian community. The Quest or Faith Journey should be presented to the group in the presence of the priest or Spiritual Advisor. PU R P L E STAG E ( AD U LT S) 2 . The Scouter/Guider must satisfy his/her Clergyperson or Spiritual Advisor that they are on their own active faith j o u r n e y . 1 . An agreement must exist between the Scouter/Guider and his/her Clergyperson or Spiritual Advisor that the Scouter/ Guider has, is and plans to continue showing by their way of life and their commitment and level of participation in their community of faith, that they are carrying out their Scouter's/Guider's promise to the best of their ability. 3 . The Scouter/Guider must be a regular church attendee. 5 . The Scouter/Guider must be dedicated to promoting the Religion in Life program to the youth and adults they work with and will be supportive of those youth and adults as they become involved in the Religion in Life program for their community of faith. 4 . The Scouter/Guider must be dedicated to influencing Scouters or Guiders they work with to ensure that the spiritual aspects of Scouting and Guiding are given proper program emphasis in their Scouting or Guiding endeavours. RE S O U R C E S Let's Celebrate — A book of spiritual ideas for Scouting. This book contains many program ideas for leaders of all sections. Role of the Chaplain — Pamphlet. These resources are available from your local Scout/Guide Council office. Your leader or spiritual advisor will be able to recommend other useful resources. 9 4 - 3 6 0/9 9	<urn:uuid:6b4d6683-9a58-4a0d-bb17-fb834192280a>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://scoutsca.s3.amazonaws.com/2019/02/ril-anglicanchurch.pdf	2019-06-19T08:55:19Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00438.warc.gz	590,882,160	2,129	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.982754	eng_Latn	0.98343	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4120, 8884 ]	[ 2.3125 ]	2	6
Plants take up more carbon once acclimated to warmer temperatures 5 June 2017, by Shari Finnell and perennials, tropical and non-tropical species, and plants using different photosynthetic pathways—through a battery of tests that looked at how they "acclimated" to temperatures from 15 degrees Celsius to 35 degrees Celsius (59-95 degrees Fahrenheit) for seven days. The findings show that the plants acclimated to higher temperatures were able to speed up both photosynthetic processes that pull carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and respiratory processes that release carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere. Though taken together, the results suggest a net increase in carbon uptake in plants acclimated to warmer temperatures. Credit: CC0 Public Domain A new understanding about how plants react to high temperatures may help improve predictions about how climate change will affect the planet. Nick Smith, a Purdue University adjunct professor in Forestry and Natural Resources, and postdoctoral fellow at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, wanted to know how plant carbon uptake is affected by extended periods of different temperatures. The information may be helpful for models that use plant carbon uptake to estimate the effects of climate change. "Models have good representations of short-term changes in temperature, but few data exist for incorporating longer-term responses," said Smith, whose research was part of his doctoral work under Purdue Professor Jeffrey Dukes. "Plants are currently the only way that carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere on land. The way plants are represented in these large-scale models is really important." Smith put 22 plant species—a variety of annuals Once the plants were acclimated to the new temperatures for a week, Smith exposed them for a few minutes to different extreme temperature bursts, from 14 to 50 degrees Celsius (57-122 degrees F). Warmer temperatures sped up photosynthetic processes up to an inflection point, and decreased rates beyond this temperature. However, these curves were altered by acclimation, with plants acclimated to warmer temperatures having higher inflection points and greater rates of carbon uptake and release processes. "In general, across all plant types, acclimation was nearly ubiquitous. Plants generally acclimated in a way that would suggest that as plants adjust to warmer temperatures, they increase their capacity to take up carbon from the atmosphere," Smith said. The findings, published in the journal Global Change Biology, suggest that plants may be more adaptable to warmer temperatures than once thought, and that those adaptations may help remove at least some of the excess carbon in the atmosphere. "Our study suggests that at least under the range that we measured, the plants aren't hitting this inflection point. We shouldn't expect a decrease in 1 / 2 Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) photosynthesis or uptake of carbon based on temperature alone," Smith said. While that is good news, Smith cautions that many other factors will be at play. Reduced water availability or fewer plants on the planet would likely negatively affect carbon uptake. Smith plans to use the findings to help improve climate forecast models. More information: Nicholas G. Smith et al. Shortterm acclimation to warmer temperatures accelerates leaf carbon exchange processes across plant types, Global Change Biology (2017). DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13735 APA citation: Plants take up more carbon once acclimated to warmer temperatures (2017, June 5) retrieved 19 June 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2017-06-carbon-acclimated-warmer- Provided by Purdue University temperatures.html This document is subject to copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only. 2 / 2	<urn:uuid:c72c44a6-31c8-4169-bbf3-654c756fd593>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://phys.org/pdf415860712.pdf	2019-06-19T10:22:40Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00439.warc.gz	533,810,092	774	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.994045	eng_Latn	0.997013	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2891, 3929 ]	[ 2.1875 ]	1	0
Dialogue may occur in many different contexts or settings. It is not limited to a structured forum or an isolated event. Below, we discuss 10 common and creative tools that can be used to spark and nurture community dialogue. Use them alone, adapt them to your community or combine them together. There is no limit to the possibilities when it comes to dialogue. © 2018 – Permission to copy for non-commercial purposes. 10 Common Tools for Dialogue 1. CONVERSATION CAFÉS Coffee shops, from their very beginning, have not only been places that serve hot beverages, but have always been locations for partaking in social life. Conversation Cafés are open conversations in coffee shops or any other publicly accessed community setting including restaurants, conference rooms, churches or more. The simple format allows a group to feel at ease while providing a space and time to be heard. Conversation Cafés encourage us to shift from discussion to dialogue in exploration of thoughtful questions with careful consideration to listening and understanding. With the capacity to adapt to groups of varying size, Conversation Cafés stimulate dialogue through the exchange of ideas, perspectives and values that underpin our beliefs. 2. DINNER & DIALOGUE To eat is to meet. A dinner dialogue (or kitchen table discussion) is an encounter that takes place over a meal. Human beings have been using meal time as a natural opportunity to discuss issues for millennia. In our super-charged lifestyles, pausing to eat together and having meaningful conversations about issues that matter (like changing cannabis policy) might be health-promoting. In a planned "Dinner & Dialogue," while there is no formal agenda, there is a focused intention to engage with one another around a particular topic. Sometimes the meal is collaboratively prepared. This can nurture relationships prior to sitting down to eat and discuss, or the dialogue may actually begin less formally during the preparation. Having some well-chosen questions or sending out an article related to cannabis with the invitations can act as a catalyst for a rich dialogue. 3. PHOTOVOICE Photovoice is a community-based participatory research method that utilizes photography to document and reflect participants' reality with a goal to work towards influencing healthy public policy. By showcasing photos about hidden and often overlooked issues within communities, policy makers have an opportunity to engage with those whose voices are not being heard. A fun and creative methodology, Photovoice provides an alternative to traditional ways of knowing and values knowledge that is grounded in lived experience. To use Photovoice in dialogue, you must ensure opportunities for people to interact around the meaning of the photos produced. 4. SILENT DISCUSSIONS Silent discussions provide an opportunity for everyone, especially those less likely to speak up, to contribute and have their ideas heard. Stations are created with the intent to explore multiple questions on a given topic through collaboratively writing on a shared roll of paper. As participants rotate through the stations, they have an opportunity to not only personally reflect on the topic but also build off the ideas of others. This activity can be used to showcase the varying perspectives that make up a group and encourage dialogue as participants come together to debrief afterwards. 5. PORTRAITURE 6. COMMUNITY ARTS Portraiture is a creative way to work with art and images symbolically and investigate questions that push us into deeper thinking. Using the outline of a silhouette of themselves, participants can fill in the space with visual indicators or collages (e.g., words, drawings, magazine photos, narratives, etc.) creating a self-portrait that reflects their own thoughts and feelings on the topic. Upon completion, participants resume in a larger group to share their creations. Display of these visual representations of different perspectives can itself invite empathy. Opportunities for participants to share their portraits further in group conversations increase the potential for enhanced understanding of and identification with others. Art is more than entertainment. Art provides a way for communities to come together and nurture integration. It can contribute to people's sense of identity while fostering a shared meaning within communities. Methods such as participatory theatre or community art shows are ways to showcase varying perspectives and encourage dialogue. You can use community art as a jumpingoff point for further inquiry. Dialogue is sparked when we dig into the experiences of the other in order to learn and understand. 7. TALKING CIRCLES Certain First Nations communities have used talking circles to address problems in communities. In order to explore a given topic, a talking object is introduced and passed clockwise in a circle. In order to promote deep listening, participants are encouraged only to speak once they receive the object. The object can rotate multiple times through the circle as participants deepen their thoughts and respond to others. Used alone or in conjunction with other activities, a talking circle is an activity that can be used with groups of any size and in exploration of any topic. www.ccsa.ca/Eng/collaboration/Cannabis-Dialogues/Pages/default.aspx 8. COLLABORATIVE DRAWING Collaborative drawing is a creative way of harnessing the wisdom and capacity of groups of any size. By using a roll of paper as the context for presenting ideas and comments, we can begin to tell our story through art and drawing. Collaborative drawing means we all come together to learn from the experience in the community by thinking and working together. By each taking a corner or building off each other's work, we begin to see another perspective that extends past the boundary of our own experience. Having participants move to other parts of the paper at intervals accentuates the interconnecting of experiences. 9. WALKING TOURS Walking tours are creative ways for participants to engage with different perspectives while touring a particular setting. As a way to encourage understanding, tour guides provide stories and context as participants walk and experience together. By physically walking the path of others, tours are geared towards greater understanding between diverse individuals who happen to live differently within the same community. In order for this method to be dialogic, ensure that it is more than a narrated excursion. This means creating ample opportunities for participants and guides to exchange, reflect and share different perspectives. 10. COMMUNITY FORUMS Community forums are events where groups of any size or any demographic can gather and exchange ideas. A word of caution: it can be difficult to get to dialogue when using this methodology. Too often events of this type are used for one-directional information dissemination where little or no dialogue occurs between participants. If you are using this methodology, be sure to plan the event around opportunities for participants to share with each other in nonperformance contexts. This is far beyond a short "question and answer period" after an "expert panel" presentation. For example, successful dialogue forums might involve the use of one or more of the other activities in this list.	<urn:uuid:0e8cdd79-9294-4fe6-91ff-312a4b455bd6>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://ccsa.ca/sites/default/files/2019-02/Cannabis-Talks-Series-Dialogue-Tools-2018-en.pdf	2019-06-19T08:46:24Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00442.warc.gz	387,222,730	1,385	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998025	eng_Latn	0.998066	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3421, 7401 ]	[ 2.21875 ]	2	2
