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Alkane | NMR spectroscopy | NMR spectroscopy
The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at δH = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: δC = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH3), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH2–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of q... |
Alkane | Mass spectrometry | Mass spectrometry
Since alkanes have high ionization energies, their electron impact mass spectra show weak currents for their molecular ions. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons ... |
Alkane | Chemical properties | Chemical properties
Alkanes are only weakly reactive with most chemical compounds. They only reacts with the strongest of electrophilic reagents by virtue of their strong C–H bonds (~100 kcal/mol) and C–C bonds (~90 kcal/mol). They are also relatively unreactive toward free radicals. This inertness is the source of th... |
Alkane | Acid-base behavior | Acid-base behavior
The acid dissociation constant (pKa) values of all alkanes are estimated to range from 50 to 70, depending on the extrapolation method, hence they are extremely weak acids that are practically inert to bases (see: carbon acids). They are also extremely weak bases, undergoing no observable protonation... |
Alkane | Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction) | Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction)
All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is:
CnH2n+2 + (n + ) O2 → (n + 1) H2O + n CO2
or CnH2n+2 + () O2 → (n + 1) H2O +... |
Alkane | Biodegradation | Biodegradation
Some organisms are capable of metalbolizing alkanes. The methane monooxygenases convert methane to methanol. For higher alkanes, cytochrome P450 convert alkanes to alcohols, which are then susceptible to degradation. |
Alkane | Free radical reactions | Free radical reactions
Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes. Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of haloalkanes. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. The reaction of al... |
Alkane | C-H activation | C-H activation
Certain transition metal complexes promote non-radical reactions with alkanes, resulting in so C–H bond activation reactions. |
Alkane | Cracking | Cracking
Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This reaction requires heat and catalysts. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and ze... |
Alkane | Isomerization and reformation | Isomerization and reformation
Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it... |
Alkane | Other reactions | Other reactions
In steam reforming, alkanes react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen and carbon monoxide. |
Alkane | Occurrence | Occurrence |
Alkane | Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe | Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe
thumb|right|Methane and ethane make up a tiny proportion of Jupiter's atmosphere
thumb|right|Extraction of oil, which contains many distinct hydrocarbons including alkanes
Alkanes form a small portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter (0.1% methane, 2 ppm... |
Alkane | Occurrence of alkanes on Earth | Occurrence of alkanes on Earth
Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745 ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by methanogenic microorganisms, such as Archaea in the gut of ruminants.
The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. Natural gas contains primarily methane... |
Alkane | Biological occurrence | Biological occurrence
thumb|right|Methanogenic archaea in the gut of cows produce methane.
Aside from petroleum and natural gas, alkanes occur significantly in nature only as methane, which is produced by some archaea by the process of methanogenesis. These organisms are found in the gut of termites and cows. The met... |
Alkane | Ecological relations | Ecological relations
thumb|upright|right|Early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes)
One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the sand bee (Andrena nigroaenea) and the early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes); the latter is dependent for pollination on the former.... |
Alkane | Production | Production |
Alkane | Petroleum refining | Petroleum refining
thumb|right|An oil refinery at Martinez, California.
The most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Alkanes are separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are converted to alkanes by hydrogenation:
(R = alkyl)
Another route to alkanes is h... |
Alkane | Coal | Coal
Coal is a more traditional precursor to alkanes. A wide range of technologies have been intensively practiced for centuries. Simply heating coal gives alkanes, leaving behind coke. Relevant technologies include the Bergius process and coal liquifaction. Partial combustion of coal and related solid organic comp... |
Alkane | Laboratory preparation | Laboratory preparation
Rarely is there any interest in the synthesis of alkanes, since they are usually commercially available and less valued than virtually any precursor. The best-known method is hydrogenation of alkenes. Many C-X bonds can be converted to C-H bonds using lithium aluminium hydride, Clemmenson reducti... |
Alkane | Applications | Applications |
Alkane | Fuels | Fuels
The dominant use of alkanes is as fuels. Propane and butane, easily liquified gases, are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). From pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion cha... |
Alkane | Precursors to chemicals | Precursors to chemicals
By the process of cracking, alkanes can be converted to alkenes. Simple alkenes are precursors to polymers, such as polyethylene and polypropylene. When the cracking is taken to extremes, alkanes can be converted to carbon black, which is a significant tire component.
Chlorination of methane ... |
Alkane | Other | Other
Some light hydrocarbons are used as aerosol sprays.
Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many so... |
Alkane | Hazards | Hazards
Alkanes are highly flammable, but they have low toxicities. Methane "is toxicologically virtually inert." Alkanes can be asphyxiants and narcotic. |
Alkane | See also | See also
Alkene
Alkyne
Cycloalkane
Higher alkanes
Aliphatic compound |
Alkane | Notes | Notes |
Alkane | References | References |
Alkane | Further reading | Further reading
Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry
Visualizations of the low-temperature crystal structures of alkanes (methane to nonane)
Category:Hydrocarbons |
Alkane | Table of Content | Short description, Structure and classification, Isomerism, Nomenclature, Linear alkanes, Branched alkanes, Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons, Trivial/common names, Physical properties, Table of alkanes, Boiling point, Melting points, Conductivity and solubility, Molecular geometry, Bond lengths and bond angles, Conformati... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | short description | thumb|The Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C., with the statue of Abraham Lincoln in the foreground
United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the co... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Access to appellant status | Access to appellant status
A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called an "appellee", "defendant in error", "respondent". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge fo... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Ability to appeal | Ability to appeal
An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of t... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions | Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions
Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction ... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Appellate review | Appellate review
"Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act o... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Direct appeal | Direct appeal
After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a ... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Preservation issues | Preservation issues
An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For examp... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | State post-conviction relief: collateral appeal | State post-conviction relief: collateral appeal
All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counse... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Habeas corpus | Habeas corpus |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Notice of appeal | Notice of appeal
A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country.
The specific rules... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Appellate procedure | Appellate procedure
thumb|Appellate mandate issued by the United States Court of Appeal for the Second Circuit affirming an order of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in Steven Donziger's criminal contempt case.
Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Results | Results
The result of an appeal can be:
Affirmed: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s).
Reversed: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s), and overturns their decision.
Vacated: Where the reviewing court overturns... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | See also | See also
Appellate court
Appellee
Civil procedure
Court of Appeals
Courts-martial in the United States
Criminal procedure
Defendant
En banc
Interlocutory appeal
List of legal topics
List of wrongful convictions in the United States
Petition for stay
Plaintiff
Pursuer
Reversible error
Supreme Court of th... |
Appellate procedure in the United States | References | References |
Appellate procedure in the United States | External links | External links
Category:United States procedural law |
Appellate procedure in the United States | Table of Content | short description, Access to appellant status, Ability to appeal, Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions, Appellate review, Direct appeal, Preservation issues, State post-conviction relief: collateral appeal, Habeas corpus, Notice of appeal, Appellate procedure, Results, See also, References, External lin... |
Answer (law) | Short description | In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.
In the common law, an answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and serve... |
Answer (law) | Notes | Notes
Category:Common law
Category:Legal documents |
Answer (law) | Table of Content | Short description, Notes |
Appellate court | short description | thumb|right|400px|The High Court of Australia, the highest appellate court in Australia
thumb|right|400px|The Supreme Court of the United States, the highest court in the United States
thumb|right|400px|The Helsinki Court of Appeal (Helsingin hovioikeus), an intermediate appellate court in Finland
An appellate court, ... |
Appellate court | Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals | Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals
While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts, some systems have appellate courts divided by the type of jurisdiction they exercise. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which o... |
Appellate court | Courts of criminal appeals | Courts of criminal appeals
Civilian
Court of Criminal Appeal (England and Wales), abolished 1966
Court of Criminal Appeal (Ireland), abolished 2014
U.S. States:
Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals
Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals
Tennessee Court of Criminal Appeals
Texas Court of Criminal Appeals
Military
United Stat... |
Appellate court | Courts of civil appeals | Courts of civil appeals
Alabama Court of Civil Appeals
Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals |
Appellate court | Appellate courts by country | Appellate courts by country |
Appellate court | Australia | Australia
thumb|right|292px|The Victorian Court of Appeal
The High Court has appellate jurisdiction over all other courts. Leave must be granted by the court, before the appeal matter is heard. The High Court is paramount to all federal courts. Further, it has an constitutionally entrenched general power of appeal fro... |
Appellate court | New Zealand | New Zealand
The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court. |
Appellate court | Philippines | Philippines
The Court of Appeals of the Philippines is the principal intermediate appellate court of that country. The Court of Appeals is primarily found in Manila, with three divisions each in Cebu City and Cagayan de Oro. Other appellate courts include the Sandiganbayan for cases involving graft and corruption, a... |
Appellate court | Sri Lanka | Sri Lanka
The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka, located in Colombo, is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system. |
Appellate court | United Kingdom | United Kingdom |
Appellate court | United States | United States
In the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted t... |
Appellate court | Nomenclature | Nomenclature
Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a court of appeal or court of appeals. Both terms are used in the United States, but the plural form is more common in American English, while in contrast, British English uses only the singular form. The correct form is whichever is the statutorily pr... |
Appellate court | See also | See also
Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)
Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)
High Court (Hong Kong)
Court of Appeal (England and Wales)
Court of cassation |
Appellate court | References | References |
Appellate court | Citations | Citations |
Appellate court | Sources | Sources
Lax, Jeffrey R. "Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts." American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591–604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012.
