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All Souls' Day	Sources	Sources
All Souls' Day	Further reading	Further reading Tracey OSM, Liam. "The liturgy of All Souls Day", Catholic Ireland, 30 November 1999
All Souls' Day	External links	External links Notes on Russian Orthodox observance by N. Bulgakov N. Bulgakov "Pope offers Mass for faithful departed on All Souls' Day", Vatican radio, 2 November 2016 Category:Allhallowtide Category:Christianity and death Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgical days Category:Medieval legends Category:Holidays based on the date of Easter Category:November observances Category:Observances honoring the dead
All Souls' Day	Table of Content	short description, In other languages, Background, Observance by Christian denomination, Western Christianity, History, Roman Catholicism, All Souls' indulgences, Lutheran churches, Anglican Communion, Reformed churches, Methodist churches, Eastern Catholic, Eastern Lutheran and Eastern Orthodox, Radonitsa, East Syriac tradition, Popular customs, Europe, Indian subcontinent, Philippines, See also, References, Citations, Sources, Further reading, External links
Anatole France	short description	(; born ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters."Anatole France, Great Author, Dies", The New York Times, October 13, 1924, p.1 He was a member of the Académie Française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament". France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time.
Anatole France	Early years	Early years The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile, spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876, he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.
Anatole France	Literary career	Literary career France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse contemporain published one of his poems, "". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third Parnasse contemporain compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie Française. thumb\|left\|France's home, 5 , 1894–1924 In (1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult, and in (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the . He was elected to the Académie Française in 1896. France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret. France's later works include Penguin Island (, 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. The Gods Are Athirst (, 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. The Revolt of the Angels (, 1914) is often considered France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless "in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth." "Ialdabaoth", according to France, is God's secret name and means "the child who wanders". thumb\|France He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died on 13 October 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine Old Communal Cemetery near Paris. On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") of the Catholic Church. He regarded this as a "distinction". This Index was abolished in 1966.
Anatole France	Personal life	Personal life In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin, a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI. Their daughter Suzanne was born in 1881 (and died in 1918). France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic. The affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910. After his divorce, in 1893, France had many liaisons, notably with an American, Laura Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911 after he abandoned her. In 1920, France married for the second time, his housekeeper Emma Laprévotte. France had socialist sympathies and was an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party. In his book The Red Lily, France famously wrote, "The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal loaves of bread."
Anatole France	Reputation	Reputation thumb\|Anatole France on a postage stamp of Armenia, 2015 The English writer George Orwell defended France and declared that his work remained very readable, and that "it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives".
Anatole France	Works	Works
Anatole France	Poetry	Poetry thumb\|France pictured by Jean Baptiste Guth for Vanity Fair, 1909 thumb\|, illustrations by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel (1900) , poem published in 1867 in the Gazette rimée. (1873) (The Bride of Corinth) (1876)
Anatole France	Prose fiction	Prose fiction (Jocasta and the Famished Cat) (1879) (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard) (1881) (The Aspirations of Jean Servien) (1882) (Honey-Bee) (1883) (1889) (1890) (Mother of Pearl) (1892) (At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque) (1892) (Our Children: Scenes from the Country and the Town) (1886) illustrated by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel (The Opinions of Jerome Coignard) (1893) (The Red Lily) (1894) (The Well of Saint Clare) (1895) (A Chronicle of Our Own Times) 1: (The Elm-Tree on the Mall) (1897) 2: (The Wicker-Work Woman) (1897) 3: (The Amethyst Ring) (1899) 4: (Monsieur Bergeret in Paris) (1901) Clio (1900) (A Mummer's Tale) (1903) (The White Stone) (1905) (1901) (Penguin Island) (1908) (The Merrie Tales of Jacques Tournebroche) (1908) (The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvelous Tales) (1909) Bee The Princess of the Dwarfs (1912) (The Gods Are Athirst) (1912) (The Revolt of the Angels) (1914) (1920) illustrated by Fernand Siméon
Anatole France	Memoirs	Memoirs (My Friend's Book) (1885) (1899) (Little Pierre) (1918) (The Bloom of Life) (1922)
Anatole France	Plays	Plays (1898) Crainquebille (1903) (The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife) (1908) (The Wicker Woman) (1928)
Anatole France	Historical biography	Historical biography (The Life of Joan of Arc) (1908)
Anatole France	Literary criticism	Literary criticism Alfred de Vigny (1869) (1888) (The Latin Genius) (1909)
Anatole France	Social criticism	Social criticism (The Garden of Epicurus) (1895) (1902) (1904) (1906) (1915) , in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)
Anatole France	References	References
Anatole France	External links	External links List of Works "Anatole France, Nobel Prize Winner" by Herbert S. Gorman, The New York Times, 20 November 1921 Correspondence with architect Jean-Paul Oury at Syracuse University Anatole France, his work in audio version 15px Category:1844 births Category:1924 deaths Category:Writers from Paris Category:French bibliophiles Category:Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni Category:French fantasy writers Category:French Nobel laureates Category:19th-century French poets Category:French satirists Category:Members of the Académie Française Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:Dreyfusards Category:19th-century French novelists Category:20th-century French novelists Category:French socialists Category:French male poets Category:French male novelists Category:19th-century French male writers Category:French historical novelists Category:Burials at Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers
Anatole France	Table of Content	short description, Early years, Literary career, Personal life, Reputation, Works, Poetry, Prose fiction, Memoirs, Plays, Historical biography, Literary criticism, Social criticism, References, External links
André Gide	Short description	André Paul Guillaume Gide (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French writer and author whose writings spanned a wide variety of styles and topics. He was awarded the 1947 Nobel Prize in Literature. Gide's career ranged from his beginnings in the symbolist movement, to criticising imperialism between the two World Wars. The author of more than fifty books, he was described in his obituary in The New York Times as "France's greatest contemporary man of letters" and "judged the greatest French writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti." Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide expressed the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality (characterized by a Protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness, respectively). Gide engaged in child rape; having sex with young boys who were not of the age of consent. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints. He worked to achieve intellectual honesty. As a self-professed pederast, he used his writing to explore his struggle to be fully oneself, including owning one's sexual nature, without betraying one's values. His political activity was shaped by the same ethos. While sympathetic to Communism in the early 1930s, as were many intellectuals, after his 1936 journey to the USSR he supported the anti-Stalinist left; during the 1940s he shifted towards more traditional values and repudiated Communism as an idea that breaks with the traditions of the Christian civilization.
