...</time> defines either a time (24 hour clock), or a date in the Gregorian calendar, optionally with a time and a time-zone offset.","Comma When a date is written as a month followed by a day followed by a year, a comma separates the day from the year: December 19, 1941. This style is common in American English. The comma is used to avoid confusing consecutive numbers: December 19 1941. Most style manuals, including The Chicago Manual of Style[13] and the AP Stylebook,[14] also recommend that the year be treated as a parenthetical, requiring a second comma after it: \"Feb. 14, 1987, was the target date.\"","Date and time notation in South Korea For example, the ISO 8601 timestamp 1975-07-14 09:18:32 would be written as “1975년 7월 14일 오전 9시 18분 32초”.","24-hour clock While the 24-hour notation unambiguously distinguishes between midnight at the start (00:00) and end (24:00) of any given date, there is no commonly accepted distinction among users of the 12-hour notation. Style guides and military communication regulations in some English-speaking countries discourage the use of 24:00 even in the 24-hour notation, and recommend reporting times near midnight as 23:59 or 00:01 instead.[6] Sometimes the use of 00:00 is also avoided.[6] In variance with this, the correspondence manual for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps formerly specified 0001 to 2400.[7] The manual was updated in June 2015 to use 0000 to 2359.[8]","Date and time notation in the United States Some style guides and most people suggest not to use a leading zero with a single-digit hour; for example, \"3:52 p.m.\" is preferred over \"03:52 p.m.\". (The leading zero is more commonly used with the 24-hour notation; especially in computer applications because it can help to maintain column alignment in tables and correct sorting order, and also because it helps to highlight the 24-hour character of the given time.)","Date format by country Long format: D MMMM YYYY (Day first, month and year in left-to-right writing direction) for French and Fulah and YYYY, DD MMMM (First full month name, day, and year in right-to-left writing direction) for N'ko","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Alternatively, include just the UTC offset:","Date format by country (d. mm. yyyy or dd. mmmm yyyy)[148]","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers For example:","Date format by country Long format: d mmmm yyyy or mmmm dd, yyyy (Day first, full month name, and year or first full month name, day, and year, in left-to-right writing direction) in Afar, French and Somali and yyyy ØŒmmmm d (Day first, full month name, and year in right-to-left writing direction) in Arabic","Date format by country (yyyy/mm/dd, yyyy-mm-dd or dd mmmm yyyy)","Date format by country Long format: D MMMM YYYY (Day first, full month name, and year in left-to-right writing direction) for Bilen, English, Tigre and Tigrinya, YYYY ØŒMMMM D (Day first, full month name, and year in right-to-left writing direction) for Arabic and MMMM DD, YYYY (First full month name, day and year in left-to-right writing direction) for Afar and Saho","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Give dates and times appropriate to the time zone where an event took place. For example, the date of the attack on Pearl Harbor should be December 7, 1941 (Hawaii time/date). Give priority to the place at which the event had its most significant effects; for example, if a hacker based in China attacked a Pentagon computer in the US, use the time zone for the Pentagon, where the attack had its effect. In some cases, the best solution may be to add the date and time in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). For example:","Wikipedia:Citing sources Although nearly any consistent style may be used, avoid all-numeric date formats other than YYYY-MM-DD, because of the ambiguity concerning which number is the month and which the day. For example, 2002-06-11 may be used, but not 11/06/2002. The YYYY-MM-DD format should in any case be limited to Gregorian calendar dates where the year is after 1582.","Date and time notation in South Korea The national standard (KSXISO8601, formerly KSX1511) also recognizes the ISO-8601-compliant date/time format of YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS, which is widely used in computing and on the Korean internet.","Date format by country yyyy <m.> <month in genitive> d <d.>","Date and time notation in Japan Using the Japanese notation, times are written as \"8時42分\", with the characters for \"hour\" and \"minute\" (optionally also 秒 for \"seconds\") added after the numerals. It is also common to simply write 8:42 though.","Date and time notation in South Korea In written documents, the date form above (but not the time) is often abbreviated by replacing each unit suffix with a single period; for example, 1975년 7월 14일 would be abbreviated as “1975. 7. 14.” (note the trailing period and intervening spaces).","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers The following formats are available.","Calendar date In addition, the International Organization for Standardization considers its ISO 8601 standard to make sense from a logical perspective.[7] Mixed units, for example feet and inches, or pounds and ounces, are normally written with the largest unit first, in decreasing order. Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of 2006 indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade. The only date order that is consistent with these well-established conventions is year-month-day. A plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by file managers, word processors, spreadsheets and other software tools with built-in sorting functions. Some database systems use an eight-digit YYYYMMDD representation to handle date values. Naming folders with YYYY-MM-DD at the beginning allows them to be listed in date order when sorting by name - especially useful for organising document libraries.","Date and time notation in Canada The YYYY-MM-DD format is an official recommendation, but it is rarely enforced, and in many contexts the DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY formats remain in use. Payments Canada prefers ISO 8601, but also allows cheques to be printed using MMDDYYYY or DDMMYYYY formats; they must include indicators to guide the format.[5] Some federal forms, such as commercial cargo manifests, offer a blank line with no guidance.[6]","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Note to table:","Date and time notation in South Korea The 24-hour notation is more commonly used in text and is written \"14:05\" or \"14시 5분\". Examples include railway timetables, plane departure and landing timings, and TV schedules. In movie theaters it is also not uncommon to see something like 25:30 for the 01:30 AM movie.","24-hour clock Where subsecond resolution is required, the seconds can be a decimal fraction; that is, the fractional part follows a decimal dot or comma, as in 01:23:45.678. The most commonly used separator symbol between hours, minutes and seconds is the colon, which is also the symbol used in ISO 8601. In the past, some European countries used the dot on the line as a separator, but most national standards on time notation have since then been changed to the international standard colon. In some contexts (including the U.S. military and some computer protocols), no separator is used and times are written as, for example, \"2359\".","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Notes and exceptions:","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Generally, in article text:","Date format by country Uyghur languages in Xinjiang usually give date examples in the form 2017-يىل 18-ئاۋغۇست or 2017-8-18 but this form is never used when writing in Chinese;[34] casually many people use (yy)yy/(m)m/(d)d or (yy)yy.(m)m.(d)d (with or without leading zeroes). See Dates in Chinese.","Date format by country English textbooks in South Korea usually give date examples in the form March 24, 2017 but this form is never used when writing in Korean;[95] casually many people use (yy)yy.(m)m.(d)d(.) (with or without leading zeroes, with or without the last full stop).","Date format by country Long format: yyyy. gada d. mmmm","Date and time notation in the United States It is also used in hospitals, various forms of transportation, and at radio and other broadcast media outlets behind the scenes where scheduling programming needs to be exact, without mistaking AM and PM. In these cases, exact and unambiguous communication of time is critical. If someone mistakes 5:00 AM for 5:00 PM in a hospital for example, when medication or other medical treatment is needed at a certain time, the outcome could be critical. Thus 24-hour time (5:00 PM written as 17:00) is used.","Date format by country DMY in English[146]","Calendar date For example, \"7/8\" could refer to either 7 August or July 8. In the United States, dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing, although they are very common elsewhere; when numerical forms are used, the month appears first. In the United Kingdom, while it is regarded as acceptable albeit less common to write month-name day, year, this order is never used when written numerically. However, as an exception, the American shorthand \"9/11\" is widely understood as referring to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks.[6]","Date and time notation in the United States The year-month-day order, such as the ISO 8601 \"YYYY-MM-DD\" notation is popular in computer applications because it reduces the amount of code needed to resolve and compute dates. It is also commonly used in software cases where there are many separately dated items, such as documents or media, because sorting alphabetically will automatically result in the content being listed chronologically. Switching the U.S.'s traditional date format from month-day-year to year-month-day may be considered less of a break, since it preserves the familiar month-day order.","Date and time notation in the United States The 24-hour notation is also widely used by astronomers and other communities such as public safety (police, fire, rescue), who would pronounce 18:35 \"Eighteen Thirty Five\", for example in two-way communications.","24-hour clock In American and Canadian English, the term military time is a synonym for the 24-hour clock.[9] In these dialects, the time of day is customarily given almost exclusively using the 12-hour clock notation, which counts the hours of the day as 12, 1, ..., 11 with suffixes a.m. and p.m. distinguishing the two diurnal repetitions of this sequence. The 24-hour clock is commonly used there only in some specialist areas (military, aviation, navigation, tourism, meteorology, astronomy, computing, logistics, emergency services, hospitals), where the ambiguities of the 12-hour notation are deemed too inconvenient, cumbersome, or dangerous.","24-hour clock Military usage, as agreed between the United States and allied English-speaking military forces,[10] differs in some respects from other twenty-four-hour time systems:","Calendar date It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 9 November 2003, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.","Date and time notation in Canada Federal regulations for best before dates on perishable goods mandate that the year/month/day format be used, with the month spelled out. The year is only required if the date is beyond the current year. These are the official bilingual codes:[7]","Date format by country Official format (YMD): \nThe ISO 8601 YYYY-MM-DD format is used in official documents, banks, computer systems and the internet in Poland.","MIL-STD-1168 The second section (NNL) is the date code. This consists of the last two digits of the year of manufacture and a letter suffix indicating the month of production:","Calendar date The modern convention is to avoid using the ordinal (th, st, rd, nd) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 1776). The ordinal was common in the past, and is still sometimes used (4th July or July 4th).","Date and time notation in the United States The U.S. differs from other countries in that it uses 12-hour notation almost exclusively, not only in spoken language, but also in writing, even on timetables, for airline tickets, and computer software. The suffixes \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.\" (often represented as AM and PM) are appended universally in written language. Alternatively, people might specify \"noon\" or \"midnight\", after or instead of 12:00. (Business events, which are increasingly scheduled using groupware calendar applications, are less vulnerable to such ambiguity, since the software itself can be modified to take care of the naming conventions.) Where the a.m.–p.m. convention is inconvenient typographically (e.g., in dense tables), different fonts or colors are sometimes used instead. The most common usage in transport timetables for air, rail, bus, etc. is to use lightface for a.m. times and boldface for p.m. times.","Date and time notation in Japan Either form may be abbreviated as yy/mm/dd; periods as separators are not uncommon either. Examples: 20/12/31, 08.12.31. Ambiguities as to which calendar is used for the year are usually only resolved by the context in which the date appears, but Imperial calendar dates may be prefixed with a single character or letter denoting the era, e.g. å¹³20/12/31 or H20/12/31. This is a shorthand notation and full dates are often the preferred way of resolving such ambiguities.","Date format by country Order of the basic components:","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Except on pages updated regularly (e.g. the \"Current events\" portal), terms such as now, currently, to date, so far, soon, and recently should usually be avoided in favor of phrases such as during the 1990s, since 2010, and in August 1969. For current and future events, use phrases like as of November 2017 or since the beginning of 2017 to signal the time-dependence of the information. Using {{as of|2017}} will produce the text As of 2017[update] , with the additional benefit of putting the article in a category flagging it for periodic review. A full date is specified with {{as of|2017|11|26}}. However, do not replace since the beginning of 2005 with {{as of|2005}} because some information (the beginning of 2005) would be lost; instead, make use of the template's alternate-text parameter: {{as of|2005|alt=since the beginning of 2005}}.","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Or use an en dash: (unspaced) raids of 30–31 May 1942; (spaced) raids of 31 May – 1 June 1942.","Date and time notation in South Korea The same rules apply when expressing the date or the time alone, e.g., “1975년 7월 14일”, “1975년 7월”, “7월 14일”, “14일 오전 9시 18분” and “오전 9시 18분 32초”.","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers An overnight period may be expressed using a slash between two contiguous dates: the night raids of 30/31 May 1942 or raids of 31 May / 1 June 1942.","Time zone If a time is in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), a \"Z\" is added directly after the time without a separating space. \"Z\" is the zone designator for the zero UTC offset. \"09:30 UTC\" is therefore represented as \"09:30Z\" or \"0930Z\". Likewise, \"14:45:15 UTC\" is written as \"14:45:15Z\" or \"144515Z\".","Date format by country (m/d/yyyy or mmmm d, yyyy) for Zulu","Date and time notation in South Korea When the time is expressed in the HH:MM:SS notation, the Roman ante/post-meridiem indicators (AM and PM) are also used frequently. In addition, they sometimes follow the convention of writing the Korean-style indicator before the time; it is not uncommon to encounter times expressed in such a way, e.g., “AM 9:18” instead of “9:18 AM”.","Date format by country (The format dd.mm.(yy)yy is the traditional Danish date format.[44] The international format yyyy-mm-dd or yyyymmdd is also accepted, though this format is not commonly used. The formats d. 'month name' yyyy and in handwriting d/m-yy or d/m yyyy are also acceptable.[45])","Date and time notation in the United States However, it is always acceptable to pronounce the time using number words and the aforementioned \"oh\" convention, for example, 12:55 \"twelve fifty-five\", 12:09 \"twelve oh-nine\", 12:30 \"twelve thirty\", and 12:15 \"twelve fifteen\".","Calendar date When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used. This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, \"Feb\" instead of \"02\". The ISO 8601 date order with four-digit years: YYYY-MM-DD (introduced in ISO 2014), is specifically chosen to be unambiguous. The ISO 8601 standard also has the advantage of being language independent and is therefore useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired (expiration dating on export products, for example). Many Internet sites use YYYY-MM-DD, and those using other conventions often use -MMM- for the month to further clarify and avoid ambiguity (2001-MAY-09, 9-MAY-2001, MAY 09 2001, etc.).","Date format by country (dd/mm/yyyy or d mmmm yyyy) for English and French","Template:Last updated To link the date so that it autoformats (e.g. into International or US instead of Unix-style dates) for users with date preferences set, use |format=yes. Note that if the template is substituted, bots may remove this linking, per WP:MOSUNLINKDATES.:","Date and time notation in Japan The most commonly used date format in Japan is \"year month day (weekday)\", with the Japanese characters meaning \"year\", \"month\" and \"day\" inserted after the numerals. Example: 2008年12月31日 (水) for \"Wednesday, December 31, 2008\". The weekday is usually abbreviated to a single character, e.g. 水 for 水曜日 (\"Wednesday\"), but may also be written in full, then usually without surrounding parentheses. Apart from the Gregorian calendar, the Japanese Imperial calendar is also used, which bases the year on the current era, which in turn is based on the current emperor. The current era is 平成 Heisei and began in 1989. When using the Imperial calendar, the year is prefixed with the era. For example, the above date using the Imperial calendar is written as: 平成20年12月31日 (水); a more direct translation might be: Heisei year 20, Dec 31 (Wed).","Date and time notation in Canada Date and time notation in Canada is regulated for some industries, and the Government of Canada recommends particular styles to ensure correct comprehension, especially in bilingual contexts. Everyday usage in Canadian English is a mixture of conventions from date and time notation in the United Kingdom and the United States, and varies across the country.[1]","Comma When the day precedes the month, the month name separates the numeric day and year, so commas are not necessary to separate them: \"The Raid on Alexandria was carried out on 19 December 1941.\"","Calendar date There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components (e.g. 31/05/1999, 05/31/1999, 1999/05/31), component separators (e.g. 31.05.1999, 31/05/1999, 31-05-1999), whether leading zeros are included (e.g. 31/5/1999 vs. 31/05/1999), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.1999 vs. 31.05.99), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g. 31.05.1999, 31.V.1999 vs. 31 May 1999).","Hungarian language The Hungarian convention for date and time is to go from the generic to the specific: 1. year, 2. month, 3. day, 4. hour, 5. minute, (6. second)","24-hour clock A limited number of countries, particularly English-speaking, use the 12-hour clock, or a mixture of the 24- and 12-hour time systems. In countries where the 12-hour clock is still dominant, some professions prefer to use the 24-hour clock. For example, in the practice of medicine the 24-hour clock is generally used in documentation of care as it prevents any ambiguity as to when events occurred in a patient's medical history.[3] In the United States and a handful of other countries, it is popularly referred to as military time.[1][4]","Calendar date In English-language outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as 7 December 1941 (or 7th December 1941) and spoken as \"the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one\" (exceedingly common usage of \"the\" and \"of\"), with the occasional usage of December 7, 1941 (\"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\"). In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.","Date format by country (yyyy-mm-dd or d. mmmm yyyy) for Walser. See Date and time notation in Europe","Hungarian language Hours, minutes, and seconds are separated by a colon (H:m:s). Fractions of a second are separated by a full stop from the rest of the time. Hungary generally uses the 24-hour clock format, but in verbal (and written) communication 12-hour clock format can also be used. See below for usage examples.","Date and time notation in the United States Times of day ending in :00 minutes may be pronounced as the numbered hour followed by o'clock (e.g., 10:00 ten o'clock, 2:00 two o'clock, 4:00 four o'clock, etc.). This may be followed by the a.m. or p.m. designator, or might not be, if obvious. O'clock itself may be omitted, leaving a time such as four a.m. or four p.m. Instead of \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.,\" times can also be described as \"in the morning\", \"in the afternoon,\" \"in the evening,\" or \"at night.\"","Date format by country Bashkir, Ossetian, Sakha and Tatar languages in Russia usually give date examples in the form 22 май 2017 й, 22 майы, 2017 аз, ыам ыйын 22 күнэ 2017 с., 22 май 2017 ел but this form is never used when writing in Russian.","Time zone ISO 8601 is an international standard that defines unambiguous and well-defined methods of representing dates and times in textual form, including specifications for representing time zones.","Calendar date ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO 8601 for display. It is worth noting that all modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files' names.","Calendar date This little-endian sequence is common to the majority of the world's countries. This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as \"the 9th day of November in the year of our Lord 2014\" in Western religious and legal documents. The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant.","Date format by country Using localised date formats causes ambiguity when a date is interpreted differently by individuals in different parts of the world. For the international standard, which should be used whenever a written date might be viewed by individuals from more than just one country, see ISO 8601.","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers This page guides the presentation of numbers, dates, times, measurements, currencies, coordinates, and similar material in articles. Its aim is to promote clarity and cohesion; this is especially important within an article. The goal is to make the whole encyclopedia easier and more intuitive to use.","Date format by country Traditional Mongolian languages in Mongolia usually give date examples in the form 2017ᠣᠨ ᠵᠢᠷᠭᠤᠳᠤᠭᠠᠷ ᠰᠠᠷᠠ 2ᠡᠳᠦᠷ but this form is never used when writing in Mongolian Cyrillic; casually many people use yyyy/(m)m/(d)d or yyyy.(m)m.(d)d (with or without leading zeroes).[111]","Date format by country yyyy-mm-dd for Meta' and Ngomba","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Higher levels of precision are obtained by using seconds:","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Markup: {{val}} and {{e}} may be used to format exponential notation.","Date format by country Basic components of a calendar date for the most common calendar systems:","Hungarian language Date and time may be separated by a comma or simply written one after the other.","Wikipedia:Creation and usage of media files Specify the time in seconds, or use colons to separate hours, minutes and seconds.","Date and time notation in Canada Official bodies and many industries in Canada require the use of the 24-hour clock, and it is the recommendation of the Government of Canada.[8] Nonetheless, it only states that the system 'may be desirable', and the 12-hour clock remains common in English-speaking contexts.","ISO week date A precise date is specified by the ISO week-numbering year in the format YYYY, a week number in the format ww prefixed by the letter 'W', and the weekday number, a digit d from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday. For example, the Gregorian date 31 December 2006 corresponds to the Sunday of the 52nd week of 2006, and is written 2006-W52-7 (in extended form) or 2006W527 (in compact form).","Calendar date An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as a bad idea, because of the year 2000 problem. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.[8][9]","Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Rarely, the time zone in which a historical event took place has since changed; for example, China to 1949 was divided into five time zones, whereas all of modern China is UTC+8. Similarly, the term \"UTC\" is not appropriate for dates before this system was adopted in 1960;[2] Universal Time (UT) is the appropriate term for the mean time at the prime meridian (Greenwich) when it is unnecessary to specify the precise definition of the time scale. Be sure to show the UTC or offset appropriate to the clock time in use at the time of the event, not the modern time zone, if they differ."],"string":"[\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The United States military normally uses the \\\"dd mmm yyyy\\\" format for correspondence. The common month-day-year format is used when corresponding with civilians.[3][4] The military date notation is similar to the date notation in British English but is read cardinally (e.g. \\\"Nineteen July\\\") rather than ordinally (e.g. \\\"The nineteenth of July\\\").\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States Date and time notation in the United States differs from that used in other English-speaking countries; in particular, the date notation is not used commonly by any other country in the world. Traditionally, dates are written in the \\\"month-day-year\\\" order (\\\"April 4, 2018\\\") with a comma before and after the year if it is not at the end of a sentence,[1] and time in 12-hour notation (\\\"11:00 p.m.\\\"). The internationally more common notations are used in some professional environments, such as in the military.\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The Department of State and the Department of Defense timestamp their reports and messages with text date-time groups formatted as DDHHMM(X) MMMYY, where DD represents the 2-digit day of the month, HHMM is 24-hour time, X is an alphabetic character that indicates the time zone (ideally this should be Z for \\\"Zulu time\\\" in UTC to avoid misunderstandings about the time and day, but L for \\\"local time\\\" may also be used), MMM is the abbreviated month, and YY is the last two digits of the year. For example, 091630(Z) JUL 11 represents 16:30 UTC on 9 July 2011.[6] The DDHHMMZ format is also used worldwide in aviation meteorology for timestamps in METAR and TAF weather reports (month and year are omitted altogether due to very limited validity of these reports).\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States It is best known for its use by the military, and therefore commonly called \\\"military time\\\". In U.S. military use, 24-hour time is traditionally written without a colon (1800 instead of 18:00) and in spoken language in the Army, but not the Navy, is followed by the word \\\"hours\\\" (e.g., \\\"eighteen hundred hours\\\").\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Context determines whether the 12- or 24-hour clock is used. In all cases, colons separate hours, minutes and (where present) seconds, e.g. 1:38:09 pm or 13:38:09. Use figures (12:45 p.m.) rather than words (twelve forty-five p.m.).\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States Two U.S. standards mandate the use of year-month-day formats: ANSI INCITS 30-1997 (R2008); and NIST FIPS PUB 4-2 (FIPS PUB 4-2 withdrawn in United States 2008-09-02[2]), the earliest of which is traceable back to 1968. This order is also used within the Federal Aviation Administration and military because of the need to eliminate ambiguity.\",\n \"Date and time notation in Canada The Government of Canada recommends the YYYY-MM-DD format for writing numeric dates.[2] The Canadian Standards Association (National Standard of Canada CAN/CSA-Z243.4–89, All-numeric date and time) specifies ISO 8601 as the date format.[3] This is the only numeric date format that allows unambiguous interpretation.[4]\",\n \"Date format by country Long format: dd mmmm yyyy (Year first, full month name and day last in right-to-left writing direction)\",\n \"Calendar date The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, which they call \\\"Julian date format\\\"[11] that indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed). For example, \\\"11 December 1999\\\" can be written in some contexts as \\\"1999345\\\" or \\\"99345\\\", for the 345th day of 1999.[12] This system is most often used in US military logistics, since it makes the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates easier. For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to Korea. If the engine is sent on 99104, it should arrive on 99139. Note that outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the Internal Revenue Service, this format is usually referred to as \\\"ordinal date\\\", rather than \\\"Julian date\\\"[13]\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States In the United States, dates are traditionally written in the \\\"month-day-year\\\" order, with neither increasing nor decreasing order of significance. This order is used in both the traditional all-numeric date (e.g., \\\"1/21/18\\\" or \\\"01/21/2018\\\") as well as in the expanded form (e.g., \\\"January 21, 2016\\\"—usually spoken with the year as a cardinal number and the day as an ordinal number, e.g., \\\"January twenty-first, two thousand sixteen\\\"), with the historical rationale that the year was often of lesser importance. The most commonly used separator in the all-numeric form is the slash (/), although the hyphen (-) and period (.) have also emerged in the all-numeric format recently due to globalization.\",\n \"Calendar date The YYYY-MM-DD layout is the only common format that can provide this.[10] Sorting other date representations involves some parsing of the date strings. This also works when a time in 24-hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The day-month-year order has been increasing in usage since the early 1980s. The month is usually written as an abbreviated name, as in \\\"19-Jul-1922\\\". Many genealogical databases and the Modern Language Association citation style use this format. When filling in the Form I-94 cards and new customs declaration cards used for people entering the U.S., passengers are requested to write pertinent dates in the numeric \\\"dd mm yy\\\" format (e.g. \\\"19 07 22\\\"). Visas and passports issued by the U.S. State Department also use this format.\",\n \"Date format by country Long format: YYYY MMMM D (Day first, full month name, and year in right-to-left writing direction)[78]\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The fully written \\\"day-month-year\\\" (e.g., 25 August 2006) in written American English is becoming more common outside of the media industry and legal documents, particularly in university publications and in some internationally influenced publications as a means of dealing with ambiguity. However, most Americans (in most informal documents) would still write \\\"August 25, 2006\\\". Speaking the \\\"day month year\\\" format is still somewhat rare, with the exception of holidays such as the Fourth of July.\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea The most formal manner of expressing the full date and/or time is to suffix each of the year, month, day, ante/post-meridiem indicator, hour, minute and second (in this order, i.e. with larger units first) with the corresponding unit and separating each with a space:\",\n \"24-hour clock A time of day is written in the 24-hour notation in the form hh:mm (for example 01:23) or hh:mm:ss (for example, 01:23:45), where hh (00 to 23) is the number of full hours that have passed since midnight, mm (00 to 59) is the number of full minutes that have passed since the last full hour, and ss (00 to 59) is the number of seconds since the last full minute. In the case of a leap second, the value of ss may extend to 60. A leading zero is added for numbers under 10, but it is optional for the hours. The leading zero is very commonly used in computer applications, and always used when a specifications require it (for example, ISO 8601).\",\n \"Date format by country The year is always written with Arabic numerals.\\nThe number of the month is usually written with Arabic numerals but it also can be written with Roman numerals, or the month's full name can be written out, the first letter not being capitalised.\\nThe day is also written with Arabic numerals.[68][69][70][71]\",\n \"Help:HTML in wikitext <time>...</time> defines either a time (24 hour clock), or a date in the Gregorian calendar, optionally with a time and a time-zone offset.\",\n \"Comma When a date is written as a month followed by a day followed by a year, a comma separates the day from the year: December 19, 1941. This style is common in American English. The comma is used to avoid confusing consecutive numbers: December 19 1941. Most style manuals, including The Chicago Manual of Style[13] and the AP Stylebook,[14] also recommend that the year be treated as a parenthetical, requiring a second comma after it: \\\"Feb. 14, 1987, was the target date.\\\"\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea For example, the ISO 8601 timestamp 1975-07-14 09:18:32 would be written as “1975년 7월 14일 오전 9시 18분 32초”.\",\n \"24-hour clock While the 24-hour notation unambiguously distinguishes between midnight at the start (00:00) and end (24:00) of any given date, there is no commonly accepted distinction among users of the 12-hour notation. Style guides and military communication regulations in some English-speaking countries discourage the use of 24:00 even in the 24-hour notation, and recommend reporting times near midnight as 23:59 or 00:01 instead.[6] Sometimes the use of 00:00 is also avoided.[6] In variance with this, the correspondence manual for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps formerly specified 0001 to 2400.[7] The manual was updated in June 2015 to use 0000 to 2359.[8]\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States Some style guides and most people suggest not to use a leading zero with a single-digit hour; for example, \\\"3:52 p.m.\\\" is preferred over \\\"03:52 p.m.\\\". (The leading zero is more commonly used with the 24-hour notation; especially in computer applications because it can help to maintain column alignment in tables and correct sorting order, and also because it helps to highlight the 24-hour character of the given time.)\",\n \"Date format by country Long format: D MMMM YYYY (Day first, month and year in left-to-right writing direction) for French and Fulah and YYYY, DD MMMM (First full month name, day, and year in right-to-left writing direction) for N'ko\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Alternatively, include just the UTC offset:\",\n \"Date format by country (d. mm. yyyy or dd. mmmm yyyy)[148]\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers For example:\",\n \"Date format by country Long format: d mmmm yyyy or mmmm dd, yyyy (Day first, full month name, and year or first full month name, day, and year, in left-to-right writing direction) in Afar, French and Somali and yyyy ØŒmmmm d (Day first, full month name, and year in right-to-left writing direction) in Arabic\",\n \"Date format by country (yyyy/mm/dd, yyyy-mm-dd or dd mmmm yyyy)\",\n \"Date format by country Long format: D MMMM YYYY (Day first, full month name, and year in left-to-right writing direction) for Bilen, English, Tigre and Tigrinya, YYYY ØŒMMMM D (Day first, full month name, and year in right-to-left writing direction) for Arabic and MMMM DD, YYYY (First full month name, day and year in left-to-right writing direction) for Afar and Saho\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Give dates and times appropriate to the time zone where an event took place. For example, the date of the attack on Pearl Harbor should be December 7, 1941 (Hawaii time/date). Give priority to the place at which the event had its most significant effects; for example, if a hacker based in China attacked a Pentagon computer in the US, use the time zone for the Pentagon, where the attack had its effect. In some cases, the best solution may be to add the date and time in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). For example:\",\n \"Wikipedia:Citing sources Although nearly any consistent style may be used, avoid all-numeric date formats other than YYYY-MM-DD, because of the ambiguity concerning which number is the month and which the day. For example, 2002-06-11 may be used, but not 11/06/2002. The YYYY-MM-DD format should in any case be limited to Gregorian calendar dates where the year is after 1582.\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea The national standard (KSXISO8601, formerly KSX1511) also recognizes the ISO-8601-compliant date/time format of YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS, which is widely used in computing and on the Korean internet.\",\n \"Date format by country yyyy <m.> <month in genitive> d <d.>\",\n \"Date and time notation in Japan Using the Japanese notation, times are written as \\\"8時42分\\\", with the characters for \\\"hour\\\" and \\\"minute\\\" (optionally also 秒 for \\\"seconds\\\") added after the numerals. It is also common to simply write 8:42 though.\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea In written documents, the date form above (but not the time) is often abbreviated by replacing each unit suffix with a single period; for example, 1975년 7월 14일 would be abbreviated as “1975. 7. 14.” (note the trailing period and intervening spaces).\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers The following formats are available.\",\n \"Calendar date In addition, the International Organization for Standardization considers its ISO 8601 standard to make sense from a logical perspective.[7] Mixed units, for example feet and inches, or pounds and ounces, are normally written with the largest unit first, in decreasing order. Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of 2006 indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade. The only date order that is consistent with these well-established conventions is year-month-day. A plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by file managers, word processors, spreadsheets and other software tools with built-in sorting functions. Some database systems use an eight-digit YYYYMMDD representation to handle date values. Naming folders with YYYY-MM-DD at the beginning allows them to be listed in date order when sorting by name - especially useful for organising document libraries.\",\n \"Date and time notation in Canada The YYYY-MM-DD format is an official recommendation, but it is rarely enforced, and in many contexts the DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY formats remain in use. Payments Canada prefers ISO 8601, but also allows cheques to be printed using MMDDYYYY or DDMMYYYY formats; they must include indicators to guide the format.[5] Some federal forms, such as commercial cargo manifests, offer a blank line with no guidance.[6]\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Note to table:\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea The 24-hour notation is more commonly used in text and is written \\\"14:05\\\" or \\\"14시 5분\\\". Examples include railway timetables, plane departure and landing timings, and TV schedules. In movie theaters it is also not uncommon to see something like 25:30 for the 01:30 AM movie.\",\n \"24-hour clock Where subsecond resolution is required, the seconds can be a decimal fraction; that is, the fractional part follows a decimal dot or comma, as in 01:23:45.678. The most commonly used separator symbol between hours, minutes and seconds is the colon, which is also the symbol used in ISO 8601. In the past, some European countries used the dot on the line as a separator, but most national standards on time notation have since then been changed to the international standard colon. In some contexts (including the U.S. military and some computer protocols), no separator is used and times are written as, for example, \\\"2359\\\".\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Notes and exceptions:\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Generally, in article text:\",\n \"Date format by country Uyghur languages in Xinjiang usually give date examples in the form 2017-يىل 18-ئاۋغۇست or 2017-8-18 but this form is never used when writing in Chinese;[34] casually many people use (yy)yy/(m)m/(d)d or (yy)yy.(m)m.(d)d (with or without leading zeroes). See Dates in Chinese.\",\n \"Date format by country English textbooks in South Korea usually give date examples in the form March 24, 2017 but this form is never used when writing in Korean;[95] casually many people use (yy)yy.(m)m.(d)d(.) (with or without leading zeroes, with or without the last full stop).\",\n \"Date format by country Long format: yyyy. gada d. mmmm\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States It is also used in hospitals, various forms of transportation, and at radio and other broadcast media outlets behind the scenes where scheduling programming needs to be exact, without mistaking AM and PM. In these cases, exact and unambiguous communication of time is critical. If someone mistakes 5:00 AM for 5:00 PM in a hospital for example, when medication or other medical treatment is needed at a certain time, the outcome could be critical. Thus 24-hour time (5:00 PM written as 17:00) is used.\",\n \"Date format by country DMY in English[146]\",\n \"Calendar date For example, \\\"7/8\\\" could refer to either 7 August or July 8. In the United States, dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing, although they are very common elsewhere; when numerical forms are used, the month appears first. In the United Kingdom, while it is regarded as acceptable albeit less common to write month-name day, year, this order is never used when written numerically. However, as an exception, the American shorthand \\\"9/11\\\" is widely understood as referring to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks.[6]\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The year-month-day order, such as the ISO 8601 \\\"YYYY-MM-DD\\\" notation is popular in computer applications because it reduces the amount of code needed to resolve and compute dates. It is also commonly used in software cases where there are many separately dated items, such as documents or media, because sorting alphabetically will automatically result in the content being listed chronologically. Switching the U.S.'s traditional date format from month-day-year to year-month-day may be considered less of a break, since it preserves the familiar month-day order.\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The 24-hour notation is also widely used by astronomers and other communities such as public safety (police, fire, rescue), who would pronounce 18:35 \\\"Eighteen Thirty Five\\\", for example in two-way communications.\",\n \"24-hour clock In American and Canadian English, the term military time is a synonym for the 24-hour clock.[9] In these dialects, the time of day is customarily given almost exclusively using the 12-hour clock notation, which counts the hours of the day as 12, 1, ..., 11 with suffixes a.m. and p.m. distinguishing the two diurnal repetitions of this sequence. The 24-hour clock is commonly used there only in some specialist areas (military, aviation, navigation, tourism, meteorology, astronomy, computing, logistics, emergency services, hospitals), where the ambiguities of the 12-hour notation are deemed too inconvenient, cumbersome, or dangerous.\",\n \"24-hour clock Military usage, as agreed between the United States and allied English-speaking military forces,[10] differs in some respects from other twenty-four-hour time systems:\",\n \"Calendar date It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 9 November 2003, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.\",\n \"Date and time notation in Canada Federal regulations for best before dates on perishable goods mandate that the year/month/day format be used, with the month spelled out. The year is only required if the date is beyond the current year. These are the official bilingual codes:[7]\",\n \"Date format by country Official format (YMD): \\nThe ISO 8601 YYYY-MM-DD format is used in official documents, banks, computer systems and the internet in Poland.\",\n \"MIL-STD-1168 The second section (NNL) is the date code. This consists of the last two digits of the year of manufacture and a letter suffix indicating the month of production:\",\n \"Calendar date The modern convention is to avoid using the ordinal (th, st, rd, nd) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 1776). The ordinal was common in the past, and is still sometimes used (4th July or July 4th).\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The U.S. differs from other countries in that it uses 12-hour notation almost exclusively, not only in spoken language, but also in writing, even on timetables, for airline tickets, and computer software. The suffixes \\\"a.m.\\\" and \\\"p.m.\\\" (often represented as AM and PM) are appended universally in written language. Alternatively, people might specify \\\"noon\\\" or \\\"midnight\\\", after or instead of 12:00. (Business events, which are increasingly scheduled using groupware calendar applications, are less vulnerable to such ambiguity, since the software itself can be modified to take care of the naming conventions.) Where the a.m.–p.m. convention is inconvenient typographically (e.g., in dense tables), different fonts or colors are sometimes used instead. The most common usage in transport timetables for air, rail, bus, etc. is to use lightface for a.m. times and boldface for p.m. times.\",\n \"Date and time notation in Japan Either form may be abbreviated as yy/mm/dd; periods as separators are not uncommon either. Examples: 20/12/31, 08.12.31. Ambiguities as to which calendar is used for the year are usually only resolved by the context in which the date appears, but Imperial calendar dates may be prefixed with a single character or letter denoting the era, e.g. å¹³20/12/31 or H20/12/31. This is a shorthand notation and full dates are often the preferred way of resolving such ambiguities.\",\n \"Date format by country Order of the basic components:\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Except on pages updated regularly (e.g. the \\\"Current events\\\" portal), terms such as now, currently, to date, so far, soon, and recently should usually be avoided in favor of phrases such as during the 1990s, since 2010, and in August 1969. For current and future events, use phrases like as of November 2017 or since the beginning of 2017 to signal the time-dependence of the information. Using {{as of|2017}} will produce the text As of 2017[update] , with the additional benefit of putting the article in a category flagging it for periodic review. A full date is specified with {{as of|2017|11|26}}. However, do not replace since the beginning of 2005 with {{as of|2005}} because some information (the beginning of 2005) would be lost; instead, make use of the template's alternate-text parameter: {{as of|2005|alt=since the beginning of 2005}}.\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Or use an en dash: (unspaced) raids of 30–31 May 1942; (spaced) raids of 31 May – 1 June 1942.\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea The same rules apply when expressing the date or the time alone, e.g., “1975년 7월 14일”, “1975년 7월”, “7월 14일”, “14일 오전 9시 18분” and “오전 9시 18분 32초”.\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers An overnight period may be expressed using a slash between two contiguous dates: the night raids of 30/31 May 1942 or raids of 31 May / 1 June 1942.\",\n \"Time zone If a time is in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), a \\\"Z\\\" is added directly after the time without a separating space. \\\"Z\\\" is the zone designator for the zero UTC offset. \\\"09:30 UTC\\\" is therefore represented as \\\"09:30Z\\\" or \\\"0930Z\\\". Likewise, \\\"14:45:15 UTC\\\" is written as \\\"14:45:15Z\\\" or \\\"144515Z\\\".\",\n \"Date format by country (m/d/yyyy or mmmm d, yyyy) for Zulu\",\n \"Date and time notation in South Korea When the time is expressed in the HH:MM:SS notation, the Roman ante/post-meridiem indicators (AM and PM) are also used frequently. In addition, they sometimes follow the convention of writing the Korean-style indicator before the time; it is not uncommon to encounter times expressed in such a way, e.g., “AM 9:18” instead of “9:18 AM”.\",\n \"Date format by country (The format dd.mm.(yy)yy is the traditional Danish date format.[44] The international format yyyy-mm-dd or yyyymmdd is also accepted, though this format is not commonly used. The formats d. 'month name' yyyy and in handwriting d/m-yy or d/m yyyy are also acceptable.[45])\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States However, it is always acceptable to pronounce the time using number words and the aforementioned \\\"oh\\\" convention, for example, 12:55 \\\"twelve fifty-five\\\", 12:09 \\\"twelve oh-nine\\\", 12:30 \\\"twelve thirty\\\", and 12:15 \\\"twelve fifteen\\\".\",\n \"Calendar date When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used. This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, \\\"Feb\\\" instead of \\\"02\\\". The ISO 8601 date order with four-digit years: YYYY-MM-DD (introduced in ISO 2014), is specifically chosen to be unambiguous. The ISO 8601 standard also has the advantage of being language independent and is therefore useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired (expiration dating on export products, for example). Many Internet sites use YYYY-MM-DD, and those using other conventions often use -MMM- for the month to further clarify and avoid ambiguity (2001-MAY-09, 9-MAY-2001, MAY 09 2001, etc.).\",\n \"Date format by country (dd/mm/yyyy or d mmmm yyyy) for English and French\",\n \"Template:Last updated To link the date so that it autoformats (e.g. into International or US instead of Unix-style dates) for users with date preferences set, use |format=yes. Note that if the template is substituted, bots may remove this linking, per WP:MOSUNLINKDATES.:\",\n \"Date and time notation in Japan The most commonly used date format in Japan is \\\"year month day (weekday)\\\", with the Japanese characters meaning \\\"year\\\", \\\"month\\\" and \\\"day\\\" inserted after the numerals. Example: 2008年12月31日 (水) for \\\"Wednesday, December 31, 2008\\\". The weekday is usually abbreviated to a single character, e.g. 水 for 水曜日 (\\\"Wednesday\\\"), but may also be written in full, then usually without surrounding parentheses. Apart from the Gregorian calendar, the Japanese Imperial calendar is also used, which bases the year on the current era, which in turn is based on the current emperor. The current era is 平成 Heisei and began in 1989. When using the Imperial calendar, the year is prefixed with the era. For example, the above date using the Imperial calendar is written as: 平成20年12月31日 (水); a more direct translation might be: Heisei year 20, Dec 31 (Wed).\",\n \"Date and time notation in Canada Date and time notation in Canada is regulated for some industries, and the Government of Canada recommends particular styles to ensure correct comprehension, especially in bilingual contexts. Everyday usage in Canadian English is a mixture of conventions from date and time notation in the United Kingdom and the United States, and varies across the country.[1]\",\n \"Comma When the day precedes the month, the month name separates the numeric day and year, so commas are not necessary to separate them: \\\"The Raid on Alexandria was carried out on 19 December 1941.\\\"\",\n \"Calendar date There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components (e.g. 31/05/1999, 05/31/1999, 1999/05/31), component separators (e.g. 31.05.1999, 31/05/1999, 31-05-1999), whether leading zeros are included (e.g. 31/5/1999 vs. 31/05/1999), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.1999 vs. 31.05.99), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g. 31.05.1999, 31.V.1999 vs. 31 May 1999).\",\n \"Hungarian language The Hungarian convention for date and time is to go from the generic to the specific: 1. year, 2. month, 3. day, 4. hour, 5. minute, (6. second)\",\n \"24-hour clock A limited number of countries, particularly English-speaking, use the 12-hour clock, or a mixture of the 24- and 12-hour time systems. In countries where the 12-hour clock is still dominant, some professions prefer to use the 24-hour clock. For example, in the practice of medicine the 24-hour clock is generally used in documentation of care as it prevents any ambiguity as to when events occurred in a patient's medical history.[3] In the United States and a handful of other countries, it is popularly referred to as military time.[1][4]\",\n \"Calendar date In English-language outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as 7 December 1941 (or 7th December 1941) and spoken as \\\"the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one\\\" (exceedingly common usage of \\\"the\\\" and \\\"of\\\"), with the occasional usage of December 7, 1941 (\\\"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\\\"). In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.\",\n \"Date format by country (yyyy-mm-dd or d. mmmm yyyy) for Walser. See Date and time notation in Europe\",\n \"Hungarian language Hours, minutes, and seconds are separated by a colon (H:m:s). Fractions of a second are separated by a full stop from the rest of the time. Hungary generally uses the 24-hour clock format, but in verbal (and written) communication 12-hour clock format can also be used. See below for usage examples.\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States Times of day ending in :00 minutes may be pronounced as the numbered hour followed by o'clock (e.g., 10:00 ten o'clock, 2:00 two o'clock, 4:00 four o'clock, etc.). This may be followed by the a.m. or p.m. designator, or might not be, if obvious. O'clock itself may be omitted, leaving a time such as four a.m. or four p.m. Instead of \\\"a.m.\\\" and \\\"p.m.,\\\" times can also be described as \\\"in the morning\\\", \\\"in the afternoon,\\\" \\\"in the evening,\\\" or \\\"at night.\\\"\",\n \"Date format by country Bashkir, Ossetian, Sakha and Tatar languages in Russia usually give date examples in the form 22 май 2017 й, 22 майы, 2017 аз, ыам ыйын 22 күнэ 2017 с., 22 май 2017 ел but this form is never used when writing in Russian.\",\n \"Time zone ISO 8601 is an international standard that defines unambiguous and well-defined methods of representing dates and times in textual form, including specifications for representing time zones.\",\n \"Calendar date ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO 8601 for display. It is worth noting that all modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files' names.\",\n \"Calendar date This little-endian sequence is common to the majority of the world's countries. This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as \\\"the 9th day of November in the year of our Lord 2014\\\" in Western religious and legal documents. The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant.\",\n \"Date format by country Using localised date formats causes ambiguity when a date is interpreted differently by individuals in different parts of the world. For the international standard, which should be used whenever a written date might be viewed by individuals from more than just one country, see ISO 8601.\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers This page guides the presentation of numbers, dates, times, measurements, currencies, coordinates, and similar material in articles. Its aim is to promote clarity and cohesion; this is especially important within an article. The goal is to make the whole encyclopedia easier and more intuitive to use.\",\n \"Date format by country Traditional Mongolian languages in Mongolia usually give date examples in the form 2017ᠣᠨ ᠵᠢᠷᠭᠤᠳᠤᠭᠠᠷ ᠰᠠᠷᠠ 2ᠡᠳᠦᠷ but this form is never used when writing in Mongolian Cyrillic; casually many people use yyyy/(m)m/(d)d or yyyy.(m)m.(d)d (with or without leading zeroes).[111]\",\n \"Date format by country yyyy-mm-dd for Meta' and Ngomba\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Higher levels of precision are obtained by using seconds:\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Markup: {{val}} and {{e}} may be used to format exponential notation.\",\n \"Date format by country Basic components of a calendar date for the most common calendar systems:\",\n \"Hungarian language Date and time may be separated by a comma or simply written one after the other.\",\n \"Wikipedia:Creation and usage of media files Specify the time in seconds, or use colons to separate hours, minutes and seconds.\",\n \"Date and time notation in Canada Official bodies and many industries in Canada require the use of the 24-hour clock, and it is the recommendation of the Government of Canada.[8] Nonetheless, it only states that the system 'may be desirable', and the 12-hour clock remains common in English-speaking contexts.\",\n \"ISO week date A precise date is specified by the ISO week-numbering year in the format YYYY, a week number in the format ww prefixed by the letter 'W', and the weekday number, a digit d from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday. For example, the Gregorian date 31 December 2006 corresponds to the Sunday of the 52nd week of 2006, and is written 2006-W52-7 (in extended form) or 2006W527 (in compact form).\",\n \"Calendar date An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as a bad idea, because of the year 2000 problem. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.[8][9]\",\n \"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers Rarely, the time zone in which a historical event took place has since changed; for example, China to 1949 was divided into five time zones, whereas all of modern China is UTC+8. Similarly, the term \\\"UTC\\\" is not appropriate for dates before this system was adopted in 1960;[2] Universal Time (UT) is the appropriate term for the mean time at the prime meridian (Greenwich) when it is unnecessary to specify the precise definition of the time scale. Be sure to show the UTC or offset appropriate to the clock time in use at the time of the event, not the modern time zone, if they differ.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["Date and time notation in the United States The United States military normally uses the \"dd mmm yyyy\" format for correspondence. The common month-day-year format is used when corresponding with civilians.[3][4] The military date notation is similar to the date notation in British English but is read cardinally (e.g. \"Nineteen July\") rather than ordinally (e.g. \"The nineteenth of July\").","Date and time notation in the United States It is best known for its use by the military, and therefore commonly called \"military time\". In U.S. military use, 24-hour time is traditionally written without a colon (1800 instead of 18:00) and in spoken language in the Army, but not the Navy, is followed by the word \"hours\" (e.g., \"eighteen hundred hours\")."],"string":"[\n \"Date and time notation in the United States The United States military normally uses the \\\"dd mmm yyyy\\\" format for correspondence. The common month-day-year format is used when corresponding with civilians.[3][4] The military date notation is similar to the date notation in British English but is read cardinally (e.g. \\\"Nineteen July\\\") rather than ordinally (e.g. \\\"The nineteenth of July\\\").\",\n \"Date and time notation in the United States It is best known for its use by the military, and therefore commonly called \\\"military time\\\". 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AURA Music and Arts Festival, Suwannee Hulaween, Wanee Music Festival, Springfest, Suwannee Festival of Lights, and Suwannee River Jam are some of these annual festivals. The park offers multiple stages, miles of trails and over 800 acres (3.2 km2) for camping, hiking, canoe and kayak rentals on the river, horseback riding, a restaurant and country store. Besides a variety of other flora and fauna it includes a large bat house which has become a home to an increasing number of bats.","Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park Situated on the banks of the historic Suwannee River, the park consists of over 800 acres (2.4 km²) of camping areas, concert venues, recreational facilities and unspoiled forests. The park hosts numerous major events each year, including Suwannee Hulaween, the AURA Music and Arts Festival, Suwannee River Jam, the Magnoliafest, Wanee Music Festival, Blackwater Music Festival, Purple Hatter's Ball, and Suwannee Springfest.","Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park is located in North Central Florida, in Suwannee County, United States.","Suwannee River In recent years, the Suwannee River has been the site of many music gatherings. Magnolia Festival, SpringFest, and Wanee have been held annually in Live Oak, Florida, at the Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park, adjacent to the river. Performing artists have included Vassar Clements, Peter Rowan, David Grisman, Allman Brothers Band, and the String Cheese Incident.[citation needed]","Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Cornett family has been making improvements to the park to enhance and improve its entertainment, hiking, canoeing, camping and other activities. The park offers varied camping options including primitive camping, RV camping and furnished park models. A tree house is also available for different occasions and events.","Suwannee River In 2008, its original lyrics were replaced[14] with a politically correct version.[15] There is a Foster museum and carillon tower at Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park in White Springs. The spring itself is called White Sulphur Springs because of its high sulphur content. Since there was a belief in the healing qualities of its waters, the Springs were long popular as a health resort.[citation needed]","Suwannee River A unique aspect of the Suwannee River is the Suwannee River Wilderness Trail, a cooperative effort by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the Suwannee River Water Management District, and the cities, businesses, and citizens of the eight-county Suwannee River Basin region. The boating route encompasses 170 river miles (274 river kilometers), from Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park to the Gulf of Mexico.[citation needed]","Gainesville, Florida Gainesville is well known for its music scene and has spawned a number of bands and musicians, including Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Stephen Stills, Don Felder and Bernie Leadon of The Eagles, The Motels, Against Me!, Charles Bradley, Less Than Jake, Hot Water Music, Loyal Revival, John Vanderslice, Sister Hazel, Hundred Waters, and For Squirrels. It is also currently the location of independent labels No Idea Records and Elestial Sound, and it is also the former home of Plan-It-X Records, which moved to Bloomington, Indiana. For two years, the Gainesville non-profit Harvest of Hope Foundation hosted the Harvest of Hope Festival in St. Augustine, Florida.[59] Gainesville is also the home of www.FLAROCKS.com, the founders of 'Santa Jam' who hold concerts every December throughout North Florida as a toy fundraiser for sick, injured, and homeless children, as well as being a local musician showcase. Since 2011 they have distributed nearly 700 toys to hospitals, local churches & homeless charities, and to needy families across the area.","Valdosta, Georgia In 1994 Kent and Dawn Buescher opened Liberty Farms with a playground, entertainment venue and a collection of animals. An amusement park was constructed at Liberty Farms in 1996 and Liberty Farms was renamed Wild Adventures. Wild Adventures expanded with Splash Island Water Park in 2002. The Buescher family purchased a botanical garden and theme park called Cypress Gardens in 2004. Due to damage from three Hurricanes and a financial struggle in repairing Cypress Gardens the Buescher family were forced to sell Wild Adventures to Herschend Family Entertainment in 2007.[24]","Suwannee River When approaching the Suwannee River via several major highways, motorists are greeted with a sign which announces they are crossing the Historic Suwannee River, complete with the first line of sheet music from \"Old Folks at Home\". This is Florida's state song, designated as such in 1935.[citation needed]","Woodstock In 1996, the site of the concert and 1,400 acres (5.7 km2) surrounding was purchased by cable television pioneer Alan Gerry for the purpose of creating the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts.[86] The Center opened on July 1, 2006, with a performance by the New York Philharmonic.[87] On August 13, 2006, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young performed before 16,000 fans at the new Center—37 years after their historic performance at Woodstock.[88]","Stone Mountain Stone Mountain Park, which surrounds the Confederate Memorial, is owned by the state of Georgia and managed by the Stone Mountain Memorial Association, a Georgia state authority. The Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation currently has a long-term contract to operate park attractions while the Stone Mountain Memorial Association retains ownership and the right to reject any project deemed unfit.","Suwannee River The Florida National Scenic Trail runs along the Suwannee River's western banks for approximately 60 miles (97 km), from Deep Creek Conservation Area in Columbia County to Twin Rivers State Forest in Madison County.[citation needed]","Suwannee River This river is the subject of the Stephen Foster song \"Old Folks at Home\", in which he calls it the Swanee Ribber. Foster had named the Pedee River of South Carolina in his first lyrics. It has been called Swanee River because Foster had used an alternative contemporary spelling of the name.[13] Foster never actually saw the river he made world-famous.[citation needed]","Freestyle Music Park In February 2009, the Delaware bankruptcy court declined to force an auction and approved the sale of the park to FPI MB Entertainment (FPI) for $25 million.[24] FPI MB Entertainment was a joint venture of FPI US LLC, a company incorporated in Delaware, and MB Entertainment.[25] The partners included Roundbox Advisors, Freestyle Park International, Baker Leisure Group, and two of the park's original owners — Thomas M. Hiles and D. Tim Duncan. Baker Leisure Group managed the day-to-day park operations.[24] FPI had to completely re-skin and overhaul the park to comply with court rulings.[26]","Stephen Foster Two state parks are named in Foster's honor: the Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park in White Springs, Florida and Stephen C. Foster State Park in Georgia. Both parks are on the Suwannee River. Stephen Foster Lake at Mount Pisgah State Park in Pennsylvania is also named in his honor.","The Allman Brothers Band The band performed nearly 90 shows in the following year, touring as a five-piece.[67] The band also purchased 432 acres of land in Juliette, Georgia for $160,000 and nicknamed it \"the Farm\"; it soon became a group hangout and fulfilled bassist Oakley's communal dreams.[68] Oakley, however, was visibly suffering from the death of his friend: he excessively drank and consumed drugs, and was losing weight quickly.[69] According to friends and family, he appeared to have lost \"all hope, his heart, his drive, his ambition, [and] his direction\" following Duane’s death.[70] \"Everything Berry had envisioned for everybody—including the crew, the women and children—was shattered on the day Duane died, and he didn’t care after that,\" said roadie Kim Payne.[71] Oakley repeatedly wished to \"get high, be high, and stay high,\" causing quiet concern from all those around him.[71] On November 11, 1972, slightly inebriated and overjoyed at the prospect of leading a jam session later that night, Oakley crashed his motorcycle into the side of a bus, just three blocks from where Duane had been killed.[72] He declined hospital treatment and went home, but gradually grew delirious. He was taken to the hospital shortly thereafter and died of cerebral swelling caused by a fractured skull.[73] Oakley was buried directly beside Duane at Rose Hill Cemetery in Macon.[74]","Freestyle Music Park In May 2009, HRP Creative Services Co. wanted to make certain attractions separate from the park the new owners planned, with former park CEO Steven Goodwin wanting the new owners to pay royalties.[28] However, a Delaware federal judge said on March 30 that some of the previous owners still owned intellectual property rights relating to the original theme.[29] The original owners then sued FPI, claiming they had not done enough to change the park, and that the new owners were using intellectual property that was not theirs. This action threatened to delay the reopening.[30]","Amicalola Falls State Park In 2012, Amicalola Falls State Park was privatized and its operations transferred to Coral Hospitality, a Florida-based hotel and resort management company.[5]","Suwannee River The Suwannee River (also spelled Suwanee River) is a major river that runs through South Georgia southward into Florida in the southern United States. It is a wild blackwater river, about 246 miles (396 km) long.[1] The Suwannee River is the site of the prehistoric Suwanee Straits which separated peninsular Florida from the panhandle.","Herschend Family Entertainment In 1986, singer and actress Dolly Parton, who grew up near Pigeon Forge, became a co-owner, and the park's name was changed to Dollywood, reflecting her involvement. At this point, the Pigeon Forge park was branched off into a separate division of HFE called The Dollywood Company, which oversees all the properties that Dolly Parton has interest in.[8]","Gainesville, Florida Roughly since the 2006 founding of Grooveshark, a Gainesville-based music streaming service, Gainesville has seen an increase in the number of technology-based startup companies being founded and developed in the city, particularly the downtown area.[66][67][68] Among them are Digital Brands, SharpSpring, Fracture, Feathr, and others. The city celebrates Josh Greenberg Day annually in April, in honor of the late founder of Grooveshark and his contributions to the community's startup culture.[69]","Holiday World & Splashin' Safari The park suffered a sudden loss in June 2010 when President and CEO Will Koch died while swimming at his home. Although the Spencer County coroner listed the official cause of death as drowning, family and park officials believe Koch's type 1 diabetes played a factor in his death. Soon after his death, Holiday World & Splashin' Safari named Will's younger brother Dan as the park's new President.[15] Dan Koch served as the park's President until late 2012, shortly after which the board of directors announced Matt Eckert as the new President. Matt Eckert was previously one of the parks two general managers. Eckert is the first park President not related to the Koch family. Will Koch's widow Lori and their three children retain primary ownership in the park and its parent company, Koch Development Corporation. Dan Koch, along with his sister Natalie, would go on in 2014 to form Koch Family Parks and buy Alabama Splash Adventure, a previously troubled theme park in Bessemer, Alabama.[16]","Suwannee River The headwaters of the Suwanee River are in the Okefenokee Swamp in the town of Fargo, Georgia. The river runs southwestward into the Florida Panhandle, then drops in elevation through limestone layers into a rare Florida whitewater rapid. Past the rapid, the Suwanee turns west near the town of White Springs, Florida, then connects to the confluences of the Alapaha River and Withlacoochee River.","Suwannee River By the 16th century, the river was inhabited by two closely related Timucua language-speaking peoples: the Yustaga, who lived on the west side of the river; and the Northern Utina, who lived on the east side.[11] By 1633, the Spanish had established the missions of San Juan de Guacara, San Francisco de Chuaquin, and San Augustin de Urihica along the Suwannee to convert these western Timucua peoples.[12]","Herschend Family Entertainment In 2003 the Dollywood Company opened a new Dixie Stampede location in Orlando, Florida along Interstate 4. The location operated until early 2008, when the property was sold to Simon Property Group for an undisclosed amount. The building was torn down, and an extension of the Orlando Vineland Premium Outlets was built on the land. HFE has plans to build another Dixie Stampede in the region at some point, though specific plans have not been disclosed.[10]","Herschend Family Entertainment Herschend Family Entertainment (HFE) is a privately owned themed-entertainment company that operates several theme parks and tourist attractions within the United States.","List of Florida state parks Several state parks were formerly private tourist attractions purchased by the state of Florida to preserve their natural environment. These parks include the Silver Springs State Park, Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park, Rainbow Springs State Park, and Weeki Wachee Springs. There are state parks in 58 of Florida's 67 counties.[6] Nine of the 175 parks do not have \"State Park\" in their name. Four are \"conservation areas\" (reserve, preserve, or wildlife refuge); three are \"Historical/Archaeological sites\"; one is a fishing pier and one is a recreation area.[7] Seven parks are mostly undeveloped with few or no facilities; 10 parks are accessible only by private boat or ferry;[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] and 13 parks contain National Natural Landmarks.[7] Additionally, there are eleven national parks in Florida locations under control of the National Park Service.[18]","Freestyle Music Park Plans for a Hard Rock-themed amusement park were released in 2003, but at the time, funding and licensing agreements had yet to be finalized.[7] AVX Corporation CEO Dick Rosen and other investors including Ziel Feldman and Safe Harbor Capital Partners managing partner Amnon Bar-Tur created two companies. Myrtle Property Owners I, which invested in the proposed theme park. Myrtle Property Owners II bought land from Rosen, with the intent to build a hotel along the Intracoastal Waterway in October 2005. A feasibility study showed that developers predicted 3 million visitors a year in the park's first year, with growth of nine percent the second year and decreasing growth rates after that.[8]","Suwannee River Both of these songs feature banjo-strumming and reminiscences of a plantation life more typical of 19th-century South Carolina than of among the swamps and small farms in the coastal plain of south Georgia and north Florida.[citation needed]","Acme Farm Supply Building In 2013, Tom Morales, a restaurateur and owner of TomKats, a catering company for movie sets, as well as several other businesspeople, including country music singer Alan Jackson, leased the building from the Turner family trust through MJM Real Estate Partners LLC to turn it into a restaurant/bar and music venue.[3][4][5] Known as Acme Feed & Seed, it opened in 2014.[5]","Merriweather Post Pavilion On November 30, 2016 The Howard Hughes Corporation transferred ownership of Merriweather Post Pavilion and Symphony Woods to the Downtown Columbia Arts and Culture Commission, a nonprofit organization helmed by \"Save Merriweather\" co-founder Ian Kennedy. At the official ceremony, Kennedy shaved the beard he had been growing for 13 years, since the beginning of the campaign in 2003.[23]","Chuck Leavell In addition to his musical career, Leavell is a tree farmer in Twiggs County outside Macon, Georgia, an occupation that began when his wife, Rose Lane Leavell, inherited land in the early 1980s. Together they created Charlane Plantation, now a 2500-acre award-winning Tree Farm and hunting preserve. The Leavells are two-time Georgia Tree Farmers of the Year, and were selected as National Outstanding Tree Farmers of the Year in 1999. They are staunch supporters of sustainable forestry, conservation and environmental protection. Chuck wrote his first book, Forever Green: The History and Hope of The American Forest in 2000. His autobiography, Between Rock and a Home Place was published in 2005, and is acclaimed as one of the best rock autobiographies ever published. In 2006, Leavell wrote a children's book, The Tree Farmer. His most recent book is Growing A Better America: Smart, Strong, Sustainable (2011, with J. Marshall Craig), the theme of which is \"smart\" growth. It has been called one of the best \"common sense environmental books of all time\".","Ocala, Florida Marion County is also home to the Ocala National Forest which was established in 1908 and is now the second largest national forest in the state. The Florida Trail, also known as the Florida National Scenic Trail, cuts through Ocala National Forest.[14] Silver Springs State Park was formed as Silver River State Park in 1987, out of land the state purchased around the Silver Springs attraction to spare it from development. The state took over Silver Springs itself in 1993 and incorporated it into the park in 2013.[15]","Suwannee River The Suwannee River area has been inhabited by humans for thousands of years. During the first millennium CE, it was inhabited by the people of the Weedon Island archaeological culture, and around 900 CE, a derivative local culture, known as the Suwanee River Valley culture, developed.[citation needed]","Muscle Shoals, Alabama A large grant from Beats Electronics, a manufacturer of headphones and similar devices (owned by Apple inc.) founded by Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine, provided an essential $1 million. State tourism director Lee Sentell told the media in August 2015 that the 2013 Muscle Shoals (film) had significant influence.[28] \"The financial support from Beats is a direct result of their film.\" Additional donations were made by other groups and individuals. In 2015, Rodney Hall, a foundation Board member, reminded fans of the value of the additional donations. \"The foundation was able to purchase the building through the generosity of private investors like Gene Hamby, who understand the importance of preserving the legacy of Muscle Shoals music.