General problem-solving strategy A systematic approach to problem solving helps the learner gain confidence, and is used consistently as a "blue print" by expert problem solvers as a way to be methodical, thorough and self-monitoring. This model is used in life generally, as well as in the sciences. The steps are not linear, and multiple processes are happening in your brain simultaneously, but the basic template hinges on effective questioning as you carry out various steps 1. Engage Invest in the problem through reading about it and listening to the explanation of what is to be resolved. Your goal is to learn as much as you can about the problem before you begin to actually solve it, and to develop your curiosity (which is very motivating). Successful problem solvers spend two to three times longer doing this than unsuccessful problem solvers. Say "I want to solve this, and I can". 2. Define the stated problem…a challenging and time consuming task - Understand the problem as it is given you, ie. "What am I asked to do?" - Ask "What are the givens? the situation? the context? the inputs? the knowns? etc. - Determine the constraints on the inputs, the solution and the process you can use. For example, "you have until the end of class to hand this solution in" is a time constraint. - Represent your thinking conceptually first, by reading the problem, drawing a pictorial or graphic representation or mind map (see example attached), and then a relational representation. - Then represent your thinking computationally, using a mathematical statement 3. Explore and search for important links between what you have just defined as a problem, and your past experience with similar problems. You will create a personal mental image, trying to discover the "real" problem. Ultimately, you solve your "best mental representation" of the problem. - Guestimate an answer or solution, and share your ideas of the problem with others for added perspective. - Self-monitoring questions include: What is the simplest view? Have I included the pertinent issues? What am I trying to accomplish? Is there more I need to know for an appropriate understanding? 4. Plan in an organized and systematic way - Map the sub-problems - List the data to be collected Learning Strategies, Student Academic Success Services, Queen's University, Kingston, ON http://sass.queensu.ca/learningstrategies - Note the hypotheses to be tested - Self-monitoring questions include: What is the overall plan? Is it well structured? Why have I chosen those steps? Is there anything I don't understand? How can I tell if I'm on the right track? 5. Do it - Self-monitoring questions include: Am I following my plan, or jumping to conclusions? - Is this making sense? 6. Look back and revise the plan as needed. Significant learning can occur in this stage, by identifying other problems that use the same concepts (remember the spiral of learning?) and by evaluating your own thinking processes. This builds confidence in your problem solving abilities. - Self-monitoring questions include: Is the solution reasonable? Is it accurate? (you will need to check your work to know this!) Does the solution answer the problem? How might I do this differently next time? How would I explain this to someone else? What other kinds of problems can I solve now, because of my success? If I was unsuccessful, what did I learn? Where did I go off track? Based on D.R. Woods, "Problem–based Learning", 1994 Learning Strategies, Student Academic Success Services, Queen's University, Kingston, ON http://sass.queensu.ca/learningstrategies	<urn:uuid:830c2845-9335-414a-9f2b-2ca8a8fb781b>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://sass.queensu.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Systematic-General-Problem-Solving.pdf	2019-06-16T10:01:36Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00282.warc.gz	156,063,263	762	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998948	eng_Latn	0.998962	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2402, 3621 ]	[ 4.125 ]	1	0
Cold War Conflicts Answer Key 2 / 5 cold war conflicts answer key Cold War Conflicts Answer Key Cold War A conflict between the US and USSR in which neither nation directly confronted the other on teh battlefield, but the tension between the two would dominate global affairs from 1945-1991 Truman Doctrine 11th Grade US History Chapter 18 - Cold War Conflicts ... Cold War Conflicts 601 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed as spies. 1953 Senator Joseph McCarthy alleges Communist involve-ment in U.S. Army. 1954 Francis Gary Powers's U-2 spy plane is shot down by the Soviets. 1960 Soviets launch Sputnik. 1957 Participants in Korean War agree on cease-fire. 1953 French are defeated in Vietnam. 1954 INTERACT WITH HISTORY U.S. History Cold War Conflicts - iComets.org war conflicts answers Chapter 18 form a chapter test cold war conflicts answers Which Cold War event do you think brought the two superpowers closest to two forms: 1. representative. Chapter 18 form a chapter test cold war conflicts answers This Site Might Help You. RE: Answers to chapter 18 cold war conflicts crossword puzzle? Answers to chapter 18 cold war conflicts crossword puzzle ... Main Idea: The Cold War conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union grew stronger as nations around the world sided with one or the other. 21. Detail: A _______________ occurs when two powers in conflict use substitutes instead of fighting each other directly. Guided Reading Activity The Cold War Print Conflicts During the Cold War: Examples & Causes Worksheet 1. Support for which of the following encouraged the US to fight communist uprisings even in small, seemingly strategically ... Quiz & Worksheet - Cold War Conflicts \| Study.com While the Cold War itself never escalated into direct confrontation, there were a number of conflicts related to the Cold War around the globe, spanning the entirety of the period usually prescribed to it (March 12, 1947 to December 26, 1991, a total of 44 years, 9 months, and 2 weeks). List of conflicts related to the Cold War - Wikipedia Cold War - Iron Curtain (Speech and Cartoon Analysis with Teacher Key) - This 6 page Cold War resource includes a source analysis related to the Cold War concept of the Iron Curtain. The resource includes an excerpt from Winston Churchill's famous 'Iron Curtain' speech and a political cartoon related to the Iron Curtain. Free Printable Cold War Crossword puzzle with Answer Key ... Answers to the Cold War Worksheet 1. USA and USSR 2. They had an arms race 3. The countries of Eastern Europe were under Soviet control. 4. The Soviet Union had promised elections in the countries they had freed from the Nazis; instead they opposed all opposition to the communist government. 5. To supply money, supplies, and military aid to any The Cold War - westada.org Key (CWW/A1.1K), review student answers to determine what content and/or disciplinary skills need reviewing. Suggestions for re-teaching are provided. Step 2: Defining Cold War (Class Time: 15 minutes) Tell students that their first task is to define what the term "Cold War" means. Pass out Defining Cold War (CWW/A1.2). Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) itls advanced post test 7th edition answers, brazil construction contract award for planned 350 000 000 herbicide, captain underpants color collection by dav pilkey, finance equations answers, what year was the 2nd world war, Student Usability in Educational Software and Games: Improving Experiences, core plus mathematics course 1 unit 3 answer key, michael morpurgo war horse, batman arkham origins cold cold heart walkthrough fr, ap world history reading log answers, caseware tutorial free, towards new developmentalism market as means rather than master routledge, antigua leewards footprint pocket guides, discovering mary answers to questions about the mother of god, filipino module grade 9 with answer, wiccan wars wiccan wars trilogy 1, g c 2 worksheet 7 answers , war of the worlds audio clip, let's practice geometry answer key 2010 angles, william howard taft an intimate history, 25 3 fission and fusion of atomic nuclei section answer key, poland 25 000 000 contract award for planned vinyl chloride, star wars nude comics, read hawkeye comics, complete rock and pop keyboard player songbook 3, american poems about war, heroic forms cervantes and the literature of war toronto iberic, walkthrough zelda skyward sword ign, 7 5 solving trigonometric equations answers, keys to healthy relationships, milton and the natural world by karen l. edwards	<urn:uuid:3da48fa8-9b0e-4ff4-873c-1aa066bbb289>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://austethical.com.au/cold_war_conflicts_answer_key.pdf	2019-06-19T09:48:31Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00441.warc.gz	347,784,816	1,008	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.989987	eng_Latn	0.994438	[ "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 29, 36, 67, 3162, 4561 ]	[ 2.375 ]	1	0
Winter taking a rain check? Despite new rainfall, Stockton on pace for driest year on record By Alex Breitler, staff writer Stockton Record, Tuesday, Nov. 19, 2013 STOCKTON - Rain. At last. Up to half an inch could fall today and Wednesday, probably our wettest storm since last March. But when it's all over, Stockton will still be on pace for its driest calendar year on record. Coming into today, the city had mustered only a little more rain in all of 2013 than it received one very wet weekend last fall. It helps, but... The National Weather Service expects it to rain almost half an inch in Stockton today and Wednesday, ending a dry streak of nearly two months. It will help — but how much? Consider this: If it rained a half-inch every day for three straight weeks, Stockton's rainfall total for 2013 would be only about normal. Not a drop fell in October, for the first time since 2002. We could use a nice, cleansing rain, and California needs the water. But there are both upsides and downsides to this strange, potentially historic season. Upside: Where's the fog? This year Stockton has yet to experience a single day with dense fog. In recent years the city has always had at least one foggy day by mid-November. It takes rain to put moisture in the ground, allowing fog to form. No rain, no fog. That could well change by week's end, once this storm has passed. While drivers won't appreciate seeing fog for the first time this year, it's actually good news for farmers whose crops require cold temperatures during the winter. Downside: Instead of fog, we're plagued with dust. A wind-whipped dust storm on Oct. 27 reduced visibility on Interstate 5, creating a traffic hazard. And just this past weekend, air quality officials issued a health warning for blowing dust. Storms help wash out dust and other forms of pollution that would otherwise cause fireplace burning prohibitions on stagnant winter days. San Joaquin County has had two no-burn days this month. Upside: Can this really be November? It was 77 degrees Wednesday, 1 degree shy of a record high. Summer flowers are still blooming. San Joaquin master gardener Lee Miller was picking a couple of bouquets of dahlias each day, until a frost at his home east of Stockton finally put a stop to that. Last week Miller saw purple coneflowers blooming at the Robert J. Cabral Agricultural Center in south Stockton. "Seems late in the year for them to be blooming so profusely," he said. Maybe you could find fresh flowers for your Thanksgiving table. Downside: Mild temperatures and summer flowers mean people are watering their lawns as if it's still August. "I'm seeing water waste issues around town," San Joaquin Delta College horticulture instructor Mike Toscano said. We should be applying only about 50 to 75 percent of the water we'd be using to irrigate during the summer, he said. While there's been little rain, temperatures have started to fall and plants will need less water. "If they continue to over-water, not only are they wasting water and wasting money, but they are encouraging weeds to grow which are going to be a pain to take care of down the road one way or another, and they could potentially encourage disease," Toscano said. Today, at least, turn those sprinklers off. Upside: Fall is one of the most interesting times to check out the Valley's natural environment, and with clear skies for adventurers, this has been a "wonderful" season to go outdoors. "It's been great - cool in the morning, warmer as the days go on," said Joan Sykes, who leads organized walks through Stockton as a member of the Delta Tule Trekkers club. She recommends checking out fall colors in neighborhoods around University of the Pacific or visiting the junglelike environs at Caswell Memorial State Park near Ripon. Downside: All those critters you might see on your outdoor excursions need rain. Salmon require water if they are to swim up the Calaveras River through Stockton. So far this year they've been unable to do so. And the millions of migratory birds that visit the Central Valley each winter need wetlands. Some fields are flooded intentionally to provide that habitat, but a dry year means more birds are crowded into smaller areas, increasing the possibility of disease, Stockton birder David Yee said. Birds have been known to congregate on irrigated lawns as a result. "Any little puddle of water, the birds are in it like crazy - drinking, bathing, because it's so dry," Yee said. Upside: Get 'er done. No rain means charging forward on construction projects that otherwise might have been delayed. Like the widening of Interstate 5. "We've been able to work basically like we're in the middle of summer right now," said Chantel Miller, a spokeswoman for Caltrans. She cautioned, however, that it's too soon to tell if this very dry 2013 will speed up completion of the work, expected in 2015. "It can't hurt," she said. Smaller projects also benefit. Crews started to reconstruct Inman Avenue in the Country Club area of unincorporated Stockton on Oct. 1. "That would have probably been iffy (in other years)," said San Joaquin County Public Works Deputy Director Mike Selling. "We don't usually take that risk so late in the year." Downside: Even as we continue to build infrastructure for a growing population, experts say the possibility of extended droughts in the future and snow falling as rain as a result of climate change could diminish the state's water supply more frequently in the decades to come. New public safety building closer to reality By Kelli Ballard, staff writer Porterville Recorder, Monday, Nov. 18, 2013 While the new public safety building is on the agenda for Tuesday's city council meeting for approval to move forward, it may also be delayed due to San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District's request for a review. The public safety building, a long anticipated project that will combine police and fire departments in the same building south of the Tule River, will provide more readily available resources and equipment for the city. However, as the city gets ready for construction, a blip in the progress may cause a delay, as the community development department needs to send an application for review to the Air District. The SJVAPCD requested an indirect source review and air impact assessment, which must be submitted before construction can begin. The project area will also need a zone change to allow the roads and construction planned for the safety building. The council will discuss these issues at Tuesday's meeting. In other business: The council will approve advertising for bids for the Morton Avenue and Indiana Street shoulder stabilization projects The Wall of Fame Placement procedure is up for discussion. A request to award a contract for Chase Park in the amount just over $1 million to Forcum Mackey of Ivanhoe will come before the council.	<urn:uuid:c4130519-9efe-4e94-8142-ec0d7b561f53>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://valleyair.org/recent_news/News_Clippings/2013/InTheNews_11-19-13.pdf	2019-06-19T10:04:59Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00442.warc.gz	191,258,872	1,499	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999039	eng_Latn	0.999406	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2987, 6617, 6956 ]	[ 2.078125 ]	1	5