André Gide	Early life	Early life thumb\|left\|150px\|Gide in 1893 Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869 into a middle-class Protestant family. His father Jean Paul Guillaume Gide was a professor of law at University of Paris; he died in 1880, when the boy was eleven years old. His mother was Juliette Maria Rondeaux. His uncle was political economist Charles Gide. His paternal family traced its roots to Italy. The ancestral Guidos had moved to France and other western and northern European countries after converting to Protestantism during the 16th century, and facing persecution in Catholic Italy.Wallace Fowlie, André Gide: His Life and Art, Macmillan (1965), p. 11Pierre de Boisdeffre, Vie d'André Gide, 1869–1951: André Gide avant la fondation de la Nouvelle revue française (1869–1909), Hachette (1970), p. 29Jean Delay, La jeunesse d'André Gide, Gallimard (1956), p. 55 Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy. He became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel The Notebooks of André Walter (French: Les Cahiers d'André Walter), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one. In 1893 and 1894, Gide travelled in Northern Africa. There he came to accept his attraction to boys and youths.If It Die: Autobiographical Memoir by André Gide (first edition 1920, Vintage Books, 1935, translated by Dorothy Bussy: "but when Ali – that was my little guide's name – led me up among the sandhills, in spite of the fatigue of walking in the sand, I followed him; we soon reached a kind of funnel or crater, the rim of which was just high enough to command the surrounding country...As soon as we got there, Ali flung the coat and rug down on the sloping sand; he flung himself down too, and stretched on his back...I was not such a simpleton as to misunderstand his invitation"..."I seized the hand he held out to me and tumbled him on to the ground." [p. 251] Gide befriended Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in Paris, where the latter was in exile. In 1895 the two men met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but Gide had discovered homosexuality on his own.Out of the past, Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the present (Miller 1995:87)If It Die: Autobiographical Memoir by André Gide (first edition 1920) (Vintage Books, 1935, translated by Dorothy Bussy: "I should say that if Wilde had begun to discover the secrets of his life to me, he knew nothing as yet of mine; I had taken care to give him no hint of them, either by deed or word....No doubt, since my adventure at Sousse, there was not much left for the Adversary to do to complete his victory over me; but Wilde did not know this, nor that I was vanquished beforehand or, if you will...that I had already triumphed in my imagination and my thoughts over all my scruples." [p. 286])
André Gide	The middle years	The middle years thumb\|Gide photographed by Ottoline Morrell in 1924. thumb\|André Gide by Paul Albert Laurens (1924) In 1895, after his mother's death, Gide married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he was elected mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy. Gide spent the summer of 1907 in Jersey, with friends Jacques Copeau and Théo van Rysselberghe and their families. He rented a room in La Valeuse Cottage in St Brelade. Whilst there he worked on the second chapter of Strait Is the Gate (French: La Porte étroite), and van Rysselberghe painted his portrait. In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine Nouvelle Revue Française (The New French Review). During World War I, Gide visited England. One of his friends there was artist William Rothenstein. Rothenstein described Gide's visit to his Gloucestershire home in his autobiography: In 1916, Gide was about 47 years old when he took Marc Allégret, age 15, as a lover. Marc was one of five children of Élie Allégret and his wife. Gide had become friends with the senior Allégret during his own school years when Gide's mother had hired Allégret as a tutor for her son. Élie Allégret had been best man at Gide's wedding. After Gide fled with Marc to London, his wife Madeleine burned all his correspondence in retaliation– "the best part of myself," Gide later commented. In 1918, Gide met and befriended Dorothy Bussy; they were friends for more than 30 years, and she translated many of his works into English. Gide also became close friends with the critic Charles Du Bos. Together they were part of the Foyer Franco-Belge, in which capacity they worked to find employment, food and housing for Franco-Belgian refugees who arrived in Paris following the 1914 German invasion of Belgium. Their friendship later declined, due to Du Bos's perception that Gide had disavowed or betrayed his spiritual faith, in contrast to Du Bos's own return to faith. Du Bos's essay Dialogue avec André Gide was published in 1929. The essay, informed by Du Bos's Catholic convictions, condemned Gide's homosexuality. Gide and Du Bos's mutual friend Ernst Robert Curtius criticised the book in a letter to Gide, writing that "he [Du Bos] judges you according to Catholic morals suffices to neglect his complete indictment. It can only touch those who think like him and are convinced in advance. He has abdicated his intellectual liberty." In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for such writers as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky. When he defended homosexuality in the public edition of Corydon (1924), he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work. In 1923, Gide sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a much younger woman. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his friends Maria Monnom and Théo van Rysselberghe, a Belgian neo-impressionist painter. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide, and damaged his friendship with Théo van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual relationship with a woman, and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine was his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" ("The White Lady"). Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built on the rue Vavin). She worshipped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship. In 1924, he published an autobiography If it Die... (French: Si le grain ne meurt). In the same year, he produced the first French-language editions of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Lord Jim. After 1925, Gide began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals. His legal wife, Madeleine Gide, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in Et nunc manet in te, his memoir of Madeleine, published in English in the United States in 1952.
André Gide	Africa	Africa From July 1926 to May 1927, Gide traveled through the colony of French Equatorial Africa with his lover Marc Allégret. They went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon. He kept a journal, which he published as Travels in the Congo (French: Voyage au Congo) and Return from Chad (French: Retour du Tchad). In this work, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the Large Concessions regime (French: Régime des Grandes Concessions). The government had conceded part of the colony to French companies, allowing them to exploit the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related that native workers were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and compared their exploitation by the companies to slavery. The book contributed to the growing anti-colonialism movements in France and helped thinkers to re-evaluate the effects of colonialism in Africa.Voyage au Congo suivi du Retour du Tchad , in Lire, July–August 1995
André Gide	Political views and the Soviet Union	Political views and the Soviet Union During the 1930s, Gide briefly became a Communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined any Communist party), but he, an individualist himself, advocated the idea of Communist individualism. Despite supporting the Soviet Union, he acknowledged the political repression in the USSR. Gide insisted on the release of Victor Serge, a Soviet writer and a member of the Left Opposition who was prosecuted by the Stalinist regime for his views. As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of Communism, he was invited to speak at Maxim Gorky's funeral and to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. He encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under Soviet Communism. In his work, Retour de L'U.R.S.S. (Return from the USSR, 1936), he broke with such socialist friends as Jean-Paul Sartre; the book was addressed to pro-Soviet readers, so the purpose was to expose a reader to doubts instead of presenting harsh criticism. While admitting the economic and social achievements of the USSR compared to the Russian Empire, he noted the decay of culture, the erasure of the individuality of Soviet citizens, and the suppression of any dissent: Gide does not express his attitude towards Stalin, but he describes the signs of his personality cult: "in each [home], ... the same portrait of Stalin, and nothing else"; "portrait of Stalin... , in the same place no doubt where the icon used to be. Is it adoration, love, or fear? I do not know; always and everywhere he is present."Return from the U. S. S. R. translated in English, D. Bussy (Alfred Knopf, 1937), pp. 25; 45 However, Gide wrote that these problems could be solved by raising the cultural level of Soviet society. When Gide began preparing