\"[29]","Gulf Shores, Alabama The Hangout owner Shaul Zislin has been criticized for overselling and marketing practices which have attracted undesirable tourists and caused overcrowding, traffic jams and overburdening of the city's police, EMS and waste disposal resources as well as noise pollution on what was once a quiet family oriented beach resort area. The public address system can often be heard over 2 miles away in Gulf State Park.[23]\nMany Alabama residents have opposed the building of a new hotel on state property and the use of BP Oil spill funds to finance projects other than environmental repair. In 2016 the State of Alabama elected to close a road on State Park property with out any notice or warning. It is now used as a bicycle and hiking trail.[24]","The Allman Brothers Band At FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Duane Allman became the primary session guitarist, recording with artists such as Aretha Franklin and King Curtis.[5][10] Duane suggested to Wilson Pickett they record a cover of \"Hey Jude\" by the Beatles; the single went to number 23 on the national charts.[11] FAME signed Duane to a five-year recording contract, and he put together a group, including Johnny Sandlin and Paul Hornsby. Duane recruited Jai Johanny Johanson (Jaimoe) after hearing his drumming on a songwriting demo of Jackie Avery, and the two moved into his home on the Tennessee River. Allman invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group; the pair had met in a Macon, Georgia, Georgia club some time earlier, and became quick friends.[12] The group had immediate chemistry, and Duane's vision for a \"different\" band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving.[12] Meanwhile, Phil Walden, the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R&B acts, was looking to expand into rock acts.[13] FAME owner Hall became frustrated with the group’s recording methods, and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, who purchased them for $10,000.[14] Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic-distributed label, Capricorn.[15]","Action Park In 2010, Intrawest, which ended up in bankruptcy proceedings itself as a result of a leveraged buyout, sold both the Mountain Creek ski resort and the water park to the owners of Crystal Springs Resort. The water park would remain under lease to Palace Entertainment until 2011, when the owners of the resort bought out the operating lease to the water park.[40] This returned control of the former Action Park property, as well as the entire former Vernon Valley/Great Gorge ski area, to the Mulvihill family as they had retained ownership of the ski area that was renamed Crystal Springs following GAR's bankruptcy.","Herschend Family Entertainment In 1994, The Dollywood Company constructed a large music theatre in Pigeon Forge called Music Mansion. Headlined by James Rogers,[9] the highly successful theatre was operated by HFE until 2001, when it was sold to Anita Bryant. In 2005 the theatre was sold again and converted to a WonderWorks location. A Music Mansion Theatre was planned for Myrtle Beach, but never materialized.","Herschend Family Entertainment The company also co-owns and co-operates with partners Dolly Parton and her company The Dollywood Company, the dinner and theatre company Pirates Voyage Dinner and Show in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina[1][2][3] and Dolly Parton's Stampede (formerly Dixie Stampede).[4][5][6]","St. Johns River Confederate Captain John William Pearson named his militia after the Ocklawaha River called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the American Civil War.[45] Prior to the civil war, Pearson ran a successful health resort in Orange Springs. After the civil war Pearson's Orange Springs resort declined in popularity due to the increasing attention to nearby Silver Springs—the source of the Silver River—at the turn of the 20th century, popularizing the Ocklawaha. Georgia-born poet Sidney Lanier called it \"the sweetest waterlane in the world\" in a travel guide he published in 1876.[46][47] The river gave Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings access to the St. Johns from her homestead at Orange Lake. The region served as a major fishing attraction until a decline in water quality occurred in the 1940s,[48] and since then further degradation of the river and its sources have occurred. In particular, Lake Apopka earned the designation of Florida's most polluted lake following a chemical spill in 1980 that dumped DDE in it.[49] It has experienced chronic algal blooms caused by citrus farm fertilizer and wastewater runoff from nearby farms.[50]","Freestyle Music Park On August 9, 2010, foreclosure proceedings were filed against Freestyle Music Park.[42] Mortgage holder FPI US LLC seeks over $25 million from park owner FPI MB Entertainment LLC. Loan documents identify the general manager of FPI US LLC as Alexey (Alexei in most documents) Sidnev; Sidnev is a former partner in Moscow-based MT Development, an investor in Freestyle Park that had planned a similar park in Europe. Court filings show FPI US LLC is a division of MT Development.[25] On August 20, FPI MB Entertainment responded to the foreclosure action, admitting the amount of debt is correct and that it cannot pay.[43] Four out of five creditors responding to the foreclosure claimed FPI US and FPI MB are the same company and that FPI US should not have first claim to park assets. FPI MB attorney Nate Fata denied this.[44] In an August 24, 2010, interview, Baker said the park's entire board had resigned, except for one member appointed by Russian investors who will work to sell the park. Baker, who continued to head Baker Leisure Group, believed the park could succeed under new owners.[43]","Suwannee River In the 18th century, Seminoles lived by the river.[citation needed]","Gainesville, Florida No Idea Records puts on an annual three-day rock festival known as The Fest, which typically occurs during the last weekend in October, coinciding with the annual Florida-Georgia football game (played in Jacksonville) to minimize tensions between the largely out of town music festival goers with the University of Florida students and alumni.[60]","Hard Rock Cafe In 1990, The Rank Group, a London-based leisure company, acquired Mecca Leisure Group and continued expansion of the concept in its geographic territory. Rank went on to purchase Hard Rock America from Peter Morton as well as Hard Rock Canada from Nick Bitove. After the completion of these acquisitions, Rank gained worldwide control of the brand. In March 2007, the Seminole Tribe of Florida acquired Hard Rock Cafe International, Inc. and other related entities from Rank for US$965 million.[1] In 2008, anonymous members of the wait staff criticized the business because of its practice of paying them less than half the official minimum wage in the UK, with the business allocating tips to staff to bring their salaries within the law. Most customers, it was argued, do not realize that they are subsidizing a low wage when they give the tip.[6]","Action Park In 2010, the whole Mountain Creek ski area and water park was sold[8] to a group led by Eugene Mulvihill, the former owner of Great American Recreation and the owner of the adjacent Crystal Springs Resort. It was under the new ownership that the name of the water park was changed back to Action Park, with the park assuming that name when it opened for the 2014 season.[9] In 2016, the Mountain Creek Park name was restored to the park, thus retiring the Action Park name again.","Bell Ranch In 1970, ownership of the largest single chunk—so large it has its own Zip Code, 88441—was acquired by William N. Lane II of Chicago, chairman and CEO of publicly traded General Binding Corp., a maker of office supplies and equipment.[2] Further purchases of the original grant land have fleshed out the holding to its present size of 290,100 acres (1,174 km2). After Lane died in a 1978 car accident on the ranch, it was owned by his five children through a trust. His son Jeff died in a plane accident on the ranch in 2007. In 2010, the ranch was acquired by Silver Spur Ranches, a ranching company owned by John Malone.[2][4]","Freestyle Music Park On April 2, 2009, the new owners announced that the Hard Rock name would be dropped, despite efforts to obtain permission from Hard Rock International, which had been willing to continue use of the name if conditions could be met. The bankruptcy court required all Hard Rock merchandise to be destroyed as a result. Changing the name would give the park a more positive image since the old name was connected with the bankruptcy, and it was not considered family-oriented, which the new owners wanted the park to be. Later that month, FPI unveiled a new name for the park: Freestyle Music Park, stating that it will pay homage to a variety of musical genres, including rock n' roll, country, reggae, beach music, pop, R&B, alternative, Christian and disco.[1] The name does not refer to the Latin music genre, according to sales and marketing director John Stine.[27]","Freestyle Music Park By 2006, a licensing agreement with the Hard Rock franchise was reached.[9] The Hard Rock name was licensed from Seminole Nation–owned Hard Rock International, current owners/operators of the Hard Rock Cafe brand, to HRP Myrtle Beach Operations, LLC, which designed and built the park, for a fee of $2.5 million per year.[10] Investors included Tim Duncan and AVX Corporation CEO Dick Rosen. Financing also included a loan of $385 million, though the park only cost $225 million to build. An early theme was the four seasons of summer, spring, winter and fall.[11]","Gainesville, Florida Cultural facilities include the Florida Museum of Natural History, Harn Museum of Art, the Hippodrome State Theatre, and the Curtis M. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts. Smaller theaters include the Acrosstown Repertory Theatre (ART), Actors' Warehouse, and the Gainesville Community Playhouse (GCP). GCP is the oldest community theater group in Florida; in 2006, it christened a new theater building.[53]","The Stanley Brothers As bluegrass music grew less popular in the late 1950s, the Stanley Brothers moved to Live Oak, Florida, and headlined the weekly Suwannee River Jamboree radio show on WNER from 1958 to 1962. The three-hour show was also syndicated across the Southeast.[11] In 1966, the brothers toured Europe, and upon returning home they continued to perform together until Carter's death in December 1966.[12]","Lynyrd Skynyrd Mark \"Sparky\" Matejka, formerly of the country music band Hot Apple Pie, joined Lynyrd Skynyrd in 2006 as Thomasson's replacement. On November 2, 2007, the band performed for a crowd of 50,000 people at the University of Florida's Gator Growl student-run pep rally in Ben Hill Griffin Stadium (\"The Swamp\" football stadium). This was the largest crowd that Lynyrd Skynyrd had played to in the U.S., until the July 2008 Bama Jam in Enterprise, Alabama where more than 111,000 people attended.[33]","Muscle Shoals, Alabama The original location of Muscle Shoals Sound Studios in Sheffield has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since June 2006.[24] From the early 2000s to 2013, it had been partly restored and open for tours. In 2013, the documentary Muscle Shoals (film) raised public interest in a major restoration of the original studio.[25][26] In the same year, the Muscle Shoals Music Foundation was formed to raise funds to purchase the building and to complete major renovations. In June 2013, Noel Webster who was then the owner of 3614 Jackson Highway (since 1999), sold the property, without the historic recording equipment, to the Muscle Shoals Music Foundation. The foundation praised the contribution made to the project by Sheffield resident, attorney Gene Hambey.[27]","Heritage USA In December 2004, the remainder of the Heritage USA property was sold to Coulston Enterprises, owned by local developer and former MUI executive Earl Coulston. Coulston Enterprises sold portions of the property formerly housing the PTL Ministry to MorningStar Ministries of Charlotte, headed by Rick Joyner and Flames-of-Fire Ministries of Fort Mill, headed by Coulston's wife, Sabrina. MorningStar is in the process[when?] of ongoing renovations to the portions of the property purchased by the ministry, while the buildings that had housed Flames-of-Fire have since been sold to The Broadcast Group, a television and multi-media production company headed by Dr. Dale Hill, who formerly worked for Bakker and PTL. Coulston Enterprises has developed several new subdivisions featuring single family homes on the remainder of the property. The Coulston-developed residential portion of the property is called Regal Manor.[citation needed]","Dollywood's Splash Country Both Dollywood and Dollywood's Splash Country are co-owned by country music star Dolly Parton and the Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation.","Old Folks at Home In his 2007 inauguration ceremony, Charlie Crist decided not to include the state song, but rather to use in its place, \"The Florida Song,\"[9] a composition written by a black Floridian jazz musician, Charles Atkins. Crist then encouraged state Senator Tony Hill, who was the leader of the legislature's Black Caucus, to find a new song.[10] Hill joined forces with state Representative Ed Homan and the Florida Music Educators Association to sponsor a contest for a new state song.[11]","Seaside, Florida During the Annual 30A Songwriters Festival, produced by the Cultural Arts Association of Walton County, singer-songwriters from all over the U.S. perform in venues along Scenic Highway 30A and at a few venues in Seaside itself.[12]","Suwannee River The Spanish recorded the native Timucua name of Guacara for the river that would later become known as the Suwannee. Different etymologies have been suggested for the modern name.","Suwannee River Starting at the confluences of those three rivers, that confluence forms the southern borderline of Hamilton County, Florida. The Suwanee then bends southward near the town of Ellaville, Florida followed by Luraville, Florida then joins together with the Santa Fe River (Florida) from the east south of the town of Branford, Florida.","The Villages, Florida The Villages is controlled by several quasi-governmental Community Development Districts (CDD), which are controlled by the development company that created The Villages.[6] H. Gary Morse, the son of the original owner and who was responsible for turning The Villages into one of the most well-known and fastest-growing retirement communities, transferred most direct ownership in the company to his three children in 2006; Morse died in 2014.[7][8] The overall development lies in central Florida, approximately 20 miles (32 km) south of Ocala and approximately 45 miles (72 km) northwest of Orlando.","The Allman Brothers Band The group moved to Atlanta, Georgia by May 1, where Walden was establishing Capricorn Records.[23] Mike Callahan and Joseph \"Red Dog\" Campbell became the band’s early crew members. \"Red Dog\" was a disabled Vietnam veteran who donated his monthly disability checks to the band's cause.[24][25] In Macon, the group stayed at friend Twiggs Lyndon's apartment on 309 College Street, which became known as the communal home of the band and crew, nicknamed the Hippie Crash Pad.[26] \"There were five or six occupied apartments in the building with the Hippie Crash Pad and you would expect they would call the police on us because we were constantly raising hell at three or four in the morning, but they all just moved out,\" said Trucks.[27] Living meagerly, they found a friend in \"Mama Louise\" Hudson, cook and proprietor of the H&H Soul Food Restaurant, who ran a tab when they were short of funds,[28] early on made good with proceeds from Duane's recording sessions on the side. The band's image was radical in the just barely integrated Macon: \"A lot of the white folk around here did not approve of them long-haired boys, or of them always having a black guy with them,\" said Hudson.[29] The band performed locally, as well as 80 miles north in Atlanta's Piedmont Park, and practiced at the newly minted Capricorn nearly each day.[28]","List of Florida state parks The Florida Park Service is the division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection responsible for the operation of Florida State Parks, and won the Gold Medal honoring the best state park system in the country in 1999 and 2005 from the National Recreation and Park Association. They were also finalists in the 1997 and 2011 competitions.[4] The Park Service was awarded the gold medal again in October 2013, making it the only three-time winner.[2][5] The parks are open year-round and offer diverse activities beyond fishing, hiking and camping. Many parks offer facilities for birding or horseback riding; there are several battle reenactments; and freshwater springs and beaches are Florida's gems. According to the Florida Park Service website, their goal \"is to help create a sense of place by showing park visitors the best of Florida's diverse natural and cultural sites. Florida's state parks are managed and preserved for enjoyment by this and future generations through providing appropriate resource-based recreational opportunities, interpretation and education that help visitors connect to the Real Florida.\"[3]","New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival The Jazz & Heritage Festival is owned by the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation, which uses the proceeds from the festival for year-round community development programs in the areas of education, economic development, and culture. The Foundation also owns the broadcast license of radio station WWOZ.[1] The festival is produced by Festival Productions, Inc. - New Orleans and AEG Live, as a contract service to the Foundation. Since 2006, the festival's main sponsor has been the Royal Dutch Shell (the oil company), and the festival's full name is now \"The New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival presented by Shell.\" Several of the stage names also reflect sponsors like the Acura Stage, the Sheraton New Orleans Fais Do-Do Stage, the AT&T/ wwoz Jazz Tent, the AIG, Gospel Tent.[9]","Suwannee River The Lower Suwannee National Wildlife Refuge offers bird and wildlife observation, wildlife photography, fishing, canoeing, hunting, and interpretive walks. A driving tour is under construction, and several boardwalks and observation towers offer views of wildlife and habitat.[citation needed]","St. Johns River In 1795, Florida was transferred back to Spain which lured Americans with cheap land. A former loyalist to Britain who left South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War, a planter and slave trader named Zephaniah Kingsley seized the opportunity and built a plantation named Laurel Grove near what is now Doctors Lake, close to the west bank of the St. Johns River, south of where Orange Park is today.[111] Three years later, Kingsley took a trip to Cuba and purchased a 13-year-old Wolof girl named Anna Madgigine Jai. She became his common-law wife, and managed Laurel Grove while Kingsley traveled and conducted business.[112] The plantation grew citrus and sea island cotton (Gossypium barbadense). In 1814, they moved to a larger plantation on Fort George Island, where they lived for 25 years, and owned several other plantations and homesteads in what is today Jacksonville and another on Drayton Island at the north end of Lake George. Kingsley later married three other freed women in a polygamous relationship;[113] Spanish-controlled Florida allowed interracial marriages, and white landowners such as James Erwin, George Clarke, Francisco Sánchez, John Fraser, and Francis Richard, Jr.—early settlers along the river—all were married to or in extramarital relationships with African women.[114]","Suwannee River The steamboat Madison operated on the river before the Civil War, and the sulphur springs at White Springs became popular as a health resort, with 14 hotels in operation in the late 19th century.[citation needed]","Natural American Spirit Natural American Spirit (often referred to as American Spirits) is an American brand of cigarette and fine tobacco products, manufactured in the United States by the Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Company. The company was founded in 1982 by Bill Drake, author of “The Cultivators Handbook of Natural Tobacco”, Robert Marion, Chris Webster, and Eb Wicks, a plumbing contractor who took out a loan to finance the startup.[1] In January 2002 the company was acquired by Reynolds American and is now a wholly owned independent subsidiary of Reynolds American, which is in turn 42% owned by British American Tobacco.[2] Japan Tobacco announced in September 2015 that it acquired the right to sell Natural American Spirit products in markets outside the United States.[3]","The Allman Brothers Band (album) The Allman Brothers Band was formed in March 1969, during large jam sessions with various musicians in Jacksonville, Florida. Duane Allman and Jai Johanny Johanson (Jaimoe) had recently moved from Muscle Shoals, where Duane participated in session work at FAME Studios for artists such as Aretha Franklin, King Curtis, and Wilson Pickett, with whom he recorded a cover of the Beatles' \"Hey Jude\" that went to number 23 on the national charts.[2] Duane began to put together a new band, and invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group; the pair had met in a Jacksonville, Florida club some time earlier, and became quick friends.[3] The group had immediate chemistry, and Duane's vision for a \"different\" band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving.[3] Meanwhile, Phil Walden, the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R&B acts, was looking to expand into rock acts.[4] Rick Hall became frustrated with the group’s recording methods, and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, who purchased them for $10,000.[5] Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic-distributed label, Capricorn.[6]","Rajneeshpuram Dennis R. Washington's firm Washington Construction purchased The Big Muddy Ranch from the state in 1991. Washington attempted to run the ranch for profit, and also unsuccessfully negotiated with the state to turn it into a state park.[22]","Ripley Entertainment Ripley Entertainment Inc. is an entertainment and edutainment holding company owned by the Jim Pattison Group of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The company has its headquarters in an unincorporated part of southern Orange County, Florida, near Orlando, at an office complex near the intersection of Sand Lake Road and John Young Parkway.[1]","St. Johns County, Florida St. Johns County’s history begins in 1821, when Colonel Robert Butler received Spanish East Florida from Captain-General Colonel José M. Coppinger. Butler represented Major General Andrew Jackson, federal military commissioner for the Florida provinces (las Floridas) with the powers of governor, exercising the powers of the Captain General and the Intendants of the Island of Cuba and the Governors of the said provinces, respectively, who ordained that all of that country lying east of the river Suwannee[3] should be designated as the County of St. Johns.","Georgia Aquarium On January 1, 2011, the aquarium purchased Marineland of Florida for a reported $9.1 million.[32] The seller was Jim Jacoby, a metro Atlanta developer and member of the Georgia Aquarium board of directors, who bought the park in 2004 and re-developed it.","Chuck Leavell Leavell and Joel Babbit are the co-founders of The Mother Nature Network, an environmental news and information website that launched in January 2009. The site has grown to be the most visited independent environmental website in the world.[citation needed] Leavell serves as Director of Environmental Affairs, and sits on the board of directors for the company. He hosts two video series on mnn.com: \"Love of the Land,\" in which he discusses sustainability and conservation issues, and \"In The Green Room,\" a series in which he interviews fellow celebrities about the environment and their philanthropic work.[7]","West Palm Beach, Florida SunFest: an annual music, art, and waterfront festival in Florida, founded in 1982 to draw visitors to the area during the \"shoulder season\" of April and May. SunFest has an annual attendance of more than 275,000 people. Artists who have performed include Wilco, Carrie Underwood, John Mayer, Ray Charles, James Brown, Ludacris, Nelly, Lenny Kravitz, Dizzy Gillespie, Bob Dylan, Kenny G, Earth Wind and Fire, Cyndi Lauper, Smashing Pumpkins, MGMT, and The Wailers. SunFest is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization.[59]","Anita Zucker She owns the Carolina Ice Palace and is part owner of the South Carolina Stingrays ice hockey team.[1][7]","The Villages, Florida Morse noted that the successful retirement communities (such as Del Webb's Sun City developments) offered numerous well-maintained amenities to the residents. They also had diverse and nearby commercial development. Morse began to significantly upgrade the development. Their sales improved in the mid-1980s. Schwartz began to buy large tracts of land in nearby Sumter and Marion counties for future expansion. In 1992, Morse officially changed the overall development name to The Villages. The development is still controlled in all major aspects by descendants of Schwartz and Morse.","Herschend Family Entertainment Founded by Jack and Pete Herschend of Branson, Missouri, in its early years HFE was simply known as Herschend Enterprises. In the 1980s the name was changed to Silver Dollar City Inc., and in 2003 the company gained the current name. HFE is currently headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The company's mission is to \"Create Memories Worth Repeating.\"","Merriweather Post Pavilion As \"Save Merriweather\" began to pick up steam, General Growth Properties offered to sell Merriweather to Howard County on condition that the pavilion be converted into a much smaller, enclosed theater. Shortly thereafter, 9:30 Club owner Seth Hurwitz's I.M.P. was chosen as Merriweather's new promoter amidst the claim by GGP's General Manager that trying to make Merriweather Post Pavilion profitable was like \"trying to sell ice cubes in the middle of winter.\"[24][25]","Southern Wine & Spirits Harvey R. Chaplin is the Chairman.[4]","Silver Dollar City In 1972 Genevieve Lynch, the last of William Lynch's daughters, died and she bequeathed the land under Silver Dollar City and Marvel Cave to the College of the Ozarks and Branson Presbyterian Church.[4] The Herschends continue to operate it.","The Sagamore The resort is currently managed by Delray Beach, Florida-based Ocean Properties, which bought it in 2008.[5]","Parrish, Florida A post office named Parish was established in 1879, and the name was changed to Parrish in 1950.[2] The community was named and established by Crawford Parrish, who was from Georgia and his wife Mary Bratcher Vanzant who was born in 1841. After they were married and after the Civil War they moved south to what is now known originally as the Suwanee River and bought land and had slaves work there. In 1867 they sold the land and decided to move to the Manatee River. He had stayed for several years and built a home on the banks of the river in what is now Oak Hill (unknown location). He was a rancher and later an orange grower. Also, he was the founder of the original town site.[3]","History of Florida Almost half the state's population were enslaved African Americans working on large cotton and sugar plantations, between the Apalachicola and Suwannee rivers in the north central part of the state.[55] Like the people who owned them, many slaves had come from the coastal areas of Georgia and the Carolinas. They were part of the Gullah-Gee Chee culture of the Lowcountry. Others were enslaved African Americans from the Upper South who had been sold to traders taking slaves to the Deep South.[citation needed]","Suwannee River The river ends and drains into the Gulf of Mexico on the outskirts of Suwannee, Florida.","Suwannee River George Gershwin's song, with lyrics by Irving Caesar, and made popular by Al Jolson, is also spelled \"Swanee\" and boasts that \"the folks up North will see me no more when I get to that Swanee shore\".[citation needed]","Lynyrd Skynyrd By 1970, Lynyrd Skynyrd had become a top band in Jacksonville, headlining at some local concerts, and opening for several national acts. Pat Armstrong, a Jacksonville native and partner in Macon, Georgia-based Hustlers Inc. with Phil Walden's younger brother, Alan Walden, became the band's managers. Armstrong left Hustlers shortly thereafter to start his own agency. Walden stayed with the band until 1974, when management was turned over to Peter Rudge. The band continued to perform throughout the South in the early 1970s, further developing their hard-driving blues rock sound and image, and experimenting with recording their sound in a studio. Skynyrd crafted this distinctively \"southern\" sound through a creative blend of blues, and a slight British rock influence.[11]","New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival To produce the Festival in New Orleans, Wein put together a key group of artistic advisers, among them Ellis Marsalis, Richard B. \"Dick\" Allen and Harry Souchon. Dick Allen, the curator of Tulane University's Hogan Jazz Archives, recommended Archive employee Allison Miner and intern Quint Davis to Wein to help produce the first festival. Both Miner and Davis knew a great deal about jazz. They went to the black clubs to recruit performers, rather than to Bourbon Street or other tourist destinations, because it was at these clubs that live music was being produced. The first person the pair booked was Snooks Eaglin, who was a street singer at the time, and who performed at the festival every year thereafter. Both volunteered for the \"labor of love\" that was the festival, and were not compensated.[3] After Wein established the Festival, Miner and Davis oversaw the day-to-day operations of Festival Productions Inc.-New Orleans for many years, under the supervision of Wein and the Foundation Board. Quint Davis currently holds the position of CEO of Festival Productions, Inc.- New Orleans, while Miner is largely credited with the founding the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation Archive. AEG Live became a co-producer of the festival in 2004.[6]","The Villages, Florida Stuck with considerable portions of Florida land, in the early 1970s Schwartz and Tarrson began development of a mobile home park, Orange Blossom Gardens, in the northwestern corner of Lake County. By the early 1980s, the community had sold only 400 units. In an attempt to improve the business, Schwartz bought out Tarrson's interest and brought his son, H. Gary Morse, on board in 1983.","Capitol Theatre (Port Chester, New York) In December 2011, The New York Times announced that the theatre was to be reopened by music entrepreneur Peter Shapiro, owner of the Brooklyn Bowl and former owner of the NYC club Wetlands Preserve, to present major concerts at the venue, in partnership with concert promoter The Bowery Presents. A multimillion-dollar renovation took place; \"state-of-the-art\" sound and lighting equipment was installed. Part of the renovations included acquiring the adjacent Capitol Jewelers store and converting it into a bar, which is open to the public most nights when the theatre does not have an event. The bar, with the approval of the estate of the Garcia family, was named \"Garcia's\" in honor of Grateful Dead guitarist Jerry Garcia. The Capitol Theatre reopened on September 4, 2012, with Bob Dylan as its first act. Initially, Shapiro had a long-term lease on the Capitol Theatre, which, at the time, was owned by Marvin Ravikoff. In December 2012, Shapiro purchased the theatre. The theatre has hosted many famous performers and top acts such as, BB King, Furthur, Willie Nelson, the Black Crowes, George Lopez, Elvis Costello & The Roots, Steely Dan, Al Green, the B-52s, and Yo Gabba Gabba.","Freestyle Music Park In December 2011, FPI US which received the property in an August foreclosure auction, filed papers showing it had mortgaged the property for $20 million, money that the company's attorney was needed for maintenance and other expenses until a sale. Land for a proposed hotel which was never built was later sold in a foreclosure auction on July 2, 2012.[8]","Herschend Family Entertainment Along with the Herschend family, Dolly Parton co-owns the Dolly Parton's Stampede (formerly Dixie Stampede[6]) dinner attraction chain, which has locations in Pigeon Forge (opened 1988), Myrtle Beach (1992), and Branson (1995). A location in Orlando opened in 2003 and closed in early 2008.","Atlanta Hawks On January 2, 2015, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported that the remaining minority owners of Atlanta Hawks, LLC would join Levenson, effectively putting the entire franchise for sale.[37] The sale of the team as well as the operating rights to Philips Arena was handled by Goldman Sachs and Inner Circle Sports LLC. The NBA has stated that the Hawks would remain in Atlanta as a condition of their sale. Additionally, Atlanta mayor Kasim Reed stated that the city might offer incentives for a prospective owner to keep the Hawks in Atlanta for another 30 years.[38] On April 22, 2015, Atlanta Spirit reached a tentative agreement to sell the franchise to a group led by billionaire Tony Ressler (with Grant Hill, Steven Price, Rick Schnall, Sara Blakely, Jesse Itzler) for $850 million; the sale was approved by the NBA Board of Governors on June 24, 2015.[39][40][41]","Old Folks at Home \"Old Folks at Home\" (also known as \"Swanee River\", \"Swanee Ribber\" [from the original lyrics], or \"Suwannee River\") is a minstrel song written by Stephen Foster in 1851. Since 1935 it has been the official state song of Florida, although in 2008 the original lyrics were expurgated.[1]","Kentucky Kingdom On January 16, 2012, the owners of Holiday World & Splashin' Safari in Santa Claus, Indiana, announced they were involved in talks about the future of Kentucky Kingdom. Their media release stated they were in a fact-finding stage and hadn't made any decisions about whether to move forward in pursuing an opportunity to run the theme park.[18] On February 7, 2012, four members of the Koch family, who also own Holiday World & Splashin' Safari, formed a new company, Bluegrass Boardwalk, Incorporated, to negotiate a lease agreement with the Kentucky State Fair Board and to apply for economic development incentives from the Commonwealth of Kentucky.[19] On February 23, 2012, the Kentucky Fair Board approved a lease agreement for the former Kentucky Kingdom property to the Koch family. It was announced that Kentucky Kingdom would be renamed Bluegrass Boardwalk, would reopen on May 11, 2013, and employ 25 full-time and 800 seasonal workers.[20]","Chuck Leavell In 1969, Hornsby moved to Macon, Georgia to work for Capricorn Records as a studio musician and producer, eventually producing such artists as The Charlie Daniels Band, The Marshall Tucker Band, Wet Willie and others. At Hornsby's suggestion, Leavell came to Macon and helped form Sundown, which recorded one record on the Ampex label in 1970. That band broke up shortly thereafter, and Leavell found himself doing session work at Capricorn and eventually was tapped to tour with Alex Taylor, James Taylor's elder brother. Leavell recorded one record with Taylor, Dinnertime, which was released in 1972. Leavell continued to tour with Taylor for a short time afterwards. When Taylor had a falling out with his manager and the founder of Capricorn, Phil Walden, and quit touring, Leavell found himself playing with Dr. John. Leavell claims this was his \"college education.\"","Rajneeshpuram In 1996, Washington donated the ranch to Young Life, a Christian youth organization. Since 1999, Young Life has operated a summer camp there, first as the WildHorse Canyon Camp, later as the Washington Family Ranch.[22][23]","Stone Mountain Stone Mountain was once owned by the Venable Brothers and was the site of the founding of the second Ku Klux Klan in 1915. It was purchased by the State of Georgia in 1958[3] \"as a memorial to the Confederacy.\"[4] Stone Mountain Park officially opened on April 14, 1965 – 100 years to the day after Lincoln's assassination.[5] It is the most visited destination in the state of Georgia.[4]","Stone Mountain The park features several attractions that are operated by Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation.","St. Johns River After Florida came under the Kingdom of Great Britain's jurisdiction in 1763, Quaker father and son naturalists John and William Bartram explored the length of the river while visiting the southeastern United States from 1765 to 1766. They published journals describing their experiences and the plants and animals they observed. They were charged by King George III to find the source of the river they called the Picolata or San Juan, and measured its widths and depths, taking soil samples as they traveled southward.[106] William returned to Florida from 1773 to 1777 and wrote another journal about his travels, while he collected plants and befriended the Seminoles who called him \"Puc Puggy\" (flower hunter).[107] William's visit took him as far south as Blue Spring, where he remarked on the crystal clear views offered by the spring water: \"The water is perfectly diaphanous, and here are continually a prodigious number and variety of fish; they appear as plain as though lying on a table before your eyes, although many feet deep in the water.\"[108] Bartram's journals attracted the attention of such prominent Americans as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton.[109] The success of these journals inspired other naturalists such as André Michaux to further explore the St. Johns, as he did in 1788, sailing from Palatka south to Lake Monroe, and gave names to some of the plants described by the Bartrams' journals. Michaux was followed by William Baldwin between 1811 and 1817. Subsequent explorers, including John James Audubon, have carried William's Travels Through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Florida with them as a guide.[106][110]"],"string":"[\n \"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park, nestled in Live Oak, Florida, with 3 miles of the Suwannee river bordering the park, hosts over 25 diverse, fun events throughout the year. AURA Music and Arts Festival, Suwannee Hulaween, Wanee Music Festival, Springfest, Suwannee Festival of Lights, and Suwannee River Jam are some of these annual festivals. The park offers multiple stages, miles of trails and over 800 acres (3.2 km2) for camping, hiking, canoe and kayak rentals on the river, horseback riding, a restaurant and country store. Besides a variety of other flora and fauna it includes a large bat house which has become a home to an increasing number of bats.\",\n \"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park Situated on the banks of the historic Suwannee River, the park consists of over 800 acres (2.4 km²) of camping areas, concert venues, recreational facilities and unspoiled forests. The park hosts numerous major events each year, including Suwannee Hulaween, the AURA Music and Arts Festival, Suwannee River Jam, the Magnoliafest, Wanee Music Festival, Blackwater Music Festival, Purple Hatter's Ball, and Suwannee Springfest.\",\n \"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park is located in North Central Florida, in Suwannee County, United States.\",\n \"Suwannee River In recent years, the Suwannee River has been the site of many music gatherings. Magnolia Festival, SpringFest, and Wanee have been held annually in Live Oak, Florida, at the Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park, adjacent to the river. Performing artists have included Vassar Clements, Peter Rowan, David Grisman, Allman Brothers Band, and the String Cheese Incident.[citation needed]\",\n \"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Cornett family has been making improvements to the park to enhance and improve its entertainment, hiking, canoeing, camping and other activities. The park offers varied camping options including primitive camping, RV camping and furnished park models. A tree house is also available for different occasions and events.\",\n \"Suwannee River In 2008, its original lyrics were replaced[14] with a politically correct version.[15] There is a Foster museum and carillon tower at Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park in White Springs. The spring itself is called White Sulphur Springs because of its high sulphur content. Since there was a belief in the healing qualities of its waters, the Springs were long popular as a health resort.[citation needed]\",\n \"Suwannee River A unique aspect of the Suwannee River is the Suwannee River Wilderness Trail, a cooperative effort by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the Suwannee River Water Management District, and the cities, businesses, and citizens of the eight-county Suwannee River Basin region. The boating route encompasses 170 river miles (274 river kilometers), from Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park to the Gulf of Mexico.[citation needed]\",\n \"Gainesville, Florida Gainesville is well known for its music scene and has spawned a number of bands and musicians, including Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Stephen Stills, Don Felder and Bernie Leadon of The Eagles, The Motels, Against Me!, Charles Bradley, Less Than Jake, Hot Water Music, Loyal Revival, John Vanderslice, Sister Hazel, Hundred Waters, and For Squirrels. It is also currently the location of independent labels No Idea Records and Elestial Sound, and it is also the former home of Plan-It-X Records, which moved to Bloomington, Indiana. For two years, the Gainesville non-profit Harvest of Hope Foundation hosted the Harvest of Hope Festival in St. Augustine, Florida.[59] Gainesville is also the home of www.FLAROCKS.com, the founders of 'Santa Jam' who hold concerts every December throughout North Florida as a toy fundraiser for sick, injured, and homeless children, as well as being a local musician showcase. Since 2011 they have distributed nearly 700 toys to hospitals, local churches & homeless charities, and to needy families across the area.\",\n \"Valdosta, Georgia In 1994 Kent and Dawn Buescher opened Liberty Farms with a playground, entertainment venue and a collection of animals. An amusement park was constructed at Liberty Farms in 1996 and Liberty Farms was renamed Wild Adventures. Wild Adventures expanded with Splash Island Water Park in 2002. The Buescher family purchased a botanical garden and theme park called Cypress Gardens in 2004. Due to damage from three Hurricanes and a financial struggle in repairing Cypress Gardens the Buescher family were forced to sell Wild Adventures to Herschend Family Entertainment in 2007.[24]\",\n \"Suwannee River When approaching the Suwannee River via several major highways, motorists are greeted with a sign which announces they are crossing the Historic Suwannee River, complete with the first line of sheet music from \\\"Old Folks at Home\\\". This is Florida's state song, designated as such in 1935.[citation needed]\",\n \"Woodstock In 1996, the site of the concert and 1,400 acres (5.7 km2) surrounding was purchased by cable television pioneer Alan Gerry for the purpose of creating the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts.[86] The Center opened on July 1, 2006, with a performance by the New York Philharmonic.[87] On August 13, 2006, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young performed before 16,000 fans at the new Center—37 years after their historic performance at Woodstock.[88]\",\n \"Stone Mountain Stone Mountain Park, which surrounds the Confederate Memorial, is owned by the state of Georgia and managed by the Stone Mountain Memorial Association, a Georgia state authority. The Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation currently has a long-term contract to operate park attractions while the Stone Mountain Memorial Association retains ownership and the right to reject any project deemed unfit.\",\n \"Suwannee River The Florida National Scenic Trail runs along the Suwannee River's western banks for approximately 60 miles (97 km), from Deep Creek Conservation Area in Columbia County to Twin Rivers State Forest in Madison County.[citation needed]\",\n \"Suwannee River This river is the subject of the Stephen Foster song \\\"Old Folks at Home\\\", in which he calls it the Swanee Ribber. Foster had named the Pedee River of South Carolina in his first lyrics. It has been called Swanee River because Foster had used an alternative contemporary spelling of the name.[13] Foster never actually saw the river he made world-famous.[citation needed]\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park In February 2009, the Delaware bankruptcy court declined to force an auction and approved the sale of the park to FPI MB Entertainment (FPI) for $25 million.[24] FPI MB Entertainment was a joint venture of FPI US LLC, a company incorporated in Delaware, and MB Entertainment.[25] The partners included Roundbox Advisors, Freestyle Park International, Baker Leisure Group, and two of the park's original owners — Thomas M. Hiles and D. Tim Duncan. Baker Leisure Group managed the day-to-day park operations.[24] FPI had to completely re-skin and overhaul the park to comply with court rulings.[26]\",\n \"Stephen Foster Two state parks are named in Foster's honor: the Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park in White Springs, Florida and Stephen C. Foster State Park in Georgia. Both parks are on the Suwannee River. Stephen Foster Lake at Mount Pisgah State Park in Pennsylvania is also named in his honor.\",\n \"The Allman Brothers Band The band performed nearly 90 shows in the following year, touring as a five-piece.[67] The band also purchased 432 acres of land in Juliette, Georgia for $160,000 and nicknamed it \\\"the Farm\\\"; it soon became a group hangout and fulfilled bassist Oakley's communal dreams.[68] Oakley, however, was visibly suffering from the death of his friend: he excessively drank and consumed drugs, and was losing weight quickly.[69] According to friends and family, he appeared to have lost \\\"all hope, his heart, his drive, his ambition, [and] his direction\\\" following Duane’s death.[70] \\\"Everything Berry had envisioned for everybody—including the crew, the women and children—was shattered on the day Duane died, and he didn’t care after that,\\\" said roadie Kim Payne.[71] Oakley repeatedly wished to \\\"get high, be high, and stay high,\\\" causing quiet concern from all those around him.[71] On November 11, 1972, slightly inebriated and overjoyed at the prospect of leading a jam session later that night, Oakley crashed his motorcycle into the side of a bus, just three blocks from where Duane had been killed.[72] He declined hospital treatment and went home, but gradually grew delirious. He was taken to the hospital shortly thereafter and died of cerebral swelling caused by a fractured skull.[73] Oakley was buried directly beside Duane at Rose Hill Cemetery in Macon.[74]\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park In May 2009, HRP Creative Services Co. wanted to make certain attractions separate from the park the new owners planned, with former park CEO Steven Goodwin wanting the new owners to pay royalties.[28] However, a Delaware federal judge said on March 30 that some of the previous owners still owned intellectual property rights relating to the original theme.[29] The original owners then sued FPI, claiming they had not done enough to change the park, and that the new owners were using intellectual property that was not theirs. This action threatened to delay the reopening.[30]\",\n \"Amicalola Falls State Park In 2012, Amicalola Falls State Park was privatized and its operations transferred to Coral Hospitality, a Florida-based hotel and resort management company.[5]\",\n \"Suwannee River The Suwannee River (also spelled Suwanee River) is a major river that runs through South Georgia southward into Florida in the southern United States. It is a wild blackwater river, about 246 miles (396 km) long.[1] The Suwannee River is the site of the prehistoric Suwanee Straits which separated peninsular Florida from the panhandle.\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment In 1986, singer and actress Dolly Parton, who grew up near Pigeon Forge, became a co-owner, and the park's name was changed to Dollywood, reflecting her involvement. At this point, the Pigeon Forge park was branched off into a separate division of HFE called The Dollywood Company, which oversees all the properties that Dolly Parton has interest in.[8]\",\n \"Gainesville, Florida Roughly since the 2006 founding of Grooveshark, a Gainesville-based music streaming service, Gainesville has seen an increase in the number of technology-based startup companies being founded and developed in the city, particularly the downtown area.[66][67][68] Among them are Digital Brands, SharpSpring, Fracture, Feathr, and others. The city celebrates Josh Greenberg Day annually in April, in honor of the late founder of Grooveshark and his contributions to the community's startup culture.[69]\",\n \"Holiday World & Splashin' Safari The park suffered a sudden loss in June 2010 when President and CEO Will Koch died while swimming at his home. Although the Spencer County coroner listed the official cause of death as drowning, family and park officials believe Koch's type 1 diabetes played a factor in his death. Soon after his death, Holiday World & Splashin' Safari named Will's younger brother Dan as the park's new President.[15] Dan Koch served as the park's President until late 2012, shortly after which the board of directors announced Matt Eckert as the new President. Matt Eckert was previously one of the parks two general managers. Eckert is the first park President not related to the Koch family. Will Koch's widow Lori and their three children retain primary ownership in the park and its parent company, Koch Development Corporation. Dan Koch, along with his sister Natalie, would go on in 2014 to form Koch Family Parks and buy Alabama Splash Adventure, a previously troubled theme park in Bessemer, Alabama.[16]\",\n \"Suwannee River The headwaters of the Suwanee River are in the Okefenokee Swamp in the town of Fargo, Georgia. The river runs southwestward into the Florida Panhandle, then drops in elevation through limestone layers into a rare Florida whitewater rapid. Past the rapid, the Suwanee turns west near the town of White Springs, Florida, then connects to the confluences of the Alapaha River and Withlacoochee River.\",\n \"Suwannee River By the 16th century, the river was inhabited by two closely related Timucua language-speaking peoples: the Yustaga, who lived on the west side of the river; and the Northern Utina, who lived on the east side.[11] By 1633, the Spanish had established the missions of San Juan de Guacara, San Francisco de Chuaquin, and San Augustin de Urihica along the Suwannee to convert these western Timucua peoples.[12]\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment In 2003 the Dollywood Company opened a new Dixie Stampede location in Orlando, Florida along Interstate 4. The location operated until early 2008, when the property was sold to Simon Property Group for an undisclosed amount. The building was torn down, and an extension of the Orlando Vineland Premium Outlets was built on the land. HFE has plans to build another Dixie Stampede in the region at some point, though specific plans have not been disclosed.[10]\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment Herschend Family Entertainment (HFE) is a privately owned themed-entertainment company that operates several theme parks and tourist attractions within the United States.\",\n \"List of Florida state parks Several state parks were formerly private tourist attractions purchased by the state of Florida to preserve their natural environment. These parks include the Silver Springs State Park, Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park, Rainbow Springs State Park, and Weeki Wachee Springs. There are state parks in 58 of Florida's 67 counties.[6] Nine of the 175 parks do not have \\\"State Park\\\" in their name. Four are \\\"conservation areas\\\" (reserve, preserve, or wildlife refuge); three are \\\"Historical/Archaeological sites\\\"; one is a fishing pier and one is a recreation area.[7] Seven parks are mostly undeveloped with few or no facilities; 10 parks are accessible only by private boat or ferry;[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] and 13 parks contain National Natural Landmarks.[7] Additionally, there are eleven national parks in Florida locations under control of the National Park Service.[18]\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park Plans for a Hard Rock-themed amusement park were released in 2003, but at the time, funding and licensing agreements had yet to be finalized.[7] AVX Corporation CEO Dick Rosen and other investors including Ziel Feldman and Safe Harbor Capital Partners managing partner Amnon Bar-Tur created two companies. Myrtle Property Owners I, which invested in the proposed theme park. Myrtle Property Owners II bought land from Rosen, with the intent to build a hotel along the Intracoastal Waterway in October 2005. A feasibility study showed that developers predicted 3 million visitors a year in the park's first year, with growth of nine percent the second year and decreasing growth rates after that.[8]\",\n \"Suwannee River Both of these songs feature banjo-strumming and reminiscences of a plantation life more typical of 19th-century South Carolina than of among the swamps and small farms in the coastal plain of south Georgia and north Florida.[citation needed]\",\n \"Acme Farm Supply Building In 2013, Tom Morales, a restaurateur and owner of TomKats, a catering company for movie sets, as well as several other businesspeople, including country music singer Alan Jackson, leased the building from the Turner family trust through MJM Real Estate Partners LLC to turn it into a restaurant/bar and music venue.[3][4][5] Known as Acme Feed & Seed, it opened in 2014.[5]\",\n \"Merriweather Post Pavilion On November 30, 2016 The Howard Hughes Corporation transferred ownership of Merriweather Post Pavilion and Symphony Woods to the Downtown Columbia Arts and Culture Commission, a nonprofit organization helmed by \\\"Save Merriweather\\\" co-founder Ian Kennedy. At the official ceremony, Kennedy shaved the beard he had been growing for 13 years, since the beginning of the campaign in 2003.[23]\",\n \"Chuck Leavell In addition to his musical career, Leavell is a tree farmer in Twiggs County outside Macon, Georgia, an occupation that began when his wife, Rose Lane Leavell, inherited land in the early 1980s. Together they created Charlane Plantation, now a 2500-acre award-winning Tree Farm and hunting preserve. The Leavells are two-time Georgia Tree Farmers of the Year, and were selected as National Outstanding Tree Farmers of the Year in 1999. They are staunch supporters of sustainable forestry, conservation and environmental protection. Chuck wrote his first book, Forever Green: The History and Hope of The American Forest in 2000. His autobiography, Between Rock and a Home Place was published in 2005, and is acclaimed as one of the best rock autobiographies ever published. In 2006, Leavell wrote a children's book, The Tree Farmer. His most recent book is Growing A Better America: Smart, Strong, Sustainable (2011, with J. Marshall Craig), the theme of which is \\\"smart\\\" growth. It has been called one of the best \\\"common sense environmental books of all time\\\".\",\n \"Ocala, Florida Marion County is also home to the Ocala National Forest which was established in 1908 and is now the second largest national forest in the state. The Florida Trail, also known as the Florida National Scenic Trail, cuts through Ocala National Forest.[14] Silver Springs State Park was formed as Silver River State Park in 1987, out of land the state purchased around the Silver Springs attraction to spare it from development. The state took over Silver Springs itself in 1993 and incorporated it into the park in 2013.[15]\",\n \"Suwannee River The Suwannee River area has been inhabited by humans for thousands of years. During the first millennium CE, it was inhabited by the people of the Weedon Island archaeological culture, and around 900 CE, a derivative local culture, known as the Suwanee River Valley culture, developed.[citation needed]\",\n \"Muscle Shoals, Alabama A large grant from Beats Electronics, a manufacturer of headphones and similar devices (owned by Apple inc.) founded by Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine, provided an essential $1 million. State tourism director Lee Sentell told the media in August 2015 that the 2013 Muscle Shoals (film) had significant influence.[28] \\\"The financial support from Beats is a direct result of their film.\\\" Additional donations were made by other groups and individuals. In 2015, Rodney Hall, a foundation Board member, reminded fans of the value of the additional donations. \\\"The foundation was able to purchase the building through the generosity of private investors like Gene Hamby, who understand the importance of preserving the legacy of Muscle Shoals music.\\\"[29]\",\n \"Gulf Shores, Alabama The Hangout owner Shaul Zislin has been criticized for overselling and marketing practices which have attracted undesirable tourists and caused overcrowding, traffic jams and overburdening of the city's police, EMS and waste disposal resources as well as noise pollution on what was once a quiet family oriented beach resort area. The public address system can often be heard over 2 miles away in Gulf State Park.[23]\\nMany Alabama residents have opposed the building of a new hotel on state property and the use of BP Oil spill funds to finance projects other than environmental repair. In 2016 the State of Alabama elected to close a road on State Park property with out any notice or warning. It is now used as a bicycle and hiking trail.[24]\",\n \"The Allman Brothers Band At FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Duane Allman became the primary session guitarist, recording with artists such as Aretha Franklin and King Curtis.[5][10] Duane suggested to Wilson Pickett they record a cover of \\\"Hey Jude\\\" by the Beatles; the single went to number 23 on the national charts.[11] FAME signed Duane to a five-year recording contract, and he put together a group, including Johnny Sandlin and Paul Hornsby. Duane recruited Jai Johanny Johanson (Jaimoe) after hearing his drumming on a songwriting demo of Jackie Avery, and the two moved into his home on the Tennessee River. Allman invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group; the pair had met in a Macon, Georgia, Georgia club some time earlier, and became quick friends.[12] The group had immediate chemistry, and Duane's vision for a \\\"different\\\" band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving.[12] Meanwhile, Phil Walden, the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R&B acts, was looking to expand into rock acts.[13] FAME owner Hall became frustrated with the group’s recording methods, and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, who purchased them for $10,000.[14] Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic-distributed label, Capricorn.[15]\",\n \"Action Park In 2010, Intrawest, which ended up in bankruptcy proceedings itself as a result of a leveraged buyout, sold both the Mountain Creek ski resort and the water park to the owners of Crystal Springs Resort. The water park would remain under lease to Palace Entertainment until 2011, when the owners of the resort bought out the operating lease to the water park.[40] This returned control of the former Action Park property, as well as the entire former Vernon Valley/Great Gorge ski area, to the Mulvihill family as they had retained ownership of the ski area that was renamed Crystal Springs following GAR's bankruptcy.\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment In 1994, The Dollywood Company constructed a large music theatre in Pigeon Forge called Music Mansion. Headlined by James Rogers,[9] the highly successful theatre was operated by HFE until 2001, when it was sold to Anita Bryant. In 2005 the theatre was sold again and converted to a WonderWorks location. A Music Mansion Theatre was planned for Myrtle Beach, but never materialized.\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment The company also co-owns and co-operates with partners Dolly Parton and her company The Dollywood Company, the dinner and theatre company Pirates Voyage Dinner and Show in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina[1][2][3] and Dolly Parton's Stampede (formerly Dixie Stampede).[4][5][6]\",\n \"St. Johns River Confederate Captain John William Pearson named his militia after the Ocklawaha River called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the American Civil War.[45] Prior to the civil war, Pearson ran a successful health resort in Orange Springs. After the civil war Pearson's Orange Springs resort declined in popularity due to the increasing attention to nearby Silver Springs—the source of the Silver River—at the turn of the 20th century, popularizing the Ocklawaha. Georgia-born poet Sidney Lanier called it \\\"the sweetest waterlane in the world\\\" in a travel guide he published in 1876.[46][47] The river gave Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings access to the St. Johns from her homestead at Orange Lake. The region served as a major fishing attraction until a decline in water quality occurred in the 1940s,[48] and since then further degradation of the river and its sources have occurred. In particular, Lake Apopka earned the designation of Florida's most polluted lake following a chemical spill in 1980 that dumped DDE in it.[49] It has experienced chronic algal blooms caused by citrus farm fertilizer and wastewater runoff from nearby farms.[50]\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park On August 9, 2010, foreclosure proceedings were filed against Freestyle Music Park.[42] Mortgage holder FPI US LLC seeks over $25 million from park owner FPI MB Entertainment LLC. Loan documents identify the general manager of FPI US LLC as Alexey (Alexei in most documents) Sidnev; Sidnev is a former partner in Moscow-based MT Development, an investor in Freestyle Park that had planned a similar park in Europe. Court filings show FPI US LLC is a division of MT Development.[25] On August 20, FPI MB Entertainment responded to the foreclosure action, admitting the amount of debt is correct and that it cannot pay.[43] Four out of five creditors responding to the foreclosure claimed FPI US and FPI MB are the same company and that FPI US should not have first claim to park assets. FPI MB attorney Nate Fata denied this.[44] In an August 24, 2010, interview, Baker said the park's entire board had resigned, except for one member appointed by Russian investors who will work to sell the park. Baker, who continued to head Baker Leisure Group, believed the park could succeed under new owners.[43]\",\n \"Suwannee River In the 18th century, Seminoles lived by the river.[citation needed]\",\n \"Gainesville, Florida No Idea Records puts on an annual three-day rock festival known as The Fest, which typically occurs during the last weekend in October, coinciding with the annual Florida-Georgia football game (played in Jacksonville) to minimize tensions between the largely out of town music festival goers with the University of Florida students and alumni.[60]\",\n \"Hard Rock Cafe In 1990, The Rank Group, a London-based leisure company, acquired Mecca Leisure Group and continued expansion of the concept in its geographic territory. Rank went on to purchase Hard Rock America from Peter Morton as well as Hard Rock Canada from Nick Bitove. After the completion of these acquisitions, Rank gained worldwide control of the brand. In March 2007, the Seminole Tribe of Florida acquired Hard Rock Cafe International, Inc. and other related entities from Rank for US$965 million.[1] In 2008, anonymous members of the wait staff criticized the business because of its practice of paying them less than half the official minimum wage in the UK, with the business allocating tips to staff to bring their salaries within the law. Most customers, it was argued, do not realize that they are subsidizing a low wage when they give the tip.[6]\",\n \"Action Park In 2010, the whole Mountain Creek ski area and water park was sold[8] to a group led by Eugene Mulvihill, the former owner of Great American Recreation and the owner of the adjacent Crystal Springs Resort. It was under the new ownership that the name of the water park was changed back to Action Park, with the park assuming that name when it opened for the 2014 season.[9] In 2016, the Mountain Creek Park name was restored to the park, thus retiring the Action Park name again.\",\n \"Bell Ranch In 1970, ownership of the largest single chunk—so large it has its own Zip Code, 88441—was acquired by William N. Lane II of Chicago, chairman and CEO of publicly traded General Binding Corp., a maker of office supplies and equipment.[2] Further purchases of the original grant land have fleshed out the holding to its present size of 290,100 acres (1,174 km2). After Lane died in a 1978 car accident on the ranch, it was owned by his five children through a trust. His son Jeff died in a plane accident on the ranch in 2007. In 2010, the ranch was acquired by Silver Spur Ranches, a ranching company owned by John Malone.[2][4]\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park On April 2, 2009, the new owners announced that the Hard Rock name would be dropped, despite efforts to obtain permission from Hard Rock International, which had been willing to continue use of the name if conditions could be met. The bankruptcy court required all Hard Rock merchandise to be destroyed as a result. Changing the name would give the park a more positive image since the old name was connected with the bankruptcy, and it was not considered family-oriented, which the new owners wanted the park to be. Later that month, FPI unveiled a new name for the park: Freestyle Music Park, stating that it will pay homage to a variety of musical genres, including rock n' roll, country, reggae, beach music, pop, R&B, alternative, Christian and disco.[1] The name does not refer to the Latin music genre, according to sales and marketing director John Stine.[27]\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park By 2006, a licensing agreement with the Hard Rock franchise was reached.[9] The Hard Rock name was licensed from Seminole Nation–owned Hard Rock International, current owners/operators of the Hard Rock Cafe brand, to HRP Myrtle Beach Operations, LLC, which designed and built the park, for a fee of $2.5 million per year.[10] Investors included Tim Duncan and AVX Corporation CEO Dick Rosen. Financing also included a loan of $385 million, though the park only cost $225 million to build. An early theme was the four seasons of summer, spring, winter and fall.[11]\",\n \"Gainesville, Florida Cultural facilities include the Florida Museum of Natural History, Harn Museum of Art, the Hippodrome State Theatre, and the Curtis M. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts. Smaller theaters include the Acrosstown Repertory Theatre (ART), Actors' Warehouse, and the Gainesville Community Playhouse (GCP). GCP is the oldest community theater group in Florida; in 2006, it christened a new theater building.[53]\",\n \"The Stanley Brothers As bluegrass music grew less popular in the late 1950s, the Stanley Brothers moved to Live Oak, Florida, and headlined the weekly Suwannee River Jamboree radio show on WNER from 1958 to 1962. The three-hour show was also syndicated across the Southeast.[11] In 1966, the brothers toured Europe, and upon returning home they continued to perform together until Carter's death in December 1966.[12]\",\n \"Lynyrd Skynyrd Mark \\\"Sparky\\\" Matejka, formerly of the country music band Hot Apple Pie, joined Lynyrd Skynyrd in 2006 as Thomasson's replacement. On November 2, 2007, the band performed for a crowd of 50,000 people at the University of Florida's Gator Growl student-run pep rally in Ben Hill Griffin Stadium (\\\"The Swamp\\\" football stadium). This was the largest crowd that Lynyrd Skynyrd had played to in the U.S., until the July 2008 Bama Jam in Enterprise, Alabama where more than 111,000 people attended.[33]\",\n \"Muscle Shoals, Alabama The original location of Muscle Shoals Sound Studios in Sheffield has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since June 2006.[24] From the early 2000s to 2013, it had been partly restored and open for tours. In 2013, the documentary Muscle Shoals (film) raised public interest in a major restoration of the original studio.[25][26] In the same year, the Muscle Shoals Music Foundation was formed to raise funds to purchase the building and to complete major renovations. In June 2013, Noel Webster who was then the owner of 3614 Jackson Highway (since 1999), sold the property, without the historic recording equipment, to the Muscle Shoals Music Foundation. The foundation praised the contribution made to the project by Sheffield resident, attorney Gene Hambey.[27]\",\n \"Heritage USA In December 2004, the remainder of the Heritage USA property was sold to Coulston Enterprises, owned by local developer and former MUI executive Earl Coulston. Coulston Enterprises sold portions of the property formerly housing the PTL Ministry to MorningStar Ministries of Charlotte, headed by Rick Joyner and Flames-of-Fire Ministries of Fort Mill, headed by Coulston's wife, Sabrina. MorningStar is in the process[when?] of ongoing renovations to the portions of the property purchased by the ministry, while the buildings that had housed Flames-of-Fire have since been sold to The Broadcast Group, a television and multi-media production company headed by Dr. Dale Hill, who formerly worked for Bakker and PTL. Coulston Enterprises has developed several new subdivisions featuring single family homes on the remainder of the property. The Coulston-developed residential portion of the property is called Regal Manor.[citation needed]\",\n \"Dollywood's Splash Country Both Dollywood and Dollywood's Splash Country are co-owned by country music star Dolly Parton and the Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation.\",\n \"Old Folks at Home In his 2007 inauguration ceremony, Charlie Crist decided not to include the state song, but rather to use in its place, \\\"The Florida Song,\\\"[9] a composition written by a black Floridian jazz musician, Charles Atkins. Crist then encouraged state Senator Tony Hill, who was the leader of the legislature's Black Caucus, to find a new song.[10] Hill joined forces with state Representative Ed Homan and the Florida Music Educators Association to sponsor a contest for a new state song.[11]\",\n \"Seaside, Florida During the Annual 30A Songwriters Festival, produced by the Cultural Arts Association of Walton County, singer-songwriters from all over the U.S. perform in venues along Scenic Highway 30A and at a few venues in Seaside itself.[12]\",\n \"Suwannee River The Spanish recorded the native Timucua name of Guacara for the river that would later become known as the Suwannee. Different etymologies have been suggested for the modern name.\",\n \"Suwannee River Starting at the confluences of those three rivers, that confluence forms the southern borderline of Hamilton County, Florida. The Suwanee then bends southward near the town of Ellaville, Florida followed by Luraville, Florida then joins together with the Santa Fe River (Florida) from the east south of the town of Branford, Florida.\",\n \"The Villages, Florida The Villages is controlled by several quasi-governmental Community Development Districts (CDD), which are controlled by the development company that created The Villages.[6] H. Gary Morse, the son of the original owner and who was responsible for turning The Villages into one of the most well-known and fastest-growing retirement communities, transferred most direct ownership in the company to his three children in 2006; Morse died in 2014.[7][8] The overall development lies in central Florida, approximately 20 miles (32 km) south of Ocala and approximately 45 miles (72 km) northwest of Orlando.\",\n \"The Allman Brothers Band The group moved to Atlanta, Georgia by May 1, where Walden was establishing Capricorn Records.[23] Mike Callahan and Joseph \\\"Red Dog\\\" Campbell became the band’s early crew members. \\\"Red Dog\\\" was a disabled Vietnam veteran who donated his monthly disability checks to the band's cause.[24][25] In Macon, the group stayed at friend Twiggs Lyndon's apartment on 309 College Street, which became known as the communal home of the band and crew, nicknamed the Hippie Crash Pad.[26] \\\"There were five or six occupied apartments in the building with the Hippie Crash Pad and you would expect they would call the police on us because we were constantly raising hell at three or four in the morning, but they all just moved out,\\\" said Trucks.[27] Living meagerly, they found a friend in \\\"Mama Louise\\\" Hudson, cook and proprietor of the H&H Soul Food Restaurant, who ran a tab when they were short of funds,[28] early on made good with proceeds from Duane's recording sessions on the side. The band's image was radical in the just barely integrated Macon: \\\"A lot of the white folk around here did not approve of them long-haired boys, or of them always having a black guy with them,\\\" said Hudson.[29] The band performed locally, as well as 80 miles north in Atlanta's Piedmont Park, and practiced at the newly minted Capricorn nearly each day.[28]\",\n \"List of Florida state parks The Florida Park Service is the division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection responsible for the operation of Florida State Parks, and won the Gold Medal honoring the best state park system in the country in 1999 and 2005 from the National Recreation and Park Association. They were also finalists in the 1997 and 2011 competitions.[4] The Park Service was awarded the gold medal again in October 2013, making it the only three-time winner.[2][5] The parks are open year-round and offer diverse activities beyond fishing, hiking and camping. Many parks offer facilities for birding or horseback riding; there are several battle reenactments; and freshwater springs and beaches are Florida's gems. According to the Florida Park Service website, their goal \\\"is to help create a sense of place by showing park visitors the best of Florida's diverse natural and cultural sites. Florida's state parks are managed and preserved for enjoyment by this and future generations through providing appropriate resource-based recreational opportunities, interpretation and education that help visitors connect to the Real Florida.\\\"[3]\",\n \"New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival The Jazz & Heritage Festival is owned by the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation, which uses the proceeds from the festival for year-round community development programs in the areas of education, economic development, and culture. The Foundation also owns the broadcast license of radio station WWOZ.[1] The festival is produced by Festival Productions, Inc. - New Orleans and AEG Live, as a contract service to the Foundation. Since 2006, the festival's main sponsor has been the Royal Dutch Shell (the oil company), and the festival's full name is now \\\"The New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival presented by Shell.\\\" Several of the stage names also reflect sponsors like the Acura Stage, the Sheraton New Orleans Fais Do-Do Stage, the AT&T/ wwoz Jazz Tent, the AIG, Gospel Tent.[9]\",\n \"Suwannee River The Lower Suwannee National Wildlife Refuge offers bird and wildlife observation, wildlife photography, fishing, canoeing, hunting, and interpretive walks. A driving tour is under construction, and several boardwalks and observation towers offer views of wildlife and habitat.[citation needed]\",\n \"St. Johns River In 1795, Florida was transferred back to Spain which lured Americans with cheap land. A former loyalist to Britain who left South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War, a planter and slave trader named Zephaniah Kingsley seized the opportunity and built a plantation named Laurel Grove near what is now Doctors Lake, close to the west bank of the St. Johns River, south of where Orange Park is today.[111] Three years later, Kingsley took a trip to Cuba and purchased a 13-year-old Wolof girl named Anna Madgigine Jai. She became his common-law wife, and managed Laurel Grove while Kingsley traveled and conducted business.[112] The plantation grew citrus and sea island cotton (Gossypium barbadense). In 1814, they moved to a larger plantation on Fort George Island, where they lived for 25 years, and owned several other plantations and homesteads in what is today Jacksonville and another on Drayton Island at the north end of Lake George. Kingsley later married three other freed women in a polygamous relationship;[113] Spanish-controlled Florida allowed interracial marriages, and white landowners such as James Erwin, George Clarke, Francisco Sánchez, John Fraser, and Francis Richard, Jr.—early settlers along the river—all were married to or in extramarital relationships with African women.[114]\",\n \"Suwannee River The steamboat Madison operated on the river before the Civil War, and the sulphur springs at White Springs became popular as a health resort, with 14 hotels in operation in the late 19th century.[citation needed]\",\n \"Natural American Spirit Natural American Spirit (often referred to as American Spirits) is an American brand of cigarette and fine tobacco products, manufactured in the United States by the Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Company. The company was founded in 1982 by Bill Drake, author of “The Cultivators Handbook of Natural Tobacco”, Robert Marion, Chris Webster, and Eb Wicks, a plumbing contractor who took out a loan to finance the startup.[1] In January 2002 the company was acquired by Reynolds American and is now a wholly owned independent subsidiary of Reynolds American, which is in turn 42% owned by British American Tobacco.[2] Japan Tobacco announced in September 2015 that it acquired the right to sell Natural American Spirit products in markets outside the United States.[3]\",\n \"The Allman Brothers Band (album) The Allman Brothers Band was formed in March 1969, during large jam sessions with various musicians in Jacksonville, Florida. Duane Allman and Jai Johanny Johanson (Jaimoe) had recently moved from Muscle Shoals, where Duane participated in session work at FAME Studios for artists such as Aretha Franklin, King Curtis, and Wilson Pickett, with whom he recorded a cover of the Beatles' \\\"Hey Jude\\\" that went to number 23 on the national charts.[2] Duane began to put together a new band, and invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group; the pair had met in a Jacksonville, Florida club some time earlier, and became quick friends.[3] The group had immediate chemistry, and Duane's vision for a \\\"different\\\" band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving.[3] Meanwhile, Phil Walden, the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R&B acts, was looking to expand into rock acts.[4] Rick Hall became frustrated with the group’s recording methods, and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, who purchased them for $10,000.[5] Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic-distributed label, Capricorn.[6]\",\n \"Rajneeshpuram Dennis R. Washington's firm Washington Construction purchased The Big Muddy Ranch from the state in 1991. Washington attempted to run the ranch for profit, and also unsuccessfully negotiated with the state to turn it into a state park.[22]\",\n \"Ripley Entertainment Ripley Entertainment Inc. is an entertainment and edutainment holding company owned by the Jim Pattison Group of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The company has its headquarters in an unincorporated part of southern Orange County, Florida, near Orlando, at an office complex near the intersection of Sand Lake Road and John Young Parkway.[1]\",\n \"St. Johns County, Florida St. Johns County’s history begins in 1821, when Colonel Robert Butler received Spanish East Florida from Captain-General Colonel José M. Coppinger. Butler represented Major General Andrew Jackson, federal military commissioner for the Florida provinces (las Floridas) with the powers of governor, exercising the powers of the Captain General and the Intendants of the Island of Cuba and the Governors of the said provinces, respectively, who ordained that all of that country lying east of the river Suwannee[3] should be designated as the County of St. Johns.\",\n \"Georgia Aquarium On January 1, 2011, the aquarium purchased Marineland of Florida for a reported $9.1 million.[32] The seller was Jim Jacoby, a metro Atlanta developer and member of the Georgia Aquarium board of directors, who bought the park in 2004 and re-developed it.\",\n \"Chuck Leavell Leavell and Joel Babbit are the co-founders of The Mother Nature Network, an environmental news and information website that launched in January 2009. The site has grown to be the most visited independent environmental website in the world.[citation needed] Leavell serves as Director of Environmental Affairs, and sits on the board of directors for the company. He hosts two video series on mnn.com: \\\"Love of the Land,\\\" in which he discusses sustainability and conservation issues, and \\\"In The Green Room,\\\" a series in which he interviews fellow celebrities about the environment and their philanthropic work.[7]\",\n \"West Palm Beach, Florida SunFest: an annual music, art, and waterfront festival in Florida, founded in 1982 to draw visitors to the area during the \\\"shoulder season\\\" of April and May. SunFest has an annual attendance of more than 275,000 people. Artists who have performed include Wilco, Carrie Underwood, John Mayer, Ray Charles, James Brown, Ludacris, Nelly, Lenny Kravitz, Dizzy Gillespie, Bob Dylan, Kenny G, Earth Wind and Fire, Cyndi Lauper, Smashing Pumpkins, MGMT, and The Wailers. SunFest is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization.[59]\",\n \"Anita Zucker She owns the Carolina Ice Palace and is part owner of the South Carolina Stingrays ice hockey team.[1][7]\",\n \"The Villages, Florida Morse noted that the successful retirement communities (such as Del Webb's Sun City developments) offered numerous well-maintained amenities to the residents. They also had diverse and nearby commercial development. Morse began to significantly upgrade the development. Their sales improved in the mid-1980s. Schwartz began to buy large tracts of land in nearby Sumter and Marion counties for future expansion. In 1992, Morse officially changed the overall development name to The Villages. The development is still controlled in all major aspects by descendants of Schwartz and Morse.\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment Founded by Jack and Pete Herschend of Branson, Missouri, in its early years HFE was simply known as Herschend Enterprises. In the 1980s the name was changed to Silver Dollar City Inc., and in 2003 the company gained the current name. HFE is currently headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The company's mission is to \\\"Create Memories Worth Repeating.\\\"\",\n \"Merriweather Post Pavilion As \\\"Save Merriweather\\\" began to pick up steam, General Growth Properties offered to sell Merriweather to Howard County on condition that the pavilion be converted into a much smaller, enclosed theater. Shortly thereafter, 9:30 Club owner Seth Hurwitz's I.M.P. was chosen as Merriweather's new promoter amidst the claim by GGP's General Manager that trying to make Merriweather Post Pavilion profitable was like \\\"trying to sell ice cubes in the middle of winter.\\\"[24][25]\",\n \"Southern Wine & Spirits Harvey R. Chaplin is the Chairman.[4]\",\n \"Silver Dollar City In 1972 Genevieve Lynch, the last of William Lynch's daughters, died and she bequeathed the land under Silver Dollar City and Marvel Cave to the College of the Ozarks and Branson Presbyterian Church.[4] The Herschends continue to operate it.\",\n \"The Sagamore The resort is currently managed by Delray Beach, Florida-based Ocean Properties, which bought it in 2008.[5]\",\n \"Parrish, Florida A post office named Parish was established in 1879, and the name was changed to Parrish in 1950.[2] The community was named and established by Crawford Parrish, who was from Georgia and his wife Mary Bratcher Vanzant who was born in 1841. After they were married and after the Civil War they moved south to what is now known originally as the Suwanee River and bought land and had slaves work there. In 1867 they sold the land and decided to move to the Manatee River. He had stayed for several years and built a home on the banks of the river in what is now Oak Hill (unknown location). He was a rancher and later an orange grower. Also, he was the founder of the original town site.[3]\",\n \"History of Florida Almost half the state's population were enslaved African Americans working on large cotton and sugar plantations, between the Apalachicola and Suwannee rivers in the north central part of the state.[55] Like the people who owned them, many slaves had come from the coastal areas of Georgia and the Carolinas. They were part of the Gullah-Gee Chee culture of the Lowcountry. Others were enslaved African Americans from the Upper South who had been sold to traders taking slaves to the Deep South.[citation needed]\",\n \"Suwannee River The river ends and drains into the Gulf of Mexico on the outskirts of Suwannee, Florida.\",\n \"Suwannee River George Gershwin's song, with lyrics by Irving Caesar, and made popular by Al Jolson, is also spelled \\\"Swanee\\\" and boasts that \\\"the folks up North will see me no more when I get to that Swanee shore\\\".[citation needed]\",\n \"Lynyrd Skynyrd By 1970, Lynyrd Skynyrd had become a top band in Jacksonville, headlining at some local concerts, and opening for several national acts. Pat Armstrong, a Jacksonville native and partner in Macon, Georgia-based Hustlers Inc. with Phil Walden's younger brother, Alan Walden, became the band's managers. Armstrong left Hustlers shortly thereafter to start his own agency. Walden stayed with the band until 1974, when management was turned over to Peter Rudge. The band continued to perform throughout the South in the early 1970s, further developing their hard-driving blues rock sound and image, and experimenting with recording their sound in a studio. Skynyrd crafted this distinctively \\\"southern\\\" sound through a creative blend of blues, and a slight British rock influence.[11]\",\n \"New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival To produce the Festival in New Orleans, Wein put together a key group of artistic advisers, among them Ellis Marsalis, Richard B. \\\"Dick\\\" Allen and Harry Souchon. Dick Allen, the curator of Tulane University's Hogan Jazz Archives, recommended Archive employee Allison Miner and intern Quint Davis to Wein to help produce the first festival. Both Miner and Davis knew a great deal about jazz. They went to the black clubs to recruit performers, rather than to Bourbon Street or other tourist destinations, because it was at these clubs that live music was being produced. The first person the pair booked was Snooks Eaglin, who was a street singer at the time, and who performed at the festival every year thereafter. Both volunteered for the \\\"labor of love\\\" that was the festival, and were not compensated.[3] After Wein established the Festival, Miner and Davis oversaw the day-to-day operations of Festival Productions Inc.-New Orleans for many years, under the supervision of Wein and the Foundation Board. Quint Davis currently holds the position of CEO of Festival Productions, Inc.- New Orleans, while Miner is largely credited with the founding the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Foundation Archive. AEG Live became a co-producer of the festival in 2004.[6]\",\n \"The Villages, Florida Stuck with considerable portions of Florida land, in the early 1970s Schwartz and Tarrson began development of a mobile home park, Orange Blossom Gardens, in the northwestern corner of Lake County. By the early 1980s, the community had sold only 400 units. In an attempt to improve the business, Schwartz bought out Tarrson's interest and brought his son, H. Gary Morse, on board in 1983.\",\n \"Capitol Theatre (Port Chester, New York) In December 2011, The New York Times announced that the theatre was to be reopened by music entrepreneur Peter Shapiro, owner of the Brooklyn Bowl and former owner of the NYC club Wetlands Preserve, to present major concerts at the venue, in partnership with concert promoter The Bowery Presents. A multimillion-dollar renovation took place; \\\"state-of-the-art\\\" sound and lighting equipment was installed. Part of the renovations included acquiring the adjacent Capitol Jewelers store and converting it into a bar, which is open to the public most nights when the theatre does not have an event. The bar, with the approval of the estate of the Garcia family, was named \\\"Garcia's\\\" in honor of Grateful Dead guitarist Jerry Garcia. The Capitol Theatre reopened on September 4, 2012, with Bob Dylan as its first act. Initially, Shapiro had a long-term lease on the Capitol Theatre, which, at the time, was owned by Marvin Ravikoff. In December 2012, Shapiro purchased the theatre. The theatre has hosted many famous performers and top acts such as, BB King, Furthur, Willie Nelson, the Black Crowes, George Lopez, Elvis Costello & The Roots, Steely Dan, Al Green, the B-52s, and Yo Gabba Gabba.\",\n \"Freestyle Music Park In December 2011, FPI US which received the property in an August foreclosure auction, filed papers showing it had mortgaged the property for $20 million, money that the company's attorney was needed for maintenance and other expenses until a sale. Land for a proposed hotel which was never built was later sold in a foreclosure auction on July 2, 2012.[8]\",\n \"Herschend Family Entertainment Along with the Herschend family, Dolly Parton co-owns the Dolly Parton's Stampede (formerly Dixie Stampede[6]) dinner attraction chain, which has locations in Pigeon Forge (opened 1988), Myrtle Beach (1992), and Branson (1995). A location in Orlando opened in 2003 and closed in early 2008.\",\n \"Atlanta Hawks On January 2, 2015, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported that the remaining minority owners of Atlanta Hawks, LLC would join Levenson, effectively putting the entire franchise for sale.[37] The sale of the team as well as the operating rights to Philips Arena was handled by Goldman Sachs and Inner Circle Sports LLC. The NBA has stated that the Hawks would remain in Atlanta as a condition of their sale. Additionally, Atlanta mayor Kasim Reed stated that the city might offer incentives for a prospective owner to keep the Hawks in Atlanta for another 30 years.[38] On April 22, 2015, Atlanta Spirit reached a tentative agreement to sell the franchise to a group led by billionaire Tony Ressler (with Grant Hill, Steven Price, Rick Schnall, Sara Blakely, Jesse Itzler) for $850 million; the sale was approved by the NBA Board of Governors on June 24, 2015.[39][40][41]\",\n \"Old Folks at Home \\\"Old Folks at Home\\\" (also known as \\\"Swanee River\\\", \\\"Swanee Ribber\\\" [from the original lyrics], or \\\"Suwannee River\\\") is a minstrel song written by Stephen Foster in 1851. Since 1935 it has been the official state song of Florida, although in 2008 the original lyrics were expurgated.[1]\",\n \"Kentucky Kingdom On January 16, 2012, the owners of Holiday World & Splashin' Safari in Santa Claus, Indiana, announced they were involved in talks about the future of Kentucky Kingdom. Their media release stated they were in a fact-finding stage and hadn't made any decisions about whether to move forward in pursuing an opportunity to run the theme park.[18] On February 7, 2012, four members of the Koch family, who also own Holiday World & Splashin' Safari, formed a new company, Bluegrass Boardwalk, Incorporated, to negotiate a lease agreement with the Kentucky State Fair Board and to apply for economic development incentives from the Commonwealth of Kentucky.[19] On February 23, 2012, the Kentucky Fair Board approved a lease agreement for the former Kentucky Kingdom property to the Koch family. It was announced that Kentucky Kingdom would be renamed Bluegrass Boardwalk, would reopen on May 11, 2013, and employ 25 full-time and 800 seasonal workers.[20]\",\n \"Chuck Leavell In 1969, Hornsby moved to Macon, Georgia to work for Capricorn Records as a studio musician and producer, eventually producing such artists as The Charlie Daniels Band, The Marshall Tucker Band, Wet Willie and others. At Hornsby's suggestion, Leavell came to Macon and helped form Sundown, which recorded one record on the Ampex label in 1970. That band broke up shortly thereafter, and Leavell found himself doing session work at Capricorn and eventually was tapped to tour with Alex Taylor, James Taylor's elder brother. Leavell recorded one record with Taylor, Dinnertime, which was released in 1972. Leavell continued to tour with Taylor for a short time afterwards. When Taylor had a falling out with his manager and the founder of Capricorn, Phil Walden, and quit touring, Leavell found himself playing with Dr. John. Leavell claims this was his \\\"college education.\\\"\",\n \"Rajneeshpuram In 1996, Washington donated the ranch to Young Life, a Christian youth organization. Since 1999, Young Life has operated a summer camp there, first as the WildHorse Canyon Camp, later as the Washington Family Ranch.[22][23]\",\n \"Stone Mountain Stone Mountain was once owned by the Venable Brothers and was the site of the founding of the second Ku Klux Klan in 1915. It was purchased by the State of Georgia in 1958[3] \\\"as a memorial to the Confederacy.\\\"[4] Stone Mountain Park officially opened on April 14, 1965 – 100 years to the day after Lincoln's assassination.[5] It is the most visited destination in the state of Georgia.[4]\",\n \"Stone Mountain The park features several attractions that are operated by Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation.\",\n \"St. Johns River After Florida came under the Kingdom of Great Britain's jurisdiction in 1763, Quaker father and son naturalists John and William Bartram explored the length of the river while visiting the southeastern United States from 1765 to 1766. They published journals describing their experiences and the plants and animals they observed. They were charged by King George III to find the source of the river they called the Picolata or San Juan, and measured its widths and depths, taking soil samples as they traveled southward.[106] William returned to Florida from 1773 to 1777 and wrote another journal about his travels, while he collected plants and befriended the Seminoles who called him \\\"Puc Puggy\\\" (flower hunter).[107] William's visit took him as far south as Blue Spring, where he remarked on the crystal clear views offered by the spring water: \\\"The water is perfectly diaphanous, and here are continually a prodigious number and variety of fish; they appear as plain as though lying on a table before your eyes, although many feet deep in the water.\\\"[108] Bartram's journals attracted the attention of such prominent Americans as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton.[109] The success of these journals inspired other naturalists such as André Michaux to further explore the St. Johns, as he did in 1788, sailing from Palatka south to Lake Monroe, and gave names to some of the plants described by the Bartrams' journals. Michaux was followed by William Baldwin between 1811 and 1817. Subsequent explorers, including John James Audubon, have carried William's Travels Through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Florida with them as a guide.[106][110]\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Cornett family has been making improvements to the park to enhance and improve its entertainment, hiking, canoeing, camping and other activities. The park offers varied camping options including primitive camping, RV camping and furnished park models. A tree house is also available for different occasions and events."],"string":"[\n \"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Cornett family has been making improvements to the park to enhance and improve its entertainment, hiking, canoeing, camping and other activities. The park offers varied camping options including primitive camping, RV camping and furnished park models. A tree house is also available for different occasions and events.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":195,"cells":{"_id":{"kind":"string","value":"test736"},"query":{"kind":"string","value":"who were some leaders during the progressive era that fought for equal rights"},"gt_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc26180"],"string":"[\n \"doc26180\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_qrels":{"kind":"list like","value":[1],"string":"[\n 1\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc26180","doc272088","doc26189","doc117247","doc2062066","doc286742","doc152083","doc1830562","doc117254","doc88203","doc26205","doc26231","doc26188","doc294779","doc26203","doc26233","doc1044731","doc2595999","doc26196","doc26177","doc26223","doc261897","doc1638509","doc26179","doc88207","doc2596017","doc368984","doc1780401","doc1943150","doc2595993","doc261870","doc1169085","doc1733145","doc1195101","doc2596012","doc1444288","doc1289751","doc2595998","doc26182","doc1118235","doc1758993","doc88185","doc261874","doc272075","doc26211","doc2596000","doc1150107","doc2536480","doc1847455","doc265446","doc1195104","doc152076","doc117253","doc26181","doc1946255","doc1946256","doc2596018","doc2595994","doc26186","doc272032","doc489657","doc1780432","doc109072","doc2442209","doc261888","doc152095","doc368989","doc2595995","doc1044770","doc26184","doc1345183","doc2596002","doc1486577","doc2038242","doc1830566","doc317267","doc2595992","doc1830572","doc272017","doc794755","doc1345244","doc1353766","doc1444308","doc1638540","doc1759024","doc310334","doc2146321","doc2596028","doc1780431","doc2382708","doc2190660","doc2381227","doc1830529","doc1830530","doc1780417","doc26230","doc261883","doc26178","doc1943149","doc2400730"],"string":"[\n \"doc26180\",\n \"doc272088\",\n \"doc26189\",\n \"doc117247\",\n \"doc2062066\",\n \"doc286742\",\n \"doc152083\",\n \"doc1830562\",\n \"doc117254\",\n \"doc88203\",\n \"doc26205\",\n \"doc26231\",\n \"doc26188\",\n \"doc294779\",\n \"doc26203\",\n \"doc26233\",\n \"doc1044731\",\n \"doc2595999\",\n \"doc26196\",\n \"doc26177\",\n \"doc26223\",\n \"doc261897\",\n \"doc1638509\",\n \"doc26179\",\n \"doc88207\",\n \"doc2596017\",\n \"doc368984\",\n \"doc1780401\",\n \"doc1943150\",\n \"doc2595993\",\n \"doc261870\",\n \"doc1169085\",\n \"doc1733145\",\n \"doc1195101\",\n \"doc2596012\",\n \"doc1444288\",\n \"doc1289751\",\n \"doc2595998\",\n \"doc26182\",\n \"doc1118235\",\n \"doc1758993\",\n \"doc88185\",\n \"doc261874\",\n \"doc272075\",\n \"doc26211\",\n \"doc2596000\",\n \"doc1150107\",\n \"doc2536480\",\n \"doc1847455\",\n \"doc265446\",\n \"doc1195104\",\n \"doc152076\",\n \"doc117253\",\n \"doc26181\",\n \"doc1946255\",\n \"doc1946256\",\n \"doc2596018\",\n \"doc2595994\",\n \"doc26186\",\n \"doc272032\",\n \"doc489657\",\n \"doc1780432\",\n \"doc109072\",\n \"doc2442209\",\n \"doc261888\",\n \"doc152095\",\n \"doc368989\",\n \"doc2595995\",\n \"doc1044770\",\n \"doc26184\",\n \"doc1345183\",\n \"doc2596002\",\n \"doc1486577\",\n \"doc2038242\",\n \"doc1830566\",\n \"doc317267\",\n \"doc2595992\",\n \"doc1830572\",\n \"doc272017\",\n \"doc794755\",\n \"doc1345244\",\n \"doc1353766\",\n \"doc1444308\",\n \"doc1638540\",\n \"doc1759024\",\n \"doc310334\",\n \"doc2146321\",\n \"doc2596028\",\n \"doc1780431\",\n \"doc2382708\",\n \"doc2190660\",\n \"doc2381227\",\n \"doc1830529\",\n \"doc1830530\",\n \"doc1780417\",\n \"doc26230\",\n \"doc261883\",\n \"doc26178\",\n \"doc1943149\",\n \"doc2400730\"\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["Progressive Era Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made \"scientific\" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political science.[6] In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers.","Women's suffrage in the United States The reform campaigns of the Progressive Era strengthened the suffrage movement. Beginning around 1900, this broad movement began at the grassroots level with such goals as combating corruption in government, eliminating child labor, and protecting workers and consumers. Many of its participants saw women's suffrage as yet another progressive goal, and they believed that the addition of women to the electorate would help their movement achieve its other goals. In 1912 the Progressive Party, formed by Theodore Roosevelt, endorsed women's suffrage.[187] The socialist movement supported women's suffrage in some areas.[188]","Progressive Era The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing woman suffrage legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920.[22][23] A breakaway group, the National Woman's Party, tightly controlled by Alice Paul, used civil disobedience to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained themselves to the White House fence in order to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements.[24]","History of the United States Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics as usual, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic Progressive Movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city and state, and at the national level as well, and in education, medicine, and industry, the progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions, the elimination of corruption in politics, and the introduction of efficiency as a criterion for change. Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert La Follette on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson on the Democratic side, took up the cause of progressive reform. Women became especially involved in demands for woman suffrage, prohibition, and better schools; their most prominent leader was Jane Addams of Chicago, who created settlement houses. \"Muckraking\" journalists such as Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis exposed corruption in business and government along with rampant inner city poverty. Progressives implemented anti-trust laws and regulated such industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments – the Sixteenth through Nineteenth – resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and woman suffrage.[140] The Progressive Movement lasted through the 1920s; the most active period was 1900–18.[141]","History of women in the United States The representative woman of the Progressive Era was Jane Addams (1860–1935). She was a pioneer social worker, leader of community activists at Hull House in Chicago, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and spokesperson for suffrage and world peace. Alongside presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, she was the most prominent reformer of the Progressive Era.[155] She helped turn the nation's attention to issues of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, public health, and world peace. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed the vote to be effective in doing so. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Her reputation declined after 1960 as critics on the left portrayed her an unoriginal racist determined to civilize helpless immigrants. After 1990 the pendulum swung in her favor and numerous favorable biographies have appeared.[156][157]","History of the United States (1865–1918) Around 1912, the movement, which had grown sluggish, began to reawaken. This put an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women because men could no longer do their job.[78] Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capitol and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their \"Silent Sentinels\" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners.[79]","Progressive Party (United States, 1912) Despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women. In 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed women's suffrage on the national level.[5] The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a seconding speech for Roosevelt's nomination. However, Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South (whom he regarded as a corrupt and ineffective element).[6] Yet he alienated white southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel.[7][8]","National American Woman Suffrage Association The reform energy of the Progressive Era strengthened the suffrage movement during this period. Beginning around 1900, this broad movement began at the grassroots level with such goals as combating corruption in government, eliminating child labor, and protecting workers and consumers. Many of its participants saw women's suffrage as yet another progressive goal, and they believed that the addition of women to the electorate would help the movement achieve its other goals.[62]","History of the United States Around 1912 the feminist movement began to reawaken, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women because men could not do that job.[155] Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their \"Silent Sentinels\" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners.[156]","First-wave feminism Woman in the Nineteenth Century by Margaret Fuller has been considered the first major feminist work in the United States and is often compared to Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.[38] Prominent leaders of the feminist movement in the United States include Lucretia Coffin Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucy Stone, and Susan B. Anthony; Anthony and other activists such as Victoria Woodhull and Matilda Joslyn Gage made attempts to cast votes prior to their legal entitlement to do so, for which many of them faced charges. Other important leaders included several women who dissented against the law in order to have their voices heard, (Sarah and Angelina Grimké), in addition to other activists such as Carrie Chapman Catt, Alice Paul, Sojourner Truth, Ida B. Wells, Margaret Sanger and Lucy Burns.[39]","Progressive Era Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white minorities, the Progressive Era was the nadir of American race relations. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this was to be achieved. Some, such as Lillian Wald, fought to ameliorate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though, were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure-seekers in 'black-and-tan' clubs troubled Progressive reformers.[61] The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to correct societal problems created by racial integration following the Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve its own potential. That is to say that most Progressives saw racial integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be achieved.[62][63][64] As white progressives sought to help the white working-class, clean-up politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of racial segregation known as Jim Crow.[65]","Progressive Era Much less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during World War I and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy.[106] A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including Jane Addams, was suppressed after Wilson's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, \"He kept us out of the war.\" [107] The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year, when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82–6 in favor; the House agreed, 373–50. Some historians see the so-called \"war to end all wars\" as a globalized expression of the American Progressive movement, with Wilson's support for a League of Nations as its climax.[108]","Progressive Era built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as \"municipal housekeepers,\" they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and wellbeing of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their \"maternal\" expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop's leadership in the Children's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice.[21]","Gilded Age During the Gilded Age, many new social movements took hold in the United States. Many women abolitionists who were disappointed that the Fifteenth Amendment did not extend voting rights to them, remained active in politics, this time focusing on issues important to them. Reviving the temperance movement from the Second Great Awakening, many women joined the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in an attempt to bring morality back to America. Its chief leader was Frances Willard (1839-1898), who had a national and international outreach from her base in Evanston, Illinois. Often the WCTU women took up the issue of women's suffrage which had lain dormant since the Seneca Falls Convention. With leaders like Susan B. Anthony, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was formed in order to secure the right of women to vote.[173]","Progressive Era George Washington Carver (1860-1943) was well known for his research projects, especially involving agriculture. He was also a leader in promoting environmentalism.[58]","Progressive Era While some Progressive leaders became reactionaries, that usually happened in the 1930s, not in the 1920s, as exemplified by William Randolph Hearst,[114] Herbert Hoover, Al Smith and Henry Ford.[115][116]","Modern liberalism in the United States In 1900–1920 liberals called themselves \"progressives.\" They rallied behind Republicans led by Theodore Roosevelt and Robert La Follette, as well as Democrats led by William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson to fight corruption, waste and big trusts (big corporations). They stressed ideals of social justice and the use of government to solve social and economic problems. Settlement workers such as Jane Addams were leaders of the liberal tradition.[49] There was a tension between sympathy with labor unions and the goal to apply scientific expertise by disinterested experts. When liberals became anti-Communist in the 1940s they purged leftists from the liberal movement.[50]","American Equal Rights Association In a variation of the idea proposed earlier to the Anti-Slavery Society, the convention voted to transform itself into a new organization called the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) that would campaign for the rights of both women and blacks, advocating suffrage for both. The new organization elected Lucretia Mott as president and created an executive committee that included Stanton, Anthony and Lucy Stone.[23] The AERA launched lobbying and petition campaigns in several states, hoping to create a drive strong enough to convince the Anti-Slavery Society to accept its goal of universal suffrage rather than suffrage for black men only.[24]","Progressive Era Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities,[34] such as Cleveland, Ohio (especially Mayor Tom Johnson); Toledo, Ohio;[35] Jersey City, New Jersey;[36] Los Angeles;[37] Memphis, Tennessee;[38] Louisville, Kentucky;[39] and many other cities, especially in the western states. In Illinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government.[40] In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert La Follette Sr., the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise.[41]","Progressive Era The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States, from the 1890s to the 1920s.[1] The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and corruption in government.","Progressive Era By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate Commerce Act), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 (the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today's U.S. regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Muckrakers were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago Union Stock Yards, a giant complex of meat processing that developed in the 1870s. The federal government responded to Sinclair's book and The Neill-Reynolds Report with the new regulatory Food and Drug Administration. Ida M. Tarbell wrote a series of articles against Standard Oil, which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme Court in 1911.[91]","Progressivism in the United States Equally significant to progressive-era reform were the crusading journalists, known as muckrakers. These journalists publicized, to middle class readers, economic privilege, political corruption, and social injustice. Their articles appeared in McClure's Magazine and other reform periodicals. Some muckrakers focused on corporate abuses. Ida Tarbell, for instance, exposed the activities of the Standard Oil Company. In The Shame of the Cities (1904), Lincoln Steffens dissected corruption in city government. In Following the Color Line (1908), Ray Stannard Baker criticized race relations. Other muckrakers assailed the Senate, railroad companies, insurance companies, and fraud in patent medicine.[60]","African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954) Nationally, the Republican Party tried to respond to black interests. Theodore Roosevelt, president 1901–1909, had a mixed record on race relations. He relied extensively on the backstage advice of Booker T. Washington regarding patronage appointments across the South. He publicly invited Washington to dinner at the White House, thereby challenging racist attitudes. On the other hand, he began the system of segregating federal employees; and he cracked down on black soldiers who refused to testify against each other in the Brownsville Affair of 1906.[6] In order to defeat his successor William Howard Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912, Roosevelt pursued a Lily-white policy in the South. This new progressive party of 1912 was supportive of black rights in the North, but excluded all black members in the South.[7]","Progressive Era Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation.[2] At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a \"purer\" female vote into the arena.[3] A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or \"Taylorism\".","First-wave feminism During the first wave, there was a notable connection between the slavery abolition movement and the women's rights movement. Frederick Douglass was heavily involved in both movements and believed that it was essential for both to work together in order to attain true equality in regards to race and sex.[42] Different accounts of the involvement of African-American women in the Women's Suffrage Movement are given. In a 1974 interview, Alice Paul notes that a compromise was made between southern groups to have white women march first, then men, then African-American women.[43] In another account by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), difficulties in segregating women resulted in African-American women marching with their respective States without hindrance.[44] Among them was Ida B. Wells-Barnett, who marched with the Illinois delegation.","American Equal Rights Association Several AERA members expressed anger and dismay over the activities of Stanton and Anthony during this period, including their deal with Train that gave him space to express his views in The Revolution.[80] Some, including Lucretia Mott, president of the organization, and African Americans Frederick Douglass and Frances Harper, voiced their disagreements with Stanton and Anthony but continued to maintain working relationships with them.[81][82] Particularly in the case of Lucy Stone, however, the disputes of this period led to a personal rift, one that had important consequences for the women's movement.[83]","Women's suffrage In June 1848, Gerrit Smith made women's suffrage a plank in the Liberty Party platform. In July, at the Seneca Falls Convention in upstate New York, activists including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony began a seventy-year struggle by women to secure the right to vote. Attendees signed a document known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, of which Stanton was the primary author. Equal rights became the rallying cry of the early movement for women's rights, and equal rights meant claiming access to all the prevailing definitions of freedom. In 1850 Lucy Stone organized a larger assembly with a wider focus, the National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts. Susan B. Anthony, a resident of Rochester, New York, joined the cause in 1852 after reading Stone's 1850 speech. Stanton, Stone and Anthony were the three leading figures of this movement in the U.S. during the 19th century: the \"triumvirate\" of the drive to gain voting rights for women.[171] Women's suffrage activists pointed out that black people had been granted the franchise and had not been included in the language of the United States Constitution's Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments (which gave people equal protection under the law and the right to vote regardless of their race, respectively). This, they contended, had been unjust. Early victories were won in the territories of Wyoming (1869)[27] and Utah (1870).","Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Nationally, the Republican Party tried to respond to black interests. Theodore Roosevelt, president 1901–1909, had a mixed record on race relations. He relied extensively on the backstage advice of Booker T. Washington regarding patronage appointments across the South. He publicly invited Washington to dinner at the White House, thereby challenging racist attitudes. On the other hand, he began the system of segregating federal employees; and he cracked down on black soldiers who refused to testify against each other in the Brownsville Affair of 1906.[6] In order to defeat his successor William Howard Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912, Roosevelt pursued a Lily-white policy in the South. This new progressive party of 1912 was supportive of black rights in the North, but excluded all black members in the South.[7]","National Woman Suffrage Association Meeting at the Women's Bureau in New York City, Stanton, Anthony and delegates from nineteen states of the AERA convention, appointed Elizabeth Cady Stanton as the National's President.[5] Other prominent activists forming the National were Lucretia Mott, Martha Coffin Wright, Ernestine Rose (part of the Executive Committee), Pauline Wright Davis (Advisory Counsel of Rhode Island), Reverend Olympia Brown, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Anna E. Dickinson (Vice-President of Pennsylvania), Elizabeth Smith Miller and Mary Cheney Greeley among others.[9] The women immediately turned their efforts toward passage of a Constitutional Amendment giving women the right to vote.","American Equal Rights Association The women's movement was loosely structured during this period, with legislative campaigns and speaking tours organized by a small group of women acting on personal initiative. An informal coordinating committee organized national women's rights conventions, but there were only a few state associations and no formal national organization.[10] The movement largely disappeared from public notice during the Civil War (1861–1865) as women's rights activists focused their energy on the campaign against slavery. In 1863 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony organized the Women's Loyal National League, the first national women's political organization in the U.S., to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would abolish slavery.[11][12]","Progressivism in the United States Progressives fought for women's suffrage to purify the elections using supposedly purer female voters.[14] Progressives in the South supported the elimination of supposedly corrupt black voters from the election booth. Historian Michael Perman says that in both Texas and Georgia, \"disfranchisement was the weapon as well as the rallying cry in the fight for reform\"; and in Virginia, \"the drive for disfranchisement had been initiated by men who saw themselves as reformers, even progressives.\"[15]","Opposition to World War I Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman's movement. A concerted effort was made by anti-war leaders, including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to convince Wilson to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Wilson indeed made an energetic, sustained and serious effort to do so, and kept his administration neutral, but he was repeatedly rebuffed by Britain and Germany.[18] Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what Wilson promised would be \"a war to end all wars\".[19]","Progressivism In America, progressivism began as a social movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and grew into a political movement, in what was known as the Progressive Era. While the term \"American progressives\" represent a range of diverse political pressure groups (not always united), some American progressives rejected Social Darwinism, believing that the problems society faced (poverty, violence, greed, racism, class warfare) could best be addressed by providing good education, a safe environment, and an efficient workplace. Progressives lived mainly in the cities, were college educated, and believed that government could be a tool for change.[20] American President Theodore Roosevelt of the U.S. Republican Party and later the U.S. Progressive Party, declared that he \"always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand\".[21] American President Woodrow Wilson was also a member of the American progressive movement, within the Democratic Party.","Equal Rights Amendment Paul named this version the Lucretia Mott Amendment, after a female abolitionist who fought for women's rights and attended the First Women's Rights Convention.[11]","American Equal Rights Association After the Kansas campaign ended in disarray in November 1867, the AERA increasingly divided into two wings, both advocating universal suffrage but with different approaches. One wing, whose leading figure was Lucy Stone, was willing for black men to achieve suffrage first and wanted to maintain close ties with the Republican Party and the abolitionist movement. The other, whose leading figures were Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, insisted that women and black men should be enfranchised at the same time and worked toward a politically independent women's movement that would no longer be dependent on abolitionists.[62] Stanton and Anthony expressed their views in a newspaper called The Revolution, which began publishing in January 1868 with initial funding from the controversial George Francis Train.[63]","Jane Addams Jane Addams (September 8, 1860 – May 21, 1935), known as the \"mother\" of social work,[1][2] was a pioneer American settlement activist/reformer, social worker, public philosopher, sociologist,[3] public administrator,[4][5] protestor, author, and leader in women's suffrage and world peace.[6] She co-founded, with Ellen Gates Starr, an early settlement house in the United States, Chicago's Hull House that would later become known as one of the most famous settlement houses in America. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists, Addams was one of the most prominent[7] reformers of the Progressive Era. She helped America address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. In her essay \"Utilization of Women in City Government,\" Jane Addams noted the connection between the workings of government and the household, stating that many departments of government, such as sanitation and the schooling of children, could be traced back to traditional women's roles in the private sphere. Thus, these were matters of which women would have more knowledge than men, so women needed the vote to best voice their opinions.[8] She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy, and is known by many as the first woman \"public philosopher in the history of the United States.[9] In 1889 she co-founded Hull House, and in 1920 she was a co-founder for the ACLU.[10] In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and is recognized as the founder of the social work profession in the United States.[11]","African-American civil rights movement (1865–1896) Much of the early reform movement during this era was spearheaded by the Radical Republicans, a faction of the Republican Party. By the end of the 19th century, with disenfranchisement in progress to exclude blacks from the political system altogether, the so-called lily-white movement also worked to substantially weaken the power of remaining blacks in the party. The most important civil rights leaders of this period were Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) and Booker T. Washington (1856–1915).","American Equal Rights Association Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony issued the call for the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention, the first since the Civil War began, which met on May 10, 1866, in New York City.[21] Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, an African American abolitionist and writer, spoke at the convention from the viewpoint of one who had to deal with issues faced by both women and blacks: \"You white women speak here of rights. I speak of wrongs. I, as a colored woman, have had in this country an education which has made me feel as if I were in the situation of Ishmael, my hand against every man, and every man's hand against me.\"[22]","Progressive Era Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the Gilded Age, the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the national levels included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and women's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[12]","Elizabeth Cady Stanton Elizabeth Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 – October 26, 1902) was an American suffragist, social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early women's rights movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the Seneca Falls Convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized women's rights and women's suffrage movements in the United States.[1][2] Stanton was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1892 until 1900.","Women's suffrage in states of the United States The American Equal Rights Association (AERA) actively supported both referenda. The AERA, which advocated suffrage for both women and blacks, had been formed in 1866 by abolitionists and women's rights activists. Lucy Stone and her husband Henry Blackwell launched the AERA campaign in Kansas. In April they assisted with the formation of a state organization called the Impartial Suffrage Association, which was led by Charles L. Robinson, a former governor who was Stone's brother's brother-in-law, and Sam Wood.[10]\nOlympia Brown arrived in Kansas on July 1 to relieve Stone and Blackwell as leader of the AERA campaign, handling that task almost single-handedly until Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton arrived in September. The AERA could not afford to send more activists because money that had expected to support their campaign had been blocked by Wendell Phillips, a leading abolitionist. Although he supported women's rights, Phillips believed that suffrage for African American men was the key issue of the day, and he objected to mixing the issues of suffrage for blacks and women.[11]","First-wave feminism Early Feminism was directly correlated with the abolitionist movements and as a result many famous feminists and activists began to have their voices heard. Some of these early activists include, Sojourner Truth, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, Jane Addams, and Dorothy Day.[5] The first wave of feminism was primarily led by white women in the middle class, and it was not until the second wave of feminism that women of color began developing a voice.[6] The term Feminism was created like a political illustrated ideology at that period. Feminism emerged by the speech about the reform and correction of democracy based on equalitarian conditions. With Wollstonecraft's work, the illustrated feminist polemic was displayed, and as a result, suffragist movements were stood up.","Progressivism in the United States The Progressives mobilized concerned middle class voters, as well as newspapers and magazines, to identify problems and concentrate reform sentiment on specific problems. Many Protestants focused on the saloon as the power base for corruption, as well as violence and family disruption, so they tried to get rid of the entire saloon system through prohibition. Others (like Jane Addams in Chicago) promoted Settlement Houses.[22] Early municipal reformers included Hazen S. Pingree (mayor of Detroit in the 1890s)[23] and Tom L. Johnson in Cleveland, Ohio. In 1901, Johnson won election as mayor of Cleveland on a platform of just taxation, home rule for Ohio cities, and a 3-cent streetcar fare.[24] Columbia University President Seth Low was elected mayor of New York City in 1901 on a reform ticket.[25]","Women's suffrage in the United States The leaders of the Southern movement were privileged upper-class belles with a strong position in high society and in church affairs. They tried to use their upscale connections to convince powerful men that suffrage was a good idea to purify society. They also argued that giving white women the vote would more than counterbalance giving the vote to the smaller number of black women.[163] No southern state enfranchised women as a result of this strategy, however, and most southern suffrage societies that were established during this period lapsed into inactivity. The NAWSA leadership afterwards said it would not adopt policies that \"advocated the exclusion of any race or class from the right of suffrage.\"[164] Nonetheless NAWSA reflected its white membership's viewpoint by minimizing the role of black suffragists. At the 1913 suffrage march on Washington, Ida B. Wells-Barnett, a leader in the African American community, was asked to march in an all-black contingent to avoid upsetting white southern marchers. When the march got underway, however, she slipped into the ranks of the contingent from Illinois, her home state, and completed the march in the company of white supporters.[165]","Progressive Era The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the US Constitution. The 16th amendment made an income tax legal (this required an amendment due to Article One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by the decennial census). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to reduce political corruption through the 17th amendment (direct election of U.S. Senators). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of World War I that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for prohibition through the 18th amendment (once the Progressives fell out of power the 21st amendment repealed the 18th in 1933). The ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, which recognized women's suffrage was last amendment during the progressive era.[75] Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the incorporation of the Bill of Rights so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal government. Prior to that time, the Bill of Rights was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states.","American Equal Rights Association The AERA held its first annual meeting in New York City on May 9, 1867.[25] Referring to the growing demand for suffrage for African American men, Lucretia Mott, the AERA's president, said, \"woman had a right to be a little jealous of the addition of so large a number of men to the voting class, for the colored men would naturally throw all their strength upon the side of those opposed to woman's enfranchisement.\"[26] Asked by George T. Downing, an African American, whether she would be willing for the black man to have the vote before woman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton replied, \"I would say, no; I would not trust him with all my rights; degraded, oppressed himself, he would be more despotic with the governing power than even our Saxon rulers are. I desire that we go into the kingdom together\".[26][27] Sojourner Truth, a former slave, said that, \"if colored men get their rights, and not colored women theirs, you see the colored men will be masters over the women, and it will be just as bad as it was before.\"[28]","National Association of Colored Women's Clubs Founders of the NACWC included Harriet Tubman, Margaret Murray Washington,[7] Frances E.W. Harper, Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, and Mary Church Terrell. Its two leading members were Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell. Their original intention was \"to furnish evidence of the moral, mental and material progress made by people of color through the efforts of our women\". They organized to refute a letter written by James Jacks, the president of the Missouri Press Association, challenging the respectability of African-American women, and referring to them as thieves and prostitutes.[8]","Feminism In Britain the Suffragettes and the Suffragists campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the Representation of the People Act was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned property. In 1928 this was extended to all women over 21.[33] Emmeline Pankhurst was the most notable activist in England, with Time naming her one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century stating: \"she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back.\"[34] In the U.S., notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God.[35] In the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term first wave was coined retroactively to categorize these western movements after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused on fighting social and cultural inequalities, as well political inequalities.[30][36][37][38][39]","Factions in the Democratic Party (United States) Modern liberalism in the Democratic Party began during the Progressive era. From 1900 to 1920, liberals called themselves progressives and rallied behind Democrats such as William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson to fight corruption, waste and big trusts. The presidency of Woodrow Wilson saw the enactment of the New Freedom, progressive social programs enacted from 1913 to 1916, when Democrats controlled Congress. The rise of the women's suffrage movement saw the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and a push for civil rights legislation on the basis of gender. The first modern self-described liberal Democratic president was President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who enacted the New Deal, a series of social liberal programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. From the 1940s onwards, liberal Democrats began pushing for desegregation and civil rights legislation for racial minorities. Starting in the 1960s, liberal Democrats began pushing for immigration reform and gun control. During the Cold War, the liberal Democratic movement became anti-communist.","Voting rights in the United States A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle- and upper-class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.","Equal Rights Amendment Since the 1920s, the Equal Rights Amendment has caused a sharp debate among feminists about the meaning of women's equality. It was \"feminist against feminist\", said historian Judith Sealander.[14] Alice Paul and her National Woman's Party was the leading proponent, arguing that women should be on equal terms with men in all regards, even if that means sacrificing certain benefits given to women through protective legislation, such as shorter work hours and no night work or heavy lifting.[15] Opponents of the amendment, such as the Women's Joint Congressional Committee, believed that these gender-based benefits protected women and that the loss of such protection would not be worth the supposed gain in equality. In general, middle-class elements supported the ERA, and working-class elements (and the labor movement) opposed it.[16] In 1924, The Forum hosted a debate between Doris Stevens and Alice Hamilton concerning these two perspectives on the proposed amendment.[17] Their debate reflected the wider tension in the developing feminist movement of the early 20th century between two approaches towards the equality of gender. One approach emphasized shared similarities between the sexes and demanded rights based on women's humanity. The other approach emphasized women's unique experiences and how they were different from men to obtain recognition for their specific needs.[18] The crusade against the ERA on behalf of working class women was led by Mary Anderson and the Women's Bureau beginning in 1923. These feminists argued that legislation including mandated minimum wages, safety regulations, restricted daily and weekly hours, lunch breaks, and maternity provisions would be more beneficial to the majority of women who were forced to work out of economic necessity, not personal fulfillment.[19] The debate over the ERA also drew from struggles between working class and professional women. Alice Hamilton said, in her speech “Protection for Women Workers,” that the ERA would strip working women of the small protections they had achieved, and leave them powerless to further improve their condition in the future, or attain necessary protections in the present.[20]","Progressive Party (United States, 1912) The party's platform built on Roosevelt's Square Deal domestic program and called for several progressive reforms. The platform asserted that \"to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.\" Proposals on the platform included restrictions on campaign finance contributions, a reduction of the tariff, and the establishment of a social insurance system, an eight-hour workday, and women's suffrage. The party was split on the regulation of large corporations, with some party members disappointed that the platform did not contain a stronger call for \"trust-busting.\" Party members also had different outlooks on foreign policy, with pacifists like Jane Addams opposing Roosevelt's call for a naval build-up.","History of the United States The women's suffrage movement began with the June 1848 National Convention of the Liberty Party. Presidential candidate Gerrit Smith argued for and established women's suffrage as a party plank. One month later, his cousin Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined with Lucretia Mott and other women to organize the Seneca Falls Convention, featuring the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women, and the right to vote.[151] Many of these activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The women's rights campaign during \"first-wave feminism\" was led by Stanton, Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony, among many others. Stone and Paulina Wright Davis organized the prominent and influential National Women's Rights Convention in 1850. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century a few western states had granted women full voting rights,[152] though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody.[153]","Progressive Era Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people.[7] Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe[8] and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913.[9] Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the \"one best system\".[10][11]","Woman suffrage parade of 1913 American suffragists Alice Paul and Lucy Burns spearheaded a drive to adopt a national strategy for women's suffrage in the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Both women had been influenced by the militant tactics used by the British suffrage movement and recognized that the women from the six states that had full suffrage at the time comprised a powerful voting bloc. They submitted a proposal to Anna Howard Shaw and the NAWSA leadership at their annual convention in 1912. The leadership was not interested in changing the state-by-state strategy and rejected the idea of holding a campaign that would hold the Democratic Party responsible. Paul and Burns appealed to prominent reformer Jane Addams, who interceded on their behalf.[3]","Woman suffrage parade of 1913 The women persuaded NAWSA to endorse an immense suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., to coincide with newly-elected President Woodrow Wilson's inauguration the following March. Paul and Burns were appointed chair and vice-chair of NAWSA's Congressional Committee.[4] They recruited Crystal Eastman, Mary Ritter Beard, and Dora Lewis to the Committee and organized volunteers, planned for, and raised funds in preparation of the parade with little help from the NAWSA.[5] Affiliates of NAWSA from various states organized groups to march and activities leading up to the march, such as the Suffrage Hikes.[6]","American Equal Rights Association To counter the initiatives of Anthony and Stanton, a planning committee was formed in May 1868 to organize a pro-Republican women's suffrage organization in the Boston area that would support the proposal to enfranchise black males first. The New England Woman Suffrage Association was subsequently founded in November 1868. Several participants in new organization were also active in the AERA, including Lucy Stone, Frederick Douglass and the Fosters. Prominent Republican politicians were involved in the founding meeting, including a U.S. senator who was seated on the platform.[84] Francis Bird, a leading Massachusetts Republican, said at the meeting, \"Negro suffrage, being a paramount question, would have to be settled before woman suffrage could receive the attention it deserved.\"[85] Julia Ward Howe, who was elected president of the new organization, said she would not demand suffrage for women until it was achieved for blacks.[86]","American Equal Rights Association After slavery in the U.S. was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, Wendell Phillips was elected president of the Anti-Slavery Society and began to direct its resources toward winning political rights for blacks. He told women's rights activists that he continued to support women's suffrage but thought it best to set aside that demand until voting rights for African American men were assured.[13]","Progressive Era Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as Prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health.","Women's suffrage in the United States In addition to Anthony and Stanton, who organized the convention, the leadership of the new organization included such prominent abolitionist and women's rights activists as Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone and Frederick Douglass. Its drive for universal suffrage, however, was resisted by some abolitionist leaders and their allies in the Republican Party, who wanted women to postpone their campaign for suffrage until it had first been achieved for male African Americans. Horace Greeley, a prominent newspaper editor, told Anthony and Stanton, \"This is a critical period for the Republican Party and the life of our Nation... I conjure you to remember that this is 'the negro's hour,' and your first duty now is to go through the State and plead his claims.\"[68] They and others, including Lucy Stone, refused to postpone their demands, however, and continued to push for universal suffrage.","Iowa State University Carrie Chapman Catt, women's suffrage leader","Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Du Bois joined with other black leaders and white activists, such as Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling, Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's grandfather clause that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).[32]","United States Rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of many prominent industrialists. Tycoons like Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie led the nation's progress in railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with J. P. Morgan playing a notable role. Edison and Tesla undertook the widespread distribution of electricity to industry, homes, and for street lighting. Henry Ford revolutionized the automotive industry. The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest, and the United States achieved great power status.[151] These dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements.[152] This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms in many societal areas, including women's suffrage, alcohol prohibition, regulation of consumer goods, greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions.[153][154][155]","Eugene V. Debs Civil rights / anti-War movements","Progressivism in the United States Labor unions grew steadily until 1916, then expanded fast during the war. In 1919 a wave of major strikes alienated the middle class; the strikes were lost, which alienated the workers. In the 1920s the unions were in the doldrums; in 1924 they supported La Follette's Progressive party, but he only carried his base in Wisconsin. The American Federation of Labor under Samuel Gompers after 1907 began supporting the Democrats, who promised more favorable judges. The Republicans appointed pro-business judges. Theodore Roosevelt and his third party also supported such goals as the eight-hour work day, improved safety and health conditions in factories, workers' compensation laws, and minimum wage laws for women.[47]","Progressive Party (United States, 1912) Roosevelt also favored a vigorous foreign policy, including strong military power. Though the platform called for limiting naval armaments, it also recommended the construction of two new battleships per year, much to the distress of outright pacifists such as Jane Addams.[14]","Women's suffrage During the beginning of the 20th century, as women's suffrage faced several important federal votes, a portion of the suffrage movement known as the National Woman's Party led by suffragist Alice Paul became the first \"cause\" to picket outside the White House. Paul had been mentored by Emmeline Pankhurst while in England, and both she and Lucy Burns led a series of protests against the Wilson Administration in Washington.[175] Wilson ignored the protests for six months, but on June 20, 1917, as a Russian delegation drove up to the White House, suffragists unfurled a banner which stated: \"We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement\".[176] Another banner on August 14, 1917, referred to \"Kaiser Wilson\" and compared the plight of the German people with that of American women. With this manner of protest, the women were subject to arrests and many were jailed.[177] Another ongoing tactic of the National Woman's Party was watchfires, which involved burning copies of President Wilson's speeches, often outside the White House or in the nearby Lafayette Park. The Party continued to hold watchfires even as the war began, drawing criticism from the public and even other suffrage groups for being unpatriotic.[178] On October 17, Alice Paul was sentenced to seven months and on October 30 began a hunger strike, but after a few days prison authorities began to force feed her.[176] After years of opposition, Wilson changed his position in 1918 to advocate women's suffrage as a war measure.[179]","American Equal Rights Association The women's movement began to revive when proposals for a Fourteenth Amendment began circulating that would secure citizenship (but not yet voting rights) for African Americans. Some of the proposals for this amendment would also for the first time introduce the word \"male\" into the Constitution, which begins with the words \"We the People of the United States\". Stanton said that \"if that word 'male' be inserted, it will take us a century at least to get it out.\"[14] Stanton, Anthony and Lucy Stone, the most prominent figures in the women's movement, circulated a letter in late 1865 calling for petitions against any wording that excluded females.[15] A version of the amendment that referred to \"persons\" instead of \"males\" passed the House of Representatives in early 1866 but failed in the Senate.[16] The version that Congress eventually approved and sent to the states for ratification included the word \"male\" three times. Stanton and Anthony opposed the amendment, but Stone supported it as a step towards universal suffrage.[15] Frederick Douglass denounced it because it permitted states to disenfranchise blacks if those states were willing to accept reduced representation at the federal level.[17] The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868.","Modern liberalism in the United States Liberals were latecomers to the movement for equal rights for women. Generally, they agreed with Eleanor Roosevelt, that women needed special protections, especially regarding hours of work, night work, and physically heavy work.[129] The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) had first been proposed in the 1920s by Alice Paul, and appealed primarily to middle-class career women. At the Democratic National Convention in 1960, a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including labor unions, AFL-CIO, American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), American Federation of Teachers, American Nurses Association, the Women's Division of the Methodist Church, and the National Councils of Jewish, Catholic, and Negro Women.[130]","Progressive Era The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Other like Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell went after John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. Samuel Hopkins Adams in 1905 showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle gave a horrid portrayal of how meat was packed, and, also in 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.[15][16]","W. E. B. Du Bois Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership.","American Equal Rights Association The state of New York organized a convention in June 1867 to revise its constitution. AERA workers prepared for it by organizing meetings in over 30 locations around the state and collecting over 20,000 signatures on petitions that supported women's suffrage and the removal of property requirements that discriminated specifically against black voters.[31][32] The suffrage committee of the convention was chaired by Horace Greeley, a prominent newspaper editor and abolitionist who had been a supporter of the women's movement. His committee approved the removal of discriminatory property requirements for black voters but rejected the proposal for women's suffrage.[31]","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution A three-decade period known as \"the doldrums\" followed, during which the amendment was not considered by Congress and the women's suffrage movement achieved few victories.[17][18] During this period, the suffragists pressed for the right to vote in the laws of individual states and territories while retaining the goal of federal recognition.[16] A flurry of activity began in 1910 and 1911 with surprise successes in Washington and California.[17] Over the next few years, most western states passed legislation or voter referenda enacting full or partial suffrage for women.[19] These successes were linked to the 1912 election, which saw the rise of the Progressive and Socialist parties, as well as the election of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson.[17][18] Not until 1914 was the constitutional amendment again considered by the Senate, where it was again rejected.[16]","Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt Although Roosevelt did some work improving race relations, he, like most leaders of the Progressive Era, lacked initiative on most racial issues. Booker T. Washington, the most important black leader of the day, was the first African American to be invited to dinner at the White House, on October 16, 1901.[70] Washington, who had emerged as an important adviser to Republican politicians in the 1890s, favored accommodation with the Jim Crow laws that instituted racial segregation.[71] News of the dinner reached the press two days later, and the white public outcry following the dinner was so strong, especially from the Southern states, that Roosevelt never repeated the experiment.[70] Nonetheless, Roosevelt continued to consult Washington regarding appointments and shunned the \"lily-white\" Southern Republicans who favored excluding blacks from office.","National American Woman Suffrage Association In 1907, partly in reaction to NAWSA's \"society plan\", which was designed to appeal to upper-class women, Harriet Stanton Blatch, daughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, formed a competing organization called the Equality League of Self-Supporting Women.[68]\nLater known as the Women's Political Union, its membership was based on working women, both professional and industrial. Blatch had recently returned to the United States after several years in England, where she had worked with suffrage groups in the early phases of employing militant tactics as part of their campaign. The Equality League gained a following by engaging in activities that many members of the NAWSA initially considered too daring, such as suffrage parades and open air rallies.[69]\nBlatch said that when she joined the suffrage movement in the U.S., \"The only method suggested for furthering the cause was the slow process of education. We were told to organize, organize, organize, to the end of educating, educating, educating public opinion.\"[70]","History of education in the United States Booker T. Washington was the dominant black political and educational leader in the United States from the 1890s until his death in 1915. Washington not only led his own college, Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, but his advice, political support, and financial connections proved important to many other black colleges and high schools, which were primarily located in the South. This was the center of the black population until after the Great Migration of the first half of the 20th century. Washington was a respected advisor to major philanthropies, such as the Rockefeller, Rosenwald and Jeanes foundations, which provided funding for leading black schools and colleges. The Rosenwald Foundation provided matching funds for the construction of schools for rural black students in the South. Washington explained, \"We need not only the industrial school, but the college and professional school as well, for a people so largely segregated, as we are.... Our teachers, ministers, lawyers and doctors will prosper just in proportion as they have about them an intelligent and skillful producing class.\"[91] Washington was a strong advocate of progressive reforms as advocated by Dewey, emphasizing scientific, industrial and agricultural education that produced a base for lifelong learning, and enabled careers for many black teachers, professionals, and upwardly mobile workers. He tried to adapt to the system and did not support political protests against the segregated Jim Crow system.[92] At the same time, Washington used his network to provide important funding to support numerous legal challenges by the NAACP against the systems of disenfranchisement which southern legislatures had passed at the turn of the century, effectively excluding blacks from politics for decades into the 1960s.","American Equal Rights Association Although still relatively small, the women's rights movement had grown in the years before the American Civil War, aided by the introduction of women to social activism through the abolitionist movement. The American Anti-Slavery Society, led by William Lloyd Garrison, was particularly encouraging to those who championed women's rights.[8] The planning committee for the first National Women's Rights Convention in October 1850 was formed by people who were attending a convention of the Anti-Slavery Society earlier that year.[9]","National American Woman Suffrage Association In 1912, W. E. B. Du Bois, president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), publicly challenged NAWSA's reluctance to accept black women. The NAWSA responded in a cordial way, inviting him to speak at its next convention and publishing his speech as a pamphlet.[79]\nNonetheless the NAWSA continued to minimize the role of black suffragists. It accepted some black women as members and some black societies as auxiliaries, but its general practice was to politely turn such requests away.[80]\nThis was partly because attitudes of racial superiority were the norm among white Americans of that era, and partly because the NAWSA believed it had little hope of achieving a national amendment without at least some support from southern states that practiced racial segregation.[81]","Women's suffrage in the United States Sentiment in favor of women's rights was strong within the radical wing of the abolitionist movement. William Lloyd Garrison, the leader of the American Anti-Slavery Society, said \"I doubt whether a more important movement has been launched touching the destiny of the race, than this in regard to the equality of the sexes\".[21] The abolitionist movement, however, attracted only about one per cent of the population at that time, and radical abolitionists were only one part of that movement.[22]","John Dewey Civil Rights / anti-War movements","W. E. B. Du Bois Civil rights / anti-War movements","Victoria Woodhull Victoria Claflin Woodhull, later Victoria Woodhull Martin (September 23, 1838 – June 9, 1927), was an American leader of the women's suffrage movement. In 1872, she ran for President of the United States. While many historians and authors agree that Woodhull was the first woman to run for President of the United States, some have questioned that priority given issues with the legality of her run. They disagree with classifying it as a true candidacy because she was younger than the constitutionally mandated age of 35. However, election coverage by contemporary newspapers does not suggest age was a significant issue; this may, however, be due to the fact that no one took the candidacy seriously (Woodhull's 35th birthday was in September 1873, seven months after the March inauguration).","Jane Addams Starr and Addams developed three \"ethical principles\" for social settlements: \"to teach by example, to practice cooperation, and to practice social democracy, that is, egalitarian, or democratic, social relations across class lines.