PATIENT PERSPECTIVES Low vision: the patient's perspective For this issue on low vision, the Community Eye Health Journal contacted low vision practitioners in India, Tanzania, Nepal, and Peru to help gather the views of eighteen people attending their low vision clinics. The people varied in age from 14 to 81, and suffered from a range of vision problems including nystagmus, retinitis pigmentosa, diabetic retin opathy, and bilateral aphakia. Elizabeth Kishiki Damodar BC Nepal (22) Mbaraka Omary "Society used to view me in a negative way … I used to wonder how I would carry on my life. [But now] there is a positive change in which society views me. Most of the time, I get to hear people say, 'People with low vision can also do good deeds and can work like normal people.'" We hope that these experi ences of people with low vision will highlight what is important in a low vision service. The interviewees (or their parents) described how their low vision had affected them before treatment, how their life changed after they received low vision care, and what they felt they still needed. Before Tanzania (18) "I have really started living. With my glasses, I can recognise the faces of my friends and teachers. More importantly, I can watch football and see faces of my favourite stars. With my magnifier, I can read even the smallest letters. I have become a different person now." Martiza Zuasnabar De la Cruz Maribel Tomateo Falcon Peru (27) Elizabeth Kishiki Abdi Kajembe Low vision services helped her to set realistic goals. "The visual rehabilitation helped me a lot, mostly to be aware of my limitations, to accept them and to know up to where I can develop and set my goals." Tanzania (9) Thanks to low vision services, school is now a lot easier for him. "With my spectacles, I can sit at my front desk and read well on the blackboard and in books, and I can see people well." of vision, provision of optical devices, and suggestion of environmental modifica tions. Specific interventions included: School-age children and young adults said that they had been unable to attend school, had to drop out, or had faced great difficulties in their schooling, such as being unable to take examinations. Some of them had been treated as blind and taught to use Braille. Before they received low vision care, the adults said they had been unable to do their desired activities, such as driving or reading. They were worried about their vision and had negative feelings, including stress, depression, anger, and frustration. They had also felt dependent on their family, and that they were a burden to the family. The adults had also struggled to accept their condition as being irreversible. These young people had also felt very dependent on their families and had to stay home much of the time. One of the biggest problems they had faced was the way society viewed them. They were victims of bullying, namecalling, and had been accused of pretending to have a problem. Care provided The care provided to both children and adults consisted of training in better use * Changes such as sitting near the window or using a lamp, sitting near the blackboard, using a stand for better reading/writing position and more comfort, increasing contrast through better light, using a reading slit, and using a cap to reduce glare out of doors * Someone taking the time to clearly explain the person's eye problem and prognosis to him or her Impact Adults described how low vision services had resulted in the following: * Greater independence, confidence, courage, hope, and dignity * A better understanding of the reality of the visual loss. Children talked about how the low vision service had helped them with the following: * Starting school * Increased independence, for example being able to read the blackboard and learning to write * Doing desired activities, such as reading print, even small print * Improving the attitudes of peers and teachers "… who now see I can do many things." * Better social interaction, for example "… recognising the faces of my friends." What more is needed? * Some people still lacked the confidence to use their optical devices in public * Some children did not know enough about their condition and wanted someone to explain it to them in terms they could understand. * Giving advice about improving the environment through painting lines or applying tape to improve contrast * Counselling, particularly for adults who were able to see before and have lost a lot of their vision. This involved listening, discussing the implications of the vision loss and the effect on their life and emotions, and giving advice if needed. © The author/s andCommunity Eye Health Journal 2012. This is an Open Access article distributed under use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited. the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial * Most people also wanted to be informed if there were new technological developments, and hoped for lower prices for software and electronic low vision devices In our experience, it is helpful to keep in touch with people who have been helped by low vision services. They can be excellent advocates for the development of better services and may help to convince others with low vision to seek help. Children who successfully use a low vision device can also inspire other children who are still struggling. The interviews were arranged, transcribed, and translated by: * Rosario Espinoza, Peru * Elizabeth Kishiki, Tanzania * Hari Thapa, Nepal * Joseph Eye Hospital LV team, India. The article was written by Karin van Dijk. CEHJ\|VOLUME 25 ISSUE 773	<urn:uuid:c587b2c3-4651-48cd-8855-2bcae71f6caa>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://www.cehjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/download/ceh_25_77_003.pdf	2019-06-19T09:45:44Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998943.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190619083757-20190619105757-00442.warc.gz	706,986,735	1,192	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997108	eng_Latn	0.997108	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 5760 ]	[ 2.234375 ]	2	0
The Cold War at Home Chapter 12 Section 4 Lecture Focus Question How did fear of domestic communism affect American society during the Cold War? Explain. Rooting out Communists Red Scare: fear that communists both outside & inside U.S. were working to destroy American life Truman Loyalty Oaths "security risks" fired Smith Act: unlawful to teach/advocate violent overthrow the U.S. govt Simon Says… Loyalty oaths didn't really work. If you're a spy, your job is to lie! Congress Hunts Communists House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC): Congressional committee that investigated possible subversive activities within the U.S. Hollywood Ten: group of movie writers, directors, and producers who refused to answer HUAC questions about alleged communist ties Asserted 5 th Amendment rights → went to prison for contempt Blacklist: list of people who were not hired for work because of suspected communist ties Connection #1 Today, we are worried about Russian meddling in our democratic process and are currently investigating that problem. Summarize what you know about this issue. Freedoms Take a Hit Freedom of speech no longer guaranteed People were fired for associating with people with communist ties Oppenheimer put under the microscope Access to classified info Ties to people in the Communist Party NO ONE WAS SAFE! Brain Snack Choose 3 words that summarize the notes so far. Write them down with your right hand in the corresponding column. Then, write those same 3 words with your left hand in the remaining column. LEFT HAND RIGHT HAND Alger Hiss Flawless career working for the federal govt Named as a communist spy Put on trial Convicted for perjury 5 year sentence Later evidence showed he was guilty Heightened Cold War fears Simon Says… Remember that the 5 th Amendment protects people from double jeopardy (being tried for the same crime twice). Julius & Ethel Rosenberg Charged with passing nuclear science secrets to Communists Case largely based on the word of one confessed spy Claimed innocence Found guilty Executed in 1953 Connection #2 Have you ever been accused of doing something simply because of the people around you? Explain. McCarthyism Senator Joseph McCarthy Made weeding out communists his mission Had a "list" of traitors Baseless accusations Hero to most American people Hearings were televised Public outraged by his bullying tactics McCarthy lost power and influence McCarthyism: negative term for extreme, reckless charges of disloyalty Bomb Drills The govt tried to prepare the American public for nuclear bomb attacks City drills School drills Pamphlets "how to" films Posters/billboards Bomb shelters Bert the Turtle video SUMMARY: These notes are about… (1-2 sent) (Main Idea Use the WIN strategy!) W.I.N. strategy: WHO/WHAT - Figure out the most important who or what (topic) INFORMATION - Figure out the most important information about the who or what NUMBER OF WORDS - Write the main idea using the fewest possible number of words Lecture Focus Question How did fear of domestic communism affect American society during the Cold War? Explain. Response = 3-4 well thought out sentences minimum! (topic sentence + supporting details) Notes Grading Rubric	<urn:uuid:94b58c84-3467-4816-a8af-58a6092a6868>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://www.mssimonsays.org/uploads/5/8/8/7/5887486/4_the_cold_war_at_home.pdf	2019-06-16T09:05:48Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00282.warc.gz	827,432,399	833	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.992252	eng_Latn	0.995947	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	false	docling	[ 42, 156, 392, 477, 925, 1100, 1349, 1587, 1783, 1907, 2093, 2206, 2537, 2729, 3050, 3254, 3276 ]	[ 3.0625 ]	1	0
Resistance Bands: A How-to Safe and effective exercise is important to maintain good health in people with a bleeding disorder. Resistance training helps to strengthen muscles and joints and can help reduce or prevent bleeds. The CDC recommends that adults need to do muscle-strengthening activities at least 2 or more days a week that work all major muscle groups (legs, hips, back, abdomen, chest, shoulders, and arms). Remember, healthy bodies bleed less! THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN STARTING A STRENGTH-TRAINING PROGRAM: TIPS FOR YOUR EXERCISES: Start Slow and Gentle: When beginning a strength-training program, start with one set of 8-10 repetitions. Over time, gradually increase your repetitions or increase to two sets. Have Patience: "No pain, no gain" is NOT a motto by which to live. Doing too much, too fast can cause injuries. Progressing slowly and steadily will get you to your goals and greatly improve your quality of life. Maintain Consistency: Along your path of getting stronger, you may experience some setbacks in maintaining your routine. Just know that life can and will get in the way. The key to being successful long-term is to not beat yourself up about missed workouts and just get back to your exercise routine as soon as you can. Joint Bleed: If you are currently experiencing a joint bleed, do not exercise the affect ed joint. You may, however, be able to do other exercises. For example, if the affected joint is your knee, you may be able to do seated upper body or core exercises instead of leg exercises. Bent Over Row n Consult with your physician prior to beginning any exercise program. 3 n Resistance band can be attached to a door knob, over a closed door, or any secured object. 3 n Engage your core (tighten your abdominal muscles). 3 n Keep your spine in neutral from neck to tailbone. 3 n Keep shoulders down and back. 3 n Keep the movement controlled. 3 n Breathe. 3 Chest Press Level: Beginner Area of Focus: Chest, Upper Arms A. While holding on to the handles, place the band under your feet. Stand ing with your feet shoulder width apart and maintaining a straight back, bend forward at your hips. shoulder blades. Then lower your arms to the starting B. Pull your elbows back to engage the muscles across and between your position. Hip Adduction* Level: Intermediate Area of Focus: Inner Thigh A. Pull the band through one of the handles to make a loop and put it around your ankle. Hold the other han dle in your opposite hand. Step on the band with your free leg. B. Extend your leg with the band on your ankle out in front of you. While maintaining a straight leg and engaging your inner thigh muscles pull your leg across your body. Return to the Level: Beginner Area of Focus: Chest, Upper Arms A. Attach the middle of the band to a door knob or secured object. While holding on to the handles, place your feet in a staggered stance. With palms down, raise your elbows out to your side just below shoulder height. B. Extend your arms to engage your chest muscles. Then bend your elbows to return to the starting position. B Hip Abduction* Level: Intermediate Area of Focus: Buttocks, Outer Thigh A. Pull the band through one of the handles to make a loop and put it around your ankle. Hold the other han dle in your opposite hand. Step on the band with your free leg. B. Extend your leg with the band on your ankle out in front of you. While maintaining a straight leg and engaging your outer thigh muscles pull your leg away from your body. Return to the starting position. Repeat on the other side. Hip Extension* Level: Intermediate Area of Focus: Buttocks, Back of thigh A. Attach one end of the band low on a se cured object. Pull the band through the oth er handle to make a loop and put it around your ankle. B. While maintaining a straight leg and engaging your glute muscles pull your leg straight back. Return to the starting posi tion. Repeat on the other side. Torso Rotation Level: Intermediate Area of Focus: Trunk, Shoulders, Arms A. Attach one end of band to the knob of a closed door. While standing with the door to your left, hold the other handle in both hands with your arms extended. B. Rotate your torso away from the door and pull the band across your body. Keeping your arms ex tended, slowly return to the