his manuscript for publication, the Kremlin was immediately informed about it, and soon Gide would be visited by the Soviet author Ilya Ehrenburg, who said that he agreed with Gide, but asked to postpone the publication, as the Soviet Union assisted the Republicans in Spain; two days later, Louis Aragon delivered a letter from Jef Last asking to postpone the publication. These measures didn't help, and as the book was published, Gide was condemned in the Soviet press and by the "friends of the USSR": Nordahl Grieg wrote that the reason of writing the book was Gide's impatience, and that with his book he made a favour to the Fascists, who greeted it with joy. In 1937, in response, Gide published Afterthoughts on the U. S. S. R.; earlier, Gide read Trotsky's The Revolution Betrayed and met Victor Serge who provided him more information about the Soviet Union.Alan Sheridan. André Gide: A Life in the Present (1999) In Afterthoughts, Gide is more direct in his criticism of the Soviet society: "Citrine, Trotsky, Mercier, Yvon, Victor Serge, Leguay, Rudolf and many others have helped me with their documentation. Everything they have taught me so far I had only suspected it – has confirmed and reinforced my fears".Afterthoughts: A Sequel to Back from the U.S.S.R (1937) The main points of Afterthoughts were that the dictatorship of the proletariat became the dictatorship of Stalin, and that the privileged bureaucracy became the new ruling class which profited by the workers' surplus labour, spending the state budget on projects like the Palace of Soviets or to raise its own standards of living, while the working class lived in extreme poverty; Gide cited the official Soviet newspapers to prove his statements.Gide answers his Bolshevik critics libcom.org During the World War II Gide came to a conclusion that "absolute liberty destroys the individual and also society unless it be closely linked to tradition and discipline"; he rejected the revolutionary idea of Communism as breaking with the traditions, and wrote that "if civilization depended solely on those who initiated revolutionary theories, then it would perish, since culture needs for its survival a continuous and developing tradition." In Thesee, written in 1946, he showed that an individual may safely leave the Maze only if "he had clung tightly to the thread which linked him with the past". In 1947, he said that although during the human history the civilizations rose up and died, the Christian civilization may be saved from doom "if we accepted the responsibility of the sacred charge laid on us by our traditions and our past." He also said that he remained an individualist and protested against "the submersion of individual responsibility in organized authority, in that escape from freedom which is characteristic of our age."The God that failed chinhnghia.com Gide contributed to the 1949 anthology The God That Failed. He could not write an essay because of his state of health, so the text was written by Enid Starkie, based on paraphrases of Return from the USSR, Afterthoughts, from a discussion held in Paris at l'Union pour la Verite in 1935, and from his Journal; the text was approved by Gide.
André Gide	1930s and 1940s	1930s and 1940s In 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case titled La Séquestrée de Poitiers, changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years.Pujolas, Marie. En tournage, un documentaire sur l'incroyable affaire de "La séquestrée de Poitiers". France TV info. Feb 27, 2015 Levy, Audrey. Destins de femmes: Ces Poitevines plus ou moins célèbres auront marqué l'Histoire. Le Point. Apr 21, 2015. In 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. He left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis from December 1942 until it was re-taken by French, British and American forces in May 1943 and he was able to travel to Algiers where he stayed until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight". He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal. Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the Index of Forbidden Books in 1952.André Gide Biography (1869–1951). eninimports.com
André Gide	Gide's life as a writer	Gide's life as a writer Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide's life as a writer and an intellectual: "Gide's fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it."Alan Sheridan, p. xii. But his "capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself."Alan Sheridan, p. 624.
André Gide	Writings	Writings André Gide's writings spanned many genres – "As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters."Article on André Gide in Contemporary Authors Online 2003. But as Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan points out, "It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide's work."Information in this paragraph is extracted from André Gide: A Life in the Present by Alan Sheridan, pp. 629–33. "Here, as in the oeuvre as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide's curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the "comic, more inventive, even fantastic" pieces, to the later "serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, "with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences." Gide's surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the Journal that Sheridan calls "the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression."Information in this paragraph is extracted from André Gide: A Life in the Present by Alan Sheridan, p. 628. "His first novel emerged from Gide's own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In Les faux-monnayeurs, Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's." "In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive," Gide replied, 'I think it would be my Journal.'''" Beginning at the age of 18 or 19, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to 1,300 pages.Journals: 1889–1913 by André Gide, trans. by Justin O'Brien, p. xii. Struggle for values "Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his Cahiers de André Gide essay, is what makes Gide's work 'essentially modern': the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'"Quote taken from the article on André Gide in Contemporary Authors Online, 2003. Gide wrote in his Journal in 1930: "The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental."Journals: 1889–1913 by André Gide, trans. by Justin O'Brien, p. xvii. As a whole, "The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks."Quote taken from the article on André Gide in the Encyclopedia of World Biography, Dec. 12, 1998, Gale Pub. Sexuality In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted "sodomites" and boy-loving "pederasts", categorizing himself as the latter. Gide's journal documents his behavior in the company of Oscar Wilde. Gide's novel Corydon, which he considered his most important work, includes a defense of pederasty. At that time (before 1945), the age of consent for any type of sexual activity was set at 13. Bibliography See also Mise en abyme Pederasty References Citations Works cited Edmund White, André Gide: A Life in the Present. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998] Further reading Noel I. Garde [Edgar H. Leoni], Jonathan to Gide: The Homosexual in History. New York:Vangard, 1964. For a chronology of Gide's life, see pp. 13–15 in Thomas Cordle, André Gide (The Griffin Authors Series). Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1969. For a detailed bibliography of Gide's writings and works about Gide, see pp. 655–678 in Alan Sheridan, André Gide: A Life in the Present. Harvard, 1999. External links Website of the Catherine Gide Foundation, held by Catherine Gide, his daughter Center for Gidian Studies List of Works André Gide at Goodreads Amis d'André Gide in French Period newspaper articles on Gide interface in French'' André Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature André Gide: A Brief Introduction Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–07 Category:1869 births Category:1951 deaths Category:Writers from Paris Category:French novelists Category:French Protestants Category:French travel writers Category:French anti-communists Category:French communists Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:French Nobel laureates Category:Writers about the Soviet Union Category:Modernist writers Category:Fyodor Dostoyevsky scholars Category:Lycée Henri-IV alumni Category:French male essayists Category:French male novelists Category:French people of Italian descent Category:Anti-Stalinist left Category:Nouvelle Revue Française editors
André Gide	Table of Content	Short description, Early life, The middle years, Africa, Political views and the Soviet Union, 1930s and 1940s, Gide's life as a writer, Writings