\"[40] Thus Hull House offered a comprehensive program of civic, cultural, recreational, and educational activities and attracted admiring visitors from all over the world, including William Lyon Mackenzie King, a graduate student from Harvard University who later became prime minister of Canada. In the 1890s Julia Lathrop, Florence Kelley, and other residents of the house made it a world center of social reform activity. Hull House used the latest methodology (pioneering in statistical mapping) to study overcrowding, truancy, typhoid fever, cocaine, children's reading, newsboys, infant mortality, and midwifery. Starting with efforts to improve the immediate neighborhood, the Hull House group became involved in city- and statewide campaigns for better housing, improvements in public welfare, stricter child-labor laws, and protection of working women. Addams brought in prominent visitors from around the world, and had close links with leading Chicago intellectuals and philanthropists. In 1912, she helped start the new Progressive Party and supported the presidential campaign of Theodore Roosevelt.","African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954) Du Bois joined with other black leaders and white activists, such as Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling, Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's grandfather clause that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).[32]","Women's suffrage in states of the United States Besides the passage of the Illinois Municipal Voting Act, 1913 was also a significant year in other facets of the women's suffrage movement. In Chicago, Ida B. Wells-Barnett founded the Alpha Suffrage Club, the first such organization for Negro women in Illinois. Although white women as a group were sometimes ambivalent about obtaining the franchise, African American women were almost universally in favor of gaining the vote to help end their sexual exploitation, promote their educational opportunities and protect those who were wage earners.[citation needed] African-American women often found themselves fighting both sexism and racism. As a result, there was an African-American Woman Suffrage Movement.","National Woman's Party During the group's first meeting, Paul clarified that the party would not be a political party and therefore would not endorse a candidate for president during elections. While non-partisan, the NWP directed most of its attention to President Woodrow Wilson and the Democrats, criticizing them as responsible for the failure to pass a constitutional amendment. The National Woman's Party continued to focus on suffrage as their main cause. It refused to either support or attack American involvement in the World War, while the rival National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) under Carrie Chapman Catt gave full support to the war effort. As a result, a diverse group of activists such as pacifists and Socialists were attracted to the NWP due to its opposition to an anti-suffrage president.[10]","Niagara Movement The most prominent African-American spokesman during the 1890s was Booker T. Washington, leader of Alabama's Tuskegee Institute. Washington outlined a response to these policies in an 1895 speech in Atlanta, Georgia that became known as the Atlanta Compromise. The basic thrust of his approach was that Southern African-Americans should not agitate for political rights (such as the right to vote and equal treatment under the law) as long as they were provided economic opportunities and basic rights of due process.[2] Washington also politically dominated the National Afro-American Council, the first nationwide African-American civil rights organization.[3]","American Equal Rights Association Women's suffrage, a key goal of the AERA, was achieved in 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, popularly known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment.[111] Despite the passage of the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments, the AERA's goal of securing equal rights for all citizens, especially suffrage, still had not yet been fully achieved. Although Puerto Ricans were by law citizens of the United States, Puerto Rican women were prevented from voting until 1929, and African Americans in southern states were for the most part prevented from voting until 1965, nearly a hundred years after the AERA was formed.[112]","Civil rights movement (1896–1954) W. E. B. Du Bois and others in the black community rejected Washington's apology for segregation. One of his close associates, William Monroe Trotter, was arrested after challenging Washington when he came to deliver a speech in Boston in 1905. Later that year Du Bois and Trotter convened a meeting of black activists on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls. They issued a manifesto calling for universal manhood suffrage, elimination of all forms of racial segregation and extension of education—not limited to the vocational education that Washington emphasized—on a nondiscriminatory basis. The Niagara Movement was actively opposed by Washington, and had effectively collapsed due to internal divisions by 1908.[31]","Booker T. Washington Northern critics called Washington's widespread organization the \"Tuskegee Machine\". After 1909, Washington was criticized by the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B. Du Bois, who demanded a stronger tone of protest in order to advance the civil rights agenda. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks in society, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. At the same time, he secretly funded litigation for civil rights cases, such as challenges to southern constitutions and laws that had disenfranchised blacks across the South since the turn of the century.[1][5] African Americans were still strongly affiliated with the Republican Party, and Washington was on close terms with national Republican Party leaders. He was often asked for political advice by presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.[6]","History of the United States (1918–1945) The suffrage organization NAWSA became the League of Women Voters. Alice Paul's National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972, but was not ratified and never took effect. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, while rural dry counties mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. Catholic women were reluctant to vote in the early 1920s, but they registered in very large numbers for the 1928 election—the first in which Catholicism was a major issue.[8] A few women were elected to office, but none became especially prominent during this time period. Overall, the women's rights movement was dormant in the 1920s, since Susan B. Anthony and the other prominent activists had died, and apart from Alice Paul few younger women came along to replace them.","History of the United States (1918–45) The suffrage organization NAWSA became the League of Women Voters. Alice Paul's National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972, but was not ratified and never took effect. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, while rural dry counties mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. Catholic women were reluctant to vote in the early 1920s, but they registered in very large numbers for the 1928 election—the first in which Catholicism was a major issue.[8] A few women were elected to office, but none became especially prominent during this time period. Overall, the women's rights movement was dormant in the 1920s, since Susan B. Anthony and the other prominent activists had died, and apart from Alice Paul few younger women came along to replace them.","National American Woman Suffrage Association The demand for women's suffrage in the United States was controversial even among women's rights activists in the early days of the movement. In 1848, a resolution in favor of women's right to vote was approved only after vigorous debate at the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention. By the time of the National Women's Rights Conventions in the 1850s, the situation had changed, and women's suffrage had become a preeminent goal of the movement.[1]\nThree leaders of the women's movement during this period, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, played prominent roles in the creation of the NAWSA many years later.","National American Woman Suffrage Association In 1866, just after the American Civil War, the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention transformed itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), which worked for equal rights for both African Americans and white women, especially suffrage.[2]\nThe AERA essentially collapsed in 1869, partly because of disagreement over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would enfranchise African American men. Leaders of the women's movement were dismayed that it would not also enfranchise women. Stanton and Anthony opposed its ratification unless it was accompanied by another amendment that would enfranchise women.[3]\nStone supported the amendment. She believed that its ratification would spur politicians to support a similar amendment for women. She said that even though the right to vote was more important for women than for black men, \"I will be thankful in my soul if any body can get out of the terrible pit.\"[4]","Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Booker T. Washington, who ran the National Negro Business League and was president of the Tuskegee Institute, was the most prominent promoter of black business. He traveled from city to city to sign up local entrepreneurs into the national league.[19][20]","Progressive Era In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the New Deal and dated it from 1901 (when Roosevelt became president) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917.[103] Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal[104] and state[105] levels in the 1890s.","Progressivism in the United States Pro-labor progressives such as Samuel Gompers argued that industrial monopolies were unnatural economic institutions which suppressed the competition which was necessary for progress and improvement.[38][39] United States antitrust law is the body of laws that prohibits anti-competitive behavior (monopoly) and unfair business practices. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft supported trust-busting. During their presidencies, the otherwise-conservative Taft brought down 90 trusts in four years while Roosevelt took down 44 in 7 1/2 years in office.[40]","Progressive Era The movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of direct democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies (Trust Busting) and corporations through antitrust laws. These antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors.","National Woman Suffrage Association Following the May 1869 American Equal Rights Association convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Jacqueline Valenzuela, and Bianet Cuevas Parra established the National Woman Suffrage Association (hereafter referred to as \"the National\").[4] Feeling misguided and deceived, Stanton and Anthony resorted to such bold action largely due to their belief that the preponderance of men composing the AERA leadership had betrayed women's interest.[2] In addition to a feeling of betrayal, deep differences between the factions of the movement centered on numerous issues, including how AERA funds were to be used, and, most importantly, whether the reconstruction amendments should be supported despite their failure to include women.[8]","Mary Elizabeth Lease Despite her fallout with--and the eventual destruction of--the Populist Party, Lease felt that their work and efforts were ultimately rewarded with the election of Theodore Roosevelt and the national push for reforms she championed years earlier: \"In these later years I have seen, with gratification, that my work in the good old Populist days was not in vain. The Progressive party has adopted our platform, clause for clause, plank by plank. Note the list of reforms which we advocated which are coming into reality. Direct election of senators is assured. Public utilities are gradually being removed from the hands of the few and placed under the control of the people who use them. Women suffrage is now almost a national issue . . . The seed we sowed out in Kansas did not fall on barren ground.\"[9]"],"string":"[\n \"Progressive Era Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made \\\"scientific\\\" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political science.[6] In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers.\",\n \"Women's suffrage in the United States The reform campaigns of the Progressive Era strengthened the suffrage movement. Beginning around 1900, this broad movement began at the grassroots level with such goals as combating corruption in government, eliminating child labor, and protecting workers and consumers. Many of its participants saw women's suffrage as yet another progressive goal, and they believed that the addition of women to the electorate would help their movement achieve its other goals. In 1912 the Progressive Party, formed by Theodore Roosevelt, endorsed women's suffrage.[187] The socialist movement supported women's suffrage in some areas.[188]\",\n \"Progressive Era The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing woman suffrage legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920.[22][23] A breakaway group, the National Woman's Party, tightly controlled by Alice Paul, used civil disobedience to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained themselves to the White House fence in order to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements.[24]\",\n \"History of the United States Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics as usual, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic Progressive Movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city and state, and at the national level as well, and in education, medicine, and industry, the progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions, the elimination of corruption in politics, and the introduction of efficiency as a criterion for change. Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert La Follette on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson on the Democratic side, took up the cause of progressive reform. Women became especially involved in demands for woman suffrage, prohibition, and better schools; their most prominent leader was Jane Addams of Chicago, who created settlement houses. \\\"Muckraking\\\" journalists such as Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis exposed corruption in business and government along with rampant inner city poverty. Progressives implemented anti-trust laws and regulated such industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments – the Sixteenth through Nineteenth – resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and woman suffrage.[140] The Progressive Movement lasted through the 1920s; the most active period was 1900–18.[141]\",\n \"History of women in the United States The representative woman of the Progressive Era was Jane Addams (1860–1935). She was a pioneer social worker, leader of community activists at Hull House in Chicago, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and spokesperson for suffrage and world peace. Alongside presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, she was the most prominent reformer of the Progressive Era.[155] She helped turn the nation's attention to issues of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, public health, and world peace. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed the vote to be effective in doing so. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Her reputation declined after 1960 as critics on the left portrayed her an unoriginal racist determined to civilize helpless immigrants. After 1990 the pendulum swung in her favor and numerous favorable biographies have appeared.[156][157]\",\n \"History of the United States (1865–1918) Around 1912, the movement, which had grown sluggish, began to reawaken. This put an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women because men could no longer do their job.[78] Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capitol and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their \\\"Silent Sentinels\\\" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners.[79]\",\n \"Progressive Party (United States, 1912) Despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women. In 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed women's suffrage on the national level.[5] The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a seconding speech for Roosevelt's nomination. However, Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South (whom he regarded as a corrupt and ineffective element).[6] Yet he alienated white southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel.[7][8]\",\n \"National American Woman Suffrage Association The reform energy of the Progressive Era strengthened the suffrage movement during this period. Beginning around 1900, this broad movement began at the grassroots level with such goals as combating corruption in government, eliminating child labor, and protecting workers and consumers. Many of its participants saw women's suffrage as yet another progressive goal, and they believed that the addition of women to the electorate would help the movement achieve its other goals.[62]\",\n \"History of the United States Around 1912 the feminist movement began to reawaken, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women because men could not do that job.[155] Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their \\\"Silent Sentinels\\\" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners.[156]\",\n \"First-wave feminism Woman in the Nineteenth Century by Margaret Fuller has been considered the first major feminist work in the United States and is often compared to Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.[38] Prominent leaders of the feminist movement in the United States include Lucretia Coffin Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucy Stone, and Susan B. Anthony; Anthony and other activists such as Victoria Woodhull and Matilda Joslyn Gage made attempts to cast votes prior to their legal entitlement to do so, for which many of them faced charges. Other important leaders included several women who dissented against the law in order to have their voices heard, (Sarah and Angelina Grimké), in addition to other activists such as Carrie Chapman Catt, Alice Paul, Sojourner Truth, Ida B. Wells, Margaret Sanger and Lucy Burns.[39]\",\n \"Progressive Era Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white minorities, the Progressive Era was the nadir of American race relations. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this was to be achieved. Some, such as Lillian Wald, fought to ameliorate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though, were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure-seekers in 'black-and-tan' clubs troubled Progressive reformers.[61] The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to correct societal problems created by racial integration following the Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve its own potential. That is to say that most Progressives saw racial integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be achieved.[62][63][64] As white progressives sought to help the white working-class, clean-up politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of racial segregation known as Jim Crow.[65]\",\n \"Progressive Era Much less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during World War I and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy.[106] A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including Jane Addams, was suppressed after Wilson's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, \\\"He kept us out of the war.\\\" [107] The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year, when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82–6 in favor; the House agreed, 373–50. Some historians see the so-called \\\"war to end all wars\\\" as a globalized expression of the American Progressive movement, with Wilson's support for a League of Nations as its climax.[108]\",\n \"Progressive Era built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as \\\"municipal housekeepers,\\\" they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and wellbeing of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their \\\"maternal\\\" expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop's leadership in the Children's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice.[21]\",\n \"Gilded Age During the Gilded Age, many new social movements took hold in the United States. Many women abolitionists who were disappointed that the Fifteenth Amendment did not extend voting rights to them, remained active in politics, this time focusing on issues important to them. Reviving the temperance movement from the Second Great Awakening, many women joined the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in an attempt to bring morality back to America. Its chief leader was Frances Willard (1839-1898), who had a national and international outreach from her base in Evanston, Illinois. Often the WCTU women took up the issue of women's suffrage which had lain dormant since the Seneca Falls Convention. With leaders like Susan B. Anthony, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was formed in order to secure the right of women to vote.[173]\",\n \"Progressive Era George Washington Carver (1860-1943) was well known for his research projects, especially involving agriculture. He was also a leader in promoting environmentalism.[58]\",\n \"Progressive Era While some Progressive leaders became reactionaries, that usually happened in the 1930s, not in the 1920s, as exemplified by William Randolph Hearst,[114] Herbert Hoover, Al Smith and Henry Ford.[115][116]\",\n \"Modern liberalism in the United States In 1900–1920 liberals called themselves \\\"progressives.\\\" They rallied behind Republicans led by Theodore Roosevelt and Robert La Follette, as well as Democrats led by William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson to fight corruption, waste and big trusts (big corporations). They stressed ideals of social justice and the use of government to solve social and economic problems. Settlement workers such as Jane Addams were leaders of the liberal tradition.[49] There was a tension between sympathy with labor unions and the goal to apply scientific expertise by disinterested experts. When liberals became anti-Communist in the 1940s they purged leftists from the liberal movement.[50]\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association In a variation of the idea proposed earlier to the Anti-Slavery Society, the convention voted to transform itself into a new organization called the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) that would campaign for the rights of both women and blacks, advocating suffrage for both. The new organization elected Lucretia Mott as president and created an executive committee that included Stanton, Anthony and Lucy Stone.[23] The AERA launched lobbying and petition campaigns in several states, hoping to create a drive strong enough to convince the Anti-Slavery Society to accept its goal of universal suffrage rather than suffrage for black men only.[24]\",\n \"Progressive Era Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities,[34] such as Cleveland, Ohio (especially Mayor Tom Johnson); Toledo, Ohio;[35] Jersey City, New Jersey;[36] Los Angeles;[37] Memphis, Tennessee;[38] Louisville, Kentucky;[39] and many other cities, especially in the western states. In Illinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government.[40] In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert La Follette Sr., the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise.[41]\",\n \"Progressive Era The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States, from the 1890s to the 1920s.[1] The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and corruption in government.\",\n \"Progressive Era By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate Commerce Act), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 (the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today's U.S. regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Muckrakers were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago Union Stock Yards, a giant complex of meat processing that developed in the 1870s. The federal government responded to Sinclair's book and The Neill-Reynolds Report with the new regulatory Food and Drug Administration. Ida M. Tarbell wrote a series of articles against Standard Oil, which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme Court in 1911.[91]\",\n \"Progressivism in the United States Equally significant to progressive-era reform were the crusading journalists, known as muckrakers. These journalists publicized, to middle class readers, economic privilege, political corruption, and social injustice. Their articles appeared in McClure's Magazine and other reform periodicals. Some muckrakers focused on corporate abuses. Ida Tarbell, for instance, exposed the activities of the Standard Oil Company. In The Shame of the Cities (1904), Lincoln Steffens dissected corruption in city government. In Following the Color Line (1908), Ray Stannard Baker criticized race relations. Other muckrakers assailed the Senate, railroad companies, insurance companies, and fraud in patent medicine.[60]\",\n \"African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954) Nationally, the Republican Party tried to respond to black interests. Theodore Roosevelt, president 1901–1909, had a mixed record on race relations. He relied extensively on the backstage advice of Booker T. Washington regarding patronage appointments across the South. He publicly invited Washington to dinner at the White House, thereby challenging racist attitudes. On the other hand, he began the system of segregating federal employees; and he cracked down on black soldiers who refused to testify against each other in the Brownsville Affair of 1906.[6] In order to defeat his successor William Howard Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912, Roosevelt pursued a Lily-white policy in the South. This new progressive party of 1912 was supportive of black rights in the North, but excluded all black members in the South.[7]\",\n \"Progressive Era Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation.[2] At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a \\\"purer\\\" female vote into the arena.[3] A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or \\\"Taylorism\\\".\",\n \"First-wave feminism During the first wave, there was a notable connection between the slavery abolition movement and the women's rights movement. Frederick Douglass was heavily involved in both movements and believed that it was essential for both to work together in order to attain true equality in regards to race and sex.[42] Different accounts of the involvement of African-American women in the Women's Suffrage Movement are given. In a 1974 interview, Alice Paul notes that a compromise was made between southern groups to have white women march first, then men, then African-American women.[43] In another account by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), difficulties in segregating women resulted in African-American women marching with their respective States without hindrance.[44] Among them was Ida B. Wells-Barnett, who marched with the Illinois delegation.\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association Several AERA members expressed anger and dismay over the activities of Stanton and Anthony during this period, including their deal with Train that gave him space to express his views in The Revolution.[80] Some, including Lucretia Mott, president of the organization, and African Americans Frederick Douglass and Frances Harper, voiced their disagreements with Stanton and Anthony but continued to maintain working relationships with them.[81][82] Particularly in the case of Lucy Stone, however, the disputes of this period led to a personal rift, one that had important consequences for the women's movement.[83]\",\n \"Women's suffrage In June 1848, Gerrit Smith made women's suffrage a plank in the Liberty Party platform. In July, at the Seneca Falls Convention in upstate New York, activists including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony began a seventy-year struggle by women to secure the right to vote. Attendees signed a document known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, of which Stanton was the primary author. Equal rights became the rallying cry of the early movement for women's rights, and equal rights meant claiming access to all the prevailing definitions of freedom. In 1850 Lucy Stone organized a larger assembly with a wider focus, the National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts. Susan B. Anthony, a resident of Rochester, New York, joined the cause in 1852 after reading Stone's 1850 speech. Stanton, Stone and Anthony were the three leading figures of this movement in the U.S. during the 19th century: the \\\"triumvirate\\\" of the drive to gain voting rights for women.[171] Women's suffrage activists pointed out that black people had been granted the franchise and had not been included in the language of the United States Constitution's Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments (which gave people equal protection under the law and the right to vote regardless of their race, respectively). This, they contended, had been unjust. Early victories were won in the territories of Wyoming (1869)[27] and Utah (1870).\",\n \"Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Nationally, the Republican Party tried to respond to black interests. Theodore Roosevelt, president 1901–1909, had a mixed record on race relations. He relied extensively on the backstage advice of Booker T. Washington regarding patronage appointments across the South. He publicly invited Washington to dinner at the White House, thereby challenging racist attitudes. On the other hand, he began the system of segregating federal employees; and he cracked down on black soldiers who refused to testify against each other in the Brownsville Affair of 1906.[6] In order to defeat his successor William Howard Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912, Roosevelt pursued a Lily-white policy in the South. This new progressive party of 1912 was supportive of black rights in the North, but excluded all black members in the South.[7]\",\n \"National Woman Suffrage Association Meeting at the Women's Bureau in New York City, Stanton, Anthony and delegates from nineteen states of the AERA convention, appointed Elizabeth Cady Stanton as the National's President.[5] Other prominent activists forming the National were Lucretia Mott, Martha Coffin Wright, Ernestine Rose (part of the Executive Committee), Pauline Wright Davis (Advisory Counsel of Rhode Island), Reverend Olympia Brown, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Anna E. Dickinson (Vice-President of Pennsylvania), Elizabeth Smith Miller and Mary Cheney Greeley among others.[9] The women immediately turned their efforts toward passage of a Constitutional Amendment giving women the right to vote.\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association The women's movement was loosely structured during this period, with legislative campaigns and speaking tours organized by a small group of women acting on personal initiative. An informal coordinating committee organized national women's rights conventions, but there were only a few state associations and no formal national organization.[10] The movement largely disappeared from public notice during the Civil War (1861–1865) as women's rights activists focused their energy on the campaign against slavery. In 1863 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony organized the Women's Loyal National League, the first national women's political organization in the U.S., to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would abolish slavery.[11][12]\",\n \"Progressivism in the United States Progressives fought for women's suffrage to purify the elections using supposedly purer female voters.[14] Progressives in the South supported the elimination of supposedly corrupt black voters from the election booth. Historian Michael Perman says that in both Texas and Georgia, \\\"disfranchisement was the weapon as well as the rallying cry in the fight for reform\\\"; and in Virginia, \\\"the drive for disfranchisement had been initiated by men who saw themselves as reformers, even progressives.\\\"[15]\",\n \"Opposition to World War I Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman's movement. A concerted effort was made by anti-war leaders, including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to convince Wilson to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Wilson indeed made an energetic, sustained and serious effort to do so, and kept his administration neutral, but he was repeatedly rebuffed by Britain and Germany.[18] Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what Wilson promised would be \\\"a war to end all wars\\\".[19]\",\n \"Progressivism In America, progressivism began as a social movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and grew into a political movement, in what was known as the Progressive Era. While the term \\\"American progressives\\\" represent a range of diverse political pressure groups (not always united), some American progressives rejected Social Darwinism, believing that the problems society faced (poverty, violence, greed, racism, class warfare) could best be addressed by providing good education, a safe environment, and an efficient workplace. Progressives lived mainly in the cities, were college educated, and believed that government could be a tool for change.[20] American President Theodore Roosevelt of the U.S. Republican Party and later the U.S. Progressive Party, declared that he \\\"always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand\\\".[21] American President Woodrow Wilson was also a member of the American progressive movement, within the Democratic Party.\",\n \"Equal Rights Amendment Paul named this version the Lucretia Mott Amendment, after a female abolitionist who fought for women's rights and attended the First Women's Rights Convention.[11]\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association After the Kansas campaign ended in disarray in November 1867, the AERA increasingly divided into two wings, both advocating universal suffrage but with different approaches. One wing, whose leading figure was Lucy Stone, was willing for black men to achieve suffrage first and wanted to maintain close ties with the Republican Party and the abolitionist movement. The other, whose leading figures were Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, insisted that women and black men should be enfranchised at the same time and worked toward a politically independent women's movement that would no longer be dependent on abolitionists.[62] Stanton and Anthony expressed their views in a newspaper called The Revolution, which began publishing in January 1868 with initial funding from the controversial George Francis Train.[63]\",\n \"Jane Addams Jane Addams (September 8, 1860 – May 21, 1935), known as the \\\"mother\\\" of social work,[1][2] was a pioneer American settlement activist/reformer, social worker, public philosopher, sociologist,[3] public administrator,[4][5] protestor, author, and leader in women's suffrage and world peace.[6] She co-founded, with Ellen Gates Starr, an early settlement house in the United States, Chicago's Hull House that would later become known as one of the most famous settlement houses in America. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists, Addams was one of the most prominent[7] reformers of the Progressive Era. She helped America address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. In her essay \\\"Utilization of Women in City Government,\\\" Jane Addams noted the connection between the workings of government and the household, stating that many departments of government, such as sanitation and the schooling of children, could be traced back to traditional women's roles in the private sphere. Thus, these were matters of which women would have more knowledge than men, so women needed the vote to best voice their opinions.[8] She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy, and is known by many as the first woman \\\"public philosopher in the history of the United States.[9] In 1889 she co-founded Hull House, and in 1920 she was a co-founder for the ACLU.[10] In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and is recognized as the founder of the social work profession in the United States.[11]\",\n \"African-American civil rights movement (1865–1896) Much of the early reform movement during this era was spearheaded by the Radical Republicans, a faction of the Republican Party. By the end of the 19th century, with disenfranchisement in progress to exclude blacks from the political system altogether, the so-called lily-white movement also worked to substantially weaken the power of remaining blacks in the party. The most important civil rights leaders of this period were Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) and Booker T. Washington (1856–1915).\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony issued the call for the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention, the first since the Civil War began, which met on May 10, 1866, in New York City.[21] Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, an African American abolitionist and writer, spoke at the convention from the viewpoint of one who had to deal with issues faced by both women and blacks: \\\"You white women speak here of rights. I speak of wrongs. I, as a colored woman, have had in this country an education which has made me feel as if I were in the situation of Ishmael, my hand against every man, and every man's hand against me.\\\"[22]\",\n \"Progressive Era Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the Gilded Age, the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the national levels included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and women's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[12]\",\n \"Elizabeth Cady Stanton Elizabeth Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 – October 26, 1902) was an American suffragist, social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early women's rights movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the Seneca Falls Convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized women's rights and women's suffrage movements in the United States.[1][2] Stanton was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1892 until 1900.\",\n \"Women's suffrage in states of the United States The American Equal Rights Association (AERA) actively supported both referenda. The AERA, which advocated suffrage for both women and blacks, had been formed in 1866 by abolitionists and women's rights activists. Lucy Stone and her husband Henry Blackwell launched the AERA campaign in Kansas. In April they assisted with the formation of a state organization called the Impartial Suffrage Association, which was led by Charles L. Robinson, a former governor who was Stone's brother's brother-in-law, and Sam Wood.[10]\\nOlympia Brown arrived in Kansas on July 1 to relieve Stone and Blackwell as leader of the AERA campaign, handling that task almost single-handedly until Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton arrived in September. The AERA could not afford to send more activists because money that had expected to support their campaign had been blocked by Wendell Phillips, a leading abolitionist. Although he supported women's rights, Phillips believed that suffrage for African American men was the key issue of the day, and he objected to mixing the issues of suffrage for blacks and women.[11]\",\n \"First-wave feminism Early Feminism was directly correlated with the abolitionist movements and as a result many famous feminists and activists began to have their voices heard. Some of these early activists include, Sojourner Truth, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, Jane Addams, and Dorothy Day.[5] The first wave of feminism was primarily led by white women in the middle class, and it was not until the second wave of feminism that women of color began developing a voice.[6] The term Feminism was created like a political illustrated ideology at that period. Feminism emerged by the speech about the reform and correction of democracy based on equalitarian conditions. With Wollstonecraft's work, the illustrated feminist polemic was displayed, and as a result, suffragist movements were stood up.\",\n \"Progressivism in the United States The Progressives mobilized concerned middle class voters, as well as newspapers and magazines, to identify problems and concentrate reform sentiment on specific problems. Many Protestants focused on the saloon as the power base for corruption, as well as violence and family disruption, so they tried to get rid of the entire saloon system through prohibition. Others (like Jane Addams in Chicago) promoted Settlement Houses.[22] Early municipal reformers included Hazen S. Pingree (mayor of Detroit in the 1890s)[23] and Tom L. Johnson in Cleveland, Ohio. In 1901, Johnson won election as mayor of Cleveland on a platform of just taxation, home rule for Ohio cities, and a 3-cent streetcar fare.[24] Columbia University President Seth Low was elected mayor of New York City in 1901 on a reform ticket.[25]\",\n \"Women's suffrage in the United States The leaders of the Southern movement were privileged upper-class belles with a strong position in high society and in church affairs. They tried to use their upscale connections to convince powerful men that suffrage was a good idea to purify society. They also argued that giving white women the vote would more than counterbalance giving the vote to the smaller number of black women.[163] No southern state enfranchised women as a result of this strategy, however, and most southern suffrage societies that were established during this period lapsed into inactivity. The NAWSA leadership afterwards said it would not adopt policies that \\\"advocated the exclusion of any race or class from the right of suffrage.\\\"[164] Nonetheless NAWSA reflected its white membership's viewpoint by minimizing the role of black suffragists. At the 1913 suffrage march on Washington, Ida B. Wells-Barnett, a leader in the African American community, was asked to march in an all-black contingent to avoid upsetting white southern marchers. When the march got underway, however, she slipped into the ranks of the contingent from Illinois, her home state, and completed the march in the company of white supporters.[165]\",\n \"Progressive Era The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the US Constitution. The 16th amendment made an income tax legal (this required an amendment due to Article One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by the decennial census). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to reduce political corruption through the 17th amendment (direct election of U.S. Senators). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of World War I that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for prohibition through the 18th amendment (once the Progressives fell out of power the 21st amendment repealed the 18th in 1933). The ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, which recognized women's suffrage was last amendment during the progressive era.[75] Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the incorporation of the Bill of Rights so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal government. Prior to that time, the Bill of Rights was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states.\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association The AERA held its first annual meeting in New York City on May 9, 1867.[25] Referring to the growing demand for suffrage for African American men, Lucretia Mott, the AERA's president, said, \\\"woman had a right to be a little jealous of the addition of so large a number of men to the voting class, for the colored men would naturally throw all their strength upon the side of those opposed to woman's enfranchisement.\\\"[26] Asked by George T. Downing, an African American, whether she would be willing for the black man to have the vote before woman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton replied, \\\"I would say, no; I would not trust him with all my rights; degraded, oppressed himself, he would be more despotic with the governing power than even our Saxon rulers are. I desire that we go into the kingdom together\\\".[26][27] Sojourner Truth, a former slave, said that, \\\"if colored men get their rights, and not colored women theirs, you see the colored men will be masters over the women, and it will be just as bad as it was before.\\\"[28]\",\n \"National Association of Colored Women's Clubs Founders of the NACWC included Harriet Tubman, Margaret Murray Washington,[7] Frances E.W. Harper, Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, and Mary Church Terrell. Its two leading members were Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell. Their original intention was \\\"to furnish evidence of the moral, mental and material progress made by people of color through the efforts of our women\\\". They organized to refute a letter written by James Jacks, the president of the Missouri Press Association, challenging the respectability of African-American women, and referring to them as thieves and prostitutes.[8]\",\n \"Feminism In Britain the Suffragettes and the Suffragists campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the Representation of the People Act was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned property. In 1928 this was extended to all women over 21.[33] Emmeline Pankhurst was the most notable activist in England, with Time naming her one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century stating: \\\"she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back.\\\"[34] In the U.S., notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God.[35] In the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term first wave was coined retroactively to categorize these western movements after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused on fighting social and cultural inequalities, as well political inequalities.[30][36][37][38][39]\",\n \"Factions in the Democratic Party (United States) Modern liberalism in the Democratic Party began during the Progressive era. From 1900 to 1920, liberals called themselves progressives and rallied behind Democrats such as William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson to fight corruption, waste and big trusts. The presidency of Woodrow Wilson saw the enactment of the New Freedom, progressive social programs enacted from 1913 to 1916, when Democrats controlled Congress. The rise of the women's suffrage movement saw the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and a push for civil rights legislation on the basis of gender. The first modern self-described liberal Democratic president was President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who enacted the New Deal, a series of social liberal programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. From the 1940s onwards, liberal Democrats began pushing for desegregation and civil rights legislation for racial minorities. Starting in the 1960s, liberal Democrats began pushing for immigration reform and gun control. During the Cold War, the liberal Democratic movement became anti-communist.\",\n \"Voting rights in the United States A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle- and upper-class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.\",\n \"Equal Rights Amendment Since the 1920s, the Equal Rights Amendment has caused a sharp debate among feminists about the meaning of women's equality. It was \\\"feminist against feminist\\\", said historian Judith Sealander.[14] Alice Paul and her National Woman's Party was the leading proponent, arguing that women should be on equal terms with men in all regards, even if that means sacrificing certain benefits given to women through protective legislation, such as shorter work hours and no night work or heavy lifting.[15] Opponents of the amendment, such as the Women's Joint Congressional Committee, believed that these gender-based benefits protected women and that the loss of such protection would not be worth the supposed gain in equality. In general, middle-class elements supported the ERA, and working-class elements (and the labor movement) opposed it.[16] In 1924, The Forum hosted a debate between Doris Stevens and Alice Hamilton concerning these two perspectives on the proposed amendment.[17] Their debate reflected the wider tension in the developing feminist movement of the early 20th century between two approaches towards the equality of gender. One approach emphasized shared similarities between the sexes and demanded rights based on women's humanity. The other approach emphasized women's unique experiences and how they were different from men to obtain recognition for their specific needs.[18] The crusade against the ERA on behalf of working class women was led by Mary Anderson and the Women's Bureau beginning in 1923. These feminists argued that legislation including mandated minimum wages, safety regulations, restricted daily and weekly hours, lunch breaks, and maternity provisions would be more beneficial to the majority of women who were forced to work out of economic necessity, not personal fulfillment.[19] The debate over the ERA also drew from struggles between working class and professional women. Alice Hamilton said, in her speech “Protection for Women Workers,” that the ERA would strip working women of the small protections they had achieved, and leave them powerless to further improve their condition in the future, or attain necessary protections in the present.[20]\",\n \"Progressive Party (United States, 1912) The party's platform built on Roosevelt's Square Deal domestic program and called for several progressive reforms. The platform asserted that \\\"to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.\\\" Proposals on the platform included restrictions on campaign finance contributions, a reduction of the tariff, and the establishment of a social insurance system, an eight-hour workday, and women's suffrage. The party was split on the regulation of large corporations, with some party members disappointed that the platform did not contain a stronger call for \\\"trust-busting.\\\" Party members also had different outlooks on foreign policy, with pacifists like Jane Addams opposing Roosevelt's call for a naval build-up.\",\n \"History of the United States The women's suffrage movement began with the June 1848 National Convention of the Liberty Party. Presidential candidate Gerrit Smith argued for and established women's suffrage as a party plank. One month later, his cousin Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined with Lucretia Mott and other women to organize the Seneca Falls Convention, featuring the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women, and the right to vote.[151] Many of these activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The women's rights campaign during \\\"first-wave feminism\\\" was led by Stanton, Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony, among many others. Stone and Paulina Wright Davis organized the prominent and influential National Women's Rights Convention in 1850. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century a few western states had granted women full voting rights,[152] though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody.[153]\",\n \"Progressive Era Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people.[7] Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe[8] and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913.[9] Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the \\\"one best system\\\".[10][11]\",\n \"Woman suffrage parade of 1913 American suffragists Alice Paul and Lucy Burns spearheaded a drive to adopt a national strategy for women's suffrage in the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Both women had been influenced by the militant tactics used by the British suffrage movement and recognized that the women from the six states that had full suffrage at the time comprised a powerful voting bloc. They submitted a proposal to Anna Howard Shaw and the NAWSA leadership at their annual convention in 1912. The leadership was not interested in changing the state-by-state strategy and rejected the idea of holding a campaign that would hold the Democratic Party responsible. Paul and Burns appealed to prominent reformer Jane Addams, who interceded on their behalf.[3]\",\n \"Woman suffrage parade of 1913 The women persuaded NAWSA to endorse an immense suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., to coincide with newly-elected President Woodrow Wilson's inauguration the following March. Paul and Burns were appointed chair and vice-chair of NAWSA's Congressional Committee.[4] They recruited Crystal Eastman, Mary Ritter Beard, and Dora Lewis to the Committee and organized volunteers, planned for, and raised funds in preparation of the parade with little help from the NAWSA.[5] Affiliates of NAWSA from various states organized groups to march and activities leading up to the march, such as the Suffrage Hikes.[6]\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association To counter the initiatives of Anthony and Stanton, a planning committee was formed in May 1868 to organize a pro-Republican women's suffrage organization in the Boston area that would support the proposal to enfranchise black males first. The New England Woman Suffrage Association was subsequently founded in November 1868. Several participants in new organization were also active in the AERA, including Lucy Stone, Frederick Douglass and the Fosters. Prominent Republican politicians were involved in the founding meeting, including a U.S. senator who was seated on the platform.[84] Francis Bird, a leading Massachusetts Republican, said at the meeting, \\\"Negro suffrage, being a paramount question, would have to be settled before woman suffrage could receive the attention it deserved.\\\"[85] Julia Ward Howe, who was elected president of the new organization, said she would not demand suffrage for women until it was achieved for blacks.[86]\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association After slavery in the U.S. was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, Wendell Phillips was elected president of the Anti-Slavery Society and began to direct its resources toward winning political rights for blacks. He told women's rights activists that he continued to support women's suffrage but thought it best to set aside that demand until voting rights for African American men were assured.[13]\",\n \"Progressive Era Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as Prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health.\",\n \"Women's suffrage in the United States In addition to Anthony and Stanton, who organized the convention, the leadership of the new organization included such prominent abolitionist and women's rights activists as Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone and Frederick Douglass. Its drive for universal suffrage, however, was resisted by some abolitionist leaders and their allies in the Republican Party, who wanted women to postpone their campaign for suffrage until it had first been achieved for male African Americans. Horace Greeley, a prominent newspaper editor, told Anthony and Stanton, \\\"This is a critical period for the Republican Party and the life of our Nation... I conjure you to remember that this is 'the negro's hour,' and your first duty now is to go through the State and plead his claims.\\\"[68] They and others, including Lucy Stone, refused to postpone their demands, however, and continued to push for universal suffrage.\",\n \"Iowa State University Carrie Chapman Catt, women's suffrage leader\",\n \"Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Du Bois joined with other black leaders and white activists, such as Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling, Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's grandfather clause that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).[32]\",\n \"United States Rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of many prominent industrialists. Tycoons like Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie led the nation's progress in railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with J. P. Morgan playing a notable role. Edison and Tesla undertook the widespread distribution of electricity to industry, homes, and for street lighting. Henry Ford revolutionized the automotive industry. The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest, and the United States achieved great power status.[151] These dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements.[152] This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms in many societal areas, including women's suffrage, alcohol prohibition, regulation of consumer goods, greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions.[153][154][155]\",\n \"Eugene V. Debs Civil rights / anti-War movements\",\n \"Progressivism in the United States Labor unions grew steadily until 1916, then expanded fast during the war. In 1919 a wave of major strikes alienated the middle class; the strikes were lost, which alienated the workers. In the 1920s the unions were in the doldrums; in 1924 they supported La Follette's Progressive party, but he only carried his base in Wisconsin. The American Federation of Labor under Samuel Gompers after 1907 began supporting the Democrats, who promised more favorable judges. The Republicans appointed pro-business judges. Theodore Roosevelt and his third party also supported such goals as the eight-hour work day, improved safety and health conditions in factories, workers' compensation laws, and minimum wage laws for women.[47]\",\n \"Progressive Party (United States, 1912) Roosevelt also favored a vigorous foreign policy, including strong military power. Though the platform called for limiting naval armaments, it also recommended the construction of two new battleships per year, much to the distress of outright pacifists such as Jane Addams.[14]\",\n \"Women's suffrage During the beginning of the 20th century, as women's suffrage faced several important federal votes, a portion of the suffrage movement known as the National Woman's Party led by suffragist Alice Paul became the first \\\"cause\\\" to picket outside the White House. Paul had been mentored by Emmeline Pankhurst while in England, and both she and Lucy Burns led a series of protests against the Wilson Administration in Washington.[175] Wilson ignored the protests for six months, but on June 20, 1917, as a Russian delegation drove up to the White House, suffragists unfurled a banner which stated: \\\"We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement\\\".[176] Another banner on August 14, 1917, referred to \\\"Kaiser Wilson\\\" and compared the plight of the German people with that of American women. With this manner of protest, the women were subject to arrests and many were jailed.[177] Another ongoing tactic of the National Woman's Party was watchfires, which involved burning copies of President Wilson's speeches, often outside the White House or in the nearby Lafayette Park. The Party continued to hold watchfires even as the war began, drawing criticism from the public and even other suffrage groups for being unpatriotic.[178] On October 17, Alice Paul was sentenced to seven months and on October 30 began a hunger strike, but after a few days prison authorities began to force feed her.[176] After years of opposition, Wilson changed his position in 1918 to advocate women's suffrage as a war measure.[179]\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association The women's movement began to revive when proposals for a Fourteenth Amendment began circulating that would secure citizenship (but not yet voting rights) for African Americans. Some of the proposals for this amendment would also for the first time introduce the word \\\"male\\\" into the Constitution, which begins with the words \\\"We the People of the United States\\\". Stanton said that \\\"if that word 'male' be inserted, it will take us a century at least to get it out.\\\"[14] Stanton, Anthony and Lucy Stone, the most prominent figures in the women's movement, circulated a letter in late 1865 calling for petitions against any wording that excluded females.[15] A version of the amendment that referred to \\\"persons\\\" instead of \\\"males\\\" passed the House of Representatives in early 1866 but failed in the Senate.[16] The version that Congress eventually approved and sent to the states for ratification included the word \\\"male\\\" three times. Stanton and Anthony opposed the amendment, but Stone supported it as a step towards universal suffrage.[15] Frederick Douglass denounced it because it permitted states to disenfranchise blacks if those states were willing to accept reduced representation at the federal level.[17] The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868.\",\n \"Modern liberalism in the United States Liberals were latecomers to the movement for equal rights for women. Generally, they agreed with Eleanor Roosevelt, that women needed special protections, especially regarding hours of work, night work, and physically heavy work.[129] The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) had first been proposed in the 1920s by Alice Paul, and appealed primarily to middle-class career women. At the Democratic National Convention in 1960, a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including labor unions, AFL-CIO, American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), American Federation of Teachers, American Nurses Association, the Women's Division of the Methodist Church, and the National Councils of Jewish, Catholic, and Negro Women.[130]\",\n \"Progressive Era The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Other like Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell went after John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. Samuel Hopkins Adams in 1905 showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle gave a horrid portrayal of how meat was packed, and, also in 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.[15][16]\",\n \"W. E. B. Du Bois Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership.\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association The state of New York organized a convention in June 1867 to revise its constitution. AERA workers prepared for it by organizing meetings in over 30 locations around the state and collecting over 20,000 signatures on petitions that supported women's suffrage and the removal of property requirements that discriminated specifically against black voters.[31][32] The suffrage committee of the convention was chaired by Horace Greeley, a prominent newspaper editor and abolitionist who had been a supporter of the women's movement. His committee approved the removal of discriminatory property requirements for black voters but rejected the proposal for women's suffrage.[31]\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution A three-decade period known as \\\"the doldrums\\\" followed, during which the amendment was not considered by Congress and the women's suffrage movement achieved few victories.[17][18] During this period, the suffragists pressed for the right to vote in the laws of individual states and territories while retaining the goal of federal recognition.[16] A flurry of activity began in 1910 and 1911 with surprise successes in Washington and California.[17] Over the next few years, most western states passed legislation or voter referenda enacting full or partial suffrage for women.[19] These successes were linked to the 1912 election, which saw the rise of the Progressive and Socialist parties, as well as the election of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson.[17][18] Not until 1914 was the constitutional amendment again considered by the Senate, where it was again rejected.[16]\",\n \"Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt Although Roosevelt did some work improving race relations, he, like most leaders of the Progressive Era, lacked initiative on most racial issues. Booker T. Washington, the most important black leader of the day, was the first African American to be invited to dinner at the White House, on October 16, 1901.[70] Washington, who had emerged as an important adviser to Republican politicians in the 1890s, favored accommodation with the Jim Crow laws that instituted racial segregation.[71] News of the dinner reached the press two days later, and the white public outcry following the dinner was so strong, especially from the Southern states, that Roosevelt never repeated the experiment.[70] Nonetheless, Roosevelt continued to consult Washington regarding appointments and shunned the \\\"lily-white\\\" Southern Republicans who favored excluding blacks from office.\",\n \"National American Woman Suffrage Association In 1907, partly in reaction to NAWSA's \\\"society plan\\\", which was designed to appeal to upper-class women, Harriet Stanton Blatch, daughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, formed a competing organization called the Equality League of Self-Supporting Women.[68]\\nLater known as the Women's Political Union, its membership was based on working women, both professional and industrial. Blatch had recently returned to the United States after several years in England, where she had worked with suffrage groups in the early phases of employing militant tactics as part of their campaign. The Equality League gained a following by engaging in activities that many members of the NAWSA initially considered too daring, such as suffrage parades and open air rallies.[69]\\nBlatch said that when she joined the suffrage movement in the U.S., \\\"The only method suggested for furthering the cause was the slow process of education. We were told to organize, organize, organize, to the end of educating, educating, educating public opinion.\\\"[70]\",\n \"History of education in the United States Booker T. Washington was the dominant black political and educational leader in the United States from the 1890s until his death in 1915. Washington not only led his own college, Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, but his advice, political support, and financial connections proved important to many other black colleges and high schools, which were primarily located in the South. This was the center of the black population until after the Great Migration of the first half of the 20th century. Washington was a respected advisor to major philanthropies, such as the Rockefeller, Rosenwald and Jeanes foundations, which provided funding for leading black schools and colleges. The Rosenwald Foundation provided matching funds for the construction of schools for rural black students in the South. Washington explained, \\\"We need not only the industrial school, but the college and professional school as well, for a people so largely segregated, as we are.... Our teachers, ministers, lawyers and doctors will prosper just in proportion as they have about them an intelligent and skillful producing class.\\\"[91] Washington was a strong advocate of progressive reforms as advocated by Dewey, emphasizing scientific, industrial and agricultural education that produced a base for lifelong learning, and enabled careers for many black teachers, professionals, and upwardly mobile workers. He tried to adapt to the system and did not support political protests against the segregated Jim Crow system.[92] At the same time, Washington used his network to provide important funding to support numerous legal challenges by the NAACP against the systems of disenfranchisement which southern legislatures had passed at the turn of the century, effectively excluding blacks from politics for decades into the 1960s.\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association Although still relatively small, the women's rights movement had grown in the years before the American Civil War, aided by the introduction of women to social activism through the abolitionist movement. The American Anti-Slavery Society, led by William Lloyd Garrison, was particularly encouraging to those who championed women's rights.[8] The planning committee for the first National Women's Rights Convention in October 1850 was formed by people who were attending a convention of the Anti-Slavery Society earlier that year.[9]\",\n \"National American Woman Suffrage Association In 1912, W. E. B. Du Bois, president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), publicly challenged NAWSA's reluctance to accept black women. The NAWSA responded in a cordial way, inviting him to speak at its next convention and publishing his speech as a pamphlet.[79]\\nNonetheless the NAWSA continued to minimize the role of black suffragists. It accepted some black women as members and some black societies as auxiliaries, but its general practice was to politely turn such requests away.[80]\\nThis was partly because attitudes of racial superiority were the norm among white Americans of that era, and partly because the NAWSA believed it had little hope of achieving a national amendment without at least some support from southern states that practiced racial segregation.[81]\",\n \"Women's suffrage in the United States Sentiment in favor of women's rights was strong within the radical wing of the abolitionist movement. William Lloyd Garrison, the leader of the American Anti-Slavery Society, said \\\"I doubt whether a more important movement has been launched touching the destiny of the race, than this in regard to the equality of the sexes\\\".[21] The abolitionist movement, however, attracted only about one per cent of the population at that time, and radical abolitionists were only one part of that movement.[22]\",\n \"John Dewey Civil Rights / anti-War movements\",\n \"W. E. B. Du Bois Civil rights / anti-War movements\",\n \"Victoria Woodhull Victoria Claflin Woodhull, later Victoria Woodhull Martin (September 23, 1838 – June 9, 1927), was an American leader of the women's suffrage movement. In 1872, she ran for President of the United States. While many historians and authors agree that Woodhull was the first woman to run for President of the United States, some have questioned that priority given issues with the legality of her run. They disagree with classifying it as a true candidacy because she was younger than the constitutionally mandated age of 35. However, election coverage by contemporary newspapers does not suggest age was a significant issue; this may, however, be due to the fact that no one took the candidacy seriously (Woodhull's 35th birthday was in September 1873, seven months after the March inauguration).\",\n \"Jane Addams Starr and Addams developed three \\\"ethical principles\\\" for social settlements: \\\"to teach by example, to practice cooperation, and to practice social democracy, that is, egalitarian, or democratic, social relations across class lines.\\\"[40] Thus Hull House offered a comprehensive program of civic, cultural, recreational, and educational activities and attracted admiring visitors from all over the world, including William Lyon Mackenzie King, a graduate student from Harvard University who later became prime minister of Canada. In the 1890s Julia Lathrop, Florence Kelley, and other residents of the house made it a world center of social reform activity. Hull House used the latest methodology (pioneering in statistical mapping) to study overcrowding, truancy, typhoid fever, cocaine, children's reading, newsboys, infant mortality, and midwifery. Starting with efforts to improve the immediate neighborhood, the Hull House group became involved in city- and statewide campaigns for better housing, improvements in public welfare, stricter child-labor laws, and protection of working women. Addams brought in prominent visitors from around the world, and had close links with leading Chicago intellectuals and philanthropists. In 1912, she helped start the new Progressive Party and supported the presidential campaign of Theodore Roosevelt.\",\n \"African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954) Du Bois joined with other black leaders and white activists, such as Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling, Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's grandfather clause that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).[32]\",\n \"Women's suffrage in states of the United States Besides the passage of the Illinois Municipal Voting Act, 1913 was also a significant year in other facets of the women's suffrage movement. In Chicago, Ida B. Wells-Barnett founded the Alpha Suffrage Club, the first such organization for Negro women in Illinois. Although white women as a group were sometimes ambivalent about obtaining the franchise, African American women were almost universally in favor of gaining the vote to help end their sexual exploitation, promote their educational opportunities and protect those who were wage earners.[citation needed] African-American women often found themselves fighting both sexism and racism. As a result, there was an African-American Woman Suffrage Movement.\",\n \"National Woman's Party During the group's first meeting, Paul clarified that the party would not be a political party and therefore would not endorse a candidate for president during elections. While non-partisan, the NWP directed most of its attention to President Woodrow Wilson and the Democrats, criticizing them as responsible for the failure to pass a constitutional amendment. The National Woman's Party continued to focus on suffrage as their main cause. It refused to either support or attack American involvement in the World War, while the rival National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) under Carrie Chapman Catt gave full support to the war effort. As a result, a diverse group of activists such as pacifists and Socialists were attracted to the NWP due to its opposition to an anti-suffrage president.[10]\",\n \"Niagara Movement The most prominent African-American spokesman during the 1890s was Booker T. Washington, leader of Alabama's Tuskegee Institute. Washington outlined a response to these policies in an 1895 speech in Atlanta, Georgia that became known as the Atlanta Compromise. The basic thrust of his approach was that Southern African-Americans should not agitate for political rights (such as the right to vote and equal treatment under the law) as long as they were provided economic opportunities and basic rights of due process.[2] Washington also politically dominated the National Afro-American Council, the first nationwide African-American civil rights organization.[3]\",\n \"American Equal Rights Association Women's suffrage, a key goal of the AERA, was achieved in 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, popularly known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment.[111] Despite the passage of the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments, the AERA's goal of securing equal rights for all citizens, especially suffrage, still had not yet been fully achieved. Although Puerto Ricans were by law citizens of the United States, Puerto Rican women were prevented from voting until 1929, and African Americans in southern states were for the most part prevented from voting until 1965, nearly a hundred years after the AERA was formed.[112]\",\n \"Civil rights movement (1896–1954) W. E. B. Du Bois and others in the black community rejected Washington's apology for segregation. One of his close associates, William Monroe Trotter, was arrested after challenging Washington when he came to deliver a speech in Boston in 1905. Later that year Du Bois and Trotter convened a meeting of black activists on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls. They issued a manifesto calling for universal manhood suffrage, elimination of all forms of racial segregation and extension of education—not limited to the vocational education that Washington emphasized—on a nondiscriminatory basis. The Niagara Movement was actively opposed by Washington, and had effectively collapsed due to internal divisions by 1908.[31]\",\n \"Booker T. Washington Northern critics called Washington's widespread organization the \\\"Tuskegee Machine\\\". After 1909, Washington was criticized by the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B. Du Bois, who demanded a stronger tone of protest in order to advance the civil rights agenda. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks in society, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. At the same time, he secretly funded litigation for civil rights cases, such as challenges to southern constitutions and laws that had disenfranchised blacks across the South since the turn of the century.[1][5] African Americans were still strongly affiliated with the Republican Party, and Washington was on close terms with national Republican Party leaders. He was often asked for political advice by presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.[6]\",\n \"History of the United States (1918–1945) The suffrage organization NAWSA became the League of Women Voters. Alice Paul's National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972, but was not ratified and never took effect. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, while rural dry counties mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. Catholic women were reluctant to vote in the early 1920s, but they registered in very large numbers for the 1928 election—the first in which Catholicism was a major issue.[8] A few women were elected to office, but none became especially prominent during this time period. Overall, the women's rights movement was dormant in the 1920s, since Susan B. Anthony and the other prominent activists had died, and apart from Alice Paul few younger women came along to replace them.