starting position. Repeat on the other side. Squat to Overhead Reach Level: Advanced Area of Focus: Total Body A. Place one end of the band over a door and close the door. Hold the oth er handle in both hands. Facing the door, stand with feet slightly wider than shoulders and extend arms over head. B. Keeping the back and arms straight, simultaneously bend your knees to squat down and pull the band down toward the floor. Keep your heels down and your knees in line with your feet. Keeping the back and arms straight, return to the starting position. *These exercises can be modified into a beginner exercise by holding on to a stable object such as a dining room chair. A reminder, consult your physician or HTC to determine the best physical activity for you. For additional tips/information about staying active and healthy while living with a bleeding disorder, visit HFA's FitFactor – Health & Wellness at www.hemophiliafed.org. 1– Arm Row Level: Intermediate Area of Focus: Trunk, Mid-back across the shoulder blades A. Attach one end of band to the knob of a closed door. Hold the other han dle and face the door. Step back into a staggered stance. B. While maintaining a stag gered stance and keeping your elbow at shoulder height, rotate in your torso and pull your elbow back to engage the muscles across and between your shoulder blades. Return to the starting position. Repeat on the other side. Upward Diagonals Level: Intermediate Area of Focus: Trunk, Shoulders, Arms A. Attach one end of the band low on a secured object. While standing with the secured object to your left, hold the other handle in both hands with your arms extended. B. Rotate your torso away from the door and pull the band up and across your body in a diagonal. Keeping your arms extended, slowly return to the starting position. Repeat on the other side. Lunge with Arms Extended Level: Advanced Area of Focus: Total Body A. Attach one end of band to the knob of a closed door. While standing with the door to your left, hold the other handle in both hands with your arms extended. B. Step forward with your right foot and bend knees to lower into a lunge. Keep your front foot flat on the floor and knee in line with your foot. Then push up through the heel of your front foot to return to the starting position. Turn around and repeat on the other side. © 2015 Hemophilia Federation of America. All Rights Reserved.	<urn:uuid:73e2a43b-8ba6-41b2-9b0e-7b9bfa2ac551>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://www.hemophiliafed.org/uploads/Resistance-Band6.pdf	2019-06-16T09:12:27Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00283.warc.gz	782,867,394	1,527	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997934	eng_Latn	0.997991	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3588, 6774 ]	[ 2.859375 ]	1	0
WHAT ARE THE MOLECULES DOING? J.D.Bradley University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa RADMASTE, Wits School of Education, Email: firstname.lastname@example.org ABSTRACT Johnstone's identification of teaching and learning difficulties derived from the three levels of description in chemistry is well-known and much debated, but effective responses are still needed. It is suggested that a macro-micro dictionary could help. The dictionary concept is exemplified and its potential value in dealing with the difficulties associated with two of the levels explained. [African Journal of Chemical Education—AJCE 6(2), July 2016] INTRODUCTION Over some 250 years, scientists in general, and chemists in particular, developed a descriptive language for all the phenomena they observed. Much of this language remains in use today, sometimes with amended meanings. Over this same period the atomic-molecular interpretation of phenomena grew rapidly in range and strength, so that by present times it is integral with almost every scientist's work. A language has been developed to articulate atomicmolecular interpretations, some of this being new and some "appropriated" from the older language related to observed phenomena. Parallel streams of development, related to symbols used, can also be seen. Johnstone [1] drew attention to the three different ways in which we communicate and understand science concepts: in essence these are macroscopic (phenomena), microscopic (or submicroscopic) (atomic-molecular interpretation) and symbolic (relating to both the previous two). Importantly, he emphasized the difficulties for teaching and learning that can be traced to the coexistence of these three ways. These difficulties are aggravated by the failure of many teachers, lecturers, authors to distinguish whether they refer to phenomena or their atomic-molecular interpretation. The language of the description of phenomena (macroscopic) is mixed with the language of interpretation (microscopic) and symbols are used indiscriminately, thus ensuring an incomprehensible communication [2]. Dictionaries of chemistry are generally unhelpful in this regard. Even textbooks of chemistry that provide glossaries generally fail therein to provide definitions that cover the macro-, the micro- and the symbolic aspects of a concept. It is generally accepted that the meaning of words changes over time and this can cause difficulties of understanding. However, here we are dealing with something different: two languages have grown up over the years and become intertwined in common usage. The result is not just a quaint vocabulary reflecting the history of the discipline, but a commonly used language of teaching and learning that is misleading, confusing and at odds with the basic distinction between observation and interpretation (or the reality and the model). The problem of scientific language literacy identified by Woldeamanuel, Atagana and Engida [3], may be one expression of the consequences. TOWARDS A MACRO-MICRO DICTIONARY Although the above teaching and learning problems have been recognized for several years, and approaches to dealing with them advocated [4], [5], [6], [7], [8] there is not much sign that the problems are being taken seriously beyond the confines of research articles. In this paper we start the development of a "macro-micro dictionary" which aims to clarify and guide teachers and learners. The approach is to select a descriptive term for some observable phenomenon, give a brief statement about the phenomenon (the macro description), and then address the micro question – what are the molecules doing? The level of discussion is intended to be suited to those teaching chemistry at the secondary and tertiary levels and should be read with this purpose in mind. It is hoped that by studying the examples included in this paper, the potential of such a dictionary can be assessed. As a preliminary we should make clear that all entities consisting of two or more atoms are called molecules in our usage [9]. Since free single atoms are comparatively rarely met with, the omission of atoms from the question seems appropriate. Gases One of the states of matter is the usually invisible gaseous state. When the gas is coloured we can see it is there, but otherwise we have to rely upon inference (eg trying to compress air in a syringe). It is a state of matter where the substance fills all available space and has no shape or size of its own. It can expand and contract in response to temperature changes and we might say is the "softest" of all the states of matter. Nevertheless a gas exerts pressure and we can feel this when we try to compress air in a syringe. What are the molecules doing? Under the right conditions a collection of molecules may be a gas. The molecules are however not gases and they are not colored! The molecules are moving all the time and very fast, colliding with each other and with the walls of a container. Under typical conditions there is a lot of free space in a gas, and molecules actually occupy only a rather small fraction of the total volume of a gas held in a container. In a sample of gas, the molecules do not all travel at the same speed, and the speeds change as a result of collisions. However the total kinetic energy of a collection of molecules is constant as long as the temperature is constant. Increasing the temperature, increases the total kinetic energy of the collection of molecules; indeed the average kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature. The pressure exerted by a gas results from the billions of collisions per second with the container walls. Molecules in a gas are usually small, that is they usually have rather few atoms per molecule. Furthermore, the forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces) are comparatively weak. Hence when they collide they usually do not "stick" to one another. Liquids Liquids are another state of matter. They are visible and so we see their behavior directly. They flow and conform to the shape of a container, but they do not fill all available space. Although they do expand and contract in response to temperature increase and decrease, the volume change is small. Similarly, although they do flow they are not as "soft" as gases: falling into a swimming pool full of water can be painful! What are the molecules doing? The molecules are not liquids, or even bits of liquids and we do not see them; under the right conditions a collection of molecules may be a liquid. The molecules are moving all the time, but there is very little free space. Any one molecule is in contact with several other molecules at all times. Nevertheless, the molecules move around, slipping into holes or gaps in the surrounding crowd of molecules. Although the movements are short it does not mean the molecules have little kinetic energy. As with gases, the average kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature. Molecules in a liquid may (but do not have to) be much larger than one finds in a gas. There may be scores of atoms per molecule. The forces between the molecules may (but do not have to) be distinctly larger than is found between molecules of a gas. Collisions between molecules of a liquid are continuous and the molecules "stick" to one another. However the "stickiness" is not so strong that a molecule stays with the same neighbors all the time! Solids Solids are the most prevalent of all the states of matter. Like liquids they are visible and we can see their behaviour directly. They do not flow or change their shape to fit a container. (Note: A powder is a made of tiny bits of solid, and may flow and change its shape. In this case we are describing the behaviour of a sample containing very many tiny bits of solid. The tiny bits of solid do not flow or change shape.) Solids are generally the densest state of matter; furthermore, temperature changes cause only small changes to the volume of a solid. They are the "hardest" of the states of matter, but the range of hardness is large – that is, there are some solids which are soft (eg wax) and some that are very hard indeed (eg diamond). A solid has a definite shape and sometimes this can be very regular. Usually these solids with regular shapes are called crystals. Solids which have no regularity about their shape (eg glass) are usually said to be amorphous solids. What are the molecules doing? The molecules are not solid! However the molecules that constitute a solid may (but do not have to) be very large and have a very large number of atoms per molecule. Indeed with a perfect crystal (eg a flawless diamond) one may say that we have a single molecule made of billions of atoms of carbon. Such a molecule may be termed a giant molecule and we can see it! In general however, a solid is made of many molecules and these do not move from place to place. They are held quite tightly by neighbouring molecules and the intermolecular forces are quite strong. The molecules may however be able to rotate on the spot if they are sufficiently ball-shaped. They can also vibrate back-and-forth within the very limited space that neighbouring molecules allow. Here also the limits to the movement do not mean the kinetic energy is small; the average kinetic energy is determined by the temperature. A perfectly regular packing of molecules gives rise to a crystal. Boiling Boiling is the term we use to describe the change of a liquid to a gas when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure. Evaporation also refers to the change of a liquid to a gas, but the vapour pressure of the liquid is less than the ambient pressure. The change of state is not due to the addition of some other substance; it happens to a substance when its temperature reaches a specific value (boiling point) at the ambient pressure. What are the molecules doing? They are not boiling! Molecules are leaving the liquid phase and entering the gas phase. They are escaping from the attractive forces that cause molecules to cling to each other, and they become free of such forces as they enter the gas phase. The same is true of evaporation. Melting Melting is the change of a solid substance to a liquid substance. This change is not due to the presence of another substance (as might happen in dissolving), but to the temperature. Melting takes place at the melting point of the pure substance, which is one of its characteristic properties. It is only slightly affected by the ambient pressure. What are the molecules doing? They are not melting! What they are doing depends on what kind of molecules constitute the solid. If the solid comprises relatively small molecules packed together in a regular fashion, then melting involves the molecules in loosening themselves from the constraints of neighbouring molecules, overcoming some of the intermolecular forces, and moving around – but still always in contact with several molecules. By contrast if the solid comprises an infinite network of atoms and bonds, that is a giant molecule, melting requires break up of the molecule. Bonds must be broken in order that smaller molecules form which are sufficiently mobile to constitute a liquid. Generally-speaking, melting due to this kind of molecular break up, requires much more energy than the simple freeing up of already-existing smaller molecules: this implies a high melting point (eg diamond melts above 3 500 C). Chemical Reaction Chemical reaction (or reaction) is the term used for the change in the composition of a substance brought about either by some other substance or by supplying energy (thermal, electrical, radiant), or both. The original substance (or substances) is/are termed reactants and the new substance(s) is/are termed products. Reactions are classified in many different ways based upon the experimental procedure, source of energy, nature of composition change, etc. What are the molecules doing? Molecules are changing their structure and/or composition in a process that involves bond breaking and/or making. It is