Algorithms for calculating variance	Short description	Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Naïve algorithm	Naïve algorithm A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size N is: Using Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations, the formula is: Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following: Let For each datum : This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by n instead of n − 1 on the last line. Because and can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice, and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Computing shifted data	Computing shifted data The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula. with any constant, which leads to the new formula the closer is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur. If just the first sample is taken as the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as def shifted_data_variance(data): if len(data) < 2: return 0.0 K = data[0] n = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0 for x in data: n += 1 Ex += x - K Ex2 += (x - K) 2 variance = (Ex2 - Ex2 / n) / (n - 1) # use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data # use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population return variance This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as K = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0 n = 0 def add_variable(x): global K, n, Ex, Ex2 if n == 0: K = x n += 1 Ex += x - K Ex2 += (x - K) 2 def remove_variable(x): global K, n, Ex, Ex2 n -= 1 Ex -= x - K Ex2 -= (x - K) 2 def get_mean(): global K, n, Ex return K + Ex / n def get_variance(): global n, Ex, Ex2 return (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
Algorithms for calculating variance	Two-pass algorithm	Two-pass algorithm An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean, and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean, where s is the standard deviation. This is given by the following code: def two_pass_variance(data): n = len(data) mean = sum(data) / n variance = sum((x - mean) ** 2 for x in data) / (n - 1) return variance This algorithm is numerically stable if n is small. Metadata also listed at ACM Digital Library. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms ("naïve" and "two-pass") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Welford's online algorithm	Welford's online algorithm It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion. The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element xn. Here, denotes the sample mean of the first n samples , their biased sample variance, and their unbiased sample variance. These formulas suffer from numerical instability , as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with n. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, , here denoted : This algorithm was found by Welford,Donald E. Knuth (1998). The Art of Computer Programming, volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, 3rd edn., p. 232. Boston: Addison-Wesley. and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote and . An example Python implementation for Welford's algorithm is given below. # For a new value new_value, compute the new count, new mean, the new M2. # mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset # M2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean # count aggregates the number of samples seen so far def update(existing_aggregate, new_value): (count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate count += 1 delta = new_value - mean mean += delta / count delta2 = new_value - mean M2 += delta * delta2 return (count, mean, M2) # Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate def finalize(existing_aggregate): (count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate if count < 2: return float("nan") else: (mean, variance, sample_variance) = (mean, M2 / count, M2 / (count - 1)) return (mean, variance, sample_variance) This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals. The parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Weighted incremental algorithm	Weighted incremental algorithm The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter n with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm: def weighted_incremental_variance(data_weight_pairs): w_sum = w_sum2 = mean = S = 0 for x, w in data_weight_pairs: w_sum = w_sum + w w_sum2 = w_sum2 + w*2 mean_old = mean mean = mean_old + (w / w_sum) (x - mean_old) S = S + w * (x - mean_old) * (x - mean) population_variance = S / w_sum # Bessel's correction for weighted samples # Frequency weights sample_frequency_variance = S / (w_sum - 1) # Reliability weights sample_reliability_variance = S / (1 - w_sum2 / (w_sum**2))
Algorithms for calculating variance	Parallel algorithm	Parallel algorithm Chan et al. note that Welford's online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets and : . This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input. Chan's method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when and both are large, because the numerical error in is not scaled down in the way that it is in the case. In such cases, prefer . def parallel_variance(n_a, avg_a, M2_a, n_b, avg_b, M2_b): n = n_a + n_b delta = avg_b - avg_a M2 = M2_a + M2_b + delta*2 n_a * n_b / n var_ab = M2 / (n - 1) return var_ab This can be generalized to allow parallelization with AVX, with GPUs, and computer clusters, and to covariance.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Example	Example Assume that all floating point operations use standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both the naïve algorithm and two-pass algorithm compute these values correctly. Next consider the sample (, , , ), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. The two-pass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but the naïve algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30. While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm, further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic. Consider the sample (, , , ). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the two-pass algorithm, but the naïve algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Higher-order statistics	Higher-order statistics Terriberry extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis: Here the are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean , giving For the incremental case (i.e., ), this simplifies to: By preserving the value , only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost. An example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is: def online_kurtosis(data): n = mean = M2 = M3 = M4 = 0 for x in data: n1 = n n = n + 1 delta = x - mean delta_n = delta / n delta_n2 = delta_n*2 term1 = delta delta_n * n1 mean = mean + delta_n M4 = M4 + term1 * delta_n2 * (n*2 - 3n + 3) + 6 * delta_n2 * M2 - 4 * delta_n * M3 M3 = M3 + term1 * delta_n * (n - 2) - 3 * delta_n * M2 M2 = M2 + term1 # Note, you may also calculate variance using M2, and skewness using M3 # Caution: If all the inputs are the same, M2 will be 0, resulting in a division by 0. kurtosis = (n * M4) / (M2**2) - 3 return kurtosis Pébaÿ further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al. for weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance. Choi and Sweetman offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware. A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way: the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin: where and represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin and is the total area of the histogram. After this normalization, the raw moments and central moments of can be calculated from the relative histogram: where the superscript indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram. For constant bin width these two expressions can be simplified using : The second approach from Choi and Sweetman is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times. If sets of statistical moments are known: for , then each can be expressed in terms of the equivalent raw moments: where is generally taken to be the duration of the time-history, or the number of points if is constant. The benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of is that the sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of . where the subscript represents the concatenated time-history or combined . These combined values of can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history Known relationships between the raw moments () and the central moments () are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history. Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments:
Algorithms for calculating variance	Covariance	Covariance Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Naïve algorithm	Naïve algorithm The naïve algorithm is For the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code: def naive_covariance(data1, data2): n = len(data1) sum1 = sum(data1) sum2 = sum(data2) sum12 = sum([i1 * i2 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2)]) covariance = (sum12 - sum1 * sum2 / n) / n return covariance
Algorithms for calculating variance	With estimate of the mean	With estimate of the mean As for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given any two constant values and it can be written: and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as: def shifted_data_covariance(data_x, data_y): n = len(data_x) if n < 2: return 0 kx = data_x[0] ky = data_y[0] Ex = Ey = Exy = 0 for ix, iy in zip(data_x, data_y): Ex += ix - kx Ey += iy - ky Exy += (ix - kx) * (iy - ky) return (Exy - Ex * Ey / n) / n
Algorithms for calculating variance	Two-pass	Two-pass The two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance: The two-pass algorithm may be written as: def two_pass_covariance(data1, data2): n = len(data1) mean1 = sum(data1) / n mean2 = sum(data2) / n covariance = 0 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2): a = i1 - mean1 b = i2 - mean2 covariance += a * b / n return covariance A slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals. The final sums and should be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error.