\",\n \"History of the United States (1918–45) The suffrage organization NAWSA became the League of Women Voters. Alice Paul's National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972, but was not ratified and never took effect. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, while rural dry counties mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. Catholic women were reluctant to vote in the early 1920s, but they registered in very large numbers for the 1928 election—the first in which Catholicism was a major issue.[8] A few women were elected to office, but none became especially prominent during this time period. Overall, the women's rights movement was dormant in the 1920s, since Susan B. Anthony and the other prominent activists had died, and apart from Alice Paul few younger women came along to replace them.\",\n \"National American Woman Suffrage Association The demand for women's suffrage in the United States was controversial even among women's rights activists in the early days of the movement. In 1848, a resolution in favor of women's right to vote was approved only after vigorous debate at the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention. By the time of the National Women's Rights Conventions in the 1850s, the situation had changed, and women's suffrage had become a preeminent goal of the movement.[1]\\nThree leaders of the women's movement during this period, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, played prominent roles in the creation of the NAWSA many years later.\",\n \"National American Woman Suffrage Association In 1866, just after the American Civil War, the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention transformed itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), which worked for equal rights for both African Americans and white women, especially suffrage.[2]\\nThe AERA essentially collapsed in 1869, partly because of disagreement over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would enfranchise African American men. Leaders of the women's movement were dismayed that it would not also enfranchise women. Stanton and Anthony opposed its ratification unless it was accompanied by another amendment that would enfranchise women.[3]\\nStone supported the amendment. She believed that its ratification would spur politicians to support a similar amendment for women. She said that even though the right to vote was more important for women than for black men, \\\"I will be thankful in my soul if any body can get out of the terrible pit.\\\"[4]\",\n \"Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Booker T. Washington, who ran the National Negro Business League and was president of the Tuskegee Institute, was the most prominent promoter of black business. He traveled from city to city to sign up local entrepreneurs into the national league.[19][20]\",\n \"Progressive Era In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the New Deal and dated it from 1901 (when Roosevelt became president) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917.[103] Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal[104] and state[105] levels in the 1890s.\",\n \"Progressivism in the United States Pro-labor progressives such as Samuel Gompers argued that industrial monopolies were unnatural economic institutions which suppressed the competition which was necessary for progress and improvement.[38][39] United States antitrust law is the body of laws that prohibits anti-competitive behavior (monopoly) and unfair business practices. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft supported trust-busting. During their presidencies, the otherwise-conservative Taft brought down 90 trusts in four years while Roosevelt took down 44 in 7 1/2 years in office.[40]\",\n \"Progressive Era The movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of direct democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies (Trust Busting) and corporations through antitrust laws. These antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors.\",\n \"National Woman Suffrage Association Following the May 1869 American Equal Rights Association convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Jacqueline Valenzuela, and Bianet Cuevas Parra established the National Woman Suffrage Association (hereafter referred to as \\\"the National\\\").[4] Feeling misguided and deceived, Stanton and Anthony resorted to such bold action largely due to their belief that the preponderance of men composing the AERA leadership had betrayed women's interest.[2] In addition to a feeling of betrayal, deep differences between the factions of the movement centered on numerous issues, including how AERA funds were to be used, and, most importantly, whether the reconstruction amendments should be supported despite their failure to include women.[8]\",\n \"Mary Elizabeth Lease Despite her fallout with--and the eventual destruction of--the Populist Party, Lease felt that their work and efforts were ultimately rewarded with the election of Theodore Roosevelt and the national push for reforms she championed years earlier: \\\"In these later years I have seen, with gratification, that my work in the good old Populist days was not in vain. The Progressive party has adopted our platform, clause for clause, plank by plank. Note the list of reforms which we advocated which are coming into reality. Direct election of senators is assured. Public utilities are gradually being removed from the hands of the few and placed under the control of the people who use them. Women suffrage is now almost a national issue . . . The seed we sowed out in Kansas did not fall on barren ground.\\\"[9]\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["Progressive Era Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made \"scientific\" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political science.[6] In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers."],"string":"[\n \"Progressive Era Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made \\\"scientific\\\" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political science.[6] In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential Progressive Era reformers.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":196,"cells":{"_id":{"kind":"string","value":"test1671"},"query":{"kind":"string","value":"when were 2 dollar bills stopped being made"},"gt_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc59085"],"string":"[\n \"doc59085\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_qrels":{"kind":"list like","value":[1],"string":"[\n 1\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc59086","doc59088","doc59104","doc59089","doc59093","doc59085","doc59109","doc59108","doc59110","doc59105","doc57965","doc254819","doc254807","doc59099","doc336773","doc59100","doc59102","doc59097","doc59094","doc2150421","doc59096","doc59087","doc59121","doc466847","doc2150420","doc59120","doc59090","doc254812","doc59107","doc408635","doc172154","doc371212","doc59119","doc57966","doc59098","doc518682","doc360699","doc343164","doc57967","doc343172","doc996851","doc343159","doc254814","doc59106","doc408649","doc57962","doc59095","doc671700","doc59103","doc254811","doc371263","doc59118","doc343185","doc57964","doc59115","doc172155","doc336769","doc931221","doc1303314","doc2150423","doc408634","doc466835","doc466854","doc59091","doc408639","doc343167","doc518669","doc2225999","doc219533","doc371248","doc59111","doc336758","doc408652","doc371233","doc59117","doc1317641","doc343158","doc2150406","doc408648","doc59116","doc408651","doc59113","doc172160","doc254817","doc59112","doc1597790","doc408647","doc2050469","doc343168","doc343187","doc360700","doc57963","doc254818","doc254815","doc2150386","doc1848429","doc335091","doc343183","doc59092","doc1990846"],"string":"[\n \"doc59086\",\n \"doc59088\",\n \"doc59104\",\n \"doc59089\",\n \"doc59093\",\n \"doc59085\",\n \"doc59109\",\n \"doc59108\",\n \"doc59110\",\n \"doc59105\",\n \"doc57965\",\n \"doc254819\",\n \"doc254807\",\n \"doc59099\",\n \"doc336773\",\n \"doc59100\",\n \"doc59102\",\n \"doc59097\",\n \"doc59094\",\n \"doc2150421\",\n \"doc59096\",\n \"doc59087\",\n \"doc59121\",\n \"doc466847\",\n \"doc2150420\",\n \"doc59120\",\n \"doc59090\",\n \"doc254812\",\n \"doc59107\",\n \"doc408635\",\n \"doc172154\",\n \"doc371212\",\n \"doc59119\",\n \"doc57966\",\n \"doc59098\",\n \"doc518682\",\n \"doc360699\",\n \"doc343164\",\n \"doc57967\",\n \"doc343172\",\n \"doc996851\",\n \"doc343159\",\n \"doc254814\",\n \"doc59106\",\n \"doc408649\",\n \"doc57962\",\n \"doc59095\",\n \"doc671700\",\n \"doc59103\",\n \"doc254811\",\n \"doc371263\",\n \"doc59118\",\n \"doc343185\",\n \"doc57964\",\n \"doc59115\",\n \"doc172155\",\n \"doc336769\",\n \"doc931221\",\n \"doc1303314\",\n \"doc2150423\",\n \"doc408634\",\n \"doc466835\",\n \"doc466854\",\n \"doc59091\",\n \"doc408639\",\n \"doc343167\",\n \"doc518669\",\n \"doc2225999\",\n \"doc219533\",\n \"doc371248\",\n \"doc59111\",\n \"doc336758\",\n \"doc408652\",\n \"doc371233\",\n \"doc59117\",\n \"doc1317641\",\n \"doc343158\",\n \"doc2150406\",\n \"doc408648\",\n \"doc59116\",\n \"doc408651\",\n \"doc59113\",\n \"doc172160\",\n \"doc254817\",\n \"doc59112\",\n \"doc1597790\",\n \"doc408647\",\n \"doc2050469\",\n \"doc343168\",\n \"doc343187\",\n \"doc360700\",\n \"doc57963\",\n \"doc254818\",\n \"doc254815\",\n \"doc2150386\",\n \"doc1848429\",\n \"doc335091\",\n \"doc343183\",\n \"doc59092\",\n \"doc1990846\"\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["United States two-dollar bill The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first used in March 1862.[2] The denomination was continuously used until the 1960s; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two-dollar bill was assigned to. In 1966 it was decided to discontinue all United States Notes from production, which included the two-dollar bill.[3] The two-dollar bill initially was not reassigned to the Federal Reserve Note class of United States currency and was thus fully discontinued; the Treasury Department cited the two-dollar bill's low use and unpopularity as the reason for not immediately resuming use of the denomination. In 1976 production of the two-dollar denomination was resumed and the two-dollar bill was finally assigned as a Federal Reserve Note, with a new reverse design featuring John Trumbull's depiction of the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence replacing the previous design of Monticello. It has remained a current denomination since then.[4] It was estimated that if the two-dollar bill replaced approximately half of the one-dollar bills in circulation, the federal government would be able to save about $26 million in 1976 dollars ($112 million adjusted for inflation)[5] over the period from 1976 to 1981, due to reduced production, storage, and shipping costs.[6]","United States two-dollar bill The seeming rarity of a $2 bill can be attributed to its low printing numbers as a Federal Reserve Note. Hoarding of the series due to lack of public knowledge of the $2 bill has resulted in very few bills seen in circulation. After its initial release, supplies of the Series 1976 two-dollar bill were allowed to dwindle until August 1996 when a new series dated 1995 began to be printed. This series was only printed for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.[10]","United States two-dollar bill The final change to $2 United States Notes came in 1963 when the motto IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse over the Monticello.[22] And, because dollar bills were soon to no longer be redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse. Two-dollar bills, along with $5 and $100 United States Notes, were officially discontinued in August 1966, although they remain legal tender.","United States two-dollar bill Today, there is a common misconception by the general public that the $2 bill is no longer being produced. According to the Treasury, it \"receives many letters asking why the $2 bill is no longer in circulation\".[11] In response, the Treasury stated: \"The $2 bill remains one of our circulating currency denominations... As of April 30, 2007 there were $1,549,052,714 worth of $2 bills in circulation worldwide.\"","United States two-dollar bill In March 1862, the first $2 bill was issued as a Legal Tender Note (United States Note) with a portrait of Alexander Hamilton; the portrait of Hamilton used was a profile view and is not the same portrait used currently for the $10 bill. The continental congress based on defending the United States, released on June 25, 1776, began to authorize $2 credit, the circulation of 49,000 copies. Pass two-dollar bill was first used in March 1862. Between 1966 and 1976, two-dollar notes were not printed.","United States two-dollar bill The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill's pre-1929 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or \"Coin\" Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. Two-dollar bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases.","United States two-dollar bill In February 2012, the B.E.P. printed 512,000 Series 2009 $2 Star Notes, in anticipation of more regular runs being printed later in 2012. Series 2009 $2 bills were issued to banks during the summer of 2012.[25][26]","United States two-dollar bill In 1996 and 1997, 153,600,000 bills were printed[24] as Series 1995 for the Federal Reserve District of Atlanta. In 2004, 121,600,000 of the Series 2003 bills were printed for the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank. An issue of Series 2003A $2 bills was printed from July to September 2006 for all twelve Federal Reserve Banks. In all, 220,800,000 notes were printed.[10]","United States two-dollar bill In November 2013, the B.E.P. began printing series 2013 $2 bills for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta; these notes entered circulation in early 2014. A total of 44,800,000 notes were ordered for fiscal year 2014, which ran from October 2013 through September 2014.[27]","United States two-dollar bill On April 13, 1976, the Treasury Department reintroduced the $2 bill as a cost-saving measure.[23] Series 1976 $2 bills were redesigned and issued as a Federal Reserve Note. The obverse design remains basically unchanged since 1928 and features the same portrait of Jefferson. A green treasury seal and serial numbers replace the red used on the previous United States Notes. Since the reissue of the bill coincided with the United States Bicentennial, it was decided to use a bicentennial themed design on the reverse. An engraved rendition (not an exact reproduction) of John Trumbull's The Declaration of Independence replaced Monticello on the reverse. First day issues of the new $2 bills could be taken to a post office and stamped with the date \"APR 13 1976\". In all, 590,720,000 notes from Series 1976 were printed.","Large denominations of United States currency Although they are still legal tender in the United States, high-denomination bills were last printed on December 27, 1945, and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System,[9] due to 'lack of use'. The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively disappeared well before then.[nb 1]","Banknotes of the United States dollar They were first issued in 1914, different from the Federal Reserve Bank Notes in that they were liabilities of the whole Federal Reserve System. They were redeemable in gold until 1933. After that date they stopped to be redeemable in anything, much like United States Notes (which later led to the halting of the production of United States Notes). They switched to small size in 1929 and are the only type of currency in circulation today in the United States. They were originally printed in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000. The $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 denominations were last printed in 1945 and discontinued in 1969, making the $100 bill the largest denomination banknote in circulation. A $1 note was added in 1963 to replace the $1 Silver Certificate after that type of currency had been discontinued. Since United States Notes were discontinued in 1971, Federal Reserve Notes are the only type of currency circulating in the US. In 1976, a $2 note was added, 10 years after the $2 denomination of United States Note was officially discontinued. The denomination proved to be unpopular and is now treated as a curiosity, although it is still being printed. Starting 1996, all notes except $1 and $2 were redesigned to have a larger portrait of the people depicted on them. Since 2004, all notes (except $1 and $2) were progressively changed to have different colors to make them more easily distinguishable from each other, until the last such note was introduced in 2013 (the $100).","Banknotes of the United States dollar United States Notes, also known as Legal Tender Notes, succeeded Demand Notes as the main currency form of the United States. They were not redeemable but were receivable for all taxes and debts, which is what persuaded people to circulate them. They had a red seal and were originally issued in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. $5,000 and $10,000 notes were issued in 1878 and have not been issued anytime after. United States Notes switched to small size in 1928 and were introduced in denominations of only $1, $2 and $5. In 1934, when Federal Reserve Notes stopped being redeemable in gold, the only difference between them and Legal Tender Notes was that the first were liabilities of the Federal Reserve while the latter were direct liabilities of the United States Treasury Department. The $2 and $5 were issued through 1966, and the $2 note was only available as a United States Note. In 1966 the $5 United States Note was discontinued and the $2 denomination was discontinued altogether. In 1966 a $100 US note was issued to meet legal requirements about the amount of notes in circulation. In 1971 the production of US notes was halted and they were officially discontinued in 1994.","United States two-dollar bill The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note-like $2 bill was issued in 1918 as a Federal Reserve Bank Note. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of Thomas Jefferson to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a World War I battleship.[19]","United States dollar Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.","United States two-dollar bill Beginning in the 1950s, production of $2 bills began to decrease. The relative scarcity of the bills lead some to start saving any they found, with the inevitable result that the notes became rarer in circulation. Currently, the circulation of $2 bills accounts for around 1% of the U.S. currency in circulation.","United States two-dollar bill In 1928, when all U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. The obverse featured a cropped version of Thomas Jefferson's portrait that had been on previous $2 bills. The reverse featured Jefferson's home, Monticello. The note's seal and serial numbers were red. The Series of 1928 $2 bill featured the treasury seal superimposed by the United States Note obligation to the left and a large gray TWO to the right.[20]","United States two-dollar bill Two-dollar Treasury, or \"Coin\", Notes were first issued for government purchases of silver bullion in 1890 from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured large wording of TWO in the center and a numeral 2 to the right surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. In 1891 the reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too \"busy\" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design.[17]","United States two-dollar bill By 1869, the $2 United States Note was redesigned with the now familiar portrait of Thomas Jefferson to the left and a vignette of the United States Capitol in the center of the obverse. This note also featured green tinting on the top and left side of the obverse. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This series was again revised in 1874, changes on the obverse included removing the green tinting, adding a red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The 1874 design was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878 and by 1880 the red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed and the serial numbers were changed to blue. This note with the red floral design was also issued as Series of 1917 but with red serial numbers by that time.[14]","Federal Reserve Note Beginning in 2003, the Federal Reserve introduced a new series of bills, featuring images of national symbols of freedom. The new $20 bill was first issued on October 9, 2003; the new $50 on September 28, 2004; the new $10 bill on March 2, 2006; the new $5 bill on March 13, 2008; the new $100 bill on October 8, 2013. The one and two dollar bills still remain small portrait, unchanged, and not watermarked.","United States two-dollar bill In 1886, the first $2 silver certificate with a portrait of United States Civil War General Winfield Scott Hancock on the left of the obverse was issued. This design went on until 1891 when a new $2 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom in the center of the obverse.[16]","United States two-dollar bill However, due to their limited use, two-dollar bills are not printed as frequently in a new series like other denominations, which are produced according to demand.[7] Though some cash registers accommodate the bill, its slot is often used for things like checks and rolls of coins. Some bill acceptors found in vending machines, self checkout lanes, and other automated kiosks are configured to accommodate two-dollar bills, even if the fact is not stated on the label.[8] Although they are generally available at most banks, two-dollar bills are usually not handed out arbitrarily except upon specific request by the customer, and even then, may cause a delay with a trip to the vault.[9]","United States two-dollar bill Uncut sheets of $2 bills are available in various sizes. A 32-subject sheet, which is the original-size sheet on which the notes are printed, is available. Other sheet sizes available have been cut from the original 32-subject sheet. These include half (16-note), quarter (8-note), and eighth (4-note) sheets for $2 bills. Uncut sheets are sold for more than their respective face values.[44] Uncut sheets of large size notes (issued before 1928) also exist, but are extremely rare.[45]","United States Note Soon after private ownership of gold was banned during 1933, all of the remaining types of circulating currency, National Bank Notes, silver certificates, Federal Reserve Notes, and United States Notes, were redeemable by individuals only for silver. Eventually, even silver redemption stopped during June 1968, during a time in which all U.S. currency (both coins and paper currency) was changed to fiat currency. For the general public there was then little to distinguish United States Notes from Federal Reserve Notes. As a result, the public circulation of United States Notes, then mainly in the form of $2 and $5 bills, was replaced with $5 Federal Reserve Notes and, eventually, $2 Federal Reserve Notes as well. United States Notes became rare in hand-to-hand commerce and the Treasury converted most of the outstanding balance into $100 bills which spent most of their time in bank vaults. No more United States Notes were distributed into public circulation after January 21, 1971.[21] In September 1994 the Riegle Improvement Act[22] released the Treasury from its long-standing obligation to keep the notes in circulation and finally, during 1996, the Treasury announced that its stock of $100 United States Notes had been destroyed.[23]","Federal Reserve Note Note: The series 2006A was produced from 2011 to 2013 due to issues with the printing process for the colorized (NextGen) $100 notes.","United States two-dollar bill Uncut currency sheets are available from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Some of the recent $2 uncut sheets from Series 1995 and Series 2003 have been collectibles as they come from special non-circulation printings. Most of the Series 1995 $2 uncut sheets had a higher suffix letter in the serial number than regular circulation $2 bills. Uncut $2 sheets from Series 2003 were printed for the Boston (A), New York (B), Atlanta (F), Chicago (G), Minneapolis (I), and Dallas (K) Federal Reserve Districts despite the fact that notes from the Minneapolis district were the only ones released for circulation. Uncut sheets of Series 2003A have also been produced, although in this case circulating currency for all districts has also been made. All two-dollar bills beginning with Series 1995 have been printed in the BEP facility in Fort Worth, Texas (indicated by \"FW\" preceding the face plate number on the obverse of the note).[10][42][43]","United States two-dollar bill Things such as unusual serial numbers (example: A11111111A), and replacement notes designated by a star in the serial number can raise the collector value. \"Collectible\" two-dollar bills have been made and sold by coin dealers and others in recent years merely by adding colors and special graphics to regular issue bills by using computer printers. However, these bills are not authorized by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) and are not worth anything more than face value on the collectors' market.[12]","Banknotes of the United States dollar National Bank Notes, unlike the other banknotes of the United States, were not directly issued by banks controlled by the United States government but were issued by banks chartered to do so by the government. The banks' charter expired after 20 years and they had to renew it if they wanted to continue to issue National Bank Notes. They were all uniform in look except for the name of the bank and were issued as three series, known as the three charter periods. The first one were notes issued from 1869-1882, the second one from 1882-1902, and the third one from 1902-1922. In 1929 the notes were resurrected as an emergency issue due to the Great Depression in small size. They were discontinued in 1933. The denominations issued were $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. The $1, $2, $500 and $1,000 notes were only issued in large size during the First Charter Period. The $1 and $2 notes are common from most banks (there are exceptions). The $500 note is extremely rare; there are only three known examples, of which one is held privately, and the $1,000 note is unknown to exist.","United States two-dollar bill Despite their age, crisp, uncirculated series 1976 $2 bills are not uncommon and are not particularly valuable. These notes were saved and hoarded upon their original issue and are plentiful today. A typical single uncirculated 1976 $2 bill is worth only slightly above face value. If the note is circulated, then it is only worth its $2 face value.","History of the United States dollar While issuance of United States Notes ended in January 1971, existing United States Notes are still valid currency in the United States today, though rarely seen in circulation.","United States twenty-dollar bill As of December 2013, the average circulation life of a $20 bill is 7.9 years before it is replaced due to wear.[2] About 11% of all notes printed in 2009 were $20 bills.[3] Twenty-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in violet straps.","Dollar coin (United States) Dollar coins have never been very popular in the United States since the removal of specie coins from circulation. Despite efforts by the government to promote their use, such as the Presidential $1 Coin Program, most Americans currently use the one-dollar bill rather than dollar coins.[2] For this reason, since December 11, 2011 the Mint has not produced dollar coins for general circulation, and all dollar coins produced after that date have been specifically for collectors and can be ordered directly from the Mint, and pre-2012 circulation dollar coins are able to be obtained from most U.S. banks.[3][4]","United States two-dollar bill In 2016, a 13-year-old girl in Texas was detained by police at Fort Bend Independent School District's Christa McAuliffe Middle School, and prevented from eating lunch that day, for attempting to use a $2 bill to pay for chicken nuggets in the school cafeteria.[40] [41]","Large denominations of United States currency The Federal Reserve began taking high-denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. As of May 30, 2009[update], only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills.[10] Due to their rarity, collectors often pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.","United States two-dollar bill In 1896, the \"Educational Series\" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse of the note was covered in artwork with an allegorical figure of science presenting steam and electricity to commerce and manufacture. The reverse of the note featured portraits of Robert Fulton and Samuel F. B. Morse surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. By 1899, however, The $2 Silver Certificate was redesigned with a small portrait of George Washington surrounded by allegorical figures representing agriculture and mechanics.[18]","United States one hundred-dollar bill The Federal Reserve announced the removal of large denominations of United States currency from circulation on July 14, 1969. The one-hundred-dollar bill was the largest denomination left in circulation. All the Federal Reserve Notes produced from Series 1928 up to before Series 1969 (i.e. 1928, 1928A, 1934, 1934A, 1934B, 1934C, 1934D, 1950, 1950A, 1950B, 1950C, 1950D, 1950E, 1963, 1966, 1966A) of the $100 denomination added up to $23.1708 billion.[10] Since some banknotes had been destroyed, and the population was 200 million at the time, there was less than one $100 banknote per capita circulating.","Withdrawn Canadian banknotes Printing of the $2 note ceased on February 18, 1996, with initial release of the toonie, a coin that replaced it. These notes are virtually never seen in circulation today. The most recent banknote series that included the two-dollar note was the Birds of Canada series in 1986, in which this note was a terra cotta colour. The face featured a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II; the back featured a meadow scene with two robins. Prior to the withdrawal of the $1 note, the $2 was not as widely circulated and was difficult to find in some regions, Alberta in particular. After the $1 note was withdrawn, the $2 was much more widely circulated.","United States one-dollar bill The final production of $1 Silver Certificates occurred in late 1963. In 1964, the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver coin ended and in 1968 the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver bullion ended.","Large denominations of United States currency For the most part, these bills were used by banks and the Federal government for large financial transactions. This was especially true for gold certificates from 1865 to 1934. However, for the most part, the introduction of an electronic money system has made large-scale cash transactions obsolete. When combined with concerns about counterfeiting and the use of cash in unlawful activities such as the illegal drug trade and money laundering, it is unlikely that the U.S. government will re-issue large denomination currency in the near future, despite the amount of inflation that has occurred since 1969 (a $500 bill is now worth less, in real terms, than a $100 bill was worth in 1969). According to the U.S. Department of Treasury website, \"The present denominations of our currency in production are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The purpose of the United States currency system is to serve the needs of the public and these denominations meet that goal. Neither the Department of the Treasury nor the Federal Reserve System has any plans to change the denominations in use today.\"[11]","United States one-dollar bill One-dollar bills were again the subject of experimentation in May 1992, when the BEP began to test a web-fed Intaglio printing press. Because of a need for greater quantities of $1 FRN's, the BEP sent out a REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS (RFP) (year 1985) NO. BEP-85-73 to procure a web-fed intaglio printing press to dramatically increase the production of currency notes within the confines of their current (1985) 14th & C street facility. Instead of printing one side of a square sheet of 32 notes at a time, the web-fed press used 96 engraved images or plate-cylinder to print the back of the note, then another 96 image engraved plate-cylinder to print the front of the note. Both sides of notes were printed from a continuous roll of paper. The Alexander-Hamilton intaglio Web press printed both sides of intaglio at the same time. The web-press was actually designed as a full-blown production press as opposed to an experimental press. The notes were issued in Series 1988A, 1993, and 1995. Because of mechanical problems, operator error, as well as the sometimes poor quality of the notes, production was ended in July 1996. Web notes can be identified by the back plate number next to IN GOD WE TRUST and the removal of face check letters and quadrant numbers.[20]","Half dollar (United States coin) Though not commonly used today, half dollar coins have a long history of heavy use alongside other denominations of coinage, but have faded out of general circulation for many reasons. They were produced in fairly large quantities until the year 2002, when the U.S. Mint ceased production of the coin for general circulation. As a result of its decreasing usage, a large amount of pre-2002 half dollars remain in Federal Reserve vaults, prompting the change in production. Presently, collector half dollars can be ordered straight from the U.S. Mint,[2] and pre-2002 circulation half dollars may be ordered through most U.S. banks.","United States one-dollar bill In 1933, Series of 1928 $1 United States Notes were issued to supplement the supply of $1 Silver Certificates. Its treasury seal and serial numbers were red and there was different wording on the obverse of the note. However, a month after their production, it was realized that there would be no real need for these notes and production was stopped. A small number of these $1 bills entered circulation and the rest were kept in treasury vaults until 1949 when they were issued in Puerto Rico.[17]","Banknotes of the United States dollar Silver certificates were issued from 1878 through 1964 and were redeemable in silver coin through 1967 and thereafter in raw silver bullion. Since 1968 they are not redeemable in anything but Federal Reserve Notes. They were removed from circulation in 1964, at the same time as silver coins. They were issued in large size through 1929 and in small size thereafter. They were originally issued in denominations of $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. $1, $2 and $5 notes were added in 1882. Small size notes were only made in denominations of $1, $5 and $10. The small notes were made with a blue seal, except for notes made as an emergency issue for American soldiers in North Africa during World War II, which were made with a yellow seal, as well as a $1 note made for use only in Hawaii during World War II, which had a brown seal.","United States two-dollar bill Currently, stamped series 1976 $2 bills typically trade for about twice their face value. If the bills were stamped in an exotic place, the value may be slightly higher. However, no first-day-issued 1976 $2 bills with stamps are especially rare or valuable.","History of the United States dollar The new $20 bills entered circulation October 9, 2003, the new $50 bills, September 28, 2004. The new $10 notes were introduced in 2006 and redesigned $5 bills began to circulate March 13, 2008. Each will have subtle elements of different colors, though will continue to be primarily green and black. The Treasury said it will update Federal Reserve notes every 7 to 10 years to keep up with counterfeiting technology. In addition, there have been rumors that future banknotes will use embedded RFID microchips as another anti-counterfeiting tool.[33]","Large denominations of United States currency Large denominations of United States currency greater than $100 were circulated by the United States Treasury until 1969. Since then, U.S. dollar banknotes have only been issued in seven denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.","United States two-dollar bill National Bank Notes were issued in 1875 and feature a woman unfurling a flag and a big 2 (Lazy Duce) on the obverse, the reverse has the king of England smoking tobacco and an eagle with a shield.[15]","Banknotes of the Canadian dollar This was also the last series that the $2 and $1,000 notes were issued. The $2 note was withdrawn in 1996 and replaced by the $2 coin known as the toonie. The $1,000 note was withdrawn by the Bank of Canada on 12 May 2000 at the request of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) as part of a program to reduce organized crime.[12] At the time, 2,827,702 of the $1000 bills were in circulation; by 2011, fewer than 1 million were in circulation, most held by organized crime.[12]","United States two-dollar bill In 1953 the $2 bill received minor design changes analogous to the $5 United States Note. The treasury seal was made smaller and moved to the right side of the bill; it was superimposed over the gray word TWO. The United States Note obligation now became superimposed over a gray numeral 2. The reverse remained unchanged.[21]","Banknotes of the United States dollar Gold certificates were issued from 1865 through 1934 and were redeemable in gold coin. Following the 1933 ban on gold ownership in the United States, they were recalled to be redeemed for United States Notes. They were issued in large size through 1929 and in small size thereafter. They were originally issued in denominations of $20, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000. A $50 note was added in 1882, followed by a $10 note in 1907. A $100,000 note which was used only for inter-bank transactions was also issued in 1934 but never made available to the general public. It is still illegal to own.","Dollar coin (United States) Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new Presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 11, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Future minting of such coins has been reserved solely for collectors.[43]","United States two-dollar bill In 2005, a man in Baltimore, Maryland was jailed for attempting to use legally circulating $2 bills to pay a car stereo installation fee that Best Buy originally agreed to waive in the first place.[39]","United States one-dollar bill In 1968-69 Joseph W. Barr was Secretary of the Treasury for only 31 days and his signature appeared solely on the 1969B dollar bill. It was thought that his brief tenure might make these notes valuable, but use of their plates continued for some time afterwards and over 400 million were printed. Thus they are very common.[22]","Large denominations of United States currency Series 1934 gold certificates ($100, $1,000, $10,000 and $100,000) were issued after the gold standard was repealed and gold was compulsorily confiscated by order of President Franklin Roosevelt on March 9, 1933 (see United States Executive Order 6102). Thus the series 1934 notes were used only for intragovernmental (i.e., Federal Reserve Bank) transactions and were not issued to the public. This series was discontinued in 1940. The series 1928 gold certificate reverse was printed in black and green. See history of the United States dollar.","United States two-dollar bill During the 1930s, the $2 bill was often used at East Coast horse race tracks to make a bet. Because of the German and Jewish influence, the bill was locally known in parts of New Jersey as a \"zwei-buck\", and the upper right corner \"2\" was sometimes torn off to increase the luck.[citation needed]","United States twenty-dollar bill Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, \"Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence.\"[4]","United States dollar Dollar coins have not been very popular in the United States.[45] Silver dollars were minted intermittently from 1794 through 1935; a copper-nickel dollar of the same large size, featuring President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was minted from 1971 through 1978. Gold dollars were also minted in the 19th century. The Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was introduced in 1979; these proved to be unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, their milled edge, and their similar color. Minting of these dollars for circulation was suspended in 1980 (collectors' pieces were struck in 1981), but, as with all past U.S. coins, they remain legal tender. As the number of Anthony dollars held by the Federal Reserve and dispensed primarily to make change in postal and transit vending machines had been virtually exhausted, additional Anthony dollars were struck in 1999. In 2000, a new $1 coin, featuring Sacagawea, (the Sacagawea dollar) was introduced, which corrected some of the problems of the Anthony dollar by having a smooth edge and a gold color, without requiring changes to vending machines that accept the Anthony dollar. However, this new coin has failed to achieve the popularity of the still-existing $1 bill and is rarely used in daily transactions. The failure to simultaneously withdraw the dollar bill and weak publicity efforts have been cited by coin proponents as primary reasons for the failure of the dollar coin to gain popular support.[46]","Silver certificate (United States) In March 1964, Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon halted redemption of silver certificates for silver dollar coins; during the following four years, silver certificates were redeemable in uncoined silver \"granules.\"[40] All redemption in silver ceased on 24 June 1968.[1] While there are some exceptions (particularly for some of the very early issues as well as the experimental bills) the vast majority of small sized silver certificates, especially non-star or worn bills of the 1935 and 1957 series, are worth little to nothing above their face values.","Loonie Two years after the loonie's introduction, the Bank of Canada ceased production of the dollar banknote. The final dollar bills were printed on June 30, 1989.[15] Initial support for the coin was mixed,[16] but withdrawing the banknote forced acceptance of the coin.[17]","Federal Reserve Note Note: While the series 2009A was the first series of these $100 bills released for circulation, the first printing was series 2009 printed in 2010 and 2011. These were withheld from circulation due to issues with the printing process and none were released until 2016.","History of the United States dollar A United States Note, also known as a Legal Tender Note, was a type of paper money that was issued from 1862 to 1971 in the U.S. Having been current for over 100 years, they were issued for longer than any other form of U.S. paper money. They were known popularly as \"greenbacks\" in their day, a name inherited from the Demand Notes that they replaced in 1862.","United States Note Existing United States Notes remain valid currency in the United States; however, as no United States Notes have been issued since January 1971, they are increasingly rare in circulation.","United States Note On small-sized United States Notes, the U.S. Treasury Seal and the serial numbers are printed in red (contrasting with Federal Reserve Notes, where they usually appear in green). By the time the small-size format was adopted, the Federal Reserve System was already existing and there was limited need for United States Notes. They were mainly issued in $2 and $5 denominations in the Series years of 1928, 1953, and 1963. There was a limited issue of $1 notes in the Series of 1928, and an issue of $100 notes in the Series year of 1966, mainly to satisfy legacy legal requirements of maintaining the mandated quantity in circulation. The BEP also printed but did not issue $10 notes in the 1928 Series. An example was displayed at the 1933 Worlds Fair in Chicago.","United States two-dollar bill Certain conventions and tourism/convention bureaus capitalize on the scarcity of $2 bills in circulation, encouraging convention attendees and tourists to spend $2 bills in order to illustrate to the host communities the economic impact that the conventions and tourism bring. Sometimes known as \"SpendTom\" campaigns, the $2 bills linger in the community as a constant reminder. Some campaigns encourage people to participate in a hunt for the bills in order to win prizes.[13]","History of the United States dollar In 1963, the words \"PAYABLE TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND\" were removed from all newly issued Federal Reserve notes. Then, in 1968, redemption of pre-1963 Federal Reserve notes for gold or silver officially ended. The Coinage Act of 1965 removed all silver from quarters and dimes, which were 90% silver prior to the act. However, there was a provision in the act allowing some coins to contain a 40% silver consistency, such as the Kennedy Half Dollar. Later, even this provision was removed, with the last circulating silver-content halves minted in 1969. All previously silver coins minted for general circulation are now clad. During 1982, the composition of the cent was changed from copper to zinc with a thin copper coating. The content of the nickel has not changed since 1946.[citation needed] Silver and gold coins are produced by the U.S. government, but only as non-circulating commemorative pieces or in sets for collectors.","United States one-dollar bill Though bill denominations of $5 and higher have been redesigned twice since 1995 as part of ongoing anti-counterfeiting efforts, there are currently no plans to redesign the $1 or $2 bills.","United States one hundred-dollar bill The United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) is a denomination of United States currency. Statesman, inventor, diplomat, and American founding father Benjamin Franklin is featured on the obverse of the bill. On the reverse of the banknote is an image of Independence Hall. The $100 bill is the largest denomination that has been printed since July 13, 1969, when the denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 were retired.[1] The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $100 bill in circulation is 90 months (7.5 years) before it is replaced due to wear and tear.","Postmark An official example relating a numismatic item to postmarks occurred on April 13, 1976 when the U.S. issued a new two-dollar bill. People could buy the bills at face value, add a first class stamp (at the time 13 cents), and have the combination postmarked to show they were the first day of issue. Large numbers of these were produced and they remain common.[11]","Peace dollar The Bland–Allison Act, passed by Congress on February 28, 1878, required the Treasury to purchase a minimum of $2 million in domestically mined silver per month and coin it into silver dollars.[1] The Mint used a new design by engraver George T. Morgan, and struck what became known as the Morgan dollar. Many of the pieces quickly vanished into bank vaults for use as backing for paper currency redeemable in silver coin, known as silver certificates. In 1890, the purchases required under the Bland–Allison Act were greatly increased under the terms of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Although the Sherman Act was repealed in 1893, it was not until 1904 that the government struck the last of the purchased silver into dollars. Once it did, production of the coin ceased.[2]","Dollar coin (United States) The Anthony dollar, because of its color, size and design, was often confused with the quarter was never popular and production was suspended after 1981. In 1999, it was struck again when Treasury reserves of the coin were low and the Sacagawea dollar was still a year away from production.[26] While reserves of the coins were high, the coins were most often seen in vending machines, transit systems and post offices.","United States two-dollar bill A chronological display of the American two-dollar bill.Â","United States dollar According to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the largest note it ever printed was the $100,000 Gold Certificate, Series 1934. These notes were printed from December 18, 1934, through January 9, 1935, and were issued by the Treasurer of the United States to Federal Reserve Banks only against an equal amount of gold bullion held by the Treasury. These notes were used for transactions between Federal Reserve Banks and were not circulated among the general public.","History of the United States dollar \"The soundness of a nation's currency is essential to the soundness of its economy. And to uphold our currency's soundness, it must be recognized and honored as legal tender and counterfeiting must be effectively thwarted,\" Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said at a ceremony unveiling the $20 bill's new design. Prior to the current design, the most recent redesign of the U.S. dollar bill was in 1996.","Dollar coin (United States) Production of the trade dollar was officially discontinued for business strikes in 1878, and thereafter from 1879–1885, produced only as proof examples of the coin. The issues of 1884 and 1885 were produced surreptitiously, and were unknown to the collecting public until 1908.","United States two-dollar bill The relative scarcity of the $2 bill in everyday circulation has led to confusion at points of sale, as well as overreaction and prosecution of the individual attempting to tender the bill.","Currency of Ecuador Private banknotes ceased to circulate after 1927.","United States one-dollar bill In 1929, all currency was changed to the size with which we are familiar today. The first one-dollar bills were issued as silver certificates under Series of 1928. The treasury seal and serial numbers were dark blue. The obverse was nearly identical to the Series of 1923 $1 Silver Certificate, but the treasury seal featured spikes around it and a large gray ONE replaced the blue \"1 DOLLAR.\" The reverse, too, had the same border design as the Series of 1923 $1 bill, but the center featured a large ornate ONE superimposed by ONE DOLLAR. These are commonly known as \"Funnybacks\" due to the rather odd-looking \"ONE\" on the reverse. These $1 Silver Certificates were issued until 1934.","Federal Reserve Note The portraits appearing on the U.S. currency can feature only people who have died, whose names should be included below each of the portraits.[43] Since the standardization of the bills in 1928, the Department of the Treasury has chosen to feature the same portraits on the bills. These portraits were decided upon in 1929 by a committee appointed by the Treasury. Originally, the committee had decided to feature U.S. presidents because they were more familiar to the public than other potential candidates. The Treasury altered this decision, however, to include three statesmen who were also well-known to the public: Alexander Hamilton (the first Secretary of the Treasury who appears on the $10 bill), Salmon P. Chase (the Secretary of the Treasury during the American Civil War who appeared on the now obsolete $10,000 bill), and Benjamin Franklin (a signer of the Declaration of Independence and of the Constitution, who appears on the $100 bill).[46] In 2016, the Treasury announced a number of design changes to the $5, $10 and $20 bills; to be introduced over the next ten years. The redesigns include:[47][48]","History of the United States dollar May 13, 2003, The Treasury announced that it would introduce new colors into the $20 bill, the first U.S. currency since 1905 (not counting the 1934 gold certificates) to have colors other than green or black. The move was intended primarily to reduce counterfeiting, rather than to increase visual differentiation between denominations. The main colors of all denominations, including the new $20 and $50, remain green and black; the other colors are present only in subtle shades in secondary design elements. This contrasts with notes of the euro, Australian dollar, and most other currencies, where strong colours are used to distinguish each denomination from the other.","United States two-dollar bill \"U.S. Air Force pilots who fly the venerable Lockheed U-2 spy plane always keep a $2 bill in their flight suit. Each pilot is issued a number identifying their chronological position among the 1,000 or so pilots who have flown the U-2 solo. Some pilots search until they find a $2 bill with a serial number whose final digits match their pilot number. New pilots must provide $222 in $2 bills to fund the U-2 clubhouse at Beale Air Force Base, near Yuba City, California. Veteran pilots conduct periodic “conformity checks” to make sure new fliers are carrying at least one bill. The fine for a violation? $2.\"[38]","History of the United States dollar On April 21, 2010, the U.S. Government announced a heavily redesigned $100 bill that featured bolder colors, color shifting ink, microlenses, and other features. It was scheduled to start circulating on February 10, 2011, but was delayed due to the discovery of sporadic creasing on the notes and \"mashing\" (when there is too much ink on the paper, the artwork on the notes are not clearly seen). The redesigned $100 bill was released October 8, 2013.[35] It costs 11.8 cents to produce each bill.[36]","United States two-dollar bill Use of the two-dollar bill is also being suggested by some gun rights activists to show support for Second Amendment rights, particularly at stores that allow Open Carry or Concealed carry of weapons on their premises.[34][35] Two-dollar notes have also seen increased usage in situations where tipping is encouraged, especially in strip clubs. This is due to the idea that tips will increase because of the ease of use of a single, higher-denomination bill as the lowest common note in use.[36]","United States twenty-dollar bill On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse.[20][21][22] Lew simultaneously announced that the five- and ten-dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade.[20][22]","Banknotes of the United States dollar These notes were issued in 1890 and 1891 and were redeemable in coin. It was the decision of the Secretary of the Treasury whether the coin would be silver or gold. They were originally issued in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $100 and $1,000. $50 and $500 notes were introduced in 1891. The $1,000 note from 1890 is currently the most expensive note ever, having sold for $3.2 million.[1]","United States two-dollar bill Over five million $2 bills are entered into the database of the American currency-tracking website Where's George?.[32] Because $2 bills are uncommon in daily use, their use can make a particular group of spenders visible. A documented case of using two-dollar bills to send a message to a community is the case of Geneva Steel and the communities in surrounding Utah County. In 1989, Geneva Steel paid its employee bonuses in $2 bills. When the bills began to appear in different places, people recognized the importance of the company to the local economy.[33]","Silver standard Silver certificates continued to be issued until late 1963, when the $1 Federal Reserve Note was released into circulation. For several years, existing silver certificates could be redeemed for silver, but this practice was halted on June 24, 1968.","History of the United States dollar Annual releases of the 1996 series followed. The $50 note June 12, 1997, introduced a large dark numeral with a light background on the back of the note to make it easier for people to identify the denomination.[32] The $20 note in 1998 introduced a new machine-readable capability to assist scanning devices. The security thread glows green under ultraviolet light, and \"USA TWENTY\" and a flag are printed on the thread, while the numeral \"20\" is printed within the star field of the flag. The microprinting is in the lower left ornamentation of the portrait and in the lower left corner of the note front. As of 1998[update], the $20 note was the most frequently counterfeited note in the United States.","Kennedy half dollar The coin continued to be struck through the remainder of the twentieth century, and mintage numbers remained relatively steady in both the Philadelphia and Denver mints[36] until 1987, a year in which no half dollars were struck for circulation; the Treasury had accumulated a two-year supply of the pieces, making further production unnecessary.[37] Demand for half dollars dropped, and casinos (where they were commonly used) increasingly began producing fifty cent chips to use in place of the coins.[38] With mintage numbers remaining low,[36] beginning in 2002, the Kennedy half dollar ceased to be struck for general circulation. Rolls and bags of the current year's pieces may be purchased from the Mint, at a premium above face value.[35]","United States one-dollar bill Since 1933, the one-dollar bill has been the exclusive experimental denomination amongst circulating US currency, however, an exception was made in August 1981 for several Richmond $10 notes produced on Natick test paper. The first experiment was conducted in January and February of that year to assess the effects of using different ratios of cotton to linen in the make-up of the bills. Series 1928A and 1928B $1 Silver Certificates with serial number block letters X-B and Y-B were used as the experimental group; the Z-B block was used as the control group. The results of the experiment were inconclusive.","United States one-dollar bill On November 29, 2012, a House subcommittee met to consider replacing the dollar bill. This action took place after the seventh Government Accountability Office report on the subject. The latest report claimed that switching to dollar coins would save $4.4 billion over thirty years. However, according to polls, few Americans want to give up dollar bills.[27] Recent budgets passed by Congress have included provisions to prevent the Treasury Department from spending any of its funds to redesign the one dollar bill, largely because of potential cost impacts on the vending machine industry.[28]","Withdrawn Canadian banknotes Printing of the $1,000 note ceased in 2000. The denomination was withdrawn on the advice of the Solicitor General and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), as it was often used for money laundering and organized crime.[4] The Bank of Canada has requested that financial institutions return $1,000 notes for destruction.[5] The most recent issue of this denomination was in 1992 as part of the Birds of Canada series. It was pink in colour, featuring Queen Elizabeth II on the face, and two pine grosbeaks on the back.","Large denominations of United States currency Large-denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher)[1] had been used in the United States since the late 18th century.[2] The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780.[3] Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780[4] and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781.[5] High-denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812).[6] During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes.[7] During the Federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high-denomination notes included three-year Interest-bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861.[8] In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high-denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates. The obverse of United States banknotes generally depict either historical figures, allegorical figures symbolizing significant concepts (e.g., liberty, justice), or a combination of both. The reverse designs range from abstract scroll-work with ornate denomination identifiers to reproductions of historical art works.","Banknotes of the United States dollar After the Federal Reserve system was created in 1914, alongside Federal Reserve Notes, which are liabilities of the Federal Reserve System as a whole, Federal Reserve Bank Notes were issued. They were liabilities of only the Federal Reserve Bank which issued them. In 1929, like other kinds of notes they switched to small size. They were discontinued in 1934 and no longer available from banks since 1945.","Banknotes of the United States dollar Refunding Certificates, issued only in 1879 and only in the $10 denomination, were special in that their interest (4% per annum) did accrue indefinitely, which was meant as a way to persuade people into buying them. However, as very few of these notes were redeemed, in 1907 Congress passed an act stopping the accrual of interest, fixing the value of the notes at $21.30.","Federal Reserve Note The Federal Reserve does not publish an average life span for the $2 bill. This is likely due to its treatment as a collector's item by the general public; it is, therefore, not subjected to normal circulation.[19]","History of the Canadian dollar Notes from previous series continue to be legal tender when in circulation. However, in the 2018 Budget, the government announced it intends to introduce legislation to change to the status of some withdrawn notes: the one-thousand dollar note, the twenty-five-dollar note, the two-dollar note and the one-dollar note will no longer be legal tender, but could still be exchanged at banks for current notes at full value.[107]","Gold coin Gold coins then had a very long period as a primary form of money, only falling into disuse in the early 20th century. Most of the world stopped making gold coins as currency by 1933, as countries switched from the gold standard due to hoarding during the worldwide economic crisis of the Great Depression. In the United States, 1933's Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold and was followed by a devaluation of the dollar relative to gold, although the United States did not completely uncouple the dollar from the value of gold until 1971.[citation needed]","United States one-dollar bill Except for significant errors, and series 1988A web notes printed in small batches for some of the Federal Reserve districts (those from others are more common), green seal dollars are of little collector value. However two notes have generated public interest, although neither are scarce.","United States two-dollar bill (approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)","Uncut currency sheets The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) has been selling uncut sheets of United States dollars since October 26, 1981.[1][2]\nUncut American paper money issued prior to that is a rarity.[3][4]"],"string":"[\n \"United States two-dollar bill The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first used in March 1862.[2] The denomination was continuously used until the 1960s; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two-dollar bill was assigned to. In 1966 it was decided to discontinue all United States Notes from production, which included the two-dollar bill.[3] The two-dollar bill initially was not reassigned to the Federal Reserve Note class of United States currency and was thus fully discontinued; the Treasury Department cited the two-dollar bill's low use and unpopularity as the reason for not immediately resuming use of the denomination. In 1976 production of the two-dollar denomination was resumed and the two-dollar bill was finally assigned as a Federal Reserve Note, with a new reverse design featuring John Trumbull's depiction of the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence replacing the previous design of Monticello. It has remained a current denomination since then.[4] It was estimated that if the two-dollar bill replaced approximately half of the one-dollar bills in circulation, the federal government would be able to save about $26 million in 1976 dollars ($112 million adjusted for inflation)[5] over the period from 1976 to 1981, due to reduced production, storage, and shipping costs.[6]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill The seeming rarity of a $2 bill can be attributed to its low printing numbers as a Federal Reserve Note. Hoarding of the series due to lack of public knowledge of the $2 bill has resulted in very few bills seen in circulation. After its initial release, supplies of the Series 1976 two-dollar bill were allowed to dwindle until August 1996 when a new series dated 1995 began to be printed. This series was only printed for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.[10]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill The final change to $2 United States Notes came in 1963 when the motto IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse over the Monticello.[22] And, because dollar bills were soon to no longer be redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse. Two-dollar bills, along with $5 and $100 United States Notes, were officially discontinued in August 1966, although they remain legal tender.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Today, there is a common misconception by the general public that the $2 bill is no longer being produced. According to the Treasury, it \\\"receives many letters asking why the $2 bill is no longer in circulation\\\".[11] In response, the Treasury stated: \\\"The $2 bill remains one of our circulating currency denominations... As of April 30, 2007 there were $1,549,052,714 worth of $2 bills in circulation worldwide.\\\"\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In March 1862, the first $2 bill was issued as a Legal Tender Note (United States Note) with a portrait of Alexander Hamilton; the portrait of Hamilton used was a profile view and is not the same portrait used currently for the $10 bill. The continental congress based on defending the United States, released on June 25, 1776, began to authorize $2 credit, the circulation of 49,000 copies. Pass two-dollar bill was first used in March 1862. Between 1966 and 1976, two-dollar notes were not printed.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill's pre-1929 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or \\\"Coin\\\" Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. Two-dollar bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In February 2012, the B.E.P. printed 512,000 Series 2009 $2 Star Notes, in anticipation of more regular runs being printed later in 2012. Series 2009 $2 bills were issued to banks during the summer of 2012.[25][26]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 1996 and 1997, 153,600,000 bills were printed[24] as Series 1995 for the Federal Reserve District of Atlanta. In 2004, 121,600,000 of the Series 2003 bills were printed for the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank. An issue of Series 2003A $2 bills was printed from July to September 2006 for all twelve Federal Reserve Banks. In all, 220,800,000 notes were printed.[10]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In November 2013, the B.E.P. began printing series 2013 $2 bills for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta; these notes entered circulation in early 2014. A total of 44,800,000 notes were ordered for fiscal year 2014, which ran from October 2013 through September 2014.[27]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill On April 13, 1976, the Treasury Department reintroduced the $2 bill as a cost-saving measure.[23] Series 1976 $2 bills were redesigned and issued as a Federal Reserve Note. The obverse design remains basically unchanged since 1928 and features the same portrait of Jefferson. A green treasury seal and serial numbers replace the red used on the previous United States Notes. Since the reissue of the bill coincided with the United States Bicentennial, it was decided to use a bicentennial themed design on the reverse. An engraved rendition (not an exact reproduction) of John Trumbull's The Declaration of Independence replaced Monticello on the reverse. First day issues of the new $2 bills could be taken to a post office and stamped with the date \\\"APR 13 1976\\\". In all, 590,720,000 notes from Series 1976 were printed.\",\n \"Large denominations of United States currency Although they are still legal tender in the United States, high-denomination bills were last printed on December 27, 1945, and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System,[9] due to 'lack of use'. The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively disappeared well before then.[nb 1]\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar They were first issued in 1914, different from the Federal Reserve Bank Notes in that they were liabilities of the whole Federal Reserve System. They were redeemable in gold until 1933. After that date they stopped to be redeemable in anything, much like United States Notes (which later led to the halting of the production of United States Notes). They switched to small size in 1929 and are the only type of currency in circulation today in the United States. They were originally printed in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000. The $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 denominations were last printed in 1945 and discontinued in 1969, making the $100 bill the largest denomination banknote in circulation. A $1 note was added in 1963 to replace the $1 Silver Certificate after that type of currency had been discontinued. Since United States Notes were discontinued in 1971, Federal Reserve Notes are the only type of currency circulating in the US. In 1976, a $2 note was added, 10 years after the $2 denomination of United States Note was officially discontinued. The denomination proved to be unpopular and is now treated as a curiosity, although it is still being printed. Starting 1996, all notes except $1 and $2 were redesigned to have a larger portrait of the people depicted on them. Since 2004, all notes (except $1 and $2) were progressively changed to have different colors to make them more easily distinguishable from each other, until the last such note was introduced in 2013 (the $100).\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar United States Notes, also known as Legal Tender Notes, succeeded Demand Notes as the main currency form of the United States. They were not redeemable but were receivable for all taxes and debts, which is what persuaded people to circulate them. They had a red seal and were originally issued in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. $5,000 and $10,000 notes were issued in 1878 and have not been issued anytime after. United States Notes switched to small size in 1928 and were introduced in denominations of only $1, $2 and $5. In 1934, when Federal Reserve Notes stopped being redeemable in gold, the only difference between them and Legal Tender Notes was that the first were liabilities of the Federal Reserve while the latter were direct liabilities of the United States Treasury Department. The $2 and $5 were issued through 1966, and the $2 note was only available as a United States Note. In 1966 the $5 United States Note was discontinued and the $2 denomination was discontinued altogether. In 1966 a $100 US note was issued to meet legal requirements about the amount of notes in circulation. In 1971 the production of US notes was halted and they were officially discontinued in 1994.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note-like $2 bill was issued in 1918 as a Federal Reserve Bank Note. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of Thomas Jefferson to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a World War I battleship.[19]\",\n \"United States dollar Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Beginning in the 1950s, production of $2 bills began to decrease. The relative scarcity of the bills lead some to start saving any they found, with the inevitable result that the notes became rarer in circulation. Currently, the circulation of $2 bills accounts for around 1% of the U.S. currency in circulation.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 1928, when all U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. The obverse featured a cropped version of Thomas Jefferson's portrait that had been on previous $2 bills. The reverse featured Jefferson's home, Monticello. The note's seal and serial numbers were red. The Series of 1928 $2 bill featured the treasury seal superimposed by the United States Note obligation to the left and a large gray TWO to the right.[20]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Two-dollar Treasury, or \\\"Coin\\\", Notes were first issued for government purchases of silver bullion in 1890 from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured large wording of TWO in the center and a numeral 2 to the right surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. In 1891 the reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too \\\"busy\\\" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design.[17]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill By 1869, the $2 United States Note was redesigned with the now familiar portrait of Thomas Jefferson to the left and a vignette of the United States Capitol in the center of the obverse. This note also featured green tinting on the top and left side of the obverse. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This series was again revised in 1874, changes on the obverse included removing the green tinting, adding a red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The 1874 design was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878 and by 1880 the red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed and the serial numbers were changed to blue. This note with the red floral design was also issued as Series of 1917 but with red serial numbers by that time.[14]\",\n \"Federal Reserve Note Beginning in 2003, the Federal Reserve introduced a new series of bills, featuring images of national symbols of freedom. The new $20 bill was first issued on October 9, 2003; the new $50 on September 28, 2004; the new $10 bill on March 2, 2006; the new $5 bill on March 13, 2008; the new $100 bill on October 8, 2013. The one and two dollar bills still remain small portrait, unchanged, and not watermarked.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 1886, the first $2 silver certificate with a portrait of United States Civil War General Winfield Scott Hancock on the left of the obverse was issued. This design went on until 1891 when a new $2 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom in the center of the obverse.[16]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill However, due to their limited use, two-dollar bills are not printed as frequently in a new series like other denominations, which are produced according to demand.[7] Though some cash registers accommodate the bill, its slot is often used for things like checks and rolls of coins. Some bill acceptors found in vending machines, self checkout lanes, and other automated kiosks are configured to accommodate two-dollar bills, even if the fact is not stated on the label.[8] Although they are generally available at most banks, two-dollar bills are usually not handed out arbitrarily except upon specific request by the customer, and even then, may cause a delay with a trip to the vault.[9]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Uncut sheets of $2 bills are available in various sizes. A 32-subject sheet, which is the original-size sheet on which the notes are printed, is available. Other sheet sizes available have been cut from the original 32-subject sheet. These include half (16-note), quarter (8-note), and eighth (4-note) sheets for $2 bills. Uncut sheets are sold for more than their respective face values.[44] Uncut sheets of large size notes (issued before 1928) also exist, but are extremely rare.[45]\",\n \"United States Note Soon after private ownership of gold was banned during 1933, all of the remaining types of circulating currency, National Bank Notes, silver certificates, Federal Reserve Notes, and United States Notes, were redeemable by individuals only for silver. Eventually, even silver redemption stopped during June 1968, during a time in which all U.S. currency (both coins and paper currency) was changed to fiat currency. For the general public there was then little to distinguish United States Notes from Federal Reserve Notes. As a result, the public circulation of United States Notes, then mainly in the form of $2 and $5 bills, was replaced with $5 Federal Reserve Notes and, eventually, $2 Federal Reserve Notes as well. United States Notes became rare in hand-to-hand commerce and the Treasury converted most of the outstanding balance into $100 bills which spent most of their time in bank vaults. No more United States Notes were distributed into public circulation after January 21, 1971.[21] In September 1994 the Riegle Improvement Act[22] released the Treasury from its long-standing obligation to keep the notes in circulation and finally, during 1996, the Treasury announced that its stock of $100 United States Notes had been destroyed.[23]\",\n \"Federal Reserve Note Note: The series 2006A was produced from 2011 to 2013 due to issues with the printing process for the colorized (NextGen) $100 notes.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Uncut currency sheets are available from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Some of the recent $2 uncut sheets from Series 1995 and Series 2003 have been collectibles as they come from special non-circulation printings. Most of the Series 1995 $2 uncut sheets had a higher suffix letter in the serial number than regular circulation $2 bills. Uncut $2 sheets from Series 2003 were printed for the Boston (A), New York (B), Atlanta (F), Chicago (G), Minneapolis (I), and Dallas (K) Federal Reserve Districts despite the fact that notes from the Minneapolis district were the only ones released for circulation. Uncut sheets of Series 2003A have also been produced, although in this case circulating currency for all districts has also been made. All two-dollar bills beginning with Series 1995 have been printed in the BEP facility in Fort Worth, Texas (indicated by \\\"FW\\\" preceding the face plate number on the obverse of the note).[10][42][43]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Things such as unusual serial numbers (example: A11111111A), and replacement notes designated by a star in the serial number can raise the collector value. \\\"Collectible\\\" two-dollar bills have been made and sold by coin dealers and others in recent years merely by adding colors and special graphics to regular issue bills by using computer printers. However, these bills are not authorized by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) and are not worth anything more than face value on the collectors' market.