usually both. Often the overall change takes place by a set of steps, each one of which is very simple. Reaction only happens when molecules collide with other molecules or with other particles such as photons of radiation. Are the molecules reacting? Perhaps! Bond changing might be a better term. Taber has suggested quantacting [10]. Acid Acid is the term used for a class of substances that change the colour of indicators, have a sour taste, neutralize alkalis, cause formation of hydrogen from metals and carbon dioxide from carbonates. Acids may be strong or weak. What are the molecules doing? The molecules are not acids! The molecules have at least one H atom in their composition, and in aqueous solution the molecules (say HA) dissociate into a hydrogen ion, H+ (aq) and an anion, A-(aq). This is a chemical reaction since bond breaking is involved. This dissociation may be complete or partial; the former case arises with strong acids and the latter case with weak acids. Reactions of acids often involve the hydrogen ions formed by dissociation of the molecules, rather than the molecules themselves. The term dissociation is a general term that is used to describe molecular break-up into smaller entities. It can be made more specific to acids perhaps by saying acid dissociation. Substances do not dissociate; molecules do. Acid-base indicator Acid-base indicators (often abbreviated to indicators) are substances that change colour when in solution with acids and/or bases. The colour change is reversible indefinitely. Different indicators show different colour changes and change their colours at different concentrations of acid or base. What are the molecules doing? The color of substances results from the absorption of selected components of white light by the collection of molecules constituting a visible sample of the substance. The molecules are however not coloured. Indicator molecules change their structure and composition when exposed to acids or bases, because they react with them. When they change their structure and composition they change their ability to absorb light. Thus a molecule that absorbs the red component of white light might change to absorbing blue light when reacting with an acid in solution. Adding some base to this solution reverses the changes to the molecular structure of the indicator and hence reverses the color change. Dissolving Dissolving (also dissolution) is the term used for a process in which two different substances form a homogeneous mixture (known as a solution). The term is also applied to cases where the formation of a solution is accompanied by formation of a gas that is not part of the solution (eg metals are often said to dissolve in acids, but this is accompanied by the formation of hydrogen). What are the molecules doing? The molecules are not dissolving! What they are doing depends on the kinds of substances involved. In some cases (eg sugar + water), the two types of molecules mix uniformly. They intermingle and do not change their composition. In other cases there is a chemical reaction (eg salt + water, or metal + acid) and the molecules change their composition. Precipitation Precipitation is a general term for formation of a heterogeneous mixture from a homogeneous one. This may arise from a temperature change or from a reaction. What are the molecules doing? The molecules are not precipitating! Usually precipitation due to temperature change takes place due to temperature decrease. This is what we see when clouds form in the sky or there is rain. Molecules of water in the air stick together on collision and when thousands of them do this we see a droplet of liquid water. There is no chemical reaction. Chemical reaction may however be the cause of precipitation. Most commonly we see this when two aqueous solutions are mixed and a solid forms. This usually sinks to the bottom of the mixture because (as noted previously) solids are generally of greater density than liquids. Exothermic Change When substances change, energy also changes. This is true of boiling and also of reaction. If energy is transferred from the substance(s) to the surroundings we call it an exothermic change. (The opposite is an endothermic change.) Of all the myriad events happening within us and around us all the time, exothermic ones are the most common. What are the molecules doing? When molecules change their environment or change their composition, there are energy changes. Changing environment may refer to a change of state (eg as when clouds and rain form in the atmosphere). The sticking together of molecules through intermolecular forces, lowers the potential energy of the molecules and the energy released is transferred to the environment (initially via the kinetic energy of neighboring molecules). Changing the composition of molecules occurs when there is a chemical reaction. Bond-breaking and forming takes place, with stronger bonds on average being the result. This too implies the potential energy of the product molecules is lower than the potential energy of the reactant molecules and the energy released is transferred to the surroundings (again via the intermediacy of the kinetic energy of neighboring molecules). In summary an exothermic change is one in which either the strength of the intermolecular forces increases or the strengths of bonds in the molecules increase. Both of these lower the potential energy of the molecules, the bond changes usually resulting in a quantitatively greater energy lowering. Oxidation Oxidation is one category of chemical reaction. Actually it is only half a reaction, because oxidation is always accompanied by reduction. One cannot occur without the other. Originally the term may have been applied only to reaction of a substance with oxygen. In such a case the substance was oxidized whilst the oxygen was reduced (often to water and/or carbon dioxide). The use of the term was then extended to analogous reactions involving chlorine (although an alternative term would then be chlorination) and to the loss of hydrogen (also called dehydrogenation). As a generalization it may be said that oxidation-reduction reactions involve bigger energy changes than other types of reaction. Combustion of fuels would exemplify the large energy changes accompanying such reactions. What are the molecules doing? The molecules of the reactants are colliding and undergoing bond changes. This is characteristic of a chemical reaction. The particular features of an oxidation-reduction reaction are that as the bonds change the electron density around some atoms increases significantly whilst around other atoms it decreases significantly. In some cases this involves outright electron transfer whilst in others it is a partial electron transfer. Electrons tend to move towards the more electronegative atom – this sort of atom is found in the oxidant molecule. The concept of oxidation state is used in describing such changes. The reality of the electron shifts is evident in the electrochemical cell where the oxidant and reductant are physically separated from one another. Electron transfer takes place via an external circuit rather than in the direct collision of molecules. Elements (chemical elements) Elements (or elementary substances) were first clearly defined by Lavoisier (1789) who described them as the simplest of substances that cannot be broken down into any simpler substances. His definition is often said to be an operational definition – which means it implies a method for finding out whether a substance is an element or not. "Breaking down" meant using thermal, radiative or electrical methods (energy inputs!). The definition is maintained today although there are more sophisticated methods of identifying elements now. Despite the passage of time, there are still only slightly more than 100 elements known. Allotropes of some elements are known and they may have markedly different properties. What are the molecules doing? The molecules are not elements! Molecules of elements are the simplest of molecules, but only in the sense that they are made from just one type of atom. In other respects the molecules may not be so simple. Aside from the few cases (Noble Gases) where single atoms occur (eg Ar), the molecules may be simple and diatomic (eg O2) or polyatomic and complex (eg P4 , S8 , Cn , Fen). In addition the molecules of one element may be found in different shapes and sizes (eg O3 and O2 , and C60 and Cn). Amongst the molecular formulae given as examples are ones with a subscript "n". This implies that the number of atoms per molecule is not fixed: the molecules have an extensive network of atoms bonded together and the value of "n" may be extremely large (billions!). Compounds Compounds (or compound substances) are pure substances with a fixed composition that can be broken down into two or more elements. They are not the simplest of substances. However they are just as much pure substances as elements are. The reference to fixed composition needs some slight reservation because there are a few compounds where the composition is variable. Altogether there are more than 10 million compounds known, and several new ones are being made or discovered every day. What are the molecules doing? Molecules of compounds are made of more than one type of atom. However, as with elements, the molecules may (in a structural sense) be either simple or complex. The molecules may be as small as HCl or H2O or as complex as DNA or PVC. There is a virtually infinite range of molecular possibilities. Included in this range is the possibility of isomerism – molecules with the same atomic composition but different structures. Decomposition Compounds can be broken down into two or more elements. However they can also be broken down to simpler substances that are still compounds. Decomposition is the general term for the chemical reactions in both cases. Once again the description "simpler" refers to composition. Thus for example, heating, decomposes calcium carbonate, CaCO3, leading to formation of calcium oxide, CaO, and carbon dioxide, CO2: two substances are formed and the formulae of each is simpler (compounds of only 2 elements) than that of the original compound (compound of 3 elements). What are the molecules doing? When compounds are broken down, it is true to say their molecules are broken down. However it is important to add that two or more new types of molecules are formed: decomposition does not usually result in atoms, although this is achievable with more violent conditions (the special term atomization may then be used). As noted the molecules formed in a decomposition may be simpler in terms of composition, but they may not be structurally simpler. For example, in the case of the decomposition of calcium carbonate, we begin with molecules that are extremely large (the formula of the molecules would be best represented as (CaCO3)n) and complex. However the same may be said of the calcium oxide (best represented as (CaO)n) molecules; it is only the carbon dioxide molecules, CO2, that are simpler in every respect. Activation Energy Chemical reactions may be exothermic or endothermic, but how fast the reaction occurs is a different question. The majority of reactions need some energy input (thermal, radiant, electrical) to get started. The required energy input is termed the activation energy. Substances with a low activation energy for many of their reactions are "reactive"; substances with a high activation energy for many of their reactions are "unreactive" or inert. However it should be noted that one cannot assign an activation energy to a substance; it is reactions that have activation energies. What are the molecules doing? In chemical reactions molecules are breaking and forming bonds. Breaking bonds requires energy; forming bonds releases energy. It is common for one bond (at least) of a molecule to have to break before a new bond can be formed. Hence energy input runs ahead of energy output as far as the molecules are concerned. This fact of molecular life is a logical expectation: if one or more of the atoms in a molecule could form more bonds (without breaking any others) then it would have done so a long time ago! Atoms form bonds until their valency is satisfied. The energy required for bonding changes in the molecules is a potential energy; colliding molecules derive this from their collisional kinetic energy. The same figures do not apply to all collisions because the trajectories of the molecules affect the energy requirements. Catalyst Catalysts are substances the speed up chemical reactions between reactants. Catalysts are usually added to the reactant mixture in small quantities and can be recovered at the end of the process. They are not used up and they do not change the products of the reaction. They cause the speed increase by lowering the activation energy of the reaction. The phenomenon is termed catalysis. Catalysts do not slow reactions: substances that do that are termed inhibitors and they do get used up. Catalysts may be quite specific for particular chemical reactions; one cannot just say "this substance is a catalyst" but rather "this substance is a catalyst for this reaction". Enzymes are natural catalysts for biochemical reactions and often are very specific in the reactions they catalyse. What are the molecules doing? Molecules of a catalyst interact with reactant molecules to make them more reactive. The catalyst molecule reacts rapidly with one of the reactant molecules. It reacts rapidly because it has a low activation energy for the interaction. The molecule produced by the interaction has one or more weaker bonds than the original reactant molecule. Therefore it reacts with a lower activation energy. When the product molecule is formed, it is still bonded to the catalyst molecule, and the final step in the catalytic process is the breaking of this bond with the catalyst molecule. Overall there are more steps in the reaction, but each has a lower activation energy: this increases the overall speed. Chemical equilibrium Chemical reactions may or may not proceed to completion. Sometimes reaction stops even when some reactants remain. The reaction is then said to have reached equilibrium – or in full, chemical equilibrium. The equilibrium condition can only be observed in a closed system, that is a system in which no substances can enter or leave the reaction mixture. The proportions in which reactants and products co-exist at equilibrium can be expressed through an equilibrium constant, which has a specific value for a reaction at a given temperature. What are the molecules doing? The molecules are still changing, even though the reaction seems to have stopped! The equilibrium condition arises because product molecules are changing back to reactant molecules at the same rate at which