Algorithms for calculating variance	Online	Online A stable one-pass algorithm exists, similar to the online algorithm for computing the variance, that computes co-moment : The apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that , so both update terms are equal to . Even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means, then using the stable one-pass algorithm on the residuals. Thus the covariance can be computed as def online_covariance(data1, data2): meanx = meany = C = n = 0 for x, y in zip(data1, data2): n += 1 dx = x - meanx meanx += dx / n meany += (y - meany) / n C += dx * (y - meany) population_covar = C / n # Bessel's correction for sample variance sample_covar = C / (n - 1) A small modification can also be made to compute the weighted covariance: def online_weighted_covariance(data1, data2, data3): meanx = meany = 0 wsum = wsum2 = 0 C = 0 for x, y, w in zip(data1, data2, data3): wsum += w wsum2 += w * w dx = x - meanx meanx += (w / wsum) * dx meany += (w / wsum) * (y - meany) C += w * dx * (y - meany) population_covar = C / wsum # Bessel's correction for sample variance # Frequency weights sample_frequency_covar = C / (wsum - 1) # Reliability weights sample_reliability_covar = C / (wsum - wsum2 / wsum) Likewise, there is a formula for combining the covariances of two sets that can be used to parallelize the computation:
Algorithms for calculating variance	Weighted batched version	Weighted batched version A version of the weighted online algorithm that does batched updated also exists: let denote the weights, and write The covariance can then be computed as
Algorithms for calculating variance	See also	See also Kahan summation algorithm Squared deviations from the mean Yamartino method
Algorithms for calculating variance	References	References
Algorithms for calculating variance	External links	External links Category:Statistical algorithms Category:Statistical deviation and dispersion Category:Articles with example pseudocode Category:Articles with example Python (programming language) code
Algorithms for calculating variance	Table of Content	Short description, Naïve algorithm, Computing shifted data, Two-pass algorithm, Welford's online algorithm, Weighted incremental algorithm, Parallel algorithm, Example, Higher-order statistics, Covariance, Naïve algorithm, With estimate of the mean, Two-pass, Online, Weighted batched version, See also, References, External links
Almond	short description	The almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn. Prunus dulcis) is a species of tree from the genus Prunus. Along with the peach, it is classified in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed. The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo. Once almonds are cleaned and processed, they can be stored for around a year if kept refrigerated; at higher temperatures they will become rancid more quickly. Almonds are used in many cuisines, often featuring prominently in desserts, such as marzipan. The almond tree prospers in a moderate Mediterranean climate with cool winter weather. It is rarely found wild in its original setting. Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to the ability to produce quality offspring entirely from seed, without using suckers and cuttings. Evidence of domesticated almonds in the Early Bronze Age has been found in the archeological sites of the Middle East, and subsequently across the Mediterranean region and similar arid climates with cool winters. California produces about 80% of the world's almond supply. Due to high acreage and water demand for almond cultivation, and need for pesticides, California almond production may be unsustainable, especially during the persistent drought and heat from climate change in the 21st century. Droughts in California have caused some producers to leave the industry, leading to lower supply and increased prices.
Almond	Description	Description The almond is a deciduous tree growing to in height, with a trunk of up to in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are long,Bailey, L.H.; Bailey, E.Z.; the staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. 1976. Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, New York. with a serrated margin and a petiole. The fragrant flowers are white to pale pink, diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring. Almond trees thrive in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The optimal temperature for their growth is between and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 200 to 700 hours below to break dormancy. Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering. The almond fruit is long. It is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering, consisting of an outer exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a woody endocarp which forms a reticulated, hard shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the pyrena. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the shell, and an abscission layer forms between the stem and the fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree. During harvest, mechanised tree shakers are used to expedite fruits falling to the ground for collection.
Almond	Taxonomy	Taxonomy
Almond	Sweet and bitter almonds	Sweet and bitter almonds thumb\|Almond blossom thumb\|Blossoming of bitter almond tree The seeds of Prunus dulcis var. dulcis are predominantly sweet but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter. The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavour furthermore being recessive, both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from Prunus dulcis var. amara are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus Prunus, such as apricot, peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent). The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on the two soluble glucosides amygdalin and prunasin yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavour. Bitter almonds may yield 4–9 milligrams of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin. P450 monooxygenases are involved in the amygdalin biosynthetic pathway. A point mutation in a bHLH transcription factor prevents transcription of the two cytochrome P450 genes, resulting in the sweet kernel trait.
Almond	Etymology	Etymology The word almond is a loanword from Old French or , descended from Late Latin , , modified from Classical Latin , which is in turn borrowed from Ancient Greek () (cf. amygdala, an almond-shaped portion of the brain). Late Old English had amygdales 'almonds'. The adjective amygdaloid (literally 'like an almond, almond-like') is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. For example, the amygdala of the brain uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term .
Almond	Origin and distribution	Origin and distribution The precise origin of the almond is controversial due to estimates for its emergence across wide geographic regions. Sources indicate that its origins were in an area stretching across Central Asia, Iran, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, and Iraq, or in an eastern Asian subregion between Mongolia and Uzbekistan. In other assessments, both botanical and archaeological evidence indicates that almonds originated and were first cultivated in West Asia, particularly in countries of the Levant. Other estimates specified Iran and Anatolia (present day Turkey) as origin locations of the almond, with botanical evidence for Iran as the main origin centre. The wild form of domesticated almond also grew in parts of the Levant. Almond cultivation was spread by humans centuries ago along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea into northern Africa and southern Europe, and more recently to other world regions, notably California. Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. The wild ancestor of the almond used to breed the domesticated species is unknown. The species Prunus fenzliana may be the most likely wild ancestor of the almond, in part because it is native to Armenia and western Azerbaijan, where it was apparently domesticated. Wild almond species were grown by early farmers, "at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards".
Almond	Cultivation	Cultivation thumb\|upright\|Persian miniature depiction of the almond harvest at Qand-i Badam, Fergana Valley (16th century) thumb\|A grove of almond trees thumb\|An almond shaker before and during a tree's harvest Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting". Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), such as the archaeological sites of Numeira (Jordan), or possibly earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant. An article on almond tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture. (pp. 260–263 (Article XX) Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.
Almond	Varieties	Varieties Almond trees are small to medium-sized but commercial cultivars can be grafted onto a different root-stock to produce smaller trees. Varieties include: – originates in the 1800s. A large tree that produces large, smooth, thin-shelled almonds with 60–65% edible kernel per nut. Requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production. – originates in Italy. Has thicker, hairier shells with only 32% of edible kernel per nut. The thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the navel orangeworm. Does not require pollination by other almond varieties. Mariana – used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees
Almond	Breeding	Breeding Breeding programmes have found the high shell-seal trait.
Almond	Pollination	Pollination The most widely planted varieties of almond are self-incompatible; hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters to produce seeds. Almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties. In addition, the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects; therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task. The large scale of almond production in the U.S. creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects. Additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees. The pollination of California's almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with over 1 million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being brought to the almond orchards each February. Much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business was heavily affected by colony collapse disorder at the turn of the 21st century, causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from these costs, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service, part of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), developed self-pollinating almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavour and yield. Self-pollinating almond varieties exist, but they lack some commercial characters. However, through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties, a new variety that was self-pollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced.
Almond	Diseases	Diseases Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging microbes, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria.
Almond	Pests	Pests Pavement ants (Tetramorium caespitum), southern fire ants (Solenopsis xyloni), and thief ants (Solenopsis molesta) are seed predators. Bryobia rubrioculus mites are most known for their damage to this crop.