James D Hopkins, "The Role of an Intermediate Appellate Court" (1974 to 1975) 41 Brook L Rev 459 HeinOnli... |
Appellate court | Table of Content | short description, Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals, Courts of criminal appeals, Courts of civil appeals, Appellate courts by country, Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, United Kingdom, United States, Nomenclature, See also, References, Citations, Sources |
Arraignment | Short description | thumb|Arraignment at the Ministries Trial, 20 December 1947
Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant, to inform them of the criminal charges against them. In response to arraignment, in some jurisdictions, the accused is expected to enter a plea; in other jurisdic... |
Arraignment | By country | By country |
Arraignment | Australia | Australia
In the Australian legal system, arraignment is the first stage in a criminal trial. The indictment is read to the defendant, who is asked to plead guilty or not guilty. Arraignment procedures vary somewhat among jurisdictions. In New South Wales, the arraignment takes place before the judge only. In South A... |
Arraignment | Canada | Canada
In British Columbia, arraignment takes place in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each charge. |
Arraignment | France | France
In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of their arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deem... |
Arraignment | Germany | Germany
In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police, one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest. |
Arraignment | New Zealand | New Zealand
Under New Zealand law, at the first appearance of the accused, they are read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are: guilty, not guilty, and no plea. The response of "no plea" allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance. |
Arraignment | South Africa | South Africa
In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against them, the demanding of the accused whether they plead guilty or not guilty, and the entering of their plea. |
Arraignment | United Kingdom | United Kingdom
In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment.
In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them, unless an officer with the ran... |
Arraignment | United States | United States
The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution grants criminal defendants the right to be notified of the charges against them. Under the United States' Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, arraignment shall consist of an open reading of the indictment (and delivery of a copy) to the defendant, a... |
Arraignment | Form of the arraignment | Form of the arraignment
The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.In some jurisdictions the wording of the arraignment is set by statute or court practice direction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles:
The accused person (defendant) is addressed by name;
The cha... |
Arraignment | Video arraignment | Video arraignment
Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the court to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link b... |
Arraignment | Guilty and not-guilty pleas | Guilty and not-guilty pleas
If the defendant pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence.
If the defendant pleads not guilty, a da... |
Arraignment | Pre-trial release | Pre-trial release
This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. |
Arraignment | See also | See also
Desk appearance ticket |
Arraignment | References | References
Category:Legal terminology
Category:Prosecution
Category:United States criminal procedure
Category:Criminal law of the United Kingdom
Category:Australian criminal law |
Arraignment | Table of Content | Short description, By country, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States, Form of the arraignment, Video arraignment, Guilty and not-guilty pleas, Pre-trial release, See also, References |
America the Beautiful | Short description | "America the Beautiful" is a patriotic American song. Its lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates and its music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark, New Jersey, though the two never met.Andy Pease, America the Beautiful' by Katharine Lee Bates and Samuel... |
America the Beautiful | History | History
thumb|upright|left|Commemoration plaque atop Pikes Peak in July 1999
In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her... |
America the Beautiful | Lyrics | Lyrics
+America. A Poem for July 4.1893 poem (original)
O beautiful for halcyon skies,
For amber waves of grain,
For purple mountain majesties
Above the enameled plain!
America! America!
God shed his grace on thee
Till souls wax fair as earth and air
And music-hearted sea!
O beautiful for pilgrim feet,
Whose stern... |
America the Beautiful | Notable performances | Notable performances
thumb|Katharine Lee Bates, ca. 1880–1890
Elvis Presley performed it many times in concerts starting in 1976.
Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961).
Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Nelson Riddle during the sessions for The Concert Sinatra in February 19... |
America the Beautiful | Idioms | Idioms
"From sea to shining sea" is an American idiom meaning "from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "God Bless the U.S.A." and Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the Shinin... |
America the Beautiful | Books | Books
Lynn Sherr's 2001 book America the Beautiful: The Stirring True Story Behind Our Nation's Favorite Song discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Addition... |
America the Beautiful | See also | See also
"God Bless America" |
America the Beautiful | Explanatory notes | Explanatory notes |
America the Beautiful | References | References |
America the Beautiful | External links | External links
MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress
America the Beautiful Park in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words.
Archival collection of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s.
Another free sheet music
Category:1895 songs
Category:A... |
America the Beautiful | Table of Content | Short description, History, Lyrics, Notable performances, Idioms, Books, See also, Explanatory notes, References, External links |
Assistive technology | short description | thumb|Hearing aid
Assistive technology (AT) is a term for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and the elderly. Disabled people often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include t... |
Assistive technology | Adaptive technology | Adaptive technology
Adaptive technology and assistive technology are different. Assistive technology is something that is used to help disabled people, while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for disabled people and would seldom be used by a non-disabled person. In other words, assistive t... |
Assistive technology | Occupational therapy and assistive technology | Occupational therapy and assistive technology
Occupational Therapy (OT) utilizes everyday occupations as a therapeutic tool for enhancing or enabling participation in healthy occupations to promote health and well-being (AOTA, 2020). Occupations include activities of daily living (ADLs), instrumental activities of dail... |
Assistive technology | Mobility impairments | Mobility impairments
thumb|Wheelchair propelled by attached handcycle |
Assistive technology | Wheelchairs | Wheelchairs
Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people have. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related activities of daily living... |
Assistive technology | Transfer devices | Transfer devices
Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables).
The m... |
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