the forward reaction is taking place. Thus there is both a forward and reverse reaction proceeding and no net change is observable when their rates are equal. It is a dynamic equilibrium. The forward and reverse reactions in general have different activation energies, and so they are affected by temperature changes to a quantitatively different extent. This is why the overall equilibrium condition is dependent on the temperature. Electrical conduction One of the ways of classifying substances is in terms of their electrical conductivity (or its inverse, resistivity). There are conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Under normal circumstances gases are insulators, liquids may be conductors or insulators, and solids may be any of the three categories. What are the molecules doing? An electric current is a flow of charges. The charges may be negatively-charged electrons or ions – charged atoms or molecules – with either a positive charge or a negative charge. The two cases are referred to as electronic and ionic current, respectively. Substances within which these currents occur can then be called electronic or ionic conductors. Semiconductivity is always electronic. Ionic conduction is most common in liquids because in this state movement of charged atoms and molecules can take place. Generally speaking such movement is not possible in solids. By contrast, electronic conduction is more common in solids (although it is found in liquid (molten) metals). Electronic conduction in solids is commonly found when the solid comprises giant molecules with an infinite network of atoms and bonds. In addition the atoms making up the molecule need to hold electrons weakly. Such atoms will usually be of metal elements. In these circumstances the electrons move throughout the network of atoms and bonds relatively freely. Where such a network exists but the atoms hold electrons more strongly, the solid may be a semiconductor. In electronic conductors it is the electrons that move through the molecule: the atoms do not move, and the molecule does not change. This contrasts with ionic conduction where chemical changes occur at the electrodes. Electrolysis Electrolysis is the decomposition of a substance with electrical energy. It can take place with suitable aqueous solutions (must be conducting) and requires an external source of energy (cell or battery), connecting wires and two electrodes made of conducting material. Reactions are observed at both the electrode surfaces, but not in the body of the liquid. What are the molecules doing? At the electrode surface molecules either lose or gain electrons: at the anode (conventionally labeled +) they lose electrons, whilst at the cathode (conventionally labelled -) they gain electrons. Losing electrons is also called oxidation; gaining electrons is also called reduction. The molecules are forced to undergo these electron transfers as a result of the potential difference between the two electrodes. There can be a variety of consequences of these transfers: 1. positive hydrated ions are neutralized at the cathode and negative hydrated ions are neutralized at the anode. For example 2H+ + 2e- H2 and 2Cl- - 2e- Cl2. 2. neutral molecules become charged due to loss of electrons at the anode or gain of electrons at the cathode – as a result the charged molecules break-up to form a more stable ion and a neutral molecule. For example 2H2O+ 4H+ + O2 and 2H2O- H2 + 2OH- There are always auxiliary events when these violent electron transfers take place at the electrode surfaces. These include movement of ions through the solution to balance charges created or destroyed in the regions around the electrodes: uniformity in the distribution of charges in the solution is essential for continuing electrolysis. REFLECTIONS In the above descriptions of the meaning of some common terms, we have only scratched the surface of a substantial task. The terms selected are all ones that originated in the description of phenomena during the development of chemistry, predominantly since the days of Lavoisier in the 18th century. Generally-speaking dictionaries, compendia and glossaries define and explain (to a limited extent) the terms, either adopting a macro-level description or a micro-level description, but not both. Furthermore there is usually no uniformity within one listing, the author(s) seemingly making different choices of level for different terms. The macro-micro dictionary approach exemplified above, juxtaposes the two levels of description. This emphatically draws attention to their co-existence and their relationship. In the micro-level descriptions that were given in the previous section, no reference was made to details of chemical bonding or atomic structure. We may relate this to the logical structure of chemistry identified by Jensen [4], by stating that we have penetrated into his "molar" and "molecular" levels, but not the "electrical" level. This position reflects a belief that we are often over-eager in chemistry teaching to talk of the electronic configurations of atoms, ionic and covalent bonding, etc, that is to plunge into the electrical level of Jensen, without paying enough attention to relating the molar and molecular levels. Reviewing the micro descriptions, we can discern a few simple things about molecules, namely that they may be diatomic or polyatomic (up to giant size) and that they may be homonuclear or heteronuclear. Whatever their classification they may: 1. move and have energy (both potential and kinetic) which may change; 2. change their molecular environment; 3. change their composition and structure (bond breaking and forming); 4. absorb and emit radiation; 5. gain and lose electrons. Most chemical phenomena can be interpreted through this understanding of what molecules do. However, the vocabulary at our disposal to say what the molecules are doing is very weak. This often drives us to use words from the macro-level to talk about molecular events, thus confusing in the very act of clarifying. In the examples above, we have sometimes been guilty of this. In conclusion, it was suggested previously [6] that the "chemist's triangle", relating the macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic descriptions, may be recognized as a closed-cluster concept map [11]. Perspective on chemistry as a whole, and on its many topics, can be aided by recognizing this. It therefore has potential as a basic organizing framework for teaching and learning. Realising that potential should be facilitated by developing a macro-micro dictionary of terms. This being said, the symbolic corner of the triangle, and its relation to the other two, also deserves attention, and this will be the subject of a further paper. REFERENCES 2. Bradley, J.D., Brand, M., and Gerrans, G.C. (1985). Excellence and the accurate use of language, symbols and representations in chemistry. Proc 8th ICCE, Tokyo, 135-138. 1. Johnstone, A.H. (1991). Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7, 75-83. 3. Woldeamanuel, M., Atagana, H., and Engida, T. (2014). What makes chemistry difficult? AJCE 4 (2), 31-43. 5. Akoobhai, B., Bradley, J.D., and Steenberg, E. (2006). Macro, micro, symbolic: tools for all to construct the chemist's triangle. Proc 19th ICCE, Seoul, 146. 4. Jensen, W.B. (1998). Logic, history and the chemistry textbook. I Does chemistry have a logical structure? II Can we unmuddle the chemistry textbook? Journal of Chemical Education, 75, 879-887, 961-969. 6. Bradley, J.D. (2014). The chemist's triangle and a general systemic approach to teaching, learning and research in chemistry education. AJCE 4 (2), 64-79. 7. Barke, H-D (2012). Two ideas of the redox reaction: misconceptions and their challenge in chemistry education. AJCE 2 (2). 32-50. 9. IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, Electronic Version. http://goldbook.iupac.org (version 2.3.3 accessed 18 January 2016). 8. Taber, K.S. (2013). Revisiting the chemistry triplet: drawing upon the nature of chemical knowledge and the psychology of learning to inform chemistry education. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. 14, 156-168. 10. Taber, K.S. (2001). Building the structural concepts of chemistry: some considerations from educational research. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. Eur., 2 (2), 123-158. 11. Fahmy, A.F.M. and Lagowski, J.J. (2011). The systemic approach to teaching and learning (SATL): a 10 year review. AJCE 1 (1), 29-47.	<urn:uuid:13bd2d01-d203-4f0d-8404-75d6d5d07003>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajce/article/download/140985/130719	2019-06-16T09:00:46Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00282.warc.gz	651,597,178	7,179	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.991474	eng_Latn	0.99824	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 639, 2611, 4384, 6239, 8192, 9890, 11682, 13239, 14914, 16493, 18343, 20132, 21887, 23629, 25582, 27374, 29147, 30924, 32817, 34858, 35628 ]	[ 2.3125, 2 ]	1	0
NEWS RELEASE December 6, 2018 CONTACT FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Megan Nagel, 808-792-6877, email@example.com World's Oldest Known, Banded Wild Bird Returns to Midway Atoll in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Honolulu, Hawaii — Wisdom, a Laysan albatross and world's oldest known, banded wild bird has returned to Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge and Battle of Midway National Memorial. At least 68 years old, she was first sighted at her nest site on November 29 and biologists have confirmed that she has laid an egg. Each year millions of albatross return to Midway Atoll in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument to nest and raise their young. Wisdom and her mate, like most albatross pairs, return nearly every year to the same nest site. This behavior is known as "nest site fidelity" and it makes places with large colonies of nesting birds, like Midway Atoll, critically important for the future survival of seabirds like Wisdom. Albatross often take time off to rest between egg-laying years, but the Wisdom and her mate have met on Midway Atoll to lay and hatch an egg every year since 2006. Wisdom has laid between 3035 eggs in her lifetime. In 2017, the chick that she fledged in 2001 was observed just a few feet away from her current nest, marking the first time a returning chick of hers has been documented. "Midway Atoll's habitat doesn't just contain millions of birds, it contains countless generations and families of albatrosses" said Kelly Goodale, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Refuge Biologist. "If you can imagine when Wisdom returns home she is likely surrounded by what were once her chicks and potentially their chicks. What a family reunion!" Raising the next generation of albatross is no easy job. Albatross parents like Wisdom and her mate Akeakamai take turns incubating the egg or caring for the chick while the other forages for food at sea. They will spend approximately seven months on Midway Atoll incubating and raising their chick. When not on parenting duty, Wisdom and Akeakamai take take turns foraging for food. Because this process takes up so much time and energy, most Laysan albatross don't lay an egg every year. Starting around age five, juvenile albatross begin the process of finding a mate. During nesting season, juvenile albatross can be found all over Midway Atoll practicing elaborate courtship dances that dozens of ritualized movements. They are looking for just that special bird to dip, bow, and preen with, and once a pair bond forms they stay bonded for life. Nearly 70% of the world's Laysan albatross and almost 40% of Black-footed albatross, as well as endangered Short-tailed albatross all rely on Midway Atoll. In addition to albatross, there are 20 different bird species that live on Midway Atoll. In total, over three million individual birds call the Refuge and Memorial home. Throughout the Monument, scientific research and monitoring plays an essential role in managing wildlife, including seabirds. Surveys and banding projects conducted in the Monument and throughout the world help scientists better understand the life cycles and migration patterns of birds. Wisdom was first identified and banded by biologists as an adult in 1956, but the very first albatross was banded on Midway Atoll in 1936. To date over 250,000 albatross have been banded at the Refuge and Memorial. By pairing modern data analysis with detailed current and historical records, biologists can make more informed management decisions that ensure seabirds have the habitat and resources they need in the future. Biologists with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are working to restore the habitat seabirds need at Midway Atoll and remove threats like invasive predators - because protecting the future for seabirds mean protecting the places they call home. "Laysan albatross and other seabirds depend on the habitat protected by Midway Atoll and other Pacific remote wildlife refuges to raise their young," said Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge and Battle of Midway National Memorial Project Leader Bob Peyton. "Thanks to the hard work of our partners and volunteers, we have been able restore the native habitat that the birds need for nesting sites, ensuring a future for these seabirds." For photos and video, please visit: https://goo.gl/ucVV7f For more details and shareable social media about Wisdom: https://rebrand.ly/Wisdom18 Read more stories about Midway Atoll and the Laysan Albatross at: * Midway's Albatross: A New Threat Puts the World's Largest Colony at Risk * Video: Battle of Midway Commemoration Film * The Return of Midway's Albatross * The Laysan Albatross: A Lovesong * MIdway Atoll: Restoring an Ecological Gem * A Future to Count on for Albatross at Midway NWR * Discovering Midway's Cultural History * War and Peace at Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge and Battle of Midway National Memorial Located on the far northern end of the Hawaiian archipelago, Midway Atoll Refuge and Memorial is managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and located within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. It is one the oldest Atoll formations in the world, it provides nesting habitat for millions of seabirds, and it is a touchstone for one of the most significant naval battles of World War II, and in history, the Battle of Midway. To learn more about the Midway Atoll: https://www.fws.gov/refuge/midway_Atoll/ ### Papahānaumokuākea is cooperatively managed to ensure ecological integrity and achieve strong, long-term protection and perpetuation of Northwestern Hawaiian Island ecosystems, Native Hawaiian culture, and heritage resources for current and future generations. Four co-trustees - the Department of Commerce, Department of the Interior, State of Hawai'i and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs - protect this special place. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument was inscribed as the first mixed (natural and cultural) UNESCO World Heritage Site in the United States in July 2010. For more information, please visit www.papahanaumokuakea.gov.	<urn:uuid:7ccedd71-6e33-409a-a77b-50f174d599f3>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://nmspapahanaumokuakea.blob.core.windows.net/papahanaumokuakea-prod/media/archive/new-news/press-releases/pdfs/nr-wisdom-returns-12-06-2018.pdf	2019-06-16T09:04:22Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00285.warc.gz	530,633,693	1,385	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.976266	eng_Latn	0.993946	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2876, 5534, 6083 ]	[ 3.015625 ]	2	1