[12]\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar National Bank Notes, unlike the other banknotes of the United States, were not directly issued by banks controlled by the United States government but were issued by banks chartered to do so by the government. The banks' charter expired after 20 years and they had to renew it if they wanted to continue to issue National Bank Notes. They were all uniform in look except for the name of the bank and were issued as three series, known as the three charter periods. The first one were notes issued from 1869-1882, the second one from 1882-1902, and the third one from 1902-1922. In 1929 the notes were resurrected as an emergency issue due to the Great Depression in small size. They were discontinued in 1933. The denominations issued were $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. The $1, $2, $500 and $1,000 notes were only issued in large size during the First Charter Period. The $1 and $2 notes are common from most banks (there are exceptions). The $500 note is extremely rare; there are only three known examples, of which one is held privately, and the $1,000 note is unknown to exist.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Despite their age, crisp, uncirculated series 1976 $2 bills are not uncommon and are not particularly valuable. These notes were saved and hoarded upon their original issue and are plentiful today. A typical single uncirculated 1976 $2 bill is worth only slightly above face value. If the note is circulated, then it is only worth its $2 face value.\",\n \"History of the United States dollar While issuance of United States Notes ended in January 1971, existing United States Notes are still valid currency in the United States today, though rarely seen in circulation.\",\n \"United States twenty-dollar bill As of December 2013, the average circulation life of a $20 bill is 7.9 years before it is replaced due to wear.[2] About 11% of all notes printed in 2009 were $20 bills.[3] Twenty-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in violet straps.\",\n \"Dollar coin (United States) Dollar coins have never been very popular in the United States since the removal of specie coins from circulation. Despite efforts by the government to promote their use, such as the Presidential $1 Coin Program, most Americans currently use the one-dollar bill rather than dollar coins.[2] For this reason, since December 11, 2011 the Mint has not produced dollar coins for general circulation, and all dollar coins produced after that date have been specifically for collectors and can be ordered directly from the Mint, and pre-2012 circulation dollar coins are able to be obtained from most U.S. banks.[3][4]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 2016, a 13-year-old girl in Texas was detained by police at Fort Bend Independent School District's Christa McAuliffe Middle School, and prevented from eating lunch that day, for attempting to use a $2 bill to pay for chicken nuggets in the school cafeteria.[40] [41]\",\n \"Large denominations of United States currency The Federal Reserve began taking high-denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. As of May 30, 2009[update], only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills.[10] Due to their rarity, collectors often pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 1896, the \\\"Educational Series\\\" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse of the note was covered in artwork with an allegorical figure of science presenting steam and electricity to commerce and manufacture. The reverse of the note featured portraits of Robert Fulton and Samuel F. B. Morse surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. By 1899, however, The $2 Silver Certificate was redesigned with a small portrait of George Washington surrounded by allegorical figures representing agriculture and mechanics.[18]\",\n \"United States one hundred-dollar bill The Federal Reserve announced the removal of large denominations of United States currency from circulation on July 14, 1969. The one-hundred-dollar bill was the largest denomination left in circulation. All the Federal Reserve Notes produced from Series 1928 up to before Series 1969 (i.e. 1928, 1928A, 1934, 1934A, 1934B, 1934C, 1934D, 1950, 1950A, 1950B, 1950C, 1950D, 1950E, 1963, 1966, 1966A) of the $100 denomination added up to $23.1708 billion.[10] Since some banknotes had been destroyed, and the population was 200 million at the time, there was less than one $100 banknote per capita circulating.\",\n \"Withdrawn Canadian banknotes Printing of the $2 note ceased on February 18, 1996, with initial release of the toonie, a coin that replaced it. These notes are virtually never seen in circulation today. The most recent banknote series that included the two-dollar note was the Birds of Canada series in 1986, in which this note was a terra cotta colour. The face featured a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II; the back featured a meadow scene with two robins. Prior to the withdrawal of the $1 note, the $2 was not as widely circulated and was difficult to find in some regions, Alberta in particular. After the $1 note was withdrawn, the $2 was much more widely circulated.\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill The final production of $1 Silver Certificates occurred in late 1963. In 1964, the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver coin ended and in 1968 the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver bullion ended.\",\n \"Large denominations of United States currency For the most part, these bills were used by banks and the Federal government for large financial transactions. This was especially true for gold certificates from 1865 to 1934. However, for the most part, the introduction of an electronic money system has made large-scale cash transactions obsolete. When combined with concerns about counterfeiting and the use of cash in unlawful activities such as the illegal drug trade and money laundering, it is unlikely that the U.S. government will re-issue large denomination currency in the near future, despite the amount of inflation that has occurred since 1969 (a $500 bill is now worth less, in real terms, than a $100 bill was worth in 1969). According to the U.S. Department of Treasury website, \\\"The present denominations of our currency in production are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The purpose of the United States currency system is to serve the needs of the public and these denominations meet that goal. Neither the Department of the Treasury nor the Federal Reserve System has any plans to change the denominations in use today.\\\"[11]\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill One-dollar bills were again the subject of experimentation in May 1992, when the BEP began to test a web-fed Intaglio printing press. Because of a need for greater quantities of $1 FRN's, the BEP sent out a REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS (RFP) (year 1985) NO. BEP-85-73 to procure a web-fed intaglio printing press to dramatically increase the production of currency notes within the confines of their current (1985) 14th & C street facility. Instead of printing one side of a square sheet of 32 notes at a time, the web-fed press used 96 engraved images or plate-cylinder to print the back of the note, then another 96 image engraved plate-cylinder to print the front of the note. Both sides of notes were printed from a continuous roll of paper. The Alexander-Hamilton intaglio Web press printed both sides of intaglio at the same time. The web-press was actually designed as a full-blown production press as opposed to an experimental press. The notes were issued in Series 1988A, 1993, and 1995. Because of mechanical problems, operator error, as well as the sometimes poor quality of the notes, production was ended in July 1996. Web notes can be identified by the back plate number next to IN GOD WE TRUST and the removal of face check letters and quadrant numbers.[20]\",\n \"Half dollar (United States coin) Though not commonly used today, half dollar coins have a long history of heavy use alongside other denominations of coinage, but have faded out of general circulation for many reasons. They were produced in fairly large quantities until the year 2002, when the U.S. Mint ceased production of the coin for general circulation. As a result of its decreasing usage, a large amount of pre-2002 half dollars remain in Federal Reserve vaults, prompting the change in production. Presently, collector half dollars can be ordered straight from the U.S. Mint,[2] and pre-2002 circulation half dollars may be ordered through most U.S. banks.\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill In 1933, Series of 1928 $1 United States Notes were issued to supplement the supply of $1 Silver Certificates. Its treasury seal and serial numbers were red and there was different wording on the obverse of the note. However, a month after their production, it was realized that there would be no real need for these notes and production was stopped. A small number of these $1 bills entered circulation and the rest were kept in treasury vaults until 1949 when they were issued in Puerto Rico.[17]\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar Silver certificates were issued from 1878 through 1964 and were redeemable in silver coin through 1967 and thereafter in raw silver bullion. Since 1968 they are not redeemable in anything but Federal Reserve Notes. They were removed from circulation in 1964, at the same time as silver coins. They were issued in large size through 1929 and in small size thereafter. They were originally issued in denominations of $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. $1, $2 and $5 notes were added in 1882. Small size notes were only made in denominations of $1, $5 and $10. The small notes were made with a blue seal, except for notes made as an emergency issue for American soldiers in North Africa during World War II, which were made with a yellow seal, as well as a $1 note made for use only in Hawaii during World War II, which had a brown seal.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Currently, stamped series 1976 $2 bills typically trade for about twice their face value. If the bills were stamped in an exotic place, the value may be slightly higher. However, no first-day-issued 1976 $2 bills with stamps are especially rare or valuable.\",\n \"History of the United States dollar The new $20 bills entered circulation October 9, 2003, the new $50 bills, September 28, 2004. The new $10 notes were introduced in 2006 and redesigned $5 bills began to circulate March 13, 2008. Each will have subtle elements of different colors, though will continue to be primarily green and black. The Treasury said it will update Federal Reserve notes every 7 to 10 years to keep up with counterfeiting technology. In addition, there have been rumors that future banknotes will use embedded RFID microchips as another anti-counterfeiting tool.[33]\",\n \"Large denominations of United States currency Large denominations of United States currency greater than $100 were circulated by the United States Treasury until 1969. Since then, U.S. dollar banknotes have only been issued in seven denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill National Bank Notes were issued in 1875 and feature a woman unfurling a flag and a big 2 (Lazy Duce) on the obverse, the reverse has the king of England smoking tobacco and an eagle with a shield.[15]\",\n \"Banknotes of the Canadian dollar This was also the last series that the $2 and $1,000 notes were issued. The $2 note was withdrawn in 1996 and replaced by the $2 coin known as the toonie. The $1,000 note was withdrawn by the Bank of Canada on 12 May 2000 at the request of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) as part of a program to reduce organized crime.[12] At the time, 2,827,702 of the $1000 bills were in circulation; by 2011, fewer than 1 million were in circulation, most held by organized crime.[12]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 1953 the $2 bill received minor design changes analogous to the $5 United States Note. The treasury seal was made smaller and moved to the right side of the bill; it was superimposed over the gray word TWO. The United States Note obligation now became superimposed over a gray numeral 2. The reverse remained unchanged.[21]\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar Gold certificates were issued from 1865 through 1934 and were redeemable in gold coin. Following the 1933 ban on gold ownership in the United States, they were recalled to be redeemed for United States Notes. They were issued in large size through 1929 and in small size thereafter. They were originally issued in denominations of $20, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000. A $50 note was added in 1882, followed by a $10 note in 1907. A $100,000 note which was used only for inter-bank transactions was also issued in 1934 but never made available to the general public. It is still illegal to own.\",\n \"Dollar coin (United States) Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new Presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 11, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Future minting of such coins has been reserved solely for collectors.[43]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill In 2005, a man in Baltimore, Maryland was jailed for attempting to use legally circulating $2 bills to pay a car stereo installation fee that Best Buy originally agreed to waive in the first place.[39]\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill In 1968-69 Joseph W. Barr was Secretary of the Treasury for only 31 days and his signature appeared solely on the 1969B dollar bill. It was thought that his brief tenure might make these notes valuable, but use of their plates continued for some time afterwards and over 400 million were printed. Thus they are very common.[22]\",\n \"Large denominations of United States currency Series 1934 gold certificates ($100, $1,000, $10,000 and $100,000) were issued after the gold standard was repealed and gold was compulsorily confiscated by order of President Franklin Roosevelt on March 9, 1933 (see United States Executive Order 6102). Thus the series 1934 notes were used only for intragovernmental (i.e., Federal Reserve Bank) transactions and were not issued to the public. This series was discontinued in 1940. The series 1928 gold certificate reverse was printed in black and green. See history of the United States dollar.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill During the 1930s, the $2 bill was often used at East Coast horse race tracks to make a bet. Because of the German and Jewish influence, the bill was locally known in parts of New Jersey as a \\\"zwei-buck\\\", and the upper right corner \\\"2\\\" was sometimes torn off to increase the luck.[citation needed]\",\n \"United States twenty-dollar bill Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, \\\"Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence.\\\"[4]\",\n \"United States dollar Dollar coins have not been very popular in the United States.[45] Silver dollars were minted intermittently from 1794 through 1935; a copper-nickel dollar of the same large size, featuring President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was minted from 1971 through 1978. Gold dollars were also minted in the 19th century. The Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was introduced in 1979; these proved to be unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, their milled edge, and their similar color. Minting of these dollars for circulation was suspended in 1980 (collectors' pieces were struck in 1981), but, as with all past U.S. coins, they remain legal tender. As the number of Anthony dollars held by the Federal Reserve and dispensed primarily to make change in postal and transit vending machines had been virtually exhausted, additional Anthony dollars were struck in 1999. In 2000, a new $1 coin, featuring Sacagawea, (the Sacagawea dollar) was introduced, which corrected some of the problems of the Anthony dollar by having a smooth edge and a gold color, without requiring changes to vending machines that accept the Anthony dollar. However, this new coin has failed to achieve the popularity of the still-existing $1 bill and is rarely used in daily transactions. The failure to simultaneously withdraw the dollar bill and weak publicity efforts have been cited by coin proponents as primary reasons for the failure of the dollar coin to gain popular support.[46]\",\n \"Silver certificate (United States) In March 1964, Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon halted redemption of silver certificates for silver dollar coins; during the following four years, silver certificates were redeemable in uncoined silver \\\"granules.\\\"[40] All redemption in silver ceased on 24 June 1968.[1] While there are some exceptions (particularly for some of the very early issues as well as the experimental bills) the vast majority of small sized silver certificates, especially non-star or worn bills of the 1935 and 1957 series, are worth little to nothing above their face values.\",\n \"Loonie Two years after the loonie's introduction, the Bank of Canada ceased production of the dollar banknote. The final dollar bills were printed on June 30, 1989.[15] Initial support for the coin was mixed,[16] but withdrawing the banknote forced acceptance of the coin.[17]\",\n \"Federal Reserve Note Note: While the series 2009A was the first series of these $100 bills released for circulation, the first printing was series 2009 printed in 2010 and 2011. These were withheld from circulation due to issues with the printing process and none were released until 2016.\",\n \"History of the United States dollar A United States Note, also known as a Legal Tender Note, was a type of paper money that was issued from 1862 to 1971 in the U.S. Having been current for over 100 years, they were issued for longer than any other form of U.S. paper money. They were known popularly as \\\"greenbacks\\\" in their day, a name inherited from the Demand Notes that they replaced in 1862.\",\n \"United States Note Existing United States Notes remain valid currency in the United States; however, as no United States Notes have been issued since January 1971, they are increasingly rare in circulation.\",\n \"United States Note On small-sized United States Notes, the U.S. Treasury Seal and the serial numbers are printed in red (contrasting with Federal Reserve Notes, where they usually appear in green). By the time the small-size format was adopted, the Federal Reserve System was already existing and there was limited need for United States Notes. They were mainly issued in $2 and $5 denominations in the Series years of 1928, 1953, and 1963. There was a limited issue of $1 notes in the Series of 1928, and an issue of $100 notes in the Series year of 1966, mainly to satisfy legacy legal requirements of maintaining the mandated quantity in circulation. The BEP also printed but did not issue $10 notes in the 1928 Series. An example was displayed at the 1933 Worlds Fair in Chicago.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Certain conventions and tourism/convention bureaus capitalize on the scarcity of $2 bills in circulation, encouraging convention attendees and tourists to spend $2 bills in order to illustrate to the host communities the economic impact that the conventions and tourism bring. Sometimes known as \\\"SpendTom\\\" campaigns, the $2 bills linger in the community as a constant reminder. Some campaigns encourage people to participate in a hunt for the bills in order to win prizes.[13]\",\n \"History of the United States dollar In 1963, the words \\\"PAYABLE TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND\\\" were removed from all newly issued Federal Reserve notes. Then, in 1968, redemption of pre-1963 Federal Reserve notes for gold or silver officially ended. The Coinage Act of 1965 removed all silver from quarters and dimes, which were 90% silver prior to the act. However, there was a provision in the act allowing some coins to contain a 40% silver consistency, such as the Kennedy Half Dollar. Later, even this provision was removed, with the last circulating silver-content halves minted in 1969. All previously silver coins minted for general circulation are now clad. During 1982, the composition of the cent was changed from copper to zinc with a thin copper coating. The content of the nickel has not changed since 1946.[citation needed] Silver and gold coins are produced by the U.S. government, but only as non-circulating commemorative pieces or in sets for collectors.\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill Though bill denominations of $5 and higher have been redesigned twice since 1995 as part of ongoing anti-counterfeiting efforts, there are currently no plans to redesign the $1 or $2 bills.\",\n \"United States one hundred-dollar bill The United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) is a denomination of United States currency. Statesman, inventor, diplomat, and American founding father Benjamin Franklin is featured on the obverse of the bill. On the reverse of the banknote is an image of Independence Hall. The $100 bill is the largest denomination that has been printed since July 13, 1969, when the denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 were retired.[1] The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $100 bill in circulation is 90 months (7.5 years) before it is replaced due to wear and tear.\",\n \"Postmark An official example relating a numismatic item to postmarks occurred on April 13, 1976 when the U.S. issued a new two-dollar bill. People could buy the bills at face value, add a first class stamp (at the time 13 cents), and have the combination postmarked to show they were the first day of issue. Large numbers of these were produced and they remain common.[11]\",\n \"Peace dollar The Bland–Allison Act, passed by Congress on February 28, 1878, required the Treasury to purchase a minimum of $2 million in domestically mined silver per month and coin it into silver dollars.[1] The Mint used a new design by engraver George T. Morgan, and struck what became known as the Morgan dollar. Many of the pieces quickly vanished into bank vaults for use as backing for paper currency redeemable in silver coin, known as silver certificates. In 1890, the purchases required under the Bland–Allison Act were greatly increased under the terms of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Although the Sherman Act was repealed in 1893, it was not until 1904 that the government struck the last of the purchased silver into dollars. Once it did, production of the coin ceased.[2]\",\n \"Dollar coin (United States) The Anthony dollar, because of its color, size and design, was often confused with the quarter was never popular and production was suspended after 1981. In 1999, it was struck again when Treasury reserves of the coin were low and the Sacagawea dollar was still a year away from production.[26] While reserves of the coins were high, the coins were most often seen in vending machines, transit systems and post offices.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill A chronological display of the American two-dollar bill.Â\",\n \"United States dollar According to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the largest note it ever printed was the $100,000 Gold Certificate, Series 1934. These notes were printed from December 18, 1934, through January 9, 1935, and were issued by the Treasurer of the United States to Federal Reserve Banks only against an equal amount of gold bullion held by the Treasury. These notes were used for transactions between Federal Reserve Banks and were not circulated among the general public.\",\n \"History of the United States dollar \\\"The soundness of a nation's currency is essential to the soundness of its economy. And to uphold our currency's soundness, it must be recognized and honored as legal tender and counterfeiting must be effectively thwarted,\\\" Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said at a ceremony unveiling the $20 bill's new design. Prior to the current design, the most recent redesign of the U.S. dollar bill was in 1996.\",\n \"Dollar coin (United States) Production of the trade dollar was officially discontinued for business strikes in 1878, and thereafter from 1879–1885, produced only as proof examples of the coin. The issues of 1884 and 1885 were produced surreptitiously, and were unknown to the collecting public until 1908.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill The relative scarcity of the $2 bill in everyday circulation has led to confusion at points of sale, as well as overreaction and prosecution of the individual attempting to tender the bill.\",\n \"Currency of Ecuador Private banknotes ceased to circulate after 1927.\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill In 1929, all currency was changed to the size with which we are familiar today. The first one-dollar bills were issued as silver certificates under Series of 1928. The treasury seal and serial numbers were dark blue. The obverse was nearly identical to the Series of 1923 $1 Silver Certificate, but the treasury seal featured spikes around it and a large gray ONE replaced the blue \\\"1 DOLLAR.\\\" The reverse, too, had the same border design as the Series of 1923 $1 bill, but the center featured a large ornate ONE superimposed by ONE DOLLAR. These are commonly known as \\\"Funnybacks\\\" due to the rather odd-looking \\\"ONE\\\" on the reverse. These $1 Silver Certificates were issued until 1934.\",\n \"Federal Reserve Note The portraits appearing on the U.S. currency can feature only people who have died, whose names should be included below each of the portraits.[43] Since the standardization of the bills in 1928, the Department of the Treasury has chosen to feature the same portraits on the bills. These portraits were decided upon in 1929 by a committee appointed by the Treasury. Originally, the committee had decided to feature U.S. presidents because they were more familiar to the public than other potential candidates. The Treasury altered this decision, however, to include three statesmen who were also well-known to the public: Alexander Hamilton (the first Secretary of the Treasury who appears on the $10 bill), Salmon P. Chase (the Secretary of the Treasury during the American Civil War who appeared on the now obsolete $10,000 bill), and Benjamin Franklin (a signer of the Declaration of Independence and of the Constitution, who appears on the $100 bill).[46] In 2016, the Treasury announced a number of design changes to the $5, $10 and $20 bills; to be introduced over the next ten years. The redesigns include:[47][48]\",\n \"History of the United States dollar May 13, 2003, The Treasury announced that it would introduce new colors into the $20 bill, the first U.S. currency since 1905 (not counting the 1934 gold certificates) to have colors other than green or black. The move was intended primarily to reduce counterfeiting, rather than to increase visual differentiation between denominations. The main colors of all denominations, including the new $20 and $50, remain green and black; the other colors are present only in subtle shades in secondary design elements. This contrasts with notes of the euro, Australian dollar, and most other currencies, where strong colours are used to distinguish each denomination from the other.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill \\\"U.S. Air Force pilots who fly the venerable Lockheed U-2 spy plane always keep a $2 bill in their flight suit. Each pilot is issued a number identifying their chronological position among the 1,000 or so pilots who have flown the U-2 solo. Some pilots search until they find a $2 bill with a serial number whose final digits match their pilot number. New pilots must provide $222 in $2 bills to fund the U-2 clubhouse at Beale Air Force Base, near Yuba City, California. Veteran pilots conduct periodic “conformity checks” to make sure new fliers are carrying at least one bill. The fine for a violation? $2.\\\"[38]\",\n \"History of the United States dollar On April 21, 2010, the U.S. Government announced a heavily redesigned $100 bill that featured bolder colors, color shifting ink, microlenses, and other features. It was scheduled to start circulating on February 10, 2011, but was delayed due to the discovery of sporadic creasing on the notes and \\\"mashing\\\" (when there is too much ink on the paper, the artwork on the notes are not clearly seen). The redesigned $100 bill was released October 8, 2013.[35] It costs 11.8 cents to produce each bill.[36]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Use of the two-dollar bill is also being suggested by some gun rights activists to show support for Second Amendment rights, particularly at stores that allow Open Carry or Concealed carry of weapons on their premises.[34][35] Two-dollar notes have also seen increased usage in situations where tipping is encouraged, especially in strip clubs. This is due to the idea that tips will increase because of the ease of use of a single, higher-denomination bill as the lowest common note in use.[36]\",\n \"United States twenty-dollar bill On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse.[20][21][22] Lew simultaneously announced that the five- and ten-dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade.[20][22]\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar These notes were issued in 1890 and 1891 and were redeemable in coin. It was the decision of the Secretary of the Treasury whether the coin would be silver or gold. They were originally issued in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $100 and $1,000. $50 and $500 notes were introduced in 1891. The $1,000 note from 1890 is currently the most expensive note ever, having sold for $3.2 million.[1]\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill Over five million $2 bills are entered into the database of the American currency-tracking website Where's George?.[32] Because $2 bills are uncommon in daily use, their use can make a particular group of spenders visible. A documented case of using two-dollar bills to send a message to a community is the case of Geneva Steel and the communities in surrounding Utah County. In 1989, Geneva Steel paid its employee bonuses in $2 bills. When the bills began to appear in different places, people recognized the importance of the company to the local economy.[33]\",\n \"Silver standard Silver certificates continued to be issued until late 1963, when the $1 Federal Reserve Note was released into circulation. For several years, existing silver certificates could be redeemed for silver, but this practice was halted on June 24, 1968.\",\n \"History of the United States dollar Annual releases of the 1996 series followed. The $50 note June 12, 1997, introduced a large dark numeral with a light background on the back of the note to make it easier for people to identify the denomination.[32] The $20 note in 1998 introduced a new machine-readable capability to assist scanning devices. The security thread glows green under ultraviolet light, and \\\"USA TWENTY\\\" and a flag are printed on the thread, while the numeral \\\"20\\\" is printed within the star field of the flag. The microprinting is in the lower left ornamentation of the portrait and in the lower left corner of the note front. As of 1998[update], the $20 note was the most frequently counterfeited note in the United States.\",\n \"Kennedy half dollar The coin continued to be struck through the remainder of the twentieth century, and mintage numbers remained relatively steady in both the Philadelphia and Denver mints[36] until 1987, a year in which no half dollars were struck for circulation; the Treasury had accumulated a two-year supply of the pieces, making further production unnecessary.[37] Demand for half dollars dropped, and casinos (where they were commonly used) increasingly began producing fifty cent chips to use in place of the coins.[38] With mintage numbers remaining low,[36] beginning in 2002, the Kennedy half dollar ceased to be struck for general circulation. Rolls and bags of the current year's pieces may be purchased from the Mint, at a premium above face value.[35]\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill Since 1933, the one-dollar bill has been the exclusive experimental denomination amongst circulating US currency, however, an exception was made in August 1981 for several Richmond $10 notes produced on Natick test paper. The first experiment was conducted in January and February of that year to assess the effects of using different ratios of cotton to linen in the make-up of the bills. Series 1928A and 1928B $1 Silver Certificates with serial number block letters X-B and Y-B were used as the experimental group; the Z-B block was used as the control group. The results of the experiment were inconclusive.\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill On November 29, 2012, a House subcommittee met to consider replacing the dollar bill. This action took place after the seventh Government Accountability Office report on the subject. The latest report claimed that switching to dollar coins would save $4.4 billion over thirty years. However, according to polls, few Americans want to give up dollar bills.[27] Recent budgets passed by Congress have included provisions to prevent the Treasury Department from spending any of its funds to redesign the one dollar bill, largely because of potential cost impacts on the vending machine industry.[28]\",\n \"Withdrawn Canadian banknotes Printing of the $1,000 note ceased in 2000. The denomination was withdrawn on the advice of the Solicitor General and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), as it was often used for money laundering and organized crime.[4] The Bank of Canada has requested that financial institutions return $1,000 notes for destruction.[5] The most recent issue of this denomination was in 1992 as part of the Birds of Canada series. It was pink in colour, featuring Queen Elizabeth II on the face, and two pine grosbeaks on the back.\",\n \"Large denominations of United States currency Large-denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher)[1] had been used in the United States since the late 18th century.[2] The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780.[3] Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780[4] and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781.[5] High-denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812).[6] During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes.[7] During the Federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high-denomination notes included three-year Interest-bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861.[8] In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high-denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates. The obverse of United States banknotes generally depict either historical figures, allegorical figures symbolizing significant concepts (e.g., liberty, justice), or a combination of both. The reverse designs range from abstract scroll-work with ornate denomination identifiers to reproductions of historical art works.\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar After the Federal Reserve system was created in 1914, alongside Federal Reserve Notes, which are liabilities of the Federal Reserve System as a whole, Federal Reserve Bank Notes were issued. They were liabilities of only the Federal Reserve Bank which issued them. In 1929, like other kinds of notes they switched to small size. They were discontinued in 1934 and no longer available from banks since 1945.\",\n \"Banknotes of the United States dollar Refunding Certificates, issued only in 1879 and only in the $10 denomination, were special in that their interest (4% per annum) did accrue indefinitely, which was meant as a way to persuade people into buying them. However, as very few of these notes were redeemed, in 1907 Congress passed an act stopping the accrual of interest, fixing the value of the notes at $21.30.\",\n \"Federal Reserve Note The Federal Reserve does not publish an average life span for the $2 bill. This is likely due to its treatment as a collector's item by the general public; it is, therefore, not subjected to normal circulation.[19]\",\n \"History of the Canadian dollar Notes from previous series continue to be legal tender when in circulation. However, in the 2018 Budget, the government announced it intends to introduce legislation to change to the status of some withdrawn notes: the one-thousand dollar note, the twenty-five-dollar note, the two-dollar note and the one-dollar note will no longer be legal tender, but could still be exchanged at banks for current notes at full value.[107]\",\n \"Gold coin Gold coins then had a very long period as a primary form of money, only falling into disuse in the early 20th century. Most of the world stopped making gold coins as currency by 1933, as countries switched from the gold standard due to hoarding during the worldwide economic crisis of the Great Depression. In the United States, 1933's Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold and was followed by a devaluation of the dollar relative to gold, although the United States did not completely uncouple the dollar from the value of gold until 1971.[citation needed]\",\n \"United States one-dollar bill Except for significant errors, and series 1988A web notes printed in small batches for some of the Federal Reserve districts (those from others are more common), green seal dollars are of little collector value. However two notes have generated public interest, although neither are scarce.\",\n \"United States two-dollar bill (approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)\",\n \"Uncut currency sheets The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) has been selling uncut sheets of United States dollars since October 26, 1981.[1][2]\\nUncut American paper money issued prior to that is a rarity.[3][4]\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["United States two-dollar bill The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill's pre-1929 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or \"Coin\" Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. Two-dollar bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases."],"string":"[\n \"United States two-dollar bill The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill's pre-1929 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or \\\"Coin\\\" Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. Two-dollar bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":197,"cells":{"_id":{"kind":"string","value":"test2264"},"query":{"kind":"string","value":"when did cable stayed bridges increase in popularity"},"gt_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc78438"],"string":"[\n \"doc78438\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_qrels":{"kind":"list like","value":[1],"string":"[\n 1\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc78438","doc78440","doc78441","doc78439","doc2157841","doc78437","doc78451","doc78453","doc78455","doc1548845","doc2146885","doc78445","doc78452","doc78449","doc78442","doc2146898","doc1778760","doc78443","doc1184858","doc78450","doc2157837","doc78444","doc2146897","doc2146876","doc1068873","doc78448","doc78446","doc230001","doc2146902","doc2650973","doc480452","doc1627956","doc78456","doc2650997","doc1144372","doc1360880","doc1731336","doc688707","doc361865","doc1378948","doc78447","doc1591302","doc1041258","doc2196571","doc480469","doc203499","doc1184815","doc1184853","doc1600924","doc1184805","doc1969609","doc370132","doc128","doc2146895","doc230009","doc1636768","doc1625190","doc1273057","doc453203","doc2146896","doc1800543","doc1627942","doc1627958","doc1458632","doc444879","doc1668829","doc2650980","doc2146881","doc480466","doc1246953","doc1854488","doc558561","doc38946","doc2512004","doc2146884","doc1184811","doc1892834","doc2146882","doc2146894","doc2650972","doc1771892","doc1966256","doc2339907","doc1184826","doc2522914","doc230007","doc1184857","doc1184860","doc546262","doc1239952","doc19928","doc636083","doc1256617","doc1242223","doc2512000","doc753227","doc2146887","doc2146888","doc2146886","doc1035408"],"string":"[\n \"doc78438\",\n \"doc78440\",\n \"doc78441\",\n \"doc78439\",\n \"doc2157841\",\n \"doc78437\",\n \"doc78451\",\n \"doc78453\",\n \"doc78455\",\n \"doc1548845\",\n \"doc2146885\",\n \"doc78445\",\n \"doc78452\",\n \"doc78449\",\n \"doc78442\",\n \"doc2146898\",\n \"doc1778760\",\n \"doc78443\",\n \"doc1184858\",\n \"doc78450\",\n \"doc2157837\",\n \"doc78444\",\n \"doc2146897\",\n \"doc2146876\",\n \"doc1068873\",\n \"doc78448\",\n \"doc78446\",\n \"doc230001\",\n \"doc2146902\",\n \"doc2650973\",\n \"doc480452\",\n \"doc1627956\",\n \"doc78456\",\n \"doc2650997\",\n \"doc1144372\",\n \"doc1360880\",\n \"doc1731336\",\n \"doc688707\",\n \"doc361865\",\n \"doc1378948\",\n \"doc78447\",\n \"doc1591302\",\n \"doc1041258\",\n \"doc2196571\",\n \"doc480469\",\n \"doc203499\",\n \"doc1184815\",\n \"doc1184853\",\n \"doc1600924\",\n \"doc1184805\",\n \"doc1969609\",\n \"doc370132\",\n \"doc128\",\n \"doc2146895\",\n \"doc230009\",\n \"doc1636768\",\n \"doc1625190\",\n \"doc1273057\",\n \"doc453203\",\n \"doc2146896\",\n \"doc1800543\",\n \"doc1627942\",\n \"doc1627958\",\n \"doc1458632\",\n \"doc444879\",\n \"doc1668829\",\n \"doc2650980\",\n \"doc2146881\",\n \"doc480466\",\n \"doc1246953\",\n \"doc1854488\",\n \"doc558561\",\n \"doc38946\",\n \"doc2512004\",\n \"doc2146884\",\n \"doc1184811\",\n \"doc1892834\",\n \"doc2146882\",\n \"doc2146894\",\n \"doc2650972\",\n \"doc1771892\",\n \"doc1966256\",\n \"doc2339907\",\n \"doc1184826\",\n \"doc2522914\",\n \"doc230007\",\n \"doc1184857\",\n \"doc1184860\",\n \"doc546262\",\n \"doc1239952\",\n \"doc19928\",\n \"doc636083\",\n \"doc1256617\",\n \"doc1242223\",\n \"doc2512000\",\n \"doc753227\",\n \"doc2146887\",\n \"doc2146888\",\n \"doc2146886\",\n \"doc1035408\"\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th. Early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, and shorter ones using various systems built of reinforced concrete. It once again rose to prominence in the later 20th century when the combination of new materials, larger construction machinery, and the need to replace older bridges all lowered the relative price of these designs.[1]","Cable-stayed bridge The earliest known surviving example of a true cable-stayed bridge in the United States is E.E. Runyon's largely intact steel or iron Bluff Dale Suspension bridge with wooden stringers and decking in Bluff Dale, Texas (1890), or his weeks earlier but ruined Barton Creek Bridge between Huckabay, Texas and Gordon, Texas (1889 or 1890).[2][3] In the twentieth century, early examples of cable-stayed bridges included A. Gisclard's unusual Cassagnes bridge (1899),[4] in which the horizontal part of the cable forces is balanced by a separate horizontal tie cable, preventing significant compression in the deck, and G. Leinekugel le Coq's bridge[5] at Lézardrieux in Brittany (1924). Eduardo Torroja designed a cable-stayed aqueduct[6] at Tempul in 1926.[7] Albert Caquot's 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge[8] over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, but had little influence on later development.[7] The steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger (1955) is, therefore, more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge.","Cable-stayed bridge Other key pioneers included Fabrizio de Miranda, Riccardo Morandi, and Fritz Leonhardt. Early bridges from this period used very few stay cables, as in the Theodor Heuss Bridge (1958). However, this involves substantial erection costs, and more modern structures tend to use many more cables to ensure greater economy.","Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Many early suspension bridges were cable-stayed construction, including the 1817 footbridge Dryburgh Abbey Bridge, James Dredge's patented Victoria Bridge, Bath (1836), and the later Albert Bridge (1872) and Brooklyn Bridge (1883). Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge. John A. Roebling took particular advantage of this to limit deformations due to railway loads in the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge.","List of longest cable-stayed bridge spans Many early suspension bridges were cable-stayed construction, including the 1817 footbridge Dryburgh Abbey Bridge, James Dredge's patented Victoria Bridge, Bath (1836), and the later Albert Bridge, London (1872), and Brooklyn Bridge (1883). Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge. Albert Caquot's 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, but had little influence on later development.[52] The steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger (1956) is therefore more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge.[53]","Cable-stayed bridge A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables which run directly from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines. This is in contrast to the modern suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the deck are suspended vertically from the main cable, anchored at both ends of the bridge and running between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range where cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be more economical if the span were shortened.","Cable-stayed bridge Far more radical in its structure, the Puente del Alamillo (1992) uses a single cantilever spar on one side of the span, with cables on one side only to support the bridge deck. Unlike other cable-stayed types, this bridge exerts considerable overturning force upon its foundation and the spar must resist the bending caused by the cables, as the cable forces are not balanced by opposing cables. The spar of this particular bridge forms the gnomon of a large garden sundial. Related bridges by the architect Santiago Calatrava include the Puente de la Mujer (2001), Sundial Bridge (2004), Chords Bridge (2008), and Assut de l'Or Bridge (2008).","Cable-stayed bridge In a 2-span or 3-span cable-stayed bridge, the loads from the main spans are normally anchored back near the end abutments by stays in the end spans. For more spans, this is not the case and the bridge structure is less stiff overall. This can create difficulties in both the design of the deck and the pylons. Examples of multiple-span structures in which this is the case include Ting Kau Bridge, where additional 'cross-bracing' stays are used to stabilise the pylons; Millau Viaduct and Mezcala Bridge, where twin-legged towers are used; and General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge, where very stiff multi-legged frame towers were adopted. A similar situation with a suspension bridge is found at both the Great Seto Bridge and San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge where additional anchorage piers are required after every set of three suspension spans – this solution can also be adapted for cable-stayed bridges.[12]","Cable-stayed bridge A cradle system carries the strands within the stays from the bridge deck to bridge deck, as a continuous element, eliminating anchorages in the pylons. Each epoxy-coated steel strand is carried inside the cradle in a one-inch (2.54 cm) steel tube. Each strand acts independently, allowing for removal, inspection, and replacement of individual strands. The first two such bridges are the Penobscot Narrows Bridge, completed in 2006, and the Veterans' Glass City Skyway, completed in 2007.[13]","Blue Water Bridge In 1992, it was determined that traffic on the bridge had exceeded its rated capacity,[8][9] so bridge authorities decided to add a second span in order to accommodate the higher traffic. During the debate over the form of the second span, five possible designs were proposed from 1994–1995. Over half of public opinion had mostly favored a duplicate of the first bridge, while the cable-stayed bridge came in second with around 21%. The Blue Water Bridge Authority had rejected both designs, due to the duplicate creating a false sense of history, while the cable-stayed option was feared to overshadow the existing bridge. Another cost-effective but unpopular design was the parallel truss. The continuous-tied arch design, which was a distant third place in polls, was chosen for two reasons. One was that it blends in with the original span yet stands out on its own, and the other is lower maintenance costs because fewer spans are involved.","Suspension bridge Development of wire-cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. It spanned only 18 m.[12] The first permanent wire cable suspension bridge was Guillaume Henri Dufour's Saint Antoine Bridge in Geneva of 1823, with two 40 m spans.[12] The first with cables assembled in mid-air in the modern method was Joseph Chaley's Grand Pont Suspendu in Fribourg, in 1834.[12]","Cable-stayed bridge In the cable-stayed bridge, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures which transmit the bridge loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is often used to support the bridge deck near the towers, but lengths further from them are supported by cables running directly to the towers. This has the disadvantage, compared to the suspension bridge, that the cables pull to the sides as opposed to directly up, requiring the bridge deck to be stronger to resist the resulting horizontal compression loads; but has the advantage of not requiring firm anchorages to resist the horizontal pull of the main cables of the suspension bridge. By design all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are balanced so that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide, needing only to resist horizontal forces from the live loads.","Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges with more than three spans involve significantly more challenging designs than do 2-span or 3-span structures.","Cable-stayed bridge Depending on the design, the columns may be vertical or angled or curved relative to the bridge deck.","Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges may appear to be similar to suspension bridges, but in fact, they are quite different in principle and in their construction.","Suspension bridge Most suspension bridges have open truss structures to support the roadbed, particularly owing to the unfavorable effects of using plate girders, discovered from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) bridge collapse. Recent[when?] developments in bridge aerodynamics have allowed the re-introduction of plate structures first seen on the Severn bridge built in the 1960s. In the picture of the Yichang Bridge, note the very sharp entry edge and sloping undergirders in the suspension bridge shown. This enables this type of construction to be used without the danger of vortex shedding and consequent aeroelastic effects, such as those that destroyed the original Tacoma Narrows bridge.","Steel building Steel buildings first gained popularity in the early 20th century. Their use became more widespread during World War II and significantly expanded after the war when steel became more available. Steel buildings have been widely accepted, in part due to cost efficiency. The range of application has expanded with improved materials, products and design capabilities with the availability of computer aided design software.[citation needed]","Cable-stayed bridge In suspension bridges, large main cables (normally two) hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground. This can be difficult to implement when ground conditions are poor. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, bear the load of the bridge deck. Before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, which is lifted in sections. As this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the main cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages and by downwards tug on the towers.","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) A key consequence was that suspension bridges reverted to a deeper and heavier truss design, including the replacement Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1950), until the development in the 1960s of box girder bridges with an aerofoil shape such as the Severn Bridge, which gave the necessary stiffness together with reduced torsional forces.","Cable-stayed bridge A side-spar cable-stayed bridge uses a central tower supported on only one side. This design allows the construction of a curved bridge.","List of longest cable-stayed bridge spans Cable-stayed bridges have the second-longest spans, after suspension bridges, of bridge types. They are practical for spans up to around 1 kilometre (0.6 mi). The Russky Bridge over the eastern Bosphorus in Vladivostok, Russia, with its 1,104 metres (3,622 ft) span has the largest span of any cable-stayed bridge, displacing the former record holder, the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in the People's Republic of China 1,088 metres (3,570 ft) on 12 April 2012.[1]","Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridge, fan design","Suspension bridge The main suspension cables in older bridges were often made from chain or linked bars, but modern bridge cables are made from multiple strands of wire. This not only adds strength but improves reliability (often called redundancy in engineering terms) because the failure of a few flawed strands in the hundreds used pose very little threat of failure, whereas a single bad link or eyebar can cause failure of an entire bridge. (The failure of a single eyebar was found to be the cause of the collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River.) Another reason is that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into position, whereas wire strand cables can be formulated one by one in mid-air from a temporary walkway.","Suspension bridge A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 19th century.[3][4] Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.","I-35W Mississippi River bridge Construction on the bridge began in 1964 and the structure was completed and opened to traffic in 1967 [24][25] during an era of large-scale projects to build the Twin Cities freeway system.[26] When the bridge fell, it was still the most recent river crossing built on a new site in Minneapolis.[27] After the building boom ebbed during the 1970s, infrastructure management shifted toward inspection and maintenance.[26][28]","Cable-stayed bridge There are also four arrangements for support columns: single, double, portal and A-shaped.[9]","Cable-stayed bridge Key advantages of the cable-stayed form are as follows:","Yangtze Bridge-building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing-Jiujiang Railway. A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable-stayed bridges in the world on the Yangtze Delta: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze.","Suspension bridge Typical suspension bridges are constructed using a sequence generally described as follows. Depending on length and size, construction may take anywhere between a year and a half (construction on the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge took only 19 months) up to as long as a decade (the Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge's construction began in May 1986 and was opened in May 1998 – a total of twelve years).","Millau Viaduct In July 1996 the jury decided in favour of a cable-stayed design with multiple spans, as proposed by the Sogelerg consortium led by Michel Virlogeux and Norman Foster. The decision to proceed by grant of contract was made in May 1998; then in June 2000, the contest for the construction contract was launched, open to four consortia. In March 2001, Eiffage established the subsidiary Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau (CEVM), and was declared winner of the contest and awarded the prime contract in August.[13][1]","Brooklyn Bridge Since opening, the Brooklyn Bridge has become an icon of New York City, ranking among the city's most popular tourist attractions. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964[7][9][10] and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.[11]","The Causeway Plans to build a new bridge at The Narrows downstream from the Causeway in the aftermath of World War II were put on hold while a new Causeway could be constructed.[21] Vehicle traffic using the Causeway had almost doubled between 1930 and 1939.[18]","Cable-stayed bridge A self-anchored suspension bridge has some similarity in principle to the cable-stayed type in that tension forces that prevent the deck from dropping are converted into compression forces vertically in the tower and horizontally along the deck structure. It is also related to the suspension bridge in having arcuate main cables with suspender cables, although the self-anchored type lacks the heavy cable anchorages of the ordinary suspension bridge. Unlike either a cable-stayed bridge or a suspension bridge, the self-anchored suspension bridge must be supported by falsework during construction and so it is more expensive to construct.","Millau Viaduct Since opening in 2004, the deck height of Millau has been surpassed by several suspension bridges in China, including Sidu River Bridge, Baling River Bridge, and two spans (Beipan River Guanxing Highway Bridge and Beipan River Hukun Expressway Bridge) over the Beipan River. In 2012, Mexico's Baluarte Bridge surpassed Millau as the world's highest cable-stayed bridge. The Royal Gorge suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Colorado is also higher, with a bridge deck approximately 291 metres (955 ft) over the Arkansas River.[citation needed]","Sydney Harbour Bridge Under the direction of Dr John Bradfield of the NSW Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd of Middlesbrough and opened in 1932.[4][5] The bridge's design was influenced by the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City.[6] It is the sixth longest spanning-arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level.[7] It was also the world's widest long-span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.[8][9]","New River Gorge Bridge Construction began on the bridge in June 1974, and was completed on October 22, 1977. The bridge was designed by the Michael Baker Company under the direction of Chief Engineer Clarence V. Knudsen, and executed by U.S. Steel's American Bridge Division. The final cost of construction was $37 million (approximately $4 million over bid). It is made from COR-TEN steel. The use of COR-TEN in construction presented several challenges; notable among them was ensuring that the weld points weathered at the same rate as the rest of the steel.[6]","Second Severn Crossing The cable-stayed section of the crossing is over 1,044.7 metres (3,427.5 ft) long, consisting of a 34.6 metres (113.5 ft) wide deck made from steel plate girders with a composite reinforced concrete slab. These were prefabricated on shore and put in place using balanced cantilever methods. There are two high twin-leg, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete pylons carrying 240 cables which support the bridge deck, rising to a height of 149 metres (489 ft) above the river bed or 101 metres (331 ft) above the bridge deck. Cable vibrations were experienced during construction and secondary cables were added to eliminate this. To avoid detracting from the aesthetics of the primary cables, the secondary cables are very slender and are not very noticeable.[13]","San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge The series of lights adorning the suspension cables was added in 1986 as part of the bridge's 50th-anniversary celebration.[42]","Royal Gorge Bridge Since late 2016, the highest bridge is China's Beipanjiang Bridge Duge, which has a cable-stayed span with a deck height of 1,854 ft (565 m).[10][18] The current highest suspension bridge is China's Sidu River Bridge opened in 2009 with a deck height of 1,627 ft (496 m).[10]","Bridges of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh's first river bridges, made of wood and long since replaced, opened in 1818 at Smithfield Street and 1819 at Sixth Street (then St. Clair Street). The city's oldest in-service bridge is the current Smithfield Street Bridge, which opened in 1883; it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.[5] Pittsburgh waged a massive road and bridge building campaign from 1924 to 1940; most of Pittsburgh's oldest major bridges date from this period. The coming of the Interstate Highway System triggered more construction in the second half of the twentieth century, as vehicular speed and throughput requirements increased. The result of more than 100 years of bridge building is a collection of most of the major types of bridge (suspension, cantilever, arch, etc.), mostly built from locally produced steel, including about forty river spans.","Cable-stayed bridge There are four major classes of rigging on cable-stayed bridges: mono, harp, fan, and star.[9]","Dames Point Bridge It remains is one of the largest cable-stayed bridges built in the United States[2][3] having 21 miles (34 km) of cable.[2]","Humber Bridge Cable spinning took place between September 1977 and July 1979. Each cable weighs 5,500 tonnes, with 37 strands of 404 lengths of cable. The cable on the northern span has four extra strands. Each cable can take a load of 19,400 tonnes. The box sections weighed around 140 tonnes each. The first box sections were assembled in June 1975, and put into the main span on 9 November 1979. The toll buildings and north approach road were built by A.F. Budge of Retford, Nottinghamshire, costing £2.9 million. Work began on the administration building in November 1976. The toll system was manufactured by Plessey Controls of Poole, Dorset. Corrosion resistance on the steelwork was provided by Camrex Corrosion of Bellshill, North Lanarkshire.","Viaduct The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed road-bridge that spans the valley of the river Tarn near Millau in southern France. Designed by the French bridge engineer Michel Virlogeux, in collaboration with architect Norman Robert Foster, it is the tallest vehicular bridge in the world, with one pier's summit at 343 metres (1,125 ft)—slightly taller than the Eiffel Tower and only 38 m (125 ft) shorter than the Empire State Building. It was formally dedicated on 14 December 2004 and opened to traffic two days later. The viaduct Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge in China is the longest bridge in the world according to Guinness World Records as of 2011[update].[9]","Brooklyn Bridge In 1964, the bridge was designated a National Historic Landmark, having become an icon of New York City since its opening,[9][10] and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.[11]","Arch Gateshead Millennium Bridge over the River Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, UK (2005)","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Since the structure experienced considerable vertical oscillations while it was still under construction, several strategies were used to reduce the motion of the bridge. They included[7]","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) The cable anchorages, tower pedestals and most of the remaining substructure were relatively undamaged in the collapse, and were reused during construction of the replacement span that opened in 1950. The towers, which supported Gertie's main cables and road deck, suffered major damage at their bases from being deflected twelve feet towards shore as a result of the collapse of the mainspan and the sagging of the sidespans. They were dismantled, and the steel sent to recyclers.","Tacoma Narrows Bridge By 1990, population growth and development on the Kitsap Peninsula caused traffic on the bridge to exceed its design capacity; as a result, in 1998 Washington voters approved a measure to support building a parallel bridge. After a series of protests and court battles, construction began in 2002 and the new bridge opened to carry eastbound traffic on July 16 , 2007, while the 1950 bridge was reconfigured to carry westbound traffic.","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Following the collapse, the United States' involvement in World War II delayed plans to replace the bridge. The portions of the bridge still standing after the collapse, including the towers and cables, were dismantled and sold as scrap metal. Nearly 10 years after the collapse, a new Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened in the same location, using the original bridge's tower pedestals and cable anchorages. The portion of the bridge that fell into the water now serves as an artificial reef.","Rainbow Bridge (Texas) In 1988, construction began on the Veterans Memorial Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge. This bridge runs parallel to the Rainbow Bridge, and was dedicated on September 8, 1990.[3] With a vertical clearance of 143 feet (43.5 m), the bridge is somewhat shorter than its neighbor.[4]","Øresund Bridge Construction began in 1995, with the bridge opening to traffic on 1 July 2000. The Øresund Bridge received the 2002 IABSE Outstanding Structure Award.","Tappan Zee Bridge (2017–present) When completed, the new Tappan Zee Bridge will be one of the widest cable-stayed bridges in the world, having a combined width across both decks of 183 feet (56 m).[2] The new spans will equal the width of the relatively short-span, cable-stayed Leonard Zakim Bridge in downtown Boston.[23] Turkey's 3rd Bosphorus bridge, completed in 2016, has a single deck about 192 feet (59 m) wide. The new Tappan Zee Bridge will also be one of the longest cable-stayed spans in the nation.[2][not in citation given]","Suspension bridge In an underspanned suspension bridge, the main cables hang entirely below the bridge deck, but are still anchored into the ground in a similar way to the conventional type. Very few bridges of this nature have been built, as the deck is inherently less stable than when suspended below the cables. Examples include the Pont des Bergues of 1834 designed by Guillaume Henri Dufour;[12] James Smith's Micklewood Bridge;[14] and a proposal by Robert Stevenson for a bridge over the River Almond near Edinburgh.[14]","Yangtze The cable-stayed Anqing Yangtze River Bridge at Anqing, was completed in 2005.","Skyscraper Architecturally, with the movements of Postmodernism, New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture, that established since the 1980s, a more classical approach came back to global skyscraper design, that remains popular today.[51] Examples are the Wells Fargo Center, NBC Tower, Parkview Square, 30 Park Place, the Messeturm, the iconic Petronas Towers and Jin Mao Tower.","Forth Bridge The bridge was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel;[26] its French contemporary, the Eiffel Tower, was built of wrought iron.[27]\nLarge amounts of steel became available after the invention of the Bessemer process, patented in 1856.[28] In 1859, the Board of Trade imposed a limit of 77.55 N/mm2 (11,248 psi) for the maximum design stress in railway bridges; this was revised as technology progressed.[29]","Truss The Pratt truss was patented in 1844 by two Boston railway engineers,[17] Caleb Pratt and his son Thomas Willis Pratt.[18] The design uses vertical members for compression and diagonal members to respond to tension. The Pratt truss design remained popular as bridge designers switched from wood to iron, and from iron to steel.[19] This continued popularity of the Pratt truss is probably due to the fact that the configuration of the members means that longer diagonal members are only in tension for gravity load effects. This allows these members to be used more efficiently, as slenderness effects related to buckling under compression loads (which are compounded by the length of the member) will typically not control the design. Therefore, for given planar truss with a fixed depth, the Pratt configuration is usually the most efficient under static, vertical loading.","Severn Bridge During its 40th year of operation in 2006, the bridge was inspected to check for corrosion of the suspension cables. According to the Highways Agency,[10] the inspection concluded that the bridge needed restrictions on heavy goods vehicles.[11] Such vehicles are now restricted to one lane on the bridge, with weight restriction signs in place. A system of installing a rubber casing on the cables with dry air circulation is to be used on the Forth Road Bridge and a similar system may be implemented on the Severn Bridge, in a move to halt the progress of the corrosion.[12] The work of installing the rubber casing to the cables was carried out in the years 2007 - 2009 by the Spencer Bridge company using technology developed by D.S. Brown and Base Structures Ltd of Bristol. The same cable saving technology has been used around the world to lengthen the service life of suspension bridges.[citation needed]","Suspension bridge Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct (begun 1847) consists of three sections supported by cables. The timber structure essentially hides the cables; and from a quick view, it is not immediately apparent that it is even a suspension bridge.","List of bridges of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh's first river bridges, made of wood and long since replaced, opened in 1818 at Smithfield Street and 1819 at Sixth Street (then St. Clair Street). The city's oldest in-service bridge is the current Smithfield Street Bridge, which opened in 1883; it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.[5] Pittsburgh waged a massive road and bridge building campaign from 1924 to 1940; most of Pittsburgh's oldest major bridges date from this period. The coming of the Interstate Highway System triggered more construction in the second half of the twentieth century, as vehicular speed and throughput requirements increased. The result of more than 100 years of bridge building is a collection of most of the major types of bridge (suspension, cantilever, arch, etc.), mostly built from locally produced steel, including about forty river spans.","The Causeway The current Causeway bridges were designed by E W C Godfrey, and built between 1947 and 1952. They were the first in Western Australia to use steel composite construction. Large roundabouts were also constructed at each end of the structure, to improve the flow of traffic. The opening of the Graham Farmer Freeway in 2000 reduced the traffic volume on the Causeway, allowing the two central lanes to be turned into bus lanes. By the early 2000s, the concrete structures had suffered significant damage. Cracks were repaired using carbon fibre reinforcement and localised patching, extending the bridge's life by decades. The Causeway bridges have been recognised for their heritage value by their entry on the Western Australian Register of Heritage Places.","The Causeway The bridges were the \"first truly modern bridges\" built in Perth after World War II, being the first bridges in Western Australia to use steel composite construction, and only the second (and third) in Australia.[22] The bridges have a combined length of 1,119 feet (341 m), with both featuring a 62-foot-wide (19 m) roadway supporting six traffic lanes, and a footway 8 feet (2.4 m) wide on the western side of the bridges. In order to achieve a sufficiently high clearance above the river channels at high tide, the bridges have graded approaches that increase the roadway elevation.[18]","Sunshine Skyway Bridge The present bridge replaced a steel cantilever bridge of the same name. The original two-lane bridge built by the Virginia Bridge Company was opened to traffic on September 6, 1954,[10][11] with a similar structure built parallel and to the west of it in 1969 to make it a four-lane bridge and bring it to Interstate Highway standards. Opening of the newer span was delayed until 1971 for reinforcing of the south main pier, which had cracked due to insufficient supporting pile depth.[12] The second span was used for all southbound traffic, while the original span was converted to carry northbound traffic.","Verrazano-Narrows Bridge Although the bridge was constructed with only one 6-lane roadway, Ammann had made provisions for a second 6-lane deck below it, in the form of extra trusses.[129] These trusses, which were used to strengthen the bridge, were a design alteration that was added to many bridges in the aftermath of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse in 1940.[71]:45 The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge became so popular among motorists that in March 1969, the TBTA decided to erect the lower deck[130] at a cost of $22 million.[67]:1130 The Verrazano Bridge had not been expected to carry enough traffic to necessitate a second deck until 1978, but traffic patterns over the previous five years had demonstrate the need for extra bridge capacity. By contrast, a lower deck on the George Washington Bridge, connecting New Jersey and Upper Manhattan, had not been built until thirty-one years after the bridge's 1931 opening.[131] The new six-lane deck opened on June 28, 1969.[132] Originally, the Verrazano Bridge's Brooklyn end was also supposed to connect to the planned Cross-Brooklyn Expressway, New York State Route 878, and JFK Airport, but the Cross-Brooklyn Expressway project was canceled in 1969.[133]","Bosphorus Bridge Upon its completion in 1973, the Bosphorus Bridge had the fourth-longest suspension bridge span in the world, and the longest outside the United States (only the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, Golden Gate Bridge and Mackinac Bridge had a longer span in 1973).[3][4] The Bosphorus Bridge remained the longest suspension bridge in Europe until the completion of the Humber Bridge in 1981, and the longest suspension bridge in Asia until the completion of the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (Second Bosphorus Bridge) in 1988 (which was surpassed by the Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge in 1989). Currently, the Bosphorus Bridge has the 25th-longest suspension bridge span in the world.","Millau Viaduct The competition was relaunched: five combinations of architects and structural engineers, drawn from the best candidates of the first phase, were formed; each was to conduct in-depth studies of one of the general designs. On 15 July 1996, Bernard Pons, minister of Public Works, announced the decision of the jury, which was constituted of elected artists and experts, and chaired by Christian Leyrit, the director of highways. The solution of a multiple-span viaduct cable-stayed bridge, presented by the structural engineering group Sogelerg, Europe Etudes Gecti and Serf, and the architects Foster + Partners was declared the best.[citation needed]","Suspension bridge The first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacob's Creek Bridge (1801) in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley.[7] Finley's bridge was the first to incorporate all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge, including a suspended deck which hung by trusses. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810.[8]","Brooklyn Bridge At the time the bridge was built, engineers had not yet discovered the aerodynamics of bridge construction. Bridges were not tested in wind tunnels until the 1950s, well after the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, known as Galloping Gertie, in 1940. It is therefore fortunate that the open truss structure supporting the deck is by its nature less subject to aerodynamic problems. Roebling designed a bridge and truss system that was six times as strong as he thought it needed to be. Because of this, the Brooklyn Bridge is still standing when many of the bridges built around the same time have vanished or been replaced. This is also in spite of the substitution of inferior quality wire in the cabling supplied by the contractor J. Lloyd Haigh—by the time it was discovered, it was too late to replace the cabling that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge four rather than six times as strong as necessary, so it was eventually allowed to stand, with the addition of 250 cables.","Scaffolding With the advancements in metallurgy throughout the early 20th century. Saw the introduction of tubular steel water pipes (instead of timber poles) with standardized dimensions, allowing for the industrial interchangeability of parts and improving the structural stability of the scaffold. The use of diagonal bracings also helped to improve stability, especially on tall buildings. The first frame system was brought to market by SGB in 1944 and was used extensively for the postwar reconstruction.[6]","Footbridge Since the early 1980s, several charities have developed manualized footbridge designs that are sustainable for use in developing countries. The first charity to develop such standardized designs was Helvetas, located in Zurich, Switzerland.[6] Designs that can be sustainably and efficiently used in developing countries are typically made available to the public gratis.\nThe number of bridges built using such wire rope technology in developing countries number over 6,000 (versus a worldwide need of 500,000.[citation needed]","New Tappan Zee Bridge When completed, the new Tappan Zee Bridge will be one of the widest cable-stay bridges on the planet, with a combined deck width across both decks of almost 184 feet (56 m)—barely one foot (30 cm) wider than the relatively \"short-span\", cable-stayed Leonard Zakim Bridge in downtown Boston, Massachusetts, itself already 183 feet wide.[27] Turkey's 3rd Bosphorus bridge, completed in 2016, has been built with a single deck almost 194 feet (59 m) wide, and the Tappan Zee Bridge will also be one of the longest cable-stayed spans in the nation.[28]","History of television With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.[134][135] A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to swichover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for cord cutters.","San Mateo–Hayward Bridge Work on the western highrise span was bid in October 1964[30] and commenced in 1965. It crosses a shipping channel, with an orthotropic main span that is 750 feet (229 m) long (at the time, the longest girder span in the United States)[14][29][30] and has a vertical clearance of 135 feet (41 m).[2] The main span is flanked by two orthotropic back spans which are each 375 feet (114 m) long, and there are seven orthotropic side spans on the approach to each back span. Each of these side spans are 292 feet (89 m) long.[21] Although these spans appear to be formed from continuous box girders, they consist of alternating anchor spans and suspended spans. Anchor spans rest on top of two adjacent piers and cantilever over each side slightly, and suspended spans are hung between the ends of two adjacent anchor spans.[24] There are an additional nine 208-foot (63 m) steel spans carrying a concrete deck on the San Mateo side of the highrise, and ten steel spans carrying a concrete deck on the Hayward side, ranging from 186–208 feet (57–63 m).[29] The bridge carries about 93,000 cars and other vehicles on a typical day, almost double its original projected design capacity of 50,000 vehicles per day.