Almond	Sustainability	Sustainability Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the Central Valley, where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the persistent droughts in California in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner. The issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds: a single almond requires roughly of water to grow properly. Regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as pistachio that needs less water. thumb\|Almond tree with blossoming flowers, Valley of Elah, Israel Sustainability strategies implemented by the Almond Board of California and almond farmers include: tree and soil health, and other farming practices minimizing dust production during the harvest bee health irrigation guidelines for farmers food safety use of waste biomass as coproducts with a goal to achieve zero waste use of solar energy during processing job development support of scientific research to investigate potential health benefits of consuming almonds international education about sustainability practices
Almond	Production	Production + Almonds (with shell), 2022 Country Tonnes 1,858,010 360,328 245,990 190,000 175,763 3,630,427Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations In 2022, world production of almonds was 3.6 million tonnes, led by the United States (table). Secondary producers were Australia and Spain.
Almond	United States	United States In the United States, production is concentrated in California where and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017, with a yield of of shelled almonds. California production is marked by a period of intense pollination during late winter by rented commercial bees transported by truck across the U.S. to almond groves, requiring more than half of the total U.S. commercial honeybee population. The value of total U.S. exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was $3.2 billion. All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are sweet cultivars. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds, which contain cyanide.
Almond	Australia	Australia Australia is the largest almond production region in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the almond orchards are located along the Murray River corridor in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.
Almond	Spain	Spain Spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions, and the Balearic Islands. Production in 2016 declined 2% nationally compared to 2015 production data. The almond cultivar 'Marcona' is recognisably different from other almonds and is marketed by name. The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. Its origin is unknown and has been grown in Spain for a long time; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is hard.
Almond	Toxicity	Toxicity Bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption. The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), so that for children consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal. Symptoms of eating such almonds include vertigo and other typical cyanide poisoning effects. Almonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common with peach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms). Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing moulds. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by moulds such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The mould contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mould growth typically appear as grey to black filament-like growth. It is unsafe to eat mould-infected tree nuts. Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to the EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed. Breeding programs have found the trait. High shell-seal provides resistance against these Aspergillus species and so against the development of their toxins.
Almond	Mandatory pasteurization in California	Mandatory pasteurization in California After tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds, the USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public. After publishing the rule in March 2007, the almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies effective 1 September 2007. Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then. California almonds labeled "raw" must be steam-pasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almondsAgricultural Marketing Service (8 November 2006) "Almonds Grown in California: Changes to Incoming Quality Control Requirements" (, , and ) or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities. The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America. The Almond Board of California states: "PPO residue dissipates after treatment". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reported: "Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure". PPO is classified as Group 2B ("possibly carcinogenic to humans"). The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in September 2008. According to the institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.
Almond	Uses	Uses
Almond	Nutrition	Nutrition thumb\|Amandines de Provence, poster by Leonetto Cappiello, 1900, which shows a woman eating almond biscuits (almond cookies) Almonds are 4% water, 22% carbohydrates, 21% protein, and 50% fat. In a reference amount, almonds supply of food energy. The almond is a nutritionally dense food, providing a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamins riboflavin and niacin, vitamin E, and the essential minerals calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc. Almonds are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins thiamine, vitamin B6, and folate, choline, and the essential mineral potassium. They also contain substantial dietary fibre, the monounsaturated fat, oleic acid, and the polyunsaturated fat, linoleic acid. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds are a source of phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol.
Almond	Health	Health Almonds are included as a good source of protein among recommended healthy foods by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). A 2016 review of clinical research indicated that regular consumption of almonds may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering blood levels of LDL cholesterol.
Almond	Culinary	Culinary While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, slivered, and ground into flour. Almond pieces around in size, called "nibs", are used for special purposes such as decoration. Almonds are a common addition to breakfast muesli or oatmeal. Colomba di Pasqua is the Easter counterpart of the two well-known Italian Christmas desserts, panettone and pandoro
Almond	Desserts	Desserts A wide range of classic sweets feature almonds as a central ingredient. Marzipan was developed in the Middle Ages. Since the 19th century almonds have been used to make bread, almond butter, cakes and puddings, candied confections, almond cream-filled pastries, nougat, cookies (macaroons, biscotti and qurabiya), and cakes (financiers, Esterházy torte), and other sweets and desserts. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (green almonds) when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit's shelf life.
Almond	Marzipan	Marzipan Marzipan, a smooth, sweetened almond paste, is used in a number of elegant cakes and desserts. Princess cake is covered by marzipan (similar to fondant), as is Battenberg cake. In Sicily, sponge cake is covered with marzipan to make cassatella di sant'Agata and cassata siciliana, and marzipan is dyed and crafted into realistic fruit shapes to make frutta martorana. The Andalusian Christmas pastry pan de Cádiz is filled with marzipan and candied fruit.
Almond	World cuisines	World cuisines In French cuisine, alternating layers of almond and hazelnut meringue are used to make the dessert dacquoise. Pithivier is one of many almond cream-filled pastries. In Germany, Easter bread called Deutsches Osterbrot is baked with raisins and almonds. In Greece almond flour is used to make amygdalopita, a glyka tapsiou dessert cake baking in a tray. Almonds are used for kourabiedes, a Greek version of the traditional quarabiya almond biscuits. A soft drink known as soumada is made from almonds in various regions. In Saudi Arabia, almonds are a typical embellishment for the rice dish kabsa. In Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called chaqale bâdam. Candied almonds called noghl are served alongside tea and coffee. Also, sweet almonds are used to prepare special food for babies, named harire badam. Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year (Nowruz) parties. In Italy, colomba di Pasqua is a traditional Easter cake made with almonds. Bitter almonds are the base for amaretti cookies, a common dessert. Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in torrone. In Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet tajines such as lamb with prunes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known for amlou, a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make sellou (also called zamita in Meknes or slilou in Marrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value. In Indian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of pasanda-style and Mughlai curries. Badam halva is a sweet made from almonds with added colouring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as sohan barfi), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet or sherbet-e-badaam, is a common summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt. In Israel almonds are used as a topping for tahini cookies or eaten as a snack. In Spain Marcona almonds are usually toasted in oil and lightly salted. They are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called turrón. In Arabian cuisine, almonds are commonly used as garnishing for Mansaf. In British cuisine, almonds are used for dessert items such as Bakewell tart and Battenberg cake.
Almond	Milk	Milk Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavour, and light colouring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soy milk and some of which use no heat, resulting in raw milk. Almond milk, along with almond butter and almond oil, are versatile products used in both sweet and savoury dishes. In Moroccan cuisine, sharbat billooz, a common beverage, is made by blending blanched almonds with milk, sugar and other flavourings.
Almond	Flour and skins	Flour and skins Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking. Almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols, flavan-3-ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables. These phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fibre have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements.
Almond	Syrup	Syrup Historically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar, often flavoured with a synthetic aroma of almonds. Orgeat syrup is an important ingredient in the Mai Tai and many other Tiki drinks. Due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption.