The Student Voice © Volume 8 Hello loyal readers and welcome to the eighth edition of the Student Voice: to begin… I will describe my experience at a leadership and self-improvement camp I attended at the school's invitation over the school holidays. LIMITLESS CAMP EXPERIENCE Over the school holidays I was given the oppurtunity to attend the limitless camp experience, run by the impact project. It was three days of inspirational speaking, extreme activites and all around fun. The idea of the camp is to give young people experiences they may otherwise never get, while providing them with constant support and oppurtunities that allow each camper to improve their mental and social health and wellbeing. To begin, we were split into "tribes" of about 10: mine was called Ibibia. Each tribe was provided a coach and a volunteer, usually a graduate of a previous limitless camp who would act a a supervisor and counsellor for your group. Together with my tribe, I spent the days participating in tons of activities ranging from tough mudda style obstacle courses to giant swings and flying foxes. Between activities, the tribe was taken taken to a common area to get a inspirational speech from camp MC Nathan Hulls. He covered a variety of topics ranging from dealing with stresses at home, overcoming fears and self-doubt and we looked at things that were potentially holding us back. During these talks, we participated in activities such as walking across nails and splitting boards with a punch, all of which were symbolic for overcoming great challenges and believing in our own abilities. The experience was on the whole a positive one with some campers finding the talks very helpful in boosting their confidence, overcoming doubt and finding solutions to problems they might face. The actual camping aspect of the camp was also fun, the food was on the whole very good, we slept in glamping style tents with wooden floors and bunks and got up each morning to participate in some form of wake-up activity like yoga, meditation or a leisurely walk around the campsite. The people I got to meet were all very different, some coming from troubled homes, others were leaders like myself trying to learn some new things but over the three days we all bonded over the shared goal of completing each activity and giving it our best go. The best experiences from the camp in my experience came on the second night. After tea, we were told we would be participating in a chariot race. Each tribe had to carry one member, which would rotate, on a chariot, to a selection of activities. Each activity had to be completed before you could move on and we were rewarded with a giant bonfire and marshmallows. I found this experience the best because it in a way summarises what the camp is about. You had to work with your tribe to complete activities you could never do alone, if someone was falling behind, you either waited or helped them finish and finally it was just simply fun. Climbing over tires, swing across pits and scaling giant obstacles, all done at night under the light of tiki torches, was an epic experience to be sure. The limitless camp was a great experience in my mind. While I may not have gotten as much out of it as some of the other campers may have, I still walked away with a bunch of new memories, friends and a broader scope on the type of people in the world and the problems that can face us as young adults. Bailey Smith, Year 11 School Captain Anti-Racism and Tolerance Student Voice Initiative As part of the Student Voice Ant-Racism and Multicultural Tolerance focus, teams of student leaders have given speeches to Year Level Assemblies in recent weeks. The speech presented is reported here: We are student leaders here at Cranbourne East and we would like to talk to you today about what racism is, how it affects people and what you can do to help us to prevent it. We also want to talk about the Multicultural Day that will be happening on November 22nd and the stickers we have developed to support the anti-bullying and anti-racism project here at school. Our aim is to stop racism and unite everybody at the school as one and accept the fact that we are all human and we shouldn't be discriminating against each other. We should learn to accept each other socially and religiously, and thrive to be more united as a community. Australia is a multi-cultural country and pretty much everybody in this school has a different background, religion, or race. We think it's a good idea for us to all try to find ways to accept each other. Banning racism and promoting tolerance and acceptance will not only bring peace to everybody, but make us closer as a community. It will also help us focus on our learning as we all know the negative impact bullying and racism has on people. CESC will be introducing stickers to promote this message, hopefully spreading a positive message. These stickers will be for sale to raise funds for Student Voice initiatives like the Breakfast Club but all students will also get a free sticker from their Class Captain in Home Group in the next few weeks. the racism that is happening here and elsewhere. There is no good reason for it what so ever. People affected by racism and bullying can become sad or depressed and stop feeling a part of the community. We are a multicultural school and we live in a multicultural world where we all should have the right to be accepted by each other. We want to talk about what racism is and what it does to people. Racism affects all kinds of people from different cultures here in Australia. Racism is a form of bullying using words or aggressive actions to hurt or offend others because of their race, their culture, their religion or where they came from. What we want and what most of the world wants is to stop The Student Voice leaders at Cranbourne East are busy planning a Multicultural Day for 22nd November to celebrate all the different cultures that combine together here at the school. Students will be able to wear multi-cultural dress that celebrates their background or someone else's background. So, that might include wearing saris from India, lava-lavas from the Pacifica nations, footy jerseys from the Bulldogs or the Sharks, kaftans from Turkey, fur hats from Russia or Lederhosen from Germany etc. As usual for free dress days, there will be a gold coin donation required and the class which raises the most money will get a pizza party. There will be activities run all day in class groups plus a concert will be held during period 4 and there will be more music and speciality foods at lunchtime. At school we all hear people saying things sometimes that make fun of others or bully them – let's all take a stand and encourage each other to treat others as we would like to be treated ourselves and step up when we hear bullying or someone saying "That's racist," as a joke. While we may all eat different foods, worship differently, speak different languages at home, we are all human and the world will be a better, safer, happier place without bullying and racism. So, start planning what you're going to wear for Multicultural Day and get in touch with your Class Captain or Year Level Captains if you have any ideas for the Multicultural Day or know someone inside school or outside school who would like to perform on the day! Thanks for listening. Amelia, Abbie, Isa, Zoe, Joel, Maddy, Keara, Elli, Tristen	<urn:uuid:7f1dc2ae-195d-44bb-a35c-c1547c3b2a26>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://cesc.vic.edu.au/images/Documents/Student_Voice/Student_Voice_Volume_8.pdf	2019-06-16T09:53:30Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00285.warc.gz	35,854,105	1,531	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997613	eng_Latn	0.998784	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2988, 3485, 6648, 7470 ]	[ 2.40625 ]	1	2
Handout 2: Case Backgrounds Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. This was opposed by the country's Serbs whose share in the population was around 40% and who had an autonomous Serb republic (Republika Srpska) within the newly independent state. Seeking to achieve an all-Serb population on its territory, the Serb army (VRS) began expelling and killing the nonSerb population. In three years, several hundred Bosniak villages were destroyed, more than 10,000 killed and almost 100,000 displaced. Bosniaks, most of whom were Muslim, sought refuge from the Serb army in the city of Srebrenica. Although the UN had declared a safe area in Srebrenica and sent 400 peacekeepers to protect the civilian population there, VRS invaded the city in July 1995. In a thoroughly planned operation, Bosniak men were separated from the women and children and taken to various nearby villages where mass executions were carried out in the following days. Rwanda The small Republic of Rwanda (about twice smaller than Estonia by territory) is located in Central Africa. The country was ruled by a monarchy during the 15th20th century. The ruling elite were called Tutsis and the poorer, mostly farmer population were known as Hutus. It has also been claimed that Tutsis and Hutus are of different geographical origin and somewhat different physical traits. Oppressed Hutus began an uprising against the Tutsi monarchy in 1959. Hutus took power in the country and opposition parties were gradually removed from political competition. Many Tutsis fled the country during the revolution and the following years. In 1990, the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) of Tutsi exiles attacked Rwanda. A three-year civil war ended by an accord between RPF and MRND (Rwanda's military government) which created a multi-party system open for both Hutus and Tutsis. MRND members were not satisfied with the outcome and started planning the extermination of Tutsi population. Weapons were distributed to Tutsi civilians and „enemy" lists were prepared of persons to be executed, including Tutsis, Hutus who were opposed the military regime and the foreign spouses of Tutsi women. An anti-Tutsi media campaign was designed by MRND to fuel hostility against Tutsis. Its main instrument was the RTLM radio channel which urged people to exterminate „the enemy" and broadcast the locations of Tutsi sanctuaries. Around 800,000 to 1,000,000 Tutsis and liberal Hutus were murdered during the period of April-July 1994.	<urn:uuid:c0506369-52b3-42e0-8458-eed0b6f4b674>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	https://micccourses.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/handout-2-case-backgrounds.pdf	2019-06-16T09:00:51Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00285.warc.gz	515,530,687	577	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998843	eng_Latn	0.998843	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2573 ]	[ 3.21875 ]	1	3
Welcome to our Press Release Lesson. Here you will learn a bit about what it means to tell a story, and be provided with a few tools to help you tell YOUR story in the medium of the press release. Let's pause for a moment and re-visit the definition of a story before we identify a few motivations we have when we read a news story. sto·ry1 `stôrē/ noun 1.an account of imaginary or real people and events told for entertainment. "an adventure story" 2. an account of past events in someone's life or in the evolution of something. "the story of modern farming" EMPATHY & IDENTIFICATION First, assuming the good nature of the reader, he or she is interested in reading the story because it's about people, and presumably, the reader feels some level of empathy and/or interest in other people's experience of the world. Stories that touch us do so in great part because they were written in a manner that allows for a deep, empathic connection. DRAMA & STRUGGLE The second reason we might admit being drawn to a news story is because of its drama. Most news stories focus on a crisis or struggle in the world. You probably know instinctively that the most satisfying stories have a climax. It's just in our nature to listen to or read a story and expect there to be a struggle of some kind, and then yearn for its resolution. What does this have to do with a farmer writing a press release? Well, given the current under-funded state of journalism, it's likely that your press release will be published as you write it - it WILL be the story. Local newspapers are generally eager for content, especially stories about the local food movement. If you haven't noticed yet, you, as a farmer or beekeeper, are actually a hero in the collective American consciousness at this moment. This gives you tremendous power to write exactly what you would want to see written. Therefore, it's useful for you to have an idea of the story you would like to write and the elements you'll need to make it as compelling as possible! DON'T BE SHY, BE PROUD! Ask the local newspaper to feature your farm or apiary! Don't by shy. It's likely they are hungry for content and will jump at the chance to feature you, especially in the spring! Each farm or apiary is unique and articles are most effective when you let that difference shine. That makes it hard to take a cookie-cutter approach, so we've developed a loose guide to the important elements you might consider when creating your own article to send to your local paper. We've also included a few (purely fictional) examples to help get your creative juices flowing. TIP #1 EVENTS ARE GREAT NEWS STORIES Want to get in the news? Think about hosting an event! Events are great news stories because they've got a sense of urgency to them. This is happening NEXT WEEK. Take a look at this story written about Five Elements Farm and their second annual earth day event. Click here to read the story. TIP #2 START AT THE BEGINNING & KEEP IT PERSONAL Your story before becoming a farmer is so important! The USDA posted an article about Ivory Smith, of SmithPonics in Poplarville, Miss. which featured the fact that he served in the Infantry in the Army National Guard before he became a farmer. What did YOU do before you became a farmer? What is the story that led you to this place? A quote from the article: "Ivory has been able to make the transition from fighter to farmer, starting with a couple buckets and some seeds this spring to his newly-completed insulated planting shed. With year-round operation now possible for his microgreens customers, he can watch his business grow much like his microgreens (and his little boy, too.)" Click here to read the story. TIP #3 TALK ABOUT YOUR LAND! Another way to interest the reader is to talk about what is special about the farm itself. Perhaps it is the history of the land, the view, the products that your farm specializes in, the innovative projects you've started, or something else entirely. Take Shady Grove Farm UP in Michigan for example. They recently had to fight a local zoning ordinance that would ban farming by deploying the Michigan right to farm statute. Click here to read the story. TIP #4 POINT TO YOUR STRUGGLES & TRIUMPHS Is your farm in some way connected to a personal struggle or triumph that you've experienced? 180 Degree Farm is the perfect example of how a difficult family struggle laid the foundation for the farm's existence. Click here to read the story. TIP #5 YOUR PRACTICES ARE UNIQUE! Don't forget to talk about how you manage your farm or apiary using natural practices and why you've chosen to do so. Check out this article about Summer Smiles Honey Farm in which they talk about their bee-keeping practices. TIP #6 YOUR CNG CERTIFICATION IS NEWS! CNG is growing more every year and gaining a lot of great press. Use this publicity to your advantage and describe what being #cngproud means and why you decided to join. Take a look at this piece about Russell Sprouts as a great example. A quote from the article: ""We are passionate about growing healthy food for our community," says Russell, "and we are proud to have our efforts recognized by Certified Naturally Grown." She continues to explain that the grassroots certification aligns with her mission to grow food the community can trust, and it supports her commitment in helping to create a sustainable community." Click here to read the story. RECAP & A FEW MORE TIPS... * EVENTS ARE GREAT NEWS STORIES It's incredibly easy to get a news story written about you when you have an event on your farm. There are event calendars in most local papers - just call them up and let them know what you're planning! * START AT THE BEGINNING & KEEP IT PERSONAL It's at the core of why we love stories; we want to empathize and identify with our protagonist! Share YOUR story - why did you get into farming? What was your life like before? * TALK ABOUT YOUR LAND Regardless of whether or not you have a political battle to fight over the right to use your land, it's important to give your land the credit it's due. What was your land before it was a farm? Does that history play a part in your story? * POINT TO YOUR STRUGGLES & TRIUMPHS Guess what: we all struggle, and because of this, we like to read about other people's struggles and hear how they overcame their obstacles! You may balk at sharing events that feel devastating to you, but if you can look at them in a positive light, and share how you're planning on getting back up on your feet, we guarantee someone will not only want to listen, but be your champion as well. * YOUR PRACTICES ARE A UNIQUE PART OF YOUR STORY Your customers want to know just how much you care about how you farm. Tell them what goes into your decisions and why you do things the way you do them! How does your approach to farming support customers' health, or heal the earth? * YOUR CNG CERTIFICATION IS NEWS! CNG is in the news often; your certification is news too! Writing to your local paper about your new certification not only helps CNG but it is a great way to introduce yourself to the community and feature your farming practices at the same time. We've included some tips on how to talk about CNG on the next page. * HIGHLIGHT AN ACTION Are you doing things differently on your farm suddenly? Why? * DON'T FORGET TO TELL THEM WHERE! This may seem obvious, but don't forget to mention where your farm is located and how people can purchase your produce! CNG TALKING POINTS We're stepping up our efforts to raise awareness about CNG, but you, our members, still play the most important role in representing Certified Naturally Grown in your communities. This tipsheet will help you explain what Certified Naturally Grown means in just a few words. The trick is to balance a short and clear message with making it personal and something the customer can connect with. Here are some ideas to get you started. The CNG tagline: The grassroots alternative to certified organic. CNG means… * no antibiotics or hormones. * No synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fungicides or GMO seeds; and for livestock producers, * Annual inspections done by farmers or customers * Designed for family-sized farms, not corporate conglomorates Comparing Certified Naturally Grown to Certified Organic Most folks have heard of the organic label, so it can be a useful starting point. * CNG has a different inspection process: CNG inspections are typically conducted by a local farmer. Farmer inspectors are best suited to ask specific questions based on their knowledge of the local pest pressures and farming challenges, and to make helpful suggestions to improve the farm's sustainability. This participatory model a) ensures that the standards are being upheld and b) strengthens the local farming community by connecting farmers to one another. * CNG standards are largely the same as those of the National Organic Program. * CNG helps build the organic movement by including small farms. Make it Personal Tell your own story – why did you choose to become Certified Naturally Grown? More Information CNG is unique in its degree of transparency; all members are listed on our website and all certification documents are available to the public online. Encourage customers to visit our website: www.naturallygrown.org and view your farm's profile. ANATOMY OF A PRESS RELEASE Russell Sprouts becomes Certified Naturally Grown Published: November 19, 2014 ROME, Pa. - Russell Sprouts Farm has announced its recent distinction of becoming one of two produce growers in Bradford County to be recognized as a Certified Naturally Grown producer. Farm manager Sheila Russell sought out the national certification to help distinguish her produce from others grown by conventional methods and to give her customers the assurance of buying naturally grown vegetables free of synthetic chemicals and genetic modification. Certified Naturally Grown (CNG) is a certification program for direct market farms using natural practices and selling in their local communities. The CNG program is the grassroots alternative to certified organic with site visits and inspections by peer farmers. The certification assures that food is grown without GMO seeds or synthetic chemical fertilizers or pesticides. "We are passionate about growing healthy food for our community," says Russell, "and we are proud to have our efforts recognized by Certified Naturally Grown." She continues to explain that the grassroots certification aligns with her mission to grow food the community can trust, and it supports her commitment in helping to create a sustainable community. Russell Sprouts Farm, located just north of Rome on Route 187, offers Certified Naturally Grown vegetables and local goods at its on-site farm store, supports a growing CSA membership (community supported agriculture) and delivers to local restaurants. Russell submitted the CNG application in the fall, and received word of acceptance on Oct. 28. The final step in the certification process is an on-site inspection. Currently there are more than 750 CNG farms nationwide, and two locally in Bradford County (the other is Running Bear Farm in Troy). Submitted by Sheila Russell, Russell Sprouts Farm. Modified slightly from the original Sign up for more tips: www.standoutinyourfield.org Concise & Informative Title One Sentence Summary Action Highlighted & Explanation Given (boosting consumer confidence!) CNG's Credibility is YOUR Credibility Location & How To Purchase Submitted by a farmer like you! NOW IT'S YOUR TURN First, decide what your angle is. Here are some questions to get you started; any of these prompts could turn into an article! Remember to write the press release as if it IS the article; it's likely the newspaper will publish it with minimal edits. HIGHLIGHT AN ACTION Have you changed anything about the farm recently (like getting certified, or changing a process or technique)? Why did you make that change? Does the change reflect positively on your image? * GET PERSONAL Is your passion for farming rooted in a personal struggle? Can you trace the decision to become a farmer back to a moment in your own life? * EVENTS & PROGRAMS Is there an upcoming farm event or program (like a CSA)? Did you just join a new farmers market? Why? PRESS RELEASE Contact Person: ____________ Phone: _________ Email: ______________ Headline Date One sentence summary of the content. Two or three paragraph explaination behind your summary. Try to describe why, when, and how this action/event/program affects your farming practices. How does it make you unique? Location & business details - where can customers find you and how can they purchase what you’re selling? Close with a personal note if you can! Bring it home with a quote or an anecdote—something to chew on, something to feel good about, or something inspiring. Submitted by _______ For more information visit (website) Visit the farm at (address)	<urn:uuid:472dc848-69e7-4971-a55d-2f3cd64303ab>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/themes/54c8f2c701925b4444000001/attachments/original/1429127138/Press_Release_Lesson.pdf?1429127138	2019-06-16T09:55:54Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00287.warc.gz	45,786,390	2,727	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99754	eng_Latn	0.998504	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 951, 2948, 4210, 4761, 5460, 7526, 9411, 11633, 13074 ]	[ 2.125 ]	1	0
The 5-Day Study Plan Why should I start studying early? Did you know that the human brain learns academic material faster and better if done in brief blocks of time spread over longer periods, rather than in a few lengthy sessions? For example, you will perform better on an exam if you spend one hour studying each day for 20 days than if you spend 10 hours studying for two days before an exam. Which means that CRAMMING is BAD NEWS! What if I have to cram? Ok, so sometimes life gets crazy and we end up having to cram, right? If you have to cram, try to focus on remembering the information you know already rather than trying to learn new information. And here's the kicker: you will typically NOT remember what you tried to learn the night before the exam, so it's best to make sure you really know some of the information well. If you do have a few days, try to spread the studying out so you are not doing it all in one day. How should I plan my exam preparation? The 5-Day Study Plan If you plan ahead, many students have found the "5 Day Study Plan" gets good results. However, five days is really the minimal and we recommend a much longer study plan, if possible. For example, if you have not read any of your BIOL 101 textbook and a multiple choice quiz of over 100 test questions is looming, 5 days will probably not suffice. Components of the 5-Day Study Plan: - Space out your learning over a minimum of 5 days. - Divide your material into workable 'chunks,' e.g. a chapter, a set of lecture notes. - During each day, prepare a new chunk. Preparing might be reading and note-taking, amalgamating lecture and textbook information, reorganizing lecture notes. - Review previous material. - Use active learning strategies such as questioning, reciting, cue cards, study groups, etc. - Use self-testing techniques to monitor your learning. How much time should I set aside to study? You might need a minimum of 8-10 hours of studying to get a good mark on an exam. However, the time you need to spend really depends on many things such as: - the difficulty of the course - to what extent you have kept up with the materials during the term - how important this exam is to you Learning Strategies, Student Academic Success Services, Queen's University, Kingston, ON http://sass.queensu.ca/learningstrategies How to make a 5-Day Study Plan 1. Break your material into chunks. If it can be divided by chapter, article, theme or topic, then use that. If not, divide the material in a way that is manageable to you. For example, if one chapter is very long and/or complex, break the chapter into sections. 2. Plan to spend 2.5-3 hours studying on each of the five (or more) days. 3. Each day start by reviewing the previous day's work, focusing on what you did not know on the self-test, and then preparing a new section. End with a self-test. Example time frame: \| Date \| What to do \| What to study \| Length of time \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Day 1 \| Prepare Self-test \| 1st section/chunk (e.g. a chapter) \| 2 hours 20 minutes \| \| Day 2 \| Review Prepare Self-test \| 1st section 2nd section \| 20 minutes 2 hours 20 minutes \| \| Day 3 \| Review Review Prepare Self-test \| 1st section 2nd section 3rd section \| 10 minutes 20 minutes 2 hours 20 minutes \| \| Day 4 \| Review Review Review Prepare Self-test \| 1st section 2nd section 3rd section 4th section \| 5 minutes 10 minutes 20 minutes 2 hours 20 minutes \| \| Day 5 \| Review Review Review Review Self-test \| 1st section 2nd section 3rd section 4th section \| 5 minutes 5 minutes 10 minutes 20 minutes 2 hours \| You may need to extend the preparation time depending on the information and to match your own learning pace. However, studying for more than 3-4 hours at one session is not as helpful as several shorter ones. Also, don't forget to take short breaks throughout! Learning Strategies, Student Academic Success Services, Queen's University, Kingston, ON http://sass.queensu.ca/learningstrategies	<urn:uuid:0717d13b-f894-4cfc-929f-1d12cb792164>	CC-MAIN-2019-26	http://sass.queensu.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/The-5-Day-Study-Plan-and-Instructions.pdf	2019-06-16T09:56:46Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998084.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190616082703-20190616104703-00286.warc.gz	152,819,714	956	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998442	eng_Latn	0.998418	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2333, 3974 ]	[ 2.171875 ]	4	0

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.