Almond	Oils	Oils thumb\|left\|upright=0.5\|Almond oil Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (whole almond nutrition table). In relation to total dry mass of the kernel, almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 10% saturated fatty acid (mainly as palmitic acid). Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E, providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 millilitres. When almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass, the oil provides of food energy, 8 grams of saturated fat (81% of which is palmitic acid), 70 grams of oleic acid, and 17 grams of linoleic acid (oil table). Oleum amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds. Sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil, containing benzaldehyde, is used as a food flavouring and in perfume.
Almond	In culture	In culture thumb\|1897 illustrationillustration from Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen, 1897 The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East. In the Bible, the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Genesis 43:11, where it is described as "among the best of fruits". In Numbers 17, Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, "Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other … on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers" (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20). Many Sephardic Jews give five almonds to each guest before special occasions like weddings. Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond-shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word "luz", which appears in Genesis 30:37, sometimes translated as "hazel", may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in the New International Version and other versions of the Bible. The Arabic name for almond is لوز "lauz" or "lūz". In some parts of the Levant and North Africa, it is pronounced "loz", which is very close to its Aramaic origin. The Entrance of the flower (La entrada de la flor) is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first-blooming almond-tree to the Virgin.
Almond	See also	See also Fruit tree forms Fruit tree propagation Fruit tree pruning List of almond dishes List of edible seeds Candied almonds Dragée – a candy.
Almond	References	References
Almond	External links	External links University of California Fruit and Nut Research and Information Center Almond Category:Edible nuts and seeds Category:Flora of temperate Asia Category:Pollination management Category:Snack foods Almond oil Category:Crops Category:Fruit trees Category:Symbols of California Category:Taxa named by August Batsch Category:Drought-tolerant trees
Almond	Table of Content	short description, Description, Taxonomy, Sweet and bitter almonds, Etymology, Origin and distribution, Cultivation, Varieties, Breeding, Pollination, Diseases, Pests, Sustainability, Production, United States, Australia, Spain, Toxicity, Mandatory pasteurization in California, Uses, Nutrition, Health, Culinary, Desserts, Marzipan, World cuisines, Milk, Flour and skins, Syrup, Oils, In culture, See also, References, External links
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Short description	350px\|alt=\|thumb\|upright=1.4\| Antigua and Barbuda population pyramid in 2020. This article is a demography of the population of Antigua and Barbuda including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Population size and structure	Population size and structure thumb\|300px\|right\|Population of Antigua and Barbuda, Data of FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands. According to the 2011 census the estimated resident population of Antigua and Barbuda was 86,295. The estimated population of is , according to
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Structure of the population	Structure of the population Table: Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 27.V.2011): Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 40 986 44 581 85 567 100 0–4 3 361 3 262 6 623 7.74 5–9 3 272 3 188 6 460 7.55 10–14 3 690 3 638 7 329 8.57 15–19 3 554 3 519 7 073 8.27 20–24 3 206 3 418 6 624 7.74 25–29 3 135 3 512 6 647 7.77 30–34 3 101 3 516 6 617 7.73 35–39 3 049 3 699 6 748 7.89 40–44 3 124 3 588 6 712 7.84 45–49 2 893 3 348 6 241 7.29 50–54 2 416 2 694 5 110 5.97 55–59 1 763 1 957 3 721 4.35 60–64 1 398 1 569 2 968 3.47 65–69 1 066 1 172 2 238 2.62 70–74 690 810 1 500 1.75 75–79 527 654 1 181 1.38 80–84 331 520 850 0.99 85–89 214 298 512 0.60 90–94 72 122 193 0.23 95+ 27 57 84 0.10Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 10 323 10 088 20 411 23.85 15–64 27 640 30 820 58 460 68.32 65+ 2 927 3 633 6 560 7.67 unknown 96 40 136 0.16 Table: Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021, based on the results of the 2011 Population Census. Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 47 556 51 781 99 337 100 0–4 3 534 3 464 6 998 7.04 5–9 3 546 3 483 7 029 7.08 10–14 3 620 3 511 7 131 7.18 15–19 3 473 3 387 6 860 6.91 20–24 3 961 3 944 7 905 7.96 25–29 3 892 3 930 7 822 7.87 30–34 3 511 3 795 7 306 7.35 35–39 3 348 3 815 7 163 7.21 40–44 3 280 3 749 7 029 7.08 45–49 3 174 3 850 7 024 7.07 50–54 3 152 3 662 6 814 6.86 55–59 2 819 3 345 6 164 6.21 60–64 2 247 2 627 4 874 4.91 65–69 1 532 1 834 3 366 3.39 70–74 1 095 1 379 2 474 2.49 75–79 698 920 1 618 1.63 80+ 674 1 086 1 760 1.77Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 10 700 10 458 21 158 21.30 15–64 32 857 36 104 68 961 69.42 65+ 3 999 5 219 9 218 9.28
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Vital statistics	Vital statistics Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Infant mortality rateTFR 1950 ~46 0001 654 5351 11935.711.624.2 1951 ~48 0001 676 6051 07134.712.522.2 1952 ~50 0001 612 5261 08632.310.521.8 1953 ~51 0001 687 5991 08833.011.721.3 1954 ~52 0001 660 5321 12831.910.221.7 1955 ~53 0001 880 5161 36435.79.825.9 1956 ~53 0001 917 4971 42036.19.426.8 1957 ~53 0001 764 5121 25233.09.623.4 1958 ~54 0001 818 5511 26733.810.323.6 1959 ~54 0001 831 5171 31433.89.524.3 1960 ~55 0001 878 5381 34034.39.824.5 1961 ~55 0001 768 5031 26531.99.122.8 1962 ~56 0001 787 4051 38231.77.224.5 1963 ~57 0001 833 5741 25932.010.021.9 1964 ~59 0001 886 5001 38632.28.523.7 1965 ~60 0001 742 4841 25829.28.121.1 1966 ~61 0001 745 4921 25328.78.120.6 1967 ~62 0001 794 4401 35428.97.121.8 1968 ~63 0001 811 5131 29828.78.120.5 1969 ~64 0001 527 4101 11723.76.417.4 1970 ~65 0001 540 4111 12923.66.317.3 1971 ~66 0001 700 4141 28625.66.219.4 1972 ~67 0001 573 4551 11823.46.816.6 1973 ~68 0001 257 377 88018.55.512.9 1974 ~69 0001 274 496 77818.67.211.3 1975 ~69 0001 336 463 87319.36.712.6 1976 ~70 0001 522 4911 03121.87.014.8 1977 ~70 0001 429 489 94020.37.013.4 1978 ~71 0001 342 402 94019.05.713.3 1979 ~71 0001 397 469 92819.86.613.2 1980 ~70 0001 238 387 85117.65.512.1 1981 ~70 0001 177377 80016.95.411.5 1982 ~69 0001 152 394 75816.75.711.0 1983 ~68 0001 174 404 77017.35.911.3 1984 ~67 0001 126 386 74016.85.811.1 1985 ~66 0001 190 405 78518.16.211.9 1986 ~65 0001 130 383 74717.55.911.6 1987 ~63 0001 104 417 68717.46.610.8 1988 ~63 0001 107 389 71817.76.211.5 1989 ~62 0001 137 415 72218.36.711.7 1990 ~62 0001 288 433 85520.87.013.8 1991 63 8781 178 438 74018.97.011.9 1992 64 6821 256 442 81419.87.012.8 1993 65 5051 228 455 77318.97.011.9 1994 66 4161 271 451 82019.16.812.3 1995 67 6081 347 434 91319.76.313.4 1996 68 6121 400 429 97119.96.113.8 1997 68 8901 448 468 98020.06.513.6 1998 69 8661 366 456 91018.46.112.3 1999 70 8561 329 509 82017.56.710.8 2000 72 3101 528 4471 08119.76.213.5 2001 76 8861 350 462 88817.66.011.617.8 2002 77 6651 193 444 74915.45.79.717.6 2003 78 4121 227 454 77315.75.89.914.7 2004 79 1961 257 516 74115.96.59.422.3 2005 80 0071 190 497 69314.96.28.713.51.6 2006 80 8551 195 465 73014.85.89.08.41.6 2007 81 7361 282 471 81115.75.89.917.91.86 2008 82 6631 438 538 90017.46.510.917.42.06 2009 83 6241 404 515 88916.86.210.614.32.02 2010 84 6221 245 498 74714.75.98.812.91.78 2011 85 5671 232 475 75714.45.68.820.31.75 2012 86 7931 174 507 66713.55.87.716.21.66 2013 88 0691 093463 63012.45.37.111.01.53 2014 89 3911 100590 51012.36.65.711.81.53 2015 90 7551 159527 63212.85.87.08.61.58 2016 92 1571 063542 52111.55.95.612.21.45 2017 93 5811 108599 50911.86.45.49.01.50 2018 95 0141 015 58143410.76.14.622.71.36 2019 96 4531 088618 47011.36.05.312.01.45 2020 97 8951 163 574 58911.96.05.96.01.53 2021 99 337 649 6.6 2022 100 772
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Ethnic groups	Ethnic groups The population of Antigua and Barbuda, is predominantly black (91.0%) or mixed (4.4%). 1.9% of the population is white and 0.7% East Indian. There is also a small Amerindian population: 177 in 1991 and 214 in 2001 (0.3% of the total population). The remaining 1.6% of the population includes people from the Middle East (0.6%) and China (0.2%). The 2001 census disclosed that 19,425, or 30 per cent of the total population of Antigua and Barbuda, reported their place of birth as a foreign country. Over 15,000 of these persons were from other Caribbean states, representing 80 of the total foreign born. The main countries of origin were Guyana, Dominica and Jamaica. Approximately 4,500 or 23 per cent of all foreign born came from Guyana, 3,300 or 17 per cent came from Dominica and 2,800 or 14 per cent came from Jamaica. The largest single group from a country outside the region came from the United States. Of the total of 1,715 persons, nine per cent of the foreign born, came from the United States while three per cent and one per cent came from the United Kingdom and Canada, respectively. Many of these are the children of Antiguans and Barbudans who had emigrated to these countries, mainly during the 1980s, and subsequently returned.
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Languages	Languages Antiguan and Barbudan Creole, English
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Religion	Religion Protestant 68.3% (Anglican 17.6%, Seventh Day Adventist 12.4%, Pentecostal 12.2%, Moravian 8.3%, Methodist 5.6%, Wesleyan Holiness 4.5%, Church of God 4.1%, Baptist 3.6%), Roman Catholic 8.2%, other 12.2%, unspecified 5.5%, none 5.9% (2011 est.)
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	References	References
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	External links	External links *– National Bureau of Statistics of Antigua & Barbuda Antigua & Barbuda profile – Caribbean Community Statistics Category:Society of Antigua and Barbuda
Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda	Table of Content	Short description, Population size and structure, Structure of the population, Vital statistics, Ethnic groups, Languages, Religion, References, External links
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Short description	The politics of Antigua and Barbuda takes place in a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, wherein the sovereign of Antigua and Barbuda is the head of state, appointing a governor-general to act as vice-regal representative in the nation. A prime minister is appointed by the governor-general as the head of government, and of a multi-party system; the prime minister advises the governor-general on the appointment of a Council of Ministers. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament. The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (seventeen-member body appointed by the governor-general) and the House of Representatives (seventeen seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms). Antigua and Barbuda has a long history of peaceful changes of government. Since the 1951 general election, the party system has been dominated by the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP), for a long time was dominated by the Bird family, particularly Prime Ministers Vere and Lester Bird. The opposition claimed to be disadvantaged by the ABLP's longstanding monopoly on patronage and its control of the media, especially in the 1999 general election. The opposition United Progressive Party (UPP) won the 2004 election, and its leader Winston Baldwin Spencer was prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014. The elections to the House of Representatives were held on 12 June 2014. The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party government was elected with fourteen seats. The United Progressive Party had three seats in the House of Representatives. ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law.
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Executive branch	Executive branch
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Executive branch leadership	Executive branch leadership As head of state, King Charles III is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a governor-general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Legislative branch	Legislative branch 250px\|thumbnail\|left\|The parliament building in St. John's. Antigua and Barbuda elects on national level a legislature. Parliament has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 19 members: 17 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies, and 2 ex officio members (president and speaker). The Senate has 17 appointed members. The prime minister is the leader of the majority party in the House and conducts affairs of state with the cabinet. The prime minister and the cabinet are responsible to the Parliament. Elections must be held at least every five years but may be called by the prime minister at any time. There are special legislative provisions to account for Barbuda's low population relative to that of Antigua. Barbuda is guaranteed one member of the House of Representatives and two members of the Senate. In addition, there is a Barbuda Council to govern the internal affairs of the island.
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Political parties and elections	Political parties and elections
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Administrative divisions	Administrative divisions thumb\|Map of Antigua's six parishes The country is divided into six parishes, Saint George, John, Mary, Paul, Peter, and Phillip which are all on the island of Antigua. Additionally, the islands of Barbuda and Redonda are considered dependencies.
Politics of Antigua and Barbuda	Judicial branch	Judicial branch Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court. This court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one judge of the Supreme Court resides in Antigua and Barbuda, and presides over the High Court. The current High Court judges are Nicola Byer, Ann-Marie Smith, Jan Drysdale, Rene Williams, and Tunde Bakre as of September 2024. Antigua is also a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice, although it has not yet acceded to Part III of the 2001 Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice.Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice , available here. Its supreme appellate court therefore remains the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Indeed, of the signatories to the Agreement, as of December 2010, only Barbados has replaced appeals to Her Majesty in Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice. In addition to the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, Antigua and Barbuda has a Magistrates' Court, which deals with lesser civil and criminal cases.