[30]","Suspension bridge The first wire-cable suspension bridge was the Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1816), a modest and temporary footbridge built following the collapse of James Finley's nearby Chain Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1808). The footbridge's span was 124 m, although its deck was only 0.45 m wide.","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) However, according to Eldridge, \"Eastern consulting engineers\"—by which Eldridge meant Leon Moisseiff, the noted New York bridge engineer who served as designer and consultant engineer for the Golden Gate Bridge—petitioned the PWA and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to build the bridge for less. Moisseiff and Frederick Lienhard, the latter an engineer with what was then known as the Port of New York Authority, had published a paper[4] that was probably the most important theoretical advance in the bridge engineering field of the decade.[5] Their theory of elastic distribution extended the deflection theory that was originally devised by the Austrian engineer Josef Melan to horizontal bending under static wind load. They showed that the stiffness of the main cables (via the suspenders) would absorb up to one-half of the static wind pressure pushing a suspended structure laterally. This energy would then be transmitted to the anchorages and towers.[5] Using this theory, Moisseiff argued for stiffening the bridge with a set of eight-foot-deep (2.4 m) plate girders rather than the 25 feet (7.6 m)-deep trusses proposed by the Washington Toll Bridge Authority. This approach meant a slimmer, more elegant design, and also reduced the construction costs as compared with the Highway Department's design proposed by Eldridge. Moisseiff's design won out, inasmuch as the other proposal was considered to be too expensive. On June 23, 1938, the PWA approved nearly $6 million for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Another $1.6 million was to be collected from tolls to cover the estimated total $8 million cost.","Prestressed concrete Of the wide range of alternative methods and materials that are available for the construction of bridges, concrete remains the most popular structural material, and prestressed concrete in particular is frequently adopted.[33][34]","Suspension bridge Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge (1817) and 137 m Union Bridge (1820), with spans rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge (1826), \"the first important modern suspension bridge\".[9] The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, Germany. The Clifton Suspension Bridge (designed in 1831, completed in 1864 with a 214 m central span) is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type. The current Marlow suspension bridge was designed by William Tierney Clark and was built between 1829 and 1832, replacing a wooden bridge further downstream which collapsed in 1828. It is the only suspension bridge across the non-tidal Thames. The Széchenyi Chain Bridge, spanning the River Danube in Budapest, was also designed by William Clark and it is a larger scale version of Marlow bridge.[10]","Suspension bridge Assuming a negligible weight as compared to the weight of the deck and vehicles being supported, the main cables of a suspension bridge will form a parabola (very similar to a catenary, the form the unloaded cables take before the deck is added). One can see the shape from the constant increase of the gradient of the cable with linear (deck) distance, this increase in gradient at each connection with the deck providing a net upward support force. Combined with the relatively simple constraints placed upon the actual deck, this makes the suspension bridge much simpler to design and analyze than a cable-stayed bridge, where the deck is in compression.","Millau Viaduct In the 1980s, high levels of road traffic near Millau in the Tarn valley were causing congestion, especially in the summer due to holiday traffic on the route from Paris to Spain. A method of bypassing Millau had long been considered, not only to ease the flow and reduce journey times for long distance traffic, but also to improve the quality of access to Millau for its local businesses and residents. One of the solutions considered was the construction of a road bridge to span the river and gorge valley.[11] The first plans for a bridge were discussed in 1987 by CETE, and by October 1991 the decision was made to build a high crossing of the Tarn by a structure of around 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) in length. During 1993–1994, the government consulted with seven architects and eight structural engineers. During 1995–1996, a second definition study was made by five associated architect groups and structural engineers. In January 1995, the government issued a declaration of public interest to solicit design approaches for a competition.[12]","Transport After World War II (1939–1945) the automobile and airlines took higher shares of transport, reducing rail and water to freight and short-haul passenger services.[3] Scientific spaceflight began in the 1950s, with rapid growth until the 1970s, when interest dwindled. In the 1950s the introduction of containerization gave massive efficiency gains in freight transport, fostering globalization.[4] International air travel became much more accessible in the 1960s with the commercialization of the jet engine. Along with the growth in automobiles and motorways, rail and water transport declined in relative importance. After the introduction of the Shinkansen in Japan in 1964, high-speed rail in Asia and Europe started attracting passengers on long-haul routes away from the airlines.[3]","Carbon fiber reinforced polymer Retrofitting has become the increasingly dominant use of the material in civil engineering, and applications include increasing the load capacity of old structures (such as bridges) that were designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing today, seismic retrofitting, and repair of damaged structures. Retrofitting is popular in many instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed its strengthening using CFRP.[23]","Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge Although the Suspension Bridge proved that the suspension system could be safely used to carry railroads, no more suspension railway bridges were built. The outbreak of the American Civil War diverted attention from such civil engineering ventures,[79] and by the time attention was paid to building bridges again, cantilever bridges were in vogue for railway bridges.[80] Regardless, the Suspension Bridge's success made it a model for suspension railway bridges. When the city of Quebec called for a structure to span the St. Lawrence River in 1850, it looked to the Suspension Bridge for inspiration.[81] Seventeen years later, the British journal Engineering called for a suspension railway to bridge the Straits of Messina and also referred to Roebling's bridge.[82] Lastly, Stuart opened his 1871 work on the history of American engineering, Lives and Works of Civil and Military Engineering in America, with an illustration of the bridge.[76]","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was the first to be built with girders of carbon steel anchored in concrete blocks; preceding designs typically had open lattice beam trusses underneath the roadbed. This bridge was the first of its type to employ plate girders (pairs of deep I-beams) to support the roadbed. With the earlier designs, any wind would simply pass through the truss, but in the new design the wind would be diverted above and below the structure. Shortly after construction finished at the end of June (opened to traffic on July 1, 1940), it was discovered that the bridge would sway and buckle dangerously in relatively mild windy conditions that are common for the area, and worse during severe winds. This vibration was transverse, one-half of the central span rising while the other lowered. Drivers would see cars approaching from the other direction rise and fall, riding the violent energy wave through the bridge. However, at that time the mass of the bridge was considered to be sufficient to keep it structurally sound.","Iron Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative first iron bridge in 1778. This bridge still stands today as a monument to the role iron played in the Industrial Revolution. Following this, iron was used in rails, boats, ships, aqueducts, and buildings, as well as in iron cylinders in steam engines.[115] Railways have been central to the formation of modernity and ideas of progress[116] and various languages (e.g. French, Spanish, Italien and German) refer to railways as iron road.","Yangtze The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge, between Nantong and Suzhou, was one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world when it was completed in 2008.","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) The Bronx Whitestone Bridge, which is of similar design to the 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge, was reinforced shortly after the collapse. Fourteen-foot-high (4.3 m) steel trusses were installed on both sides of the deck in 1943 to weigh down and stiffen the bridge in an effort to reduce oscillation. In 2003, the stiffening trusses were removed and aerodynamic fiberglass fairings were installed along both sides of the road deck.","Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Half a century later, the replacement bridge exceeded its traffic capacity, and a second, parallel suspension bridge was constructed to carry eastbound traffic. The suspension bridge that was completed in 1950 was reconfigured to carry only westbound traffic. The new parallel bridge opened to traffic in July 2007.","Greenville Bridge A 1994 engineering study by the Mississippi Department of Transportation explored alternatives to upgrading the crossing of US 82 and issued a report that explored a four-lane crossing at Greenville. It concluded the best of several alternatives it identified was to build a new bridge 0.5 miles (0.80 km) downriver from the old one, and to remove the old bridge. Additional studies evaluated the type of bridge to build, and by 1995 the cable-stayed bridge was chosen as the best design to fit the river and soil conditions, as well as providing sufficient clearance for river navigation. Engineering plans were completed in 1999.[1]","West Gate Bridge Construction resumed in 1972, with the bridge being completed in 1978. After 10 years of construction, the bridge, a part of the larger West Gate Freeway, cost $202 million.[1]","Golden Gate Bridge In May 1987, as part of the 50th anniversary celebration, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross the bridge. However, this celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight.[36] Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40% of the yielding stress of the suspension cables,[37] bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012,[38][39][40] because of the additional law enforcement costs required \"since 9/11\".[41]","Chesapeake Bay Bridge In 1967, due to increasing traffic volumes, the Maryland General Assembly authorized three possible new crossings, all suggested during the 1964 Chesapeake Bay crossing study.[4] These included one further north near Baltimore, one in southern Maryland, and an additional span to be added to the existing bridge from Kent Island to Sandy Point; ultimately, the third option was chosen. Construction of the new parallel span began in 1969 to the north of the original bridge, and it was completed on June 28, 1973.[7]","Clifton Suspension Bridge It has been argued that the size and technology of these revisions was so great that the credit for its design should go to Barlow and Hawkshaw.[31] The towers remained in rough stone, rather than being finished in the Egyptian style. Work on the bridge was restarted in 1862. Initially a temporary bridge was created by pulling ropes across the gorge and making a footway of wire ropes with wood planks held together with iron hoops. This was used by the workers to move a \"traveller\", consisting of a light frame on wheels, to transport each link individually, which would eventually make up the chains supporting the bridge.[32] The chains are anchored in tapering tunnels, 25 metres (82 ft) long,[33] on either side of the bridge and plugs of Staffordshire blue brick infilled to prevent the chains being pulled out of the narrower tunnel mouth. After completion of the chains, vertical suspension rods were hung from the links in the chains and large girders hung from these. The girders on either side then support the deck, which is 3 feet (0.91 m) higher at the Clifton end than at Leigh Woods so that it gives the impression of being horizontal. The strength of the structure was tested by spreading 500 tons of stone over the bridge. This caused it to sag by 7 inches (180 mm), but within the expected tolerances.[34] During this time a tunnel was driven through the rocks on the Leigh Woods side beneath the bridge to carry the Bristol Port Railway to Avonmouth.[32] The construction work was completed in 1864–111 years after a bridge at the site was first planned.[35]","Modernism However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s,[23] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[24] and King's Cross station (1852).[25] These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric telegraph from 1837,[26] and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.[27]","San Mateo–Hayward Bridge The new span won two prizes in 1968: an ASCE Award for Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement[19] and an American Institute of Steel Construction long-span prize bridge award.[1]","St. Petersburg, Florida In the 1950s, St. Petersburg experienced another population increase with residents. The development of transportation was important with the increase of tourists, more automobiles were used in the city and subsequently the public street cars were removed.[11] In 1954 the original Sunshine Skyway Bridge opened its first span to link St. Petersburg with Manatee County. A year later in 1955, Highway 19 opened in the city creating a large influx of traffic. By the end of the 1950s, tourists and retirees increased in the area.[39][40]","Suspension bridge The Otto Beit Bridge (1938–39) was the first modern suspension bridge outside the United States built with parallel wire cables.[13]","Suspension bridge Drawing of the Chakzam bridge south of Lhasa, constructed in 1430, with cables suspended between towers, and vertical suspender cables carrying the weight of a planked footway below.","Suspension bridge In the United States, the first major wire-cable suspension bridge was the Wire Bridge at Fairmount in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Designed by Charles Ellet, Jr. and completed in 1842, it had a span of 109 m. Ellet's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge (1847–48) was abandoned before completion. It was used as scaffolding for John A. Roebling's double decker railroad and carriage bridge (1855).","1980s The 1980s was the decade of transformation in television. Cable television became more accessible and therefore, more popular. By the middle of the decade, almost 70% of the American population had cable television and over 85% were paying for cable services such as HBO or Showtime.[27] People who lived in rural areas where cable TV service was not available could still access cable channels through a large (and expensive) satellite dish, which, by the mid-1990s, was phased out in favor of the small rooftop dishes that offer DirecTV and Dish Network services."],"string":"[\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th. Early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, and shorter ones using various systems built of reinforced concrete. It once again rose to prominence in the later 20th century when the combination of new materials, larger construction machinery, and the need to replace older bridges all lowered the relative price of these designs.[1]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge The earliest known surviving example of a true cable-stayed bridge in the United States is E.E. Runyon's largely intact steel or iron Bluff Dale Suspension bridge with wooden stringers and decking in Bluff Dale, Texas (1890), or his weeks earlier but ruined Barton Creek Bridge between Huckabay, Texas and Gordon, Texas (1889 or 1890).[2][3] In the twentieth century, early examples of cable-stayed bridges included A. Gisclard's unusual Cassagnes bridge (1899),[4] in which the horizontal part of the cable forces is balanced by a separate horizontal tie cable, preventing significant compression in the deck, and G. Leinekugel le Coq's bridge[5] at Lézardrieux in Brittany (1924). Eduardo Torroja designed a cable-stayed aqueduct[6] at Tempul in 1926.[7] Albert Caquot's 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge[8] over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, but had little influence on later development.[7] The steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger (1955) is, therefore, more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Other key pioneers included Fabrizio de Miranda, Riccardo Morandi, and Fritz Leonhardt. Early bridges from this period used very few stay cables, as in the Theodor Heuss Bridge (1958). However, this involves substantial erection costs, and more modern structures tend to use many more cables to ensure greater economy.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Many early suspension bridges were cable-stayed construction, including the 1817 footbridge Dryburgh Abbey Bridge, James Dredge's patented Victoria Bridge, Bath (1836), and the later Albert Bridge (1872) and Brooklyn Bridge (1883). Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge. John A. Roebling took particular advantage of this to limit deformations due to railway loads in the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge.\",\n \"List of longest cable-stayed bridge spans Many early suspension bridges were cable-stayed construction, including the 1817 footbridge Dryburgh Abbey Bridge, James Dredge's patented Victoria Bridge, Bath (1836), and the later Albert Bridge, London (1872), and Brooklyn Bridge (1883). Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge. Albert Caquot's 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, but had little influence on later development.[52] The steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger (1956) is therefore more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge.[53]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables which run directly from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines. This is in contrast to the modern suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the deck are suspended vertically from the main cable, anchored at both ends of the bridge and running between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range where cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be more economical if the span were shortened.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Far more radical in its structure, the Puente del Alamillo (1992) uses a single cantilever spar on one side of the span, with cables on one side only to support the bridge deck. Unlike other cable-stayed types, this bridge exerts considerable overturning force upon its foundation and the spar must resist the bending caused by the cables, as the cable forces are not balanced by opposing cables. The spar of this particular bridge forms the gnomon of a large garden sundial. Related bridges by the architect Santiago Calatrava include the Puente de la Mujer (2001), Sundial Bridge (2004), Chords Bridge (2008), and Assut de l'Or Bridge (2008).\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge In a 2-span or 3-span cable-stayed bridge, the loads from the main spans are normally anchored back near the end abutments by stays in the end spans. For more spans, this is not the case and the bridge structure is less stiff overall. This can create difficulties in both the design of the deck and the pylons. Examples of multiple-span structures in which this is the case include Ting Kau Bridge, where additional 'cross-bracing' stays are used to stabilise the pylons; Millau Viaduct and Mezcala Bridge, where twin-legged towers are used; and General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge, where very stiff multi-legged frame towers were adopted. A similar situation with a suspension bridge is found at both the Great Seto Bridge and San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge where additional anchorage piers are required after every set of three suspension spans – this solution can also be adapted for cable-stayed bridges.[12]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge A cradle system carries the strands within the stays from the bridge deck to bridge deck, as a continuous element, eliminating anchorages in the pylons. Each epoxy-coated steel strand is carried inside the cradle in a one-inch (2.54 cm) steel tube. Each strand acts independently, allowing for removal, inspection, and replacement of individual strands. The first two such bridges are the Penobscot Narrows Bridge, completed in 2006, and the Veterans' Glass City Skyway, completed in 2007.[13]\",\n \"Blue Water Bridge In 1992, it was determined that traffic on the bridge had exceeded its rated capacity,[8][9] so bridge authorities decided to add a second span in order to accommodate the higher traffic. During the debate over the form of the second span, five possible designs were proposed from 1994–1995. Over half of public opinion had mostly favored a duplicate of the first bridge, while the cable-stayed bridge came in second with around 21%. The Blue Water Bridge Authority had rejected both designs, due to the duplicate creating a false sense of history, while the cable-stayed option was feared to overshadow the existing bridge. Another cost-effective but unpopular design was the parallel truss. The continuous-tied arch design, which was a distant third place in polls, was chosen for two reasons. One was that it blends in with the original span yet stands out on its own, and the other is lower maintenance costs because fewer spans are involved.\",\n \"Suspension bridge Development of wire-cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. It spanned only 18 m.[12] The first permanent wire cable suspension bridge was Guillaume Henri Dufour's Saint Antoine Bridge in Geneva of 1823, with two 40 m spans.[12] The first with cables assembled in mid-air in the modern method was Joseph Chaley's Grand Pont Suspendu in Fribourg, in 1834.[12]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge In the cable-stayed bridge, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures which transmit the bridge loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is often used to support the bridge deck near the towers, but lengths further from them are supported by cables running directly to the towers. This has the disadvantage, compared to the suspension bridge, that the cables pull to the sides as opposed to directly up, requiring the bridge deck to be stronger to resist the resulting horizontal compression loads; but has the advantage of not requiring firm anchorages to resist the horizontal pull of the main cables of the suspension bridge. By design all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are balanced so that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide, needing only to resist horizontal forces from the live loads.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges with more than three spans involve significantly more challenging designs than do 2-span or 3-span structures.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Depending on the design, the columns may be vertical or angled or curved relative to the bridge deck.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges may appear to be similar to suspension bridges, but in fact, they are quite different in principle and in their construction.\",\n \"Suspension bridge Most suspension bridges have open truss structures to support the roadbed, particularly owing to the unfavorable effects of using plate girders, discovered from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) bridge collapse. Recent[when?] developments in bridge aerodynamics have allowed the re-introduction of plate structures first seen on the Severn bridge built in the 1960s. In the picture of the Yichang Bridge, note the very sharp entry edge and sloping undergirders in the suspension bridge shown. This enables this type of construction to be used without the danger of vortex shedding and consequent aeroelastic effects, such as those that destroyed the original Tacoma Narrows bridge.\",\n \"Steel building Steel buildings first gained popularity in the early 20th century. Their use became more widespread during World War II and significantly expanded after the war when steel became more available. Steel buildings have been widely accepted, in part due to cost efficiency. The range of application has expanded with improved materials, products and design capabilities with the availability of computer aided design software.[citation needed]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge In suspension bridges, large main cables (normally two) hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground. This can be difficult to implement when ground conditions are poor. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, bear the load of the bridge deck. Before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, which is lifted in sections. As this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the main cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages and by downwards tug on the towers.\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) A key consequence was that suspension bridges reverted to a deeper and heavier truss design, including the replacement Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1950), until the development in the 1960s of box girder bridges with an aerofoil shape such as the Severn Bridge, which gave the necessary stiffness together with reduced torsional forces.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge A side-spar cable-stayed bridge uses a central tower supported on only one side. This design allows the construction of a curved bridge.\",\n \"List of longest cable-stayed bridge spans Cable-stayed bridges have the second-longest spans, after suspension bridges, of bridge types. They are practical for spans up to around 1 kilometre (0.6 mi). The Russky Bridge over the eastern Bosphorus in Vladivostok, Russia, with its 1,104 metres (3,622 ft) span has the largest span of any cable-stayed bridge, displacing the former record holder, the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in the People's Republic of China 1,088 metres (3,570 ft) on 12 April 2012.[1]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridge, fan design\",\n \"Suspension bridge The main suspension cables in older bridges were often made from chain or linked bars, but modern bridge cables are made from multiple strands of wire. This not only adds strength but improves reliability (often called redundancy in engineering terms) because the failure of a few flawed strands in the hundreds used pose very little threat of failure, whereas a single bad link or eyebar can cause failure of an entire bridge. (The failure of a single eyebar was found to be the cause of the collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River.) Another reason is that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into position, whereas wire strand cables can be formulated one by one in mid-air from a temporary walkway.\",\n \"Suspension bridge A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 19th century.[3][4] Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.\",\n \"I-35W Mississippi River bridge Construction on the bridge began in 1964 and the structure was completed and opened to traffic in 1967 [24][25] during an era of large-scale projects to build the Twin Cities freeway system.[26] When the bridge fell, it was still the most recent river crossing built on a new site in Minneapolis.[27] After the building boom ebbed during the 1970s, infrastructure management shifted toward inspection and maintenance.[26][28]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge There are also four arrangements for support columns: single, double, portal and A-shaped.[9]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Key advantages of the cable-stayed form are as follows:\",\n \"Yangtze Bridge-building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing-Jiujiang Railway. A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable-stayed bridges in the world on the Yangtze Delta: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze.\",\n \"Suspension bridge Typical suspension bridges are constructed using a sequence generally described as follows. Depending on length and size, construction may take anywhere between a year and a half (construction on the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge took only 19 months) up to as long as a decade (the Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge's construction began in May 1986 and was opened in May 1998 – a total of twelve years).\",\n \"Millau Viaduct In July 1996 the jury decided in favour of a cable-stayed design with multiple spans, as proposed by the Sogelerg consortium led by Michel Virlogeux and Norman Foster. The decision to proceed by grant of contract was made in May 1998; then in June 2000, the contest for the construction contract was launched, open to four consortia. In March 2001, Eiffage established the subsidiary Compagnie Eiffage du Viaduc de Millau (CEVM), and was declared winner of the contest and awarded the prime contract in August.[13][1]\",\n \"Brooklyn Bridge Since opening, the Brooklyn Bridge has become an icon of New York City, ranking among the city's most popular tourist attractions. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964[7][9][10] and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.[11]\",\n \"The Causeway Plans to build a new bridge at The Narrows downstream from the Causeway in the aftermath of World War II were put on hold while a new Causeway could be constructed.[21] Vehicle traffic using the Causeway had almost doubled between 1930 and 1939.[18]\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge A self-anchored suspension bridge has some similarity in principle to the cable-stayed type in that tension forces that prevent the deck from dropping are converted into compression forces vertically in the tower and horizontally along the deck structure. It is also related to the suspension bridge in having arcuate main cables with suspender cables, although the self-anchored type lacks the heavy cable anchorages of the ordinary suspension bridge. Unlike either a cable-stayed bridge or a suspension bridge, the self-anchored suspension bridge must be supported by falsework during construction and so it is more expensive to construct.\",\n \"Millau Viaduct Since opening in 2004, the deck height of Millau has been surpassed by several suspension bridges in China, including Sidu River Bridge, Baling River Bridge, and two spans (Beipan River Guanxing Highway Bridge and Beipan River Hukun Expressway Bridge) over the Beipan River. In 2012, Mexico's Baluarte Bridge surpassed Millau as the world's highest cable-stayed bridge. The Royal Gorge suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Colorado is also higher, with a bridge deck approximately 291 metres (955 ft) over the Arkansas River.[citation needed]\",\n \"Sydney Harbour Bridge Under the direction of Dr John Bradfield of the NSW Department of Public Works, the bridge was designed and built by British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd of Middlesbrough and opened in 1932.[4][5] The bridge's design was influenced by the Hell Gate Bridge in New York City.[6] It is the sixth longest spanning-arch bridge in the world and the tallest steel arch bridge, measuring 134 m (440 ft) from top to water level.[7] It was also the world's widest long-span bridge, at 48.8 m (160 ft) wide, until construction of the new Port Mann Bridge in Vancouver was completed in 2012.[8][9]\",\n \"New River Gorge Bridge Construction began on the bridge in June 1974, and was completed on October 22, 1977. The bridge was designed by the Michael Baker Company under the direction of Chief Engineer Clarence V. Knudsen, and executed by U.S. Steel's American Bridge Division. The final cost of construction was $37 million (approximately $4 million over bid). It is made from COR-TEN steel. The use of COR-TEN in construction presented several challenges; notable among them was ensuring that the weld points weathered at the same rate as the rest of the steel.[6]\",\n \"Second Severn Crossing The cable-stayed section of the crossing is over 1,044.7 metres (3,427.5 ft) long, consisting of a 34.6 metres (113.5 ft) wide deck made from steel plate girders with a composite reinforced concrete slab. These were prefabricated on shore and put in place using balanced cantilever methods. There are two high twin-leg, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete pylons carrying 240 cables which support the bridge deck, rising to a height of 149 metres (489 ft) above the river bed or 101 metres (331 ft) above the bridge deck. Cable vibrations were experienced during construction and secondary cables were added to eliminate this. To avoid detracting from the aesthetics of the primary cables, the secondary cables are very slender and are not very noticeable.[13]\",\n \"San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge The series of lights adorning the suspension cables was added in 1986 as part of the bridge's 50th-anniversary celebration.[42]\",\n \"Royal Gorge Bridge Since late 2016, the highest bridge is China's Beipanjiang Bridge Duge, which has a cable-stayed span with a deck height of 1,854 ft (565 m).[10][18] The current highest suspension bridge is China's Sidu River Bridge opened in 2009 with a deck height of 1,627 ft (496 m).[10]\",\n \"Bridges of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh's first river bridges, made of wood and long since replaced, opened in 1818 at Smithfield Street and 1819 at Sixth Street (then St. Clair Street). The city's oldest in-service bridge is the current Smithfield Street Bridge, which opened in 1883; it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.[5] Pittsburgh waged a massive road and bridge building campaign from 1924 to 1940; most of Pittsburgh's oldest major bridges date from this period. The coming of the Interstate Highway System triggered more construction in the second half of the twentieth century, as vehicular speed and throughput requirements increased. The result of more than 100 years of bridge building is a collection of most of the major types of bridge (suspension, cantilever, arch, etc.), mostly built from locally produced steel, including about forty river spans.\",\n \"Cable-stayed bridge There are four major classes of rigging on cable-stayed bridges: mono, harp, fan, and star.[9]\",\n \"Dames Point Bridge It remains is one of the largest cable-stayed bridges built in the United States[2][3] having 21 miles (34 km) of cable.[2]\",\n \"Humber Bridge Cable spinning took place between September 1977 and July 1979. Each cable weighs 5,500 tonnes, with 37 strands of 404 lengths of cable. The cable on the northern span has four extra strands. Each cable can take a load of 19,400 tonnes. The box sections weighed around 140 tonnes each. The first box sections were assembled in June 1975, and put into the main span on 9 November 1979. The toll buildings and north approach road were built by A.F. Budge of Retford, Nottinghamshire, costing £2.9 million. Work began on the administration building in November 1976. The toll system was manufactured by Plessey Controls of Poole, Dorset. Corrosion resistance on the steelwork was provided by Camrex Corrosion of Bellshill, North Lanarkshire.\",\n \"Viaduct The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed road-bridge that spans the valley of the river Tarn near Millau in southern France. Designed by the French bridge engineer Michel Virlogeux, in collaboration with architect Norman Robert Foster, it is the tallest vehicular bridge in the world, with one pier's summit at 343 metres (1,125 ft)—slightly taller than the Eiffel Tower and only 38 m (125 ft) shorter than the Empire State Building. It was formally dedicated on 14 December 2004 and opened to traffic two days later. The viaduct Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge in China is the longest bridge in the world according to Guinness World Records as of 2011[update].[9]\",\n \"Brooklyn Bridge In 1964, the bridge was designated a National Historic Landmark, having become an icon of New York City since its opening,[9][10] and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.[11]\",\n \"Arch Gateshead Millennium Bridge over the River Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, UK (2005)\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Since the structure experienced considerable vertical oscillations while it was still under construction, several strategies were used to reduce the motion of the bridge. They included[7]\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) The cable anchorages, tower pedestals and most of the remaining substructure were relatively undamaged in the collapse, and were reused during construction of the replacement span that opened in 1950. The towers, which supported Gertie's main cables and road deck, suffered major damage at their bases from being deflected twelve feet towards shore as a result of the collapse of the mainspan and the sagging of the sidespans. They were dismantled, and the steel sent to recyclers.\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge By 1990, population growth and development on the Kitsap Peninsula caused traffic on the bridge to exceed its design capacity; as a result, in 1998 Washington voters approved a measure to support building a parallel bridge. After a series of protests and court battles, construction began in 2002 and the new bridge opened to carry eastbound traffic on July 16 , 2007, while the 1950 bridge was reconfigured to carry westbound traffic.\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Following the collapse, the United States' involvement in World War II delayed plans to replace the bridge. The portions of the bridge still standing after the collapse, including the towers and cables, were dismantled and sold as scrap metal. Nearly 10 years after the collapse, a new Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened in the same location, using the original bridge's tower pedestals and cable anchorages. The portion of the bridge that fell into the water now serves as an artificial reef.\",\n \"Rainbow Bridge (Texas) In 1988, construction began on the Veterans Memorial Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge. This bridge runs parallel to the Rainbow Bridge, and was dedicated on September 8, 1990.[3] With a vertical clearance of 143 feet (43.5 m), the bridge is somewhat shorter than its neighbor.[4]\",\n \"Øresund Bridge Construction began in 1995, with the bridge opening to traffic on 1 July 2000. The Øresund Bridge received the 2002 IABSE Outstanding Structure Award.\",\n \"Tappan Zee Bridge (2017–present) When completed, the new Tappan Zee Bridge will be one of the widest cable-stayed bridges in the world, having a combined width across both decks of 183 feet (56 m).[2] The new spans will equal the width of the relatively short-span, cable-stayed Leonard Zakim Bridge in downtown Boston.[23] Turkey's 3rd Bosphorus bridge, completed in 2016, has a single deck about 192 feet (59 m) wide. The new Tappan Zee Bridge will also be one of the longest cable-stayed spans in the nation.[2][not in citation given]\",\n \"Suspension bridge In an underspanned suspension bridge, the main cables hang entirely below the bridge deck, but are still anchored into the ground in a similar way to the conventional type. Very few bridges of this nature have been built, as the deck is inherently less stable than when suspended below the cables. Examples include the Pont des Bergues of 1834 designed by Guillaume Henri Dufour;[12] James Smith's Micklewood Bridge;[14] and a proposal by Robert Stevenson for a bridge over the River Almond near Edinburgh.[14]\",\n \"Yangtze The cable-stayed Anqing Yangtze River Bridge at Anqing, was completed in 2005.\",\n \"Skyscraper Architecturally, with the movements of Postmodernism, New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture, that established since the 1980s, a more classical approach came back to global skyscraper design, that remains popular today.[51] Examples are the Wells Fargo Center, NBC Tower, Parkview Square, 30 Park Place, the Messeturm, the iconic Petronas Towers and Jin Mao Tower.\",\n \"Forth Bridge The bridge was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel;[26] its French contemporary, the Eiffel Tower, was built of wrought iron.[27]\\nLarge amounts of steel became available after the invention of the Bessemer process, patented in 1856.[28] In 1859, the Board of Trade imposed a limit of 77.55 N/mm2 (11,248 psi) for the maximum design stress in railway bridges; this was revised as technology progressed.[29]\",\n \"Truss The Pratt truss was patented in 1844 by two Boston railway engineers,[17] Caleb Pratt and his son Thomas Willis Pratt.[18] The design uses vertical members for compression and diagonal members to respond to tension. The Pratt truss design remained popular as bridge designers switched from wood to iron, and from iron to steel.[19] This continued popularity of the Pratt truss is probably due to the fact that the configuration of the members means that longer diagonal members are only in tension for gravity load effects. This allows these members to be used more efficiently, as slenderness effects related to buckling under compression loads (which are compounded by the length of the member) will typically not control the design. Therefore, for given planar truss with a fixed depth, the Pratt configuration is usually the most efficient under static, vertical loading.\",\n \"Severn Bridge During its 40th year of operation in 2006, the bridge was inspected to check for corrosion of the suspension cables. According to the Highways Agency,[10] the inspection concluded that the bridge needed restrictions on heavy goods vehicles.[11] Such vehicles are now restricted to one lane on the bridge, with weight restriction signs in place. A system of installing a rubber casing on the cables with dry air circulation is to be used on the Forth Road Bridge and a similar system may be implemented on the Severn Bridge, in a move to halt the progress of the corrosion.[12] The work of installing the rubber casing to the cables was carried out in the years 2007 - 2009 by the Spencer Bridge company using technology developed by D.S. Brown and Base Structures Ltd of Bristol. The same cable saving technology has been used around the world to lengthen the service life of suspension bridges.[citation needed]\",\n \"Suspension bridge Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct (begun 1847) consists of three sections supported by cables. The timber structure essentially hides the cables; and from a quick view, it is not immediately apparent that it is even a suspension bridge.\",\n \"List of bridges of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh's first river bridges, made of wood and long since replaced, opened in 1818 at Smithfield Street and 1819 at Sixth Street (then St. Clair Street). The city's oldest in-service bridge is the current Smithfield Street Bridge, which opened in 1883; it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.[5] Pittsburgh waged a massive road and bridge building campaign from 1924 to 1940; most of Pittsburgh's oldest major bridges date from this period. The coming of the Interstate Highway System triggered more construction in the second half of the twentieth century, as vehicular speed and throughput requirements increased. The result of more than 100 years of bridge building is a collection of most of the major types of bridge (suspension, cantilever, arch, etc.), mostly built from locally produced steel, including about forty river spans.\",\n \"The Causeway The current Causeway bridges were designed by E W C Godfrey, and built between 1947 and 1952. They were the first in Western Australia to use steel composite construction. Large roundabouts were also constructed at each end of the structure, to improve the flow of traffic. The opening of the Graham Farmer Freeway in 2000 reduced the traffic volume on the Causeway, allowing the two central lanes to be turned into bus lanes. By the early 2000s, the concrete structures had suffered significant damage. Cracks were repaired using carbon fibre reinforcement and localised patching, extending the bridge's life by decades. The Causeway bridges have been recognised for their heritage value by their entry on the Western Australian Register of Heritage Places.\",\n \"The Causeway The bridges were the \\\"first truly modern bridges\\\" built in Perth after World War II, being the first bridges in Western Australia to use steel composite construction, and only the second (and third) in Australia.[22] The bridges have a combined length of 1,119 feet (341 m), with both featuring a 62-foot-wide (19 m) roadway supporting six traffic lanes, and a footway 8 feet (2.4 m) wide on the western side of the bridges. In order to achieve a sufficiently high clearance above the river channels at high tide, the bridges have graded approaches that increase the roadway elevation.[18]\",\n \"Sunshine Skyway Bridge The present bridge replaced a steel cantilever bridge of the same name. The original two-lane bridge built by the Virginia Bridge Company was opened to traffic on September 6, 1954,[10][11] with a similar structure built parallel and to the west of it in 1969 to make it a four-lane bridge and bring it to Interstate Highway standards. Opening of the newer span was delayed until 1971 for reinforcing of the south main pier, which had cracked due to insufficient supporting pile depth.[12] The second span was used for all southbound traffic, while the original span was converted to carry northbound traffic.\",\n \"Verrazano-Narrows Bridge Although the bridge was constructed with only one 6-lane roadway, Ammann had made provisions for a second 6-lane deck below it, in the form of extra trusses.[129] These trusses, which were used to strengthen the bridge, were a design alteration that was added to many bridges in the aftermath of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse in 1940.[71]:45 The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge became so popular among motorists that in March 1969, the TBTA decided to erect the lower deck[130] at a cost of $22 million.[67]:1130 The Verrazano Bridge had not been expected to carry enough traffic to necessitate a second deck until 1978, but traffic patterns over the previous five years had demonstrate the need for extra bridge capacity. By contrast, a lower deck on the George Washington Bridge, connecting New Jersey and Upper Manhattan, had not been built until thirty-one years after the bridge's 1931 opening.[131] The new six-lane deck opened on June 28, 1969.[132] Originally, the Verrazano Bridge's Brooklyn end was also supposed to connect to the planned Cross-Brooklyn Expressway, New York State Route 878, and JFK Airport, but the Cross-Brooklyn Expressway project was canceled in 1969.[133]\",\n \"Bosphorus Bridge Upon its completion in 1973, the Bosphorus Bridge had the fourth-longest suspension bridge span in the world, and the longest outside the United States (only the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, Golden Gate Bridge and Mackinac Bridge had a longer span in 1973).[3][4] The Bosphorus Bridge remained the longest suspension bridge in Europe until the completion of the Humber Bridge in 1981, and the longest suspension bridge in Asia until the completion of the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (Second Bosphorus Bridge) in 1988 (which was surpassed by the Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge in 1989). Currently, the Bosphorus Bridge has the 25th-longest suspension bridge span in the world.\",\n \"Millau Viaduct The competition was relaunched: five combinations of architects and structural engineers, drawn from the best candidates of the first phase, were formed; each was to conduct in-depth studies of one of the general designs. On 15 July 1996, Bernard Pons, minister of Public Works, announced the decision of the jury, which was constituted of elected artists and experts, and chaired by Christian Leyrit, the director of highways. The solution of a multiple-span viaduct cable-stayed bridge, presented by the structural engineering group Sogelerg, Europe Etudes Gecti and Serf, and the architects Foster + Partners was declared the best.[citation needed]\",\n \"Suspension bridge The first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacob's Creek Bridge (1801) in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley.[7] Finley's bridge was the first to incorporate all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge, including a suspended deck which hung by trusses. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810.[8]\",\n \"Brooklyn Bridge At the time the bridge was built, engineers had not yet discovered the aerodynamics of bridge construction. Bridges were not tested in wind tunnels until the 1950s, well after the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, known as Galloping Gertie, in 1940. It is therefore fortunate that the open truss structure supporting the deck is by its nature less subject to aerodynamic problems. Roebling designed a bridge and truss system that was six times as strong as he thought it needed to be. Because of this, the Brooklyn Bridge is still standing when many of the bridges built around the same time have vanished or been replaced. This is also in spite of the substitution of inferior quality wire in the cabling supplied by the contractor J. Lloyd Haigh—by the time it was discovered, it was too late to replace the cabling that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge four rather than six times as strong as necessary, so it was eventually allowed to stand, with the addition of 250 cables.\",\n \"Scaffolding With the advancements in metallurgy throughout the early 20th century. Saw the introduction of tubular steel water pipes (instead of timber poles) with standardized dimensions, allowing for the industrial interchangeability of parts and improving the structural stability of the scaffold. The use of diagonal bracings also helped to improve stability, especially on tall buildings. The first frame system was brought to market by SGB in 1944 and was used extensively for the postwar reconstruction.[6]\",\n \"Footbridge Since the early 1980s, several charities have developed manualized footbridge designs that are sustainable for use in developing countries. The first charity to develop such standardized designs was Helvetas, located in Zurich, Switzerland.[6] Designs that can be sustainably and efficiently used in developing countries are typically made available to the public gratis.\\nThe number of bridges built using such wire rope technology in developing countries number over 6,000 (versus a worldwide need of 500,000.[citation needed]\",\n \"New Tappan Zee Bridge When completed, the new Tappan Zee Bridge will be one of the widest cable-stay bridges on the planet, with a combined deck width across both decks of almost 184 feet (56 m)—barely one foot (30 cm) wider than the relatively \\\"short-span\\\", cable-stayed Leonard Zakim Bridge in downtown Boston, Massachusetts, itself already 183 feet wide.[27] Turkey's 3rd Bosphorus bridge, completed in 2016, has been built with a single deck almost 194 feet (59 m) wide, and the Tappan Zee Bridge will also be one of the longest cable-stayed spans in the nation.[28]\",\n \"History of television With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.[134][135] A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to swichover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for cord cutters.\",\n \"San Mateo–Hayward Bridge Work on the western highrise span was bid in October 1964[30] and commenced in 1965. It crosses a shipping channel, with an orthotropic main span that is 750 feet (229 m) long (at the time, the longest girder span in the United States)[14][29][30] and has a vertical clearance of 135 feet (41 m).[2] The main span is flanked by two orthotropic back spans which are each 375 feet (114 m) long, and there are seven orthotropic side spans on the approach to each back span. Each of these side spans are 292 feet (89 m) long.[21] Although these spans appear to be formed from continuous box girders, they consist of alternating anchor spans and suspended spans. Anchor spans rest on top of two adjacent piers and cantilever over each side slightly, and suspended spans are hung between the ends of two adjacent anchor spans.[24] There are an additional nine 208-foot (63 m) steel spans carrying a concrete deck on the San Mateo side of the highrise, and ten steel spans carrying a concrete deck on the Hayward side, ranging from 186–208 feet (57–63 m).[29] The bridge carries about 93,000 cars and other vehicles on a typical day, almost double its original projected design capacity of 50,000 vehicles per day.[30]\",\n \"Suspension bridge The first wire-cable suspension bridge was the Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1816), a modest and temporary footbridge built following the collapse of James Finley's nearby Chain Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1808). The footbridge's span was 124 m, although its deck was only 0.45 m wide.\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) However, according to Eldridge, \\\"Eastern consulting engineers\\\"—by which Eldridge meant Leon Moisseiff, the noted New York bridge engineer who served as designer and consultant engineer for the Golden Gate Bridge—petitioned the PWA and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to build the bridge for less. Moisseiff and Frederick Lienhard, the latter an engineer with what was then known as the Port of New York Authority, had published a paper[4] that was probably the most important theoretical advance in the bridge engineering field of the decade.[5] Their theory of elastic distribution extended the deflection theory that was originally devised by the Austrian engineer Josef Melan to horizontal bending under static wind load. They showed that the stiffness of the main cables (via the suspenders) would absorb up to one-half of the static wind pressure pushing a suspended structure laterally. This energy would then be transmitted to the anchorages and towers.[5] Using this theory, Moisseiff argued for stiffening the bridge with a set of eight-foot-deep (2.4 m) plate girders rather than the 25 feet (7.6 m)-deep trusses proposed by the Washington Toll Bridge Authority. This approach meant a slimmer, more elegant design, and also reduced the construction costs as compared with the Highway Department's design proposed by Eldridge. Moisseiff's design won out, inasmuch as the other proposal was considered to be too expensive. On June 23, 1938, the PWA approved nearly $6 million for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Another $1.6 million was to be collected from tolls to cover the estimated total $8 million cost.\",\n \"Prestressed concrete Of the wide range of alternative methods and materials that are available for the construction of bridges, concrete remains the most popular structural material, and prestressed concrete in particular is frequently adopted.[33][34]\",\n \"Suspension bridge Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge (1817) and 137 m Union Bridge (1820), with spans rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge (1826), \\\"the first important modern suspension bridge\\\".[9] The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, Germany. The Clifton Suspension Bridge (designed in 1831, completed in 1864 with a 214 m central span) is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type. The current Marlow suspension bridge was designed by William Tierney Clark and was built between 1829 and 1832, replacing a wooden bridge further downstream which collapsed in 1828. It is the only suspension bridge across the non-tidal Thames. The Széchenyi Chain Bridge, spanning the River Danube in Budapest, was also designed by William Clark and it is a larger scale version of Marlow bridge.[10]\",\n \"Suspension bridge Assuming a negligible weight as compared to the weight of the deck and vehicles being supported, the main cables of a suspension bridge will form a parabola (very similar to a catenary, the form the unloaded cables take before the deck is added). One can see the shape from the constant increase of the gradient of the cable with linear (deck) distance, this increase in gradient at each connection with the deck providing a net upward support force. Combined with the relatively simple constraints placed upon the actual deck, this makes the suspension bridge much simpler to design and analyze than a cable-stayed bridge, where the deck is in compression.\",\n \"Millau Viaduct In the 1980s, high levels of road traffic near Millau in the Tarn valley were causing congestion, especially in the summer due to holiday traffic on the route from Paris to Spain. A method of bypassing Millau had long been considered, not only to ease the flow and reduce journey times for long distance traffic, but also to improve the quality of access to Millau for its local businesses and residents. One of the solutions considered was the construction of a road bridge to span the river and gorge valley.[11] The first plans for a bridge were discussed in 1987 by CETE, and by October 1991 the decision was made to build a high crossing of the Tarn by a structure of around 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) in length. During 1993–1994, the government consulted with seven architects and eight structural engineers. During 1995–1996, a second definition study was made by five associated architect groups and structural engineers. In January 1995, the government issued a declaration of public interest to solicit design approaches for a competition.[12]\",\n \"Transport After World War II (1939–1945) the automobile and airlines took higher shares of transport, reducing rail and water to freight and short-haul passenger services.[3] Scientific spaceflight began in the 1950s, with rapid growth until the 1970s, when interest dwindled. In the 1950s the introduction of containerization gave massive efficiency gains in freight transport, fostering globalization.[4] International air travel became much more accessible in the 1960s with the commercialization of the jet engine. Along with the growth in automobiles and motorways, rail and water transport declined in relative importance. After the introduction of the Shinkansen in Japan in 1964, high-speed rail in Asia and Europe started attracting passengers on long-haul routes away from the airlines.[3]\",\n \"Carbon fiber reinforced polymer Retrofitting has become the increasingly dominant use of the material in civil engineering, and applications include increasing the load capacity of old structures (such as bridges) that were designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing today, seismic retrofitting, and repair of damaged structures. Retrofitting is popular in many instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed its strengthening using CFRP.[23]\",\n \"Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge Although the Suspension Bridge proved that the suspension system could be safely used to carry railroads, no more suspension railway bridges were built. The outbreak of the American Civil War diverted attention from such civil engineering ventures,[79] and by the time attention was paid to building bridges again, cantilever bridges were in vogue for railway bridges.[80] Regardless, the Suspension Bridge's success made it a model for suspension railway bridges. When the city of Quebec called for a structure to span the St. Lawrence River in 1850, it looked to the Suspension Bridge for inspiration.[81] Seventeen years later, the British journal Engineering called for a suspension railway to bridge the Straits of Messina and also referred to Roebling's bridge.[82] Lastly, Stuart opened his 1871 work on the history of American engineering, Lives and Works of Civil and Military Engineering in America, with an illustration of the bridge.[76]\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was the first to be built with girders of carbon steel anchored in concrete blocks; preceding designs typically had open lattice beam trusses underneath the roadbed. This bridge was the first of its type to employ plate girders (pairs of deep I-beams) to support the roadbed. With the earlier designs, any wind would simply pass through the truss, but in the new design the wind would be diverted above and below the structure. Shortly after construction finished at the end of June (opened to traffic on July 1, 1940), it was discovered that the bridge would sway and buckle dangerously in relatively mild windy conditions that are common for the area, and worse during severe winds. This vibration was transverse, one-half of the central span rising while the other lowered. Drivers would see cars approaching from the other direction rise and fall, riding the violent energy wave through the bridge. However, at that time the mass of the bridge was considered to be sufficient to keep it structurally sound.\",\n \"Iron Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative first iron bridge in 1778. This bridge still stands today as a monument to the role iron played in the Industrial Revolution. Following this, iron was used in rails, boats, ships, aqueducts, and buildings, as well as in iron cylinders in steam engines.[115] Railways have been central to the formation of modernity and ideas of progress[116] and various languages (e.g. French, Spanish, Italien and German) refer to railways as iron road.\",\n \"Yangtze The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge, between Nantong and Suzhou, was one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world when it was completed in 2008.\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) The Bronx Whitestone Bridge, which is of similar design to the 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge, was reinforced shortly after the collapse. Fourteen-foot-high (4.3 m) steel trusses were installed on both sides of the deck in 1943 to weigh down and stiffen the bridge in an effort to reduce oscillation. In 2003, the stiffening trusses were removed and aerodynamic fiberglass fairings were installed along both sides of the road deck.\",\n \"Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Half a century later, the replacement bridge exceeded its traffic capacity, and a second, parallel suspension bridge was constructed to carry eastbound traffic. The suspension bridge that was completed in 1950 was reconfigured to carry only westbound traffic. The new parallel bridge opened to traffic in July 2007.\",\n \"Greenville Bridge A 1994 engineering study by the Mississippi Department of Transportation explored alternatives to upgrading the crossing of US 82 and issued a report that explored a four-lane crossing at Greenville. It concluded the best of several alternatives it identified was to build a new bridge 0.5 miles (0.80 km) downriver from the old one, and to remove the old bridge. Additional studies evaluated the type of bridge to build, and by 1995 the cable-stayed bridge was chosen as the best design to fit the river and soil conditions, as well as providing sufficient clearance for river navigation. Engineering plans were completed in 1999.[1]\",\n \"West Gate Bridge Construction resumed in 1972, with the bridge being completed in 1978. After 10 years of construction, the bridge, a part of the larger West Gate Freeway, cost $202 million.[1]\",\n \"Golden Gate Bridge In May 1987, as part of the 50th anniversary celebration, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross the bridge. However, this celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight.[36] Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40% of the yielding stress of the suspension cables,[37] bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012,[38][39][40] because of the additional law enforcement costs required \\\"since 9/11\\\".[41]\",\n \"Chesapeake Bay Bridge In 1967, due to increasing traffic volumes, the Maryland General Assembly authorized three possible new crossings, all suggested during the 1964 Chesapeake Bay crossing study.[4] These included one further north near Baltimore, one in southern Maryland, and an additional span to be added to the existing bridge from Kent Island to Sandy Point; ultimately, the third option was chosen. Construction of the new parallel span began in 1969 to the north of the original bridge, and it was completed on June 28, 1973.[7]\",\n \"Clifton Suspension Bridge It has been argued that the size and technology of these revisions was so great that the credit for its design should go to Barlow and Hawkshaw.[31] The towers remained in rough stone, rather than being finished in the Egyptian style. Work on the bridge was restarted in 1862. Initially a temporary bridge was created by pulling ropes across the gorge and making a footway of wire ropes with wood planks held together with iron hoops. This was used by the workers to move a \\\"traveller\\\", consisting of a light frame on wheels, to transport each link individually, which would eventually make up the chains supporting the bridge.[32] The chains are anchored in tapering tunnels, 25 metres (82 ft) long,[33] on either side of the bridge and plugs of Staffordshire blue brick infilled to prevent the chains being pulled out of the narrower tunnel mouth. After completion of the chains, vertical suspension rods were hung from the links in the chains and large girders hung from these. The girders on either side then support the deck, which is 3 feet (0.91 m) higher at the Clifton end than at Leigh Woods so that it gives the impression of being horizontal. The strength of the structure was tested by spreading 500 tons of stone over the bridge. This caused it to sag by 7 inches (180 mm), but within the expected tolerances.[34] During this time a tunnel was driven through the rocks on the Leigh Woods side beneath the bridge to carry the Bristol Port Railway to Avonmouth.[32] The construction work was completed in 1864–111 years after a bridge at the site was first planned.[35]\",\n \"Modernism However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s,[23] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[24] and King's Cross station (1852).[25] These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric telegraph from 1837,[26] and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.[27]\",\n \"San Mateo–Hayward Bridge The new span won two prizes in 1968: an ASCE Award for Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement[19] and an American Institute of Steel Construction long-span prize bridge award.[1]\",\n \"St. Petersburg, Florida In the 1950s, St. Petersburg experienced another population increase with residents. The development of transportation was important with the increase of tourists, more automobiles were used in the city and subsequently the public street cars were removed.[11] In 1954 the original Sunshine Skyway Bridge opened its first span to link St. Petersburg with Manatee County. A year later in 1955, Highway 19 opened in the city creating a large influx of traffic. By the end of the 1950s, tourists and retirees increased in the area.[39][40]\",\n \"Suspension bridge The Otto Beit Bridge (1938–39) was the first modern suspension bridge outside the United States built with parallel wire cables.[13]\",\n \"Suspension bridge Drawing of the Chakzam bridge south of Lhasa, constructed in 1430, with cables suspended between towers, and vertical suspender cables carrying the weight of a planked footway below.\",\n \"Suspension bridge In the United States, the first major wire-cable suspension bridge was the Wire Bridge at Fairmount in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Designed by Charles Ellet, Jr. and completed in 1842, it had a span of 109 m. Ellet's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge (1847–48) was abandoned before completion. It was used as scaffolding for John A. Roebling's double decker railroad and carriage bridge (1855).\",\n \"1980s The 1980s was the decade of transformation in television. Cable television became more accessible and therefore, more popular. By the middle of the decade, almost 70% of the American population had cable television and over 85% were paying for cable services such as HBO or Showtime.[27] People who lived in rural areas where cable TV service was not available could still access cable channels through a large (and expensive) satellite dish, which, by the mid-1990s, was phased out in favor of the small rooftop dishes that offer DirecTV and Dish Network services.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th. Early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, and shorter ones using various systems built of reinforced concrete. It once again rose to prominence in the later 20th century when the combination of new materials, larger construction machinery, and the need to replace older bridges all lowered the relative price of these designs.[1]"],"string":"[\n \"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th. Early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, and shorter ones using various systems built of reinforced concrete. It once again rose to prominence in the later 20th century when the combination of new materials, larger construction machinery, and the need to replace older bridges all lowered the relative price of these designs.[1]\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":198,"cells":{"_id":{"kind":"string","value":"test937"},"query":{"kind":"string","value":"when was the last wolf pack killed in yellowstone"},"gt_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc33382"],"string":"[\n \"doc33382\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_qrels":{"kind":"list like","value":[1],"string":"[\n 1\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc33384","doc33377","doc33382","doc33383","doc33379","doc299227","doc33380","doc1874878","doc123544","doc33397","doc33399","doc33378","doc33409","doc123543","doc33410","doc33390","doc33396","doc299228","doc2583050","doc33386","doc81473","doc33398","doc33411","doc33381","doc33412","doc33407","doc419273","doc33385","doc33395","doc299213","doc33388","doc2583048","doc33406","doc33402","doc33392","doc419271","doc33387","doc33413","doc516895","doc516890","doc1721746","doc33401","doc626862","doc2583047","doc2583030","doc299215","doc419254","doc516850","doc33393","doc299203","doc419270","doc1044668","doc33391","doc363714","doc363712","doc299200","doc2170444","doc299212","doc299202","doc516893","doc299223","doc516898","doc419255","doc33400","doc516894","doc123547","doc1404101","doc299218","doc1874881","doc156163","doc299205","doc2583031","doc2583042","doc123534","doc81442","doc299195","doc33405","doc419265","doc516897","doc1874876","doc33394","doc247491","doc1667466","doc1200827","doc33389","doc516889","doc123541","doc1492014","doc123554","doc299210","doc123545","doc1874880","doc299201","doc299204","doc299196","doc363709","doc1200838","doc922245","doc1581153","doc123540"],"string":"[\n \"doc33384\",\n \"doc33377\",\n \"doc33382\",\n \"doc33383\",\n \"doc33379\",\n \"doc299227\",\n \"doc33380\",\n \"doc1874878\",\n \"doc123544\",\n \"doc33397\",\n \"doc33399\",\n \"doc33378\",\n \"doc33409\",\n \"doc123543\",\n \"doc33410\",\n \"doc33390\",\n \"doc33396\",\n \"doc299228\",\n \"doc2583050\",\n \"doc33386\",\n \"doc81473\",\n \"doc33398\",\n \"doc33411\",\n \"doc33381\",\n \"doc33412\",\n \"doc33407\",\n \"doc419273\",\n \"doc33385\",\n \"doc33395\",\n \"doc299213\",\n \"doc33388\",\n \"doc2583048\",\n \"doc33406\",\n \"doc33402\",\n \"doc33392\",\n \"doc419271\",\n \"doc33387\",\n \"doc33413\",\n \"doc516895\",\n \"doc516890\",\n \"doc1721746\",\n \"doc33401\",\n \"doc626862\",\n \"doc2583047\",\n \"doc2583030\",\n \"doc299215\",\n \"doc419254\",\n \"doc516850\",\n \"doc33393\",\n \"doc299203\",\n \"doc419270\",\n \"doc1044668\",\n \"doc33391\",\n \"doc363714\",\n \"doc363712\",\n \"doc299200\",\n \"doc2170444\",\n \"doc299212\",\n \"doc299202\",\n \"doc516893\",\n \"doc299223\",\n \"doc516898\",\n \"doc419255\",\n \"doc33400\",\n \"doc516894\",\n \"doc123547\",\n \"doc1404101\",\n \"doc299218\",\n \"doc1874881\",\n \"doc156163\",\n \"doc299205\",\n \"doc2583031\",\n \"doc2583042\",\n \"doc123534\",\n \"doc81442\",\n \"doc299195\",\n \"doc33405\",\n \"doc419265\",\n \"doc516897\",\n \"doc1874876\",\n \"doc33394\",\n \"doc247491\",\n \"doc1667466\",\n \"doc1200827\",\n \"doc33389\",\n \"doc516889\",\n \"doc123541\",\n \"doc1492014\",\n \"doc123554\",\n \"doc299210\",\n \"doc123545\",\n \"doc1874880\",\n \"doc299201\",\n \"doc299204\",\n \"doc299196\",\n \"doc363709\",\n \"doc1200838\",\n \"doc922245\",\n \"doc1581153\",\n \"doc123540\"\n]","isConversational":false},"candidate_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["History of wolves in Yellowstone Updated research in the 1980s verified that the last official killing of wolves in the park took place in 1926 when two pups found near Soda Butte Creek were killed by park rangers.[7] The last reported wolf killed in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (prior to today’s legal hunting or control measures) occurred in May 1943 when Leo Cottenoir, a Native American sheepheader on the Wind River Reservation shot a wolf near the southern border of the park.[8]","History of wolves in Yellowstone When Yellowstone National Park was created in 1872, gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations were already in decline in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. The creation of the national park did not provide protection for wolves or other predators, and government predator control programs in the first decades of the 1900s essentially helped eliminate the gray wolf from Yellowstone. The last wolves were killed in Yellowstone in 1926. After that time, sporadic reports of wolves still occurred, but scientists confirmed that sustainable wolf populations had been extirpated and were absent from Yellowstone during the mid-1900s.","History of wolves in Yellowstone It is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park by 1926,[1] although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933.[3] However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored study revealed that during the period 1927 to 1977, there were several hundred probable sightings of wolves in the park.[4] Between 1977 and the re-introduction in 1995, there were additional reliable sightings of wolves in the park, most believed to be singles or pairs transiting the region.[5]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Prior to the National Park Service assuming control of the park in 1916, the U.S. Army killed 14 wolves during their tenure (1886–1916),[3] most in the years 1914–15.[1] In 1940, Adolph Murie, a noted wildlife biologist published his Fauna Series No. 4—Fauna of the National Parks of the United States-Ecology of the Coyote in the Yellowstone National Park. In this report, Murie tallied the number of wolves killed as reported annually by park administrators between 1915 and 1935:[6]","History of wolves in Yellowstone In 1872, when Yellowstone National Park was created, there was yet no legal protection for wildlife in the park. In the early years of the park, administrators, hunters and tourists were essentially free to kill any game or predator they came across. The gray wolf was especially vulnerable to this wanton killing because it was generally considered an undesirable predator and was being willingly extirpated throughout its North American range. In January 1883, the Secretary of the Interior issued regulations prohibiting hunting of most park animals, but the regulations did not apply to wolves, coyotes, bears, mountain lions and other small predators.[1]","List of animals of Yellowstone Northern Rocky Mountain wolves, a subspecies of the gray wolf (Canis lupus), were native to Yellowstone when the park was established in 1872. Predator control was practiced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1914 and 1926, at least 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the 1940s, wolf packs were rarely reported. By the 1970s, scientists found no evidence of a wolf population in Yellowstone; wolves persisted in the lower 48 states only in northern Minnesota and on Isle Royale in Michigan. Canadian grey wolves were introduced into Yellowstone in 1995.[15] This move has returned wolves to land that was once ruled by the canine. They currently exist in several packs, the largest of which are the Slough Creek, Yellowstone Delta, and Leopold packs. The wolves had to \"re-learn\" an instinct that their ancestors once had: hunting bison. Being used to the elk in Canada, the wolves were dumbfounded by the large, burly bison found all over Yellowstone. However, their main prey remains elk. They have made many appearances on National Geographic Channel documentaries. Wolves in Yellowstone can live as long as 10 years in the wild, though 6 to 8 is normal.","History of wolves in Yellowstone Shortly after the U.S. Army took over administration of the park on August 1st, 1886, Captain Moose Harris, the first military superintendent, banned public hunting of any wildlife and any predator control was to be left to the park's administration.[2] Official records show however, that the U.S. Army did not begin killing any wolves until 1914.[3]","Ecology of the Rocky Mountains Gray wolves once were common throughout the Rocky Mountains. They were shot, poisoned, and trapped into local extinction by early settlers and federal agents. The last gray wolf in Colorado was killed in 1940, and the wolf was first listed as an endangered species in 1967. Wolves from southeastern British Columbia recolonized northwestern Montana in 1986; by 1994 the population had grown to 7 packs and about 70-75 wolves. Wolves from Glacier National Park have dispersed naturally as far away as northeastern Idaho and just south of Yellowstone National Park. A wolf was shot near Yellowstone National Park in 1992. From January to March 1995, 15 adult wolves from 7 different packs in Canada were introduced into central Idaho wilderness areas. Several pairs have bred and produced the first litters of wolf pups born in Idaho in more than 50 years. Fourteen wolves (three family groups) were released in the Yellowstone National Park in late March 1995.[1] A total of 66 wolves were released to the two areas in this manner in January 1995 and January 1996.[28] Several wolves from the Northern Rockies have dispersed to the Southern Rockies but have failed to establish a population there. Most have been killed.[29]","Yellowstone National Park By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves imported from Canada were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval.[97] Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995–96.[97] The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.[98]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Seventeen (17) additional wolves captured in Canada arrived in Yellowstone in January 1996 and were released into the park in April 1996 from the Chief Joseph, Lone Star, Druid Peak and Nez Perce pens. These were the last wolves released into the park as officials believed that the natural reproduction and survival were sufficient to obviate additional releases.[19][20]","History of wolves in Yellowstone *1995-99 Data reflects status of the wolf in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Since 2000 monitoring has focused on packs operating within park boundaries. Wolves continue to spread to surrounding areas, and the last official report by the park for the Greater Yellowstone Area counted 272 wolves in 2002.","History of wolves in Yellowstone Starting in the 1940s, park managers, biologists, conservationists and environmentalists began what would ultimately turn into a campaign to reintroduce the gray wolf into Yellowstone National Park. When the Endangered Species Act of 1973 was passed, the road to legal reintroduction was clear. In 1995, gray wolves were first reintroduced into Yellowstone in the Lamar Valley. The history of wolves in Yellowstone chronicles the extirpation, absence and reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone, and how the reintroduction was not without controversy or surprises for scientists, governments or park managers.","History of wolves in Yellowstone Because gray wolf populations in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho had recovered sufficiently to meet the goals of the Wolf Recovery Plan, on May 4, 2008 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service changed the status of the gray wolf population known as the Northern Rocky Mountains Distinct Population Segment from Endangered to Experimental Population-Non Essential.[14]","Yellowstone National Park Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of \"destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry\" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone.[96] Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed.[96] After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.","History of wolves in Yellowstone The wolves in Yellowstone and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem fall within this population. In response to the change in status, state wildlife authorities in Idaho and Montana enacted quota-based hunting seasons on wolves as part of their approved state Wolf Management Plans. Environmental groups objected to the delisting and the hunting seasons, but despite legal attempts to stop them (Defenders of Wildlife et al v Ken Salazar et al), the wolf hunts, which commenced in Montana in September 2009 were allowed to proceed. A number of noted wildlife biologists that had been instrumental in the restoration of wolves—David Mech,[38] Douglas Smith,[39] and Mark Hebblewhite [40] supported the state wildlife management plans and the delisting because they believed the wolf populations were now at sustainable levels.","History of wolves in Yellowstone The gray wolf was one of the first species to be listed as endangered (1967) under the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966.[14] However, until the passage of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, there was no legal basis or process for re-introducing the gray wolf to Yellowstone National Park and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.[13] The Endangered Species Act obligated the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to develop restoration plans for each species designated as Endangered. The first recovery plan was completed in 1980 but gained little traction. In 1987, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a revised Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan which led the way to wolf reintroduction. The plan was a cooperative effort between the National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, academia, state wildlife agencies and environmental groups. Its Executive Summary contains the following:","History of wolves in Yellowstone In January 1995, U.S. and Canadian wildlife officials captured 14 wolves from multiple packs east of Jasper National Park, near Hinton, Alberta, Canada. These wolves arrived in Yellowstone in two shipments—January 12, 1995 (8 wolves) and January 20, 1995 (6 wolves). They were released into three acclimation pens—Crystal Creek, Rose Creek and Soda Butte Creek in the Lamar Valley in Northeast East Yellowstone National Park. In March 1995, the pens were opened and between March 21 and March 31, 1995 all 14 wolves were loose in Yellowstone.[19]","List of animals of Yellowstone The United States Fish and Wildlife Service provides weekly updates on the wolves of the Rocky Mountain region including wolves of Yellowstone.[16]\nThis site has stated that at the end of 2011 there was at least 98 wolves in ten packs and two loner wolves in the park.[17]","Wolf In Alaska, the gray wolf population is estimated at 6,000–7,000, and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons, with bag limits and other restrictions. As of 2002, there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone, and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho. The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act (ESA) protection in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan in 1974, and was re-classed from endangered to threatened in 2003. Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and, as of late 2002, number 28 individuals in eight packs.[202] A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County, Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times. DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region.[203]","History of wolves in Yellowstone The campaign to restore the gray wolf in Yellowstone had its roots in a number of seminal studies related to the predator-prey ecology of the park. In 1940 Adolph Murie published Ecology of the Coyote in the Yellowstone National Park. That study and his 1940–41 work The Wolves of Mount McKinley was instrumental in building a scientific foundation for wolf conservation.[11] In 1944, noted wildlife biologist Aldo Leopold, once an avid predator control advocate, made the following comments in his review of The Wolves of North America, Young and Goldman, 1944:","Red wolf In 1991, two pairs were reintroduced into the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, where the last known red wolf was killed in 1905. Despite some early success, the wolves were relocated to North Carolina in 1998, ending the effort to reintroduce the species to the park.","History of wolves in Yellowstone Wolf population declines, when they occur, result from \"intraspecific strife,\" food stress, mange, canine distemper, legal hunting of wolves in areas outside the park (for sport or for livestock protection) and in one case in 2009, lethal removal by park officials of a human-habituated wolf.[22]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Although wolves within the park boundaries were still fully protected, wolves that ventured outside the boundaries of the park in Idaho or Montana could now be legally hunted. During these hunts, Montana hunters legally killed a number of wolves in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness known to frequent the northeast corner of the park.","History of wolves in Yellowstone In 1885, Congress created the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy with the express purpose of research for the protection of wildlife. The agency soon became the U.S. Biological Survey which was the forerunner of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In 1907, under political pressure from the western cattle and livestock industries, this agency began a concerted program which eventually was called: Animal Damage Control. This predator control program alone killed 1,800 wolves and 23,000 coyotes in 39 U.S. National Forests in 1907.[3] In 1916, when the National Park Service was created, its enabling legislation included words that authorized the Secretary of the Interior to \"provide in his discretion for the destruction of such animals and of such plant life as may be detrimental to the use of said parks, monuments and reservations\".[3]","History of wolves in Yellowstone From 2000–2004, the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks reduced antlerless permits by 51% from 2,882 to 1,400. They proposed only 100 permits for 2006 which was a 96% decrease from the 2,660 permits issued in 1995. Initially, the effects of wolf predation on elk during the first five years of the recovery were not detected, as elk numbers were identical to those of 1980–1994. From the winter of 1995 to the winter of 2004 however, the elk greatly decreased in number, dropping from 16,791 to 8,335 as the number of wolves on the northern range increased from 21 to 106, though predation from bears, increased human harvests, more severe winter and droughts were also factors. Since 2000, 45% of known deaths and 75% of predation-caused deaths of radio collared cow-elk have been confirmed to be attributable to wolves. Human caused deaths in the same period accounted for 8–30% of known deaths. Yellowstone elk comprise up to 92% of the winter diet of wolves, the overall kill rates of Yellowstone wolves on elk in winter being estimated at 22 ungulates per wolf annually. This is higher than the 12 ungulates per wolf rate predicted in the ESA.[41]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Meanwhile, wolf packs often claim kills made by cougars, which has driven that species back out of valley hunting grounds to their more traditional mountainside territory.[34]","Gray wolf In Alaska, the gray wolf population is estimated at 6,000–7,000, and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons, with bag limits and other restrictions. As of 2002, there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone, and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho. The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act (ESA) protection in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan in 1974, and was re-classed from endangered to threatened in 2003. Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and, as of late 2002, number 28 individuals in eight packs.[191] A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County, Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times. DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region.[192]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Once the wolves were gone, elk populations began to rise. Over the next few years conditions of Yellowstone National Park declined drastically. A team of scientists visiting Yellowstone in 1929 and 1933 reported, \"The range was in deplorable conditions when we first saw it, and its deterioration has been progressing steadily since then.\" By this time many biologists were worried about eroding land and plants dying off. The elk were multiplying inside the park and deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood suffered from overgrazing. The park service started trapping and moving the elk and, when that was not effective, killing them. Elk population control methods continued for more than 30 years. Elk control prevented further degradation of the range, but didn't improve its overall condition. At times, people would mention bringing wolves back to Yellowstone to help control the elk population. Yellowstone's managers were not eager to bring back wolves, especially after so successfully extirpating them from the park. Elk control continued into the 1960s. In the late 1960s, local hunters began to complain to their congressmen that there were too few elk, and the congressmen threatened to stop funding Yellowstone. Killing elk was given up as control method which allowed elk populations to again rise. As elk populations rose, the quality of the range decreased affecting many other animals. Without wolves, coyote populations increased dramatically which adversely impacted the pronghorn antelope population.[9] However, it was the overly large elk populations that caused the most profound changes to the ecosystem of Yellowstone with the absence of wolves.[10]","History of wolves in Yellowstone The final EIS opened the way for re-introduction, but not without opposition. The Sierra Club and National Audubon Society opposed the re-introduction plan on the grounds that Experimental populations were not protected enough once the wolves were outside the park. The Farm Bureau's of Idaho, Wyoming and Montana opposed the plan on the basis that the wrong subspecies of wolf—Canis lupus occidentalis (northwestern wolf (Canada)) instead of Canis lupus irremotus (Northern Rocky Mountains wolf) was selected for reintroduction. These objections were overcome and in January 1995, the process of physically reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone began.[18]","List of animals of Yellowstone The reintroduction of wolves in 1995 has significantly decreased the coyote population, although those who remain often scavenge from wolf kills. Throughout the restoration project, coyote research has continued, with an eye toward identifying the interactions between coyotes and wolves and on assessing the effects of wolves on coyote populations. During planning and environmental assessment of the effects of wolf restoration, biologists anticipated that coyotes would compete with the larger canid, perhaps resulting in disruption of packs and numerical declines.[9]","History of wolves in Yellowstone By the 1960s, cultural and scientific understanding of ecosystems was changing attitudes toward the wolf and other large predators. In the early 1960s, Douglas Pimlott, a noted Canadian wildlife biologist was calling for the restorations of wolves in the northern rockies. In 1970 American wolf expert, David Mech published The Wolf: The Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species (1970, 1981), an enlightening study of the wolf and its impact on its environment.[13] In 1978, when wildlife biologist John Weaver published his seminal study Wolves of Yellowstone, he concluded the report with the following recommendation:","Wolf The species' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada, with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and small portions of Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Montana. A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials.[196] Canadian wolves began to naturally re-colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979, and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986.[197] The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994.[198] From 1995–1996, wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho. In addition, the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998. The gray wolf is found in approximately 80% of its historical range in Canada, thus making it an important stronghold for the species.[4]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Wolf kills are scavenged by and thus feed a wide array of animals, including, but not limited to, ravens, wolverines, bald eagles, golden eagles, grizzly bears, black bears, jays, magpies, martens and coyotes.[34]","History of wolves in Yellowstone The wolves became significant predators of coyotes after their reintroduction. Since then, in 1995 and 1996, the local coyote population went through a dramatic restructuring. Until the wolves returned, Yellowstone National Park had one of the densest and most stable coyote populations in America due to a lack of human impacts. Two years after the wolf reintroductions, the pre-wolf population of coyotes had been reduced to 50% through both competitive exclusion and intraguild predation. Coyote numbers were 39% lower in the areas of Yellowstone where wolves were reintroduced. In one study, about 16% of radio-collared coyotes were preyed upon by wolves. Yellowstone coyotes have had to shift their territories as a result, moving from open meadows to steep terrain. Carcasses in the open no longer attract coyotes; when a coyote is chased on flat terrain, it is often killed. They feel more secure on steep terrain where they will often lead a pursuing wolf downhill. As the wolf comes after it, the coyote will turn around and run uphill. Wolves, being heavier, cannot stop and the coyote gains a large lead. Though physical confrontations between the two species are usually dominated by the larger wolves, coyotes have been known to attack wolves if they outnumber them. Both species will kill each other's pups given the opportunity.[32][33]","History of wolves in Yellowstone In 1991 Congress directed the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to develop an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the express purpose of reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone National Park and regions of Central Idaho. The final statement was published on April 14, 1994 and seriously examined five potential alternatives for reestablishing wolves in Yellowstone and central Idaho.[16]","Gray wolf The species' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada, with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and small portions of Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Montana. A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials.[185] Canadian wolves began to naturally re-colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979, and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986.[186] The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994.[187] From 1995–1996, wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho. In addition, the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998. The gray wolf is found in approximately 80% of its historical range in Canada, thus making it an important stronghold for the species.[3]","History of wolves in Yellowstone There still remains, even in the United States, some areas of considerable size in which we feel that both red and gray [wolves] may be allowed to continue their existence with little molestation. …Where are these areas? Probably every reasonable ecologist will agree that some of them should lie in the larger national parks and wilderness areas: for instance Yellowstone and its adjacent national forests. …Why, in the necessary process of extirpating wolves from livestock ranges of Wyoming and Montana, were not some of the uninjured animals used to restock Yellowstone?","History of wolves in Yellowstone Historically, the wolf populations originally native to Yellowstone were classed under the subspecies C. l. irremotus. When the issue of what subspecies to use for the introduction was raised, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service representatives stated that the taxonomy of gray wolves had been revised numerous times, and that C. l. irremotus was not a distinct subspecies, but a geographical variant. Three publications were made on the appropriateness of using a founding population of Canadian wolves: Brewster and Fritz supported the motion, while Nowak determined that the original Yellowstone wolves were more similar to C. l. nubilus, a subspecies already present in Minnesota, and that the Canadian animals proposed by Brewster and Fritz were of the subspecies C. l. occidentalis, a significantly larger animal. The rationale behind Brewster and Fritz's favor was that wolves show little genetic diversity, and that the original population was extinct anyway. This was contradicted by Nowak, who contested that Minnesotan wolves were much more similar in size and shape to the original population than the proposed Canadian wolves, though he conceded that C. l. occidentalis was probably already migrating southward even before human intervention. The final use of Canadian wolves for the reintroduction was not without criticism: the American Society of Mammalogists criticized the project's lack of deference to the principle of Bergmann's rule, stating that the wolves used for the introduction were 30% larger than the original park wolves, and were adapted to much colder climates. Finally, the society questioned the legality under the ESA of \"recovering\" a taxon of wolf by expanding the historic range of a less similar type, when more closely related founder stock still remained available.[42] Doug Smith states that the size difference between the introduced wolves and the original wolves was actually only a 6-7 percent difference and Minnesotan wolves had no experience with elk and bison and were not adapted to mountainous terrain.[43]","List of gray wolf populations by country In northeast Oregon, also in July 2008, wolf howls were heard by biologists who identified at least 2 adults and 2 pups. This was the first confirmed breeding pair in Oregon.[76] By December 2011, Oregon's gray wolf population had grown to 24. One of the Oregon gray wolves, known as OR-7, traveled more than 700 miles (1,100 km) to the Klamath Basin and crossed the border into California.[77] Wolf OR-7 became the first wolf west of the Cascades in Oregon since the last bounty was claimed in 1947.[78] Oregon's wolf population increased to 77 wolves in 15 packs with 8 breeding pairs as of the end of 2015.[73] As a result, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife proposed to delist wolves from their protected species list.[79] On January 14, 2009, the United States Department of the Interior removed the Canadian gray wolf from the Endangered Species List in every American state except Wyoming.[80] This move was blocked by lawsuits filed by conservation groups, but was successfully delisted on April 15, 2011 by the US Congress as part of a budget bill.[81] On August 31, 2012, Governor Matt Mead of Wyoming announced that wolves were no longer on the endangered species list in the state of Wyoming; therefore, they no longer need special protections from the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The wolf population in Wyoming is then controlled by the state. But on September 23, 2014, wolves in Wyoming are again listed as nonessential experimental population under the Endangered Species Act.[82]","List of gray wolf populations by country The United States as a whole has up to 18,000 wolves, about two thirds of which are in Alaska.[62] They are increasing in number in all their ranges. Usually however, wolves in the United States are mostly seen during the winter months in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and portions of Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Montana, as the majority of wolf populations migrate from the Canada areas to the Northwestern states & some of the Midwestern and Great Lakes States during the winter months for the competition over eating Bison, Elk, White Tailed Deer and other large ungulates, disputed between other carnivores such as Grizzly Bears, Cougars, and Coyotes. Wolf recovery has been so successful that the United States Fish & Wildlife Service removed the western gray wolf from the federal endangered species list on March 28, 2008.[4][63] Due to the controversy over wolf shootings, a coalition of environmental groups sued the federal government to put the gray wolf back on the Endangered Species list.[64] On July 18, 2008, a federal judge ruled in favor of renewed endangered species protection.[65] Alaska has a stable population of 10,500-12,000 wolves, which are legally hunted from August to April ( in deer-rich areas ) as a big game species.[4][66]","Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem The park is a commonly cited example of apex predators affecting an ecosystem through a trophic cascade. After the reintroduction of the gray wolf in 1995, researchers noticed drastic changes occurring. Elk, the primary prey of the gray wolf, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing. The respite allowed willows and aspens to grow, creating habitat for beaver,[5] moose, and scores of other species. In addition to the effects on prey species, the gray wolf's presence also affected the park's grizzly bear population. The bears, emerging from hibernation, chose to scavenge off wolf kills to gain needed energy and fatten up after fasting for months. Dozens of other species have been documented scavenging from wolf kills.[6][citation needed]","History of wolves in Yellowstone As the wolf population in the park has grown, the elk population, their favored prey, has declined. Prior to reintroduction, the EIS predicted that wolves would kill an average 12 elk per wolf annually. This estimate proved too low as wolves are now killing an average of 22 elk per wolf annually.[30] This decline in elk has resulted in changes in flora, most specifically willows, cottonwoods and aspens along the fringes of heavily timbered areas. Although wolf kills are directly attributable to declines in elk numbers, some research has shown that elk behavior has been significantly altered by wolf predation. The constant presence of wolves have pushed elk into less favorable habitats, raised their stress level, lowered their nutrition and their overall birth rate.[31]","Apex predator Dramatic changes in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were recorded after the gray wolf, both an apex predator and a keystone species (one with a large effect on its ecosystem), was reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 as a conservation measure. Elk, the wolves' primary prey, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing and allowing willows, aspens and cottonwoods to flourish, creating habitats for beaver, moose and scores of other species.[24] In addition to their effect on prey species, the wolves' presence also affected one of the park's vulnerable species, the grizzly bear: emerging from hibernation, having fasted for months, the bears chose to scavenge wolf kills,[25] especially during the autumn as they prepared to hibernate once again.[26] The grizzly bear gives birth during hibernation, so the increased food supply is expected to produce an increase in the numbers of cubs observed.[27] Dozens of other species, including eagles, ravens, magpies, coyotes and black bears have also been documented as scavenging from wolf kills within the park.[28]","Wolf The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture. By the start of the 20th century, the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA, excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region. In Canada, the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921, and in Newfoundland around 1911. It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900. The gray wolf's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s–70s. From 1900–1930, the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada, because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species. The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960, except in Alaska and northern Minnesota. The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s, particularly in southwestern Canada, because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting. This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada. Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s, mostly by poisoning. This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid-1970s.[4]","Wolf The extermination of Northern Europe's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages, and continued until the late 19th century. In England, wolf persecution was enforced by legislation, and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII. Wolves lasted longer in Scotland, where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest, which were subsequently burned down. Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684. The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course, with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786.[163] A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647, after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives. By 1960, few wolves remained in Sweden, because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them, with the last specimen being killed in 1966. The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway's last wolf was killed in 1973. The species was decimated in 20th century Finland, despite regular dispersals from Russia. The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900, though its numbers increased after World War II.[164]","List of animals of Yellowstone Elk or wapiti (Cervus canadensis) are the most abundant large mammal found in Yellowstone; paleontological evidence confirms their continuous presence for at least 1,000 years. Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872, when market hunting of all large grazing animals was rampant. Not until after 1886, when the United States Army was called in to protect the park and wildlife slaughter was brought under control, did the large animals increase in number.[10] In recent years, however, Yellowstone's elk population has plummeted. The Northern Herd, the only herd that winters in the park, has declined from nearly 20,000 animals in 1994 to less than 4,000 in 2013. Ecologists have linked this decline to a declining population of cutthroat trout in Yellowstone Lake, caused by invasive lake trout. With less fish to eat, grizzly bears began to eat more elk calves, causing a steep decline in elk numbers.[11][12]","Gray wolf The extermination of Northern Europe's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages, and continued until the late 1800s. In England, wolf persecution was enforced by legislation, and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII. Wolves lasted longer in Scotland, where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest, which were subsequently burned down. Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684. The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course, with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786.[153] A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647, after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives. By 1960, few wolves remained in Sweden, because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them, with the last specimen being killed in 1966. The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway's last wolf was killed in 1973. The species was decimated in 20th century Finland, despite regular dispersals from Russia. The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900, though its numbers increased after World War II.[154]","List of gray wolf populations by country The last wolf in Denmark was shot in 1813, but in 2009, 2010 and 2012 there was speculation that a wolf had crossed the border from Germany due to numerous observations, with the latest in Thy National Park.[28][29] This was confirmed after an autopsy, which also concluded that the particular wolf had died from side effects of a cancerous tumor. It was the first known wolf in Denmark for 199 years.[30] In 2013, three different lone wolves have been observed in Denmark.[31] According to local biologists based on sound recordings, one pair have had pups. Compensation is paid for livestock damage.[32] In July 2017 an adult wolf with eight pups was filmed, making it the first time in 200 years that wolfpups had been born in Denmark[33]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Alternative 1 was the recommended and ultimately adopted alternative:","List of animals of Yellowstone Over the next several decades, the bears learned to hunt and forage for themselves from non-human food sources, and their population slowly grew.[5] On March 22, 2007, grizzly bears were taken off of the endangered species list. In the 30 years since the grizzly was listed as a threatened species, the Yellowstone population increased from 126 to 500. \"The grizzly is a large predator that requires a great deal of space, and conserving such animals is a challenge in today's world,\" Deputy Interior Secretary Lynn Scarlett said in announcing the decision. \"I believe all Americans should be proud that, as a nation, we had the will and the ability to protect and restore this symbol of the wild.\" [6]","Gray wolf The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture. By the start of the 20th century, the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA, excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region. In Canada, the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921, and in Newfoundland around 1911. It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900. The gray wolf's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s–70s. From 1900–1930, the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada, because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species. The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960, except in Alaska and northern Minnesota. The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s, particularly in southwestern Canada, because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting. This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada. Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s, mostly by poisoning. This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid-1970s.[3]","Wolverine The Wildlife Conservation Society reported in June 2009 that a wolverine researchers had been tracking for almost three months had crossed into northern Colorado. Society officials had tagged the young male wolverine in Wyoming near Grand Teton National Park and it had traveled southward for about 500 miles. It was the first wolverine seen in Colorado since 1919, and its appearance was also confirmed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife.[55] In May 2016 the same wolverine was killed by a cattle ranch-hand in North Dakota, ending a >800 mile trip by this lone male wolverine, dubbed M-56. This was the first verified sighting of a Wolverine in North Dakota in 150 years.[56] In February 2014, a wolverine was seen in Utah, the first confirmed sighting in that state in 30 years.[57]","History of wolves in Yellowstone The Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan represents a \"road map\" to recovery 'of the gray wolf in' the Rocky Mountains. The primary goal of the plan is to remove the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf from the endangered and threatened species list by securing and maintaining a minimum of 10 breeding pairs of wolves in each of the three recovery areas for a minimum of three successive years.","Wolves in Great Britain Scottish folklore tells of how an old man in Morayshire named MacQueen of Findhorn killed the last wolf in 1743.[8]","Wolves in Great Britain The wolves later caused such damage to the cattle herds of Sutherland that in 1577, James VI made it compulsory to hunt wolves three times a year.[1] Stories of the killing of the alleged last wolf of Scotland vary. Official records indicate that the last Scottish wolf was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron in 1680 in Killiecrankie (Perthshire),[1][10] but there are reports that wolves survived in Scotland up until the 18th century,[8] and a tale even exists of one being seen as late as 1888.[11]","List of animals of Yellowstone With the reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park, much interest has been shown regarding the effects of a restored wolf population on both grizzly bears and black bears. Grizzly bears, black bears, and gray wolves have historically coexisted in much of the same range throughout a large portion of North America.","Wildlife management Elk overpopulation in Yellowstone is thought by many wildlife biologists, such as Douglas Smith, to have been primarily caused by the extirpation of wolves from the park and surrounding environs. After wolves were removed, elk herds increased in population, reaching new highs during the mid-1930s. The increased number of elk apparently resulted in overgrazing in parts of Yellowstone. Park officials decided that the elk herd should be managed. For approximately thirty years, the park elk herds were culled: Each year some were captured and shipped to other locations, a certain number were killed by park rangers, and hunters were allowed to take more elk that migrated outside the park. By the late 1960s the herd populations dropped to historic lows (less than 4,000 for the Northern Range herd). This caused outrage among both conservationists and hunters. The park service stopped culling elk in 1968. The elk population then rebounded. Twenty years later there were 19,000 elk in the Northern Range herd, a historic high.","List of animals of Yellowstone Coyotes live an average of about 6 years, although one Yellowstone coyote lived to be more than 13 before she was killed and eaten by a cougar.[9] The coyote is a common predator in the park, often seen alone or in packs, traveling through the park's wide open valleys hunting small mammals. But they are widely distributed and their sign can also be found in the forests and thermal areas throughout Yellowstone. They are capable of killing large prey, especially when they cooperatively hunt.","List of animals of Yellowstone In 1970, the park took a gamble and initiated an intensive bear management program. The objectives of this change was restoring the grizzly bear and black bear populations to subsistence on natural forage and reducing bear-caused injuries to humans. As part of the bear management program implemented in 1970, regulations prohibiting the feeding of bears were strictly enforced. Some experts believed that the bears would not survive this change. As the bears became more desperate for food and more aggressive, more of them were encountered in camps and in the next several years, over 100 grizzly bears had to be euthanized, putting the park bear population on the brink of extinction. On July 28, 1975, under the authority of the Endangered Species Act, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed the grizzly bear in the lower 48 states as a threatened species.[5]","List of gray wolf populations by country The Northern Rocky Mountain states (Wyoming, Idaho and Montana) have an approximate population of 1,657 wolves in 282 packs (including 85 breeding pairs).[73]","List of animals of Yellowstone Mountain lions were significantly reduced by predator control measures during the early 20th century. It is reported that 121 lions were removed from the park between the years 1904 and 1925. At that time, the remaining population was estimated to be 12 individuals. Mountain lions apparently existed at very low numbers between 1925 and 1940. Reports of lions in Yellowstone have increased steadily from 1 each year between 1930 and 1939 to about 16 each year between 1980 and 1988. However, increases in visitor travel in Yellowstone and improvements in record keeping during this period probably contributed to this trend.","List of gray wolf populations by country On October 27, 2014, a collared wolflike canid was seen in north of Grand Canyon, in November 2014, the same animal was videoed,[85] it was confirmed to be a northwestern wolf from the Northern Rocky Mountains in November 21, 2014.[86] On December 28, 2014, it was shot dead in southwestern Utah near Arizona border.[87]","Gray wolf In Central Europe, wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century, because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899.[154] In Switzerland, wolves were extinct in the twentieth century; they are naturally coming back from Italy since the 1990s.[155] In 1934, Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection, though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point.[156] The last free-living wolf to be killed on the soil of present-day Germany before 1945 was the so-called \"Tiger of Sabrodt\", which was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia) in 1904. Today, wolves have returned to the area.[157] Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800–813, when he established the louveterie, a special corps of wolf hunters. The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but was re-established in 1814. In 1883, up to 1,386 wolves were killed, with many more by poison.[154]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Scientists have been researching and studying the impacts on the Yellowstone ecosystem since re-introduction in 1995.","List of gray wolf populations by country Two gray wolves were captured in north-central Washington state in July 2008, one of which was a nursing female. This is the first evidence of reproducing wolves in the state since the 1930s.[74] As of the end of 2014, Washington has at least 68 wolves in 16 packs with 5 breeding pairs.[75]","Yellowstone National Park In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park.[103] Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide.[104] The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known.[105] These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.","Coyote In areas where the ranges of coyotes and gray wolves overlap, interference competition and predation by wolves has been hypothesized to limit local coyote densities. Coyote ranges expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries following the extirpation of wolves, while coyotes were driven to extinction on Isle Royale after wolves colonized the island in the 1940s. One study conducted in Yellowstone National Park, where both species coexist, concluded that the coyote population in the Lamar River Valley declined by 39% following the reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s, while coyote populations in wolf inhabited areas of the Grand Teton National Park are 33% lower than in areas where they are absent.[107][108] Wolves have been observed to not tolerate coyotes in their vicinity, though coyotes have been known to trail wolves to feed on their kills.[95]","List of animals of Yellowstone Moose (Alces alces shirasi Nelson), the largest member of the deer family, were reportedly very rare in northwest Wyoming when Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872. Subsequent protection from hunting and wolf control programs may have contributed to increased numbers but suppression of forest fires probably was the most important factor, since moose here depend on mature fir forests for winter survival.","Ecology of the Rocky Mountains The restoration of the gray wolf to the Yellowstone National Park not only restores an important ecosystem component (the wolf) and process (predation by wolves) to bring the park into better ecological balance, but it also is economically sound. After weighing the costs (including full reimbursement to ranchers for the loss of livestock) and benefits (increased revenues from hunting and tourism), economists estimated (before the actual restoration took place) a net $18 million return during the first year after the wolves were returned, and about $110 million in 20 years. More tourists are expected to visit the area of the Yellowstone National Park and to stay longer in hope of hearing or seeing wolves in the wild. Compensatory payments to ranchers for the loss of cattle and sheep to wolves averaged about $1,800 per year in northwestern Montana.[1]","Cougar The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey, mostly in winter. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens.[99] Conversely, lone female wolves are vulnerable to predation, and have been reported ambushed and killed by cougars.[100] Various accounts of cougars killing lone female wolves, including a six-year-old female, have also been documented.[101][102][103] Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves.[104] In nearby Sun Valley, Idaho, a cougar/wolf encounter that resulted in the death of the cougar was documented.[105] One researcher in Oregon noted: \"When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table.\"[106]","List of animals of Yellowstone Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) were once very numerous in western United States and were an important food source for humans. The \"Sheepeaters\", a band of Shoshone people, lived year-round in Yellowstone until 1880. Their principal food was bighorn sheep and they made their bows from sheep horns. By 1900, during an \"epoch of relentless destruction by the skin hunters\", bighorn numbers were reduced to a few hundred in the United States. In 1897 about 100-150 were estimated to be present in the park. By 1912, despite a disease (scab) contracted from domestic sheep, bighorns in the park had increased to more than 200 and travelers could find them with fair certainty by devoting a few days to searching around Mount Everts, Mount Washburn or other well-known ranges. In winter, small bands of sheep could then be seen every day between Mammoth and Gardiner. Bighorn sheep usually live 10–15 years in the wild.","Wolf In Central Europe, wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century, because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899.[164] In Switzerland, wolves were extinct in the twentieth century; they are naturally coming back from Italy since the 1990s.[165] In 1934, Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection, though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point.[166] The last free-living wolf to be killed on the soil of present-day Germany before 1945 was the so-called \"Tiger of Sabrodt\", which was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia) in 1904. Today, wolves have returned to the area.[167] Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800–813, when he established the louveterie, a special corps of wolf hunters. The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but was re-established in 1814. In 1883, up to 1,386 wolves were killed, with many more by poison.[164]","Wolf Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period, an extermination known as ōkami no kujo. The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching, which the Meiji government promoted at the time, and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign. The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23, 1905 near Washikaguchi (now called Higashi Yoshiro).[186] The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves, which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan, before it separated from mainland Asia, 20,000 years ago during the Pleistocene. During the Holocene, the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō, thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago. Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7,000–13,000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures. C. l. hattai (formerly native to Hokkaidō) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax, as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey, as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia.[187]","Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acre/31,250 square-mile (8,093,712 ha/80,937 km2) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a region that includes Grand Teton National Park, adjacent National Forests and expansive wilderness areas in those forests. The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the contiguous United States, considered the world's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone.[12] With the successful wolf reintroduction program, which began in the 1990s, virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can still be found there.","Red wolf Red wolves may have been the first New World wolf species encountered by European colonists, and were originally distributed throughout the eastern United States from the Atlantic Ocean to central Texas, and in the north from the Ohio River Valley, northern Pennsylvania and southern New York south to the Gulf of Mexico.[9] The red wolf was nearly driven to extinction by the mid-1900s due to aggressive predator-control programs, habitat destruction, and extensive hybridization with coyotes. By the late 1960s, it occurred in small numbers in the Gulf Coast of western Louisiana and eastern Texas. Fourteen of these survivors were selected to be the founders of a captive-bred population, which was established in the Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium between 1974 and 1980. After a successful experimental relocation to Bulls Island off the coast of South Carolina in 1978, the red wolf was declared extinct in the wild in 1980 to proceed with restoration efforts. In 1987, the captive animals were released into the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge on the Albemarle Peninsula in North Carolina, with a second release, since reversed, taking place two years later in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.[14] Of 63 red wolves released from 1987–1994,[15] the population rose to as many as 100–120 individuals in 2012, but has declined to 40 individuals in 2018.[16]","List of animals of Yellowstone Bison are the largest grazing mammals in Yellowstone National Park. They are obligate herbivores, a grazer of grasslands and sedges in the meadows, the foothills, and even the high-elevation, forested plateaus of Yellowstone. Bison males, called bulls, can weigh upwards of 1,800 pounds. Females (cows) average about 1,300 pounds. Both stand approximately six feet tall at the shoulder, and can move with surprising speed to defend their young or when approached too closely by people. Bison breed from mid-July to mid-August, and bear one calf in April and May. Some wolf predation of bison is documented in Canada and has recently been observed in Yellowstone. Bison live an average lifespan of 20–25 years in the wild.[2]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Similarly, after the wolves' reintroduction, their increased predation of elk benefited Yellowstone's grizzly bear population, as it led to a significant increase in the growth of berries in the national park, an important food source for the grizzly bears.[37]","Gray wolf Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period, an extermination known as ōkami no kujo. The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching, which the Meiji government promoted at the time, and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign. The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23, 1905 near Washikaguchi (now called Higashi Yoshiro).[175] The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves, which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan, before it separated from mainland Asia, 20,000 years ago during the Pleistocene. During the Holocene, the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō, thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago. Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7,000–13,000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures. C. l. hattai (formerly native to Hokkaidō) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax, as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey, as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia.[176]","List of gray wolf populations by country The wolf has been extirpated from Mexico since the 1970s when the U.S. and Mexican governments cooperated to capture all remaining wild Mexican wolves and initiate a captive-breeding program in an attempt to save the local subspecies.[83] The Mexican Wolf was reintroduced into the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona in 1998 as part of a captive breeding program.[66] There are at least 42 wild Mexican wolves in the southwest United States in 2008.[66][83] In 2014, there are around 83 Mexican wolves in the wild.[84]","Ecology of the Rocky Mountains Grizzly bears once roamed throughout the Rocky Mountains and the western Great Plains. They were hunted relentlessly by European settlers in the 19th century and early 20th century. The last known grizzly bear in Colorado was killed in 1979. The decline of the bears to just 2% of their original range tells of the human-caused extirpation of large predators in the Rocky Mountain region. Only 700-900 grizzly bears may be alive today in the conterminous United States, with 300 grizzlies alive in the Canadian Rockies.[25] During the last 20 years, about 88% of all grizzly bears studied in the northern Rocky Mountains were killed by humans.[1] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is considering delisting the grizzly in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming.[26]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Reintroduction of Experimental Populations Alternative – The purpose of this alternative is to accomplish wolf recovery by reintroducing wolves designated as nonessential experimental populations to Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho and by implementing provisions within Section 10(j) of the ESA to conduct special management to address local concerns. The states and tribes would be encouraged to implement the special rules for wolf management outside national parks and national wildlife refuges under cooperative agreement with the FWS.","Grizzly bear In early March 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to withdraw Endangered Species Act protections from grizzly bears in and around Yellowstone National Park. The population has risen from 136 bears in 1975 to an estimated 700 in 2017, and was \"delisted\" in June 2017.[145][147][146]","Brown bear Brown bears regularly intimidate gray wolves (Canis lupus) away from their kills, with wolves occurring in most of the brown bear's worldwide distribution.[7] In Yellowstone National Park, brown bears pirate wolf kills so often, Yellowstone's Wolf Project director Doug Smith wrote, \"It's not a matter of if the bears will come calling after a kill, but when.\" Similarly, in Denali National Park, grizzly bears routinely rob wolf packs of their kills.[252] On the contrary, in Katmai National Park and Preserve, wolves, even lone wolves, may manage to displace brown bears at carrion sites.[364] Despite the high animosity between the two species, most confrontations at kill sites or large carcasses end without bloodshed on either side. Though conflict over carcasses is common, on rare occasions the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. To date, there are only a few cases of fully-grown wolves being killed by brown bears and none of wolves killing healthy adult brown bears.[243][365][366] Given the opportunity, however, both species will prey on the other's cubs.[252][367] Conclusively, the individual power of the bear against the collective strength of the wolf pack usually results in a long battle for kills or domination.","Wolves and moose on Isle Royale During the winter of 1997 a particularly virile wolf (later named \"Old Gray Guy\" and wolf No. 93) crossed the 15 miles of ice to Isle Royale. Old Gray Guy was larger and more territorial than the other Isle Royale wolves. His own pack grew to an unusually large 10 wolves, and displaced and drove to extinction one of the other 4 packs.[20] He was so-named because as he aged his fur became very pale, an unusual phenomenon. It was determined that by 2009, 56% of the wolves on Isle Royale had descended from Old Gray Guy.[20]","History of wolves in Yellowstone Therefore I recommend restoring this native predator by introducing wolves to Yellowstone","List of gray wolf populations by country On 12 March 2012, a grey wolf, mistakenly thought to be a coyote, was shot on Newfoundland. It was the first confirmed grey wolf on Newfoundland since ca. 1930.[61]","Yellowstone National Park The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has stated that bison are the \"likely source\" of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle.[93] Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter.[94] The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and in Elk Island National Park in Alberta.[95]","Evolution of the wolf The wolf was exterminated in the southern part of their historic geographical range in North America by the middle of the 20th century. An mDNA study of 34 wolf remains from North America dated between 1856 and 1915 found their genetic diversity to be twice that of modern wolves in these regions, and two thirds of the haplotypes identified were unique. These results indicate that a historic population of several hundred thousand wolves once existed in Mexico and the western US.[136][115]","Yellowstone National Park Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.[55]","List of animals of Yellowstone The Canada lynx is listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. Biologists studying the lynx in Yellowstone believe it has persisted in the park in some number since the park's creation in 1872. A four-year study completed in 2005 concluded there is a small resident population of lynx in the park, but it is rarely seen directly or indirectly (tracks) by either biologists or visitors.[8]","Yellowstone National Park An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population.[99] Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods.[100] Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears.[100] Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.[101]","Ecology of the Rocky Mountains These numbers, added with the estimated number of wolves in northwestern Montana (130), puts the total number of wolves in the Northern U.S. Rocky Mountain recovery area at over 1000 individuals. This includes approximately 134 packs (two or more wolves traveling together) and 71 breeding pairs (male and female that successfully rear a litter of at least two until Dec. 31). The recovery goal for the area was 30 breeding pairs total, and this number has been surpassed for some time.[30] In addition, there are at least 120 grey wolves in the Canadian Rockies.[31]","List of animals of Yellowstone Bears were once commonly observed along roadsides and within developed areas of Yellowstone National Park. Bears were attracted to these areas by the availability of human foods in the form of handouts and unsecured camp groceries and garbage. Although having bears readily visible along roadsides and within developed areas was very popular with the park visitors, it was also considered to be the primary cause of an average of 48 bear-caused human injuries per year from 1930 through 1969. Rocky Mountain grizzly bears have killed several people in the park since the 1970s.[4]","List of animals of Yellowstone From 1980 to 2002, over 62 million people visited Yellowstone National Park (YNP). During the same period, 32 people were injured by bears. Grizzly bear-inflicted injuries to humans in developed areas averaged approximately 1 per year during the 1930s through the 1950s and 4 per year during the 1960s. Human injuries from black bears have decreased from averages of 46 per year from 1931 to 1969, to 4 per year during the 1970s and less than one (0.17) per year from 1980 to 2002. The chance of being injured by a bear while in the park is approximately 1 in 1.9 million. Five known bear-caused human fatalities and 1 possible fatality have occurred within the park. In addition, 1 fatality occurred in the Gallatin National Forest outside of the park.","List of animals of Yellowstone Yellowstone is the only place in the lower 48 states where a population of wild American bison has persisted since prehistoric times, although fewer than 50 native bison remained there in 1902. Fearing extinction, the park imported 21 bison from two privately owned herds, as foundation stock for a bison ranching project that spanned 50 years at the Lamar Buffalo Ranch in Yellowstone's Lamar Valley. Activities there included irrigation, hay-feeding, roundups, culling, and predator control, to artificially ensure herd survival. By the 1920s, some intermingling of the introduced and wild bison had begun. With protection from poaching, the native and transplanted populations increased. In 1936, bison were transplanted to historic habitats in the Firehole River and Hayden Valley. In 2003, the entire population numbered 1,477. Bison were trapped and herds periodically reduced until 1967, when only 397 bison were counted parkwide. All bison herd reduction activities were phased out after 1966, again allowing natural ecological processes to determine bison numbers and distribution. Presently, the park's bison population is estimated at about 4,000.","Wolves in Great Britain In the forty-third year of Edward III's rule, a Thomas Engaine held lands in Pytchley in the county of Northampton, on the condition that he find special hunting dogs to kill wolves in the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex and Buckingham. In the eleventh year of Henry VI's reign (1433), a Sir Robert Plumpton held a bovate of land called “Wolf hunt land” in Nottingham, by service of winding a horn and chasing or frightening the wolves in Sherwood Forest. The wolf is generally thought to have become extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII (1485–1509), or at least very rare. By this time, wolves had become limited to the Lancashire forests of Blackburnshire and Bowland, the wilder parts of the Derbyshire Peak District, and the Yorkshire Wolds. Indeed, wolf bounties were still maintained in the East Riding until the early 19th century.[5]","Wolves and moose on Isle Royale However, in December 2016, the National Park Service (NPS) put forward a plan in which they would add 20 to 30 wolves to the island in order to prevent the pack from disappearing completely.[27]","Wolfdog In 2008, Dr. Gregory S. Barsh, a professor of genetics and pediatrics at the Stanford University School of Medicine used molecular genetic techniques to analyze DNA sequences from 150 wolves, half of them black, in Yellowstone National Park, which covers parts of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. It was discovered that a gene mutation responsible for the protein beta-defensin 3, known as the K locus, is responsible for the black coat color in dogs.[29] After finding that the same mutation was responsible for black wolves in North America and the Italian Apennines, he set out to discover the origin of the mutation. Barsh and his colleagues concluded that the mutation arose in dogs 13,000 to 120,000 years ago, with a preferred date of 47,000 years ago after comparing large sections of wolf, dog, and coyote genomes.[27] At the University of California, Los Angeles, Robert K. Wayne, a canine evolutionary biologist, stated that he believed that dogs were the first to have the mutation. He further stated that even if it originally arose in Eurasian wolves, it was passed on to dogs who, soon after their arrival, brought it to the New World and then passed it to wolves and coyotes.[30] Black wolves with recent dog ancestry tend to retain black pigment longer as they age.[31]","Banff National Park In the mid-1980s gray wolves recolonized the Bow Valley in Banff National Park. They had been absent for 30 years due to systematic predator control hunting which began in 1850. Wolves filtered back to Banff and recolonized one zone of the Bow Valley in 1985 and another in 1991.[71][76] A high level of human use surrounding a third zone at Banff townsite has deterred the wolves from that area.[77] The wolves are important in controlling elk populations and improve the balance of the ecosystem. A routine park study to monitor the wolves in Banff has now grown into the Southern Rockies Canine Project – the largest wolf research project in North America.[78] The estimated wolf population in Banff National Park and the surrounding areas is now 60–70 animals.[71]","Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the timber wolf, coyote, the threatened Canadian lynx, and grizzly bears.[7] Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and cougar."],"string":"[\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Updated research in the 1980s verified that the last official killing of wolves in the park took place in 1926 when two pups found near Soda Butte Creek were killed by park rangers.[7] The last reported wolf killed in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (prior to today’s legal hunting or control measures) occurred in May 1943 when Leo Cottenoir, a Native American sheepheader on the Wind River Reservation shot a wolf near the southern border of the park.[8]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone When Yellowstone National Park was created in 1872, gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations were already in decline in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. The creation of the national park did not provide protection for wolves or other predators, and government predator control programs in the first decades of the 1900s essentially helped eliminate the gray wolf from Yellowstone. The last wolves were killed in Yellowstone in 1926. After that time, sporadic reports of wolves still occurred, but scientists confirmed that sustainable wolf populations had been extirpated and were absent from Yellowstone during the mid-1900s.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone It is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park by 1926,[1] although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933.[3] However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored study revealed that during the period 1927 to 1977, there were several hundred probable sightings of wolves in the park.[4] Between 1977 and the re-introduction in 1995, there were additional reliable sightings of wolves in the park, most believed to be singles or pairs transiting the region.[5]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Prior to the National Park Service assuming control of the park in 1916, the U.S. Army killed 14 wolves during their tenure (1886–1916),[3] most in the years 1914–15.[1] In 1940, Adolph Murie, a noted wildlife biologist published his Fauna Series No. 4—Fauna of the National Parks of the United States-Ecology of the Coyote in the Yellowstone National Park. In this report, Murie tallied the number of wolves killed as reported annually by park administrators between 1915 and 1935:[6]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone In 1872, when Yellowstone National Park was created, there was yet no legal protection for wildlife in the park. In the early years of the park, administrators, hunters and tourists were essentially free to kill any game or predator they came across. The gray wolf was especially vulnerable to this wanton killing because it was generally considered an undesirable predator and was being willingly extirpated throughout its North American range. In January 1883, the Secretary of the Interior issued regulations prohibiting hunting of most park animals, but the regulations did not apply to wolves, coyotes, bears, mountain lions and other small predators.[1]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Northern Rocky Mountain wolves, a subspecies of the gray wolf (Canis lupus), were native to Yellowstone when the park was established in 1872. Predator control was practiced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1914 and 1926, at least 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the 1940s, wolf packs were rarely reported. By the 1970s, scientists found no evidence of a wolf population in Yellowstone; wolves persisted in the lower 48 states only in northern Minnesota and on Isle Royale in Michigan. Canadian grey wolves were introduced into Yellowstone in 1995.[15] This move has returned wolves to land that was once ruled by the canine. They currently exist in several packs, the largest of which are the Slough Creek, Yellowstone Delta, and Leopold packs. The wolves had to \\\"re-learn\\\" an instinct that their ancestors once had: hunting bison. Being used to the elk in Canada, the wolves were dumbfounded by the large, burly bison found all over Yellowstone. However, their main prey remains elk. They have made many appearances on National Geographic Channel documentaries. Wolves in Yellowstone can live as long as 10 years in the wild, though 6 to 8 is normal.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Shortly after the U.S. Army took over administration of the park on August 1st, 1886, Captain Moose Harris, the first military superintendent, banned public hunting of any wildlife and any predator control was to be left to the park's administration.[2] Official records show however, that the U.S. Army did not begin killing any wolves until 1914.[3]\",\n \"Ecology of the Rocky Mountains Gray wolves once were common throughout the Rocky Mountains. They were shot, poisoned, and trapped into local extinction by early settlers and federal agents. The last gray wolf in Colorado was killed in 1940, and the wolf was first listed as an endangered species in 1967. Wolves from southeastern British Columbia recolonized northwestern Montana in 1986; by 1994 the population had grown to 7 packs and about 70-75 wolves. Wolves from Glacier National Park have dispersed naturally as far away as northeastern Idaho and just south of Yellowstone National Park. A wolf was shot near Yellowstone National Park in 1992. From January to March 1995, 15 adult wolves from 7 different packs in Canada were introduced into central Idaho wilderness areas. Several pairs have bred and produced the first litters of wolf pups born in Idaho in more than 50 years. Fourteen wolves (three family groups) were released in the Yellowstone National Park in late March 1995.[1] A total of 66 wolves were released to the two areas in this manner in January 1995 and January 1996.[28] Several wolves from the Northern Rockies have dispersed to the Southern Rockies but have failed to establish a population there. Most have been killed.[29]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves imported from Canada were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval.[97] Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995–96.[97] The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.[98]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Seventeen (17) additional wolves captured in Canada arrived in Yellowstone in January 1996 and were released into the park in April 1996 from the Chief Joseph, Lone Star, Druid Peak and Nez Perce pens. These were the last wolves released into the park as officials believed that the natural reproduction and survival were sufficient to obviate additional releases.[19][20]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone *1995-99 Data reflects status of the wolf in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Since 2000 monitoring has focused on packs operating within park boundaries. Wolves continue to spread to surrounding areas, and the last official report by the park for the Greater Yellowstone Area counted 272 wolves in 2002.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Starting in the 1940s, park managers, biologists, conservationists and environmentalists began what would ultimately turn into a campaign to reintroduce the gray wolf into Yellowstone National Park. When the Endangered Species Act of 1973 was passed, the road to legal reintroduction was clear. In 1995, gray wolves were first reintroduced into Yellowstone in the Lamar Valley. The history of wolves in Yellowstone chronicles the extirpation, absence and reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone, and how the reintroduction was not without controversy or surprises for scientists, governments or park managers.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Because gray wolf populations in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho had recovered sufficiently to meet the goals of the Wolf Recovery Plan, on May 4, 2008 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service changed the status of the gray wolf population known as the Northern Rocky Mountains Distinct Population Segment from Endangered to Experimental Population-Non Essential.[14]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of \\\"destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry\\\" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone.[96] Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed.[96] After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone The wolves in Yellowstone and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem fall within this population. In response to the change in status, state wildlife authorities in Idaho and Montana enacted quota-based hunting seasons on wolves as part of their approved state Wolf Management Plans. Environmental groups objected to the delisting and the hunting seasons, but despite legal attempts to stop them (Defenders of Wildlife et al v Ken Salazar et al), the wolf hunts, which commenced in Montana in September 2009 were allowed to proceed. A number of noted wildlife biologists that had been instrumental in the restoration of wolves—David Mech,[38] Douglas Smith,[39] and Mark Hebblewhite [40] supported the state wildlife management plans and the delisting because they believed the wolf populations were now at sustainable levels.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone The gray wolf was one of the first species to be listed as endangered (1967) under the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966.[14] However, until the passage of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, there was no legal basis or process for re-introducing the gray wolf to Yellowstone National Park and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.[13] The Endangered Species Act obligated the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to develop restoration plans for each species designated as Endangered. The first recovery plan was completed in 1980 but gained little traction. In 1987, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a revised Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan which led the way to wolf reintroduction. The plan was a cooperative effort between the National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, academia, state wildlife agencies and environmental groups. Its Executive Summary contains the following:\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone In January 1995, U.S. and Canadian wildlife officials captured 14 wolves from multiple packs east of Jasper National Park, near Hinton, Alberta, Canada. These wolves arrived in Yellowstone in two shipments—January 12, 1995 (8 wolves) and January 20, 1995 (6 wolves). They were released into three acclimation pens—Crystal Creek, Rose Creek and Soda Butte Creek in the Lamar Valley in Northeast East Yellowstone National Park. In March 1995, the pens were opened and between March 21 and March 31, 1995 all 14 wolves were loose in Yellowstone.[19]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone The United States Fish and Wildlife Service provides weekly updates on the wolves of the Rocky Mountain region including wolves of Yellowstone.[16]\\nThis site has stated that at the end of 2011 there was at least 98 wolves in ten packs and two loner wolves in the park.[17]\",\n \"Wolf In Alaska, the gray wolf population is estimated at 6,000–7,000, and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons, with bag limits and other restrictions. As of 2002, there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone, and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho. The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act (ESA) protection in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan in 1974, and was re-classed from endangered to threatened in 2003. Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and, as of late 2002, number 28 individuals in eight packs.[202] A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County, Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times. DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region.[203]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone The campaign to restore the gray wolf in Yellowstone had its roots in a number of seminal studies related to the predator-prey ecology of the park. In 1940 Adolph Murie published Ecology of the Coyote in the Yellowstone National Park. That study and his 1940–41 work The Wolves of Mount McKinley was instrumental in building a scientific foundation for wolf conservation.[11] In 1944, noted wildlife biologist Aldo Leopold, once an avid predator control advocate, made the following comments in his review of The Wolves of North America, Young and Goldman, 1944:\",\n \"Red wolf In 1991, two pairs were reintroduced into the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, where the last known red wolf was killed in 1905. Despite some early success, the wolves were relocated to North Carolina in 1998, ending the effort to reintroduce the species to the park.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Wolf population declines, when they occur, result from \\\"intraspecific strife,\\\" food stress, mange, canine distemper, legal hunting of wolves in areas outside the park (for sport or for livestock protection) and in one case in 2009, lethal removal by park officials of a human-habituated wolf.[22]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Although wolves within the park boundaries were still fully protected, wolves that ventured outside the boundaries of the park in Idaho or Montana could now be legally hunted. During these hunts, Montana hunters legally killed a number of wolves in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness known to frequent the northeast corner of the park.\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone In 1885, Congress created the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy with the express purpose of research for the protection of wildlife. The agency soon became the U.S. Biological Survey which was the forerunner of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In 1907, under political pressure from the western cattle and livestock industries, this agency began a concerted program which eventually was called: Animal Damage Control. This predator control program alone killed 1,800 wolves and 23,000 coyotes in 39 U.S. National Forests in 1907.[3] In 1916, when the National Park Service was created, its enabling legislation included words that authorized the Secretary of the Interior to \\\"provide in his discretion for the destruction of such animals and of such plant life as may be detrimental to the use of said parks, monuments and reservations\\\".[3]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone From 2000–2004, the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks reduced antlerless permits by 51% from 2,882 to 1,400. They proposed only 100 permits for 2006 which was a 96% decrease from the 2,660 permits issued in 1995. Initially, the effects of wolf predation on elk during the first five years of the recovery were not detected, as elk numbers were identical to those of 1980–1994. From the winter of 1995 to the winter of 2004 however, the elk greatly decreased in number, dropping from 16,791 to 8,335 as the number of wolves on the northern range increased from 21 to 106, though predation from bears, increased human harvests, more severe winter and droughts were also factors. Since 2000, 45% of known deaths and 75% of predation-caused deaths of radio collared cow-elk have been confirmed to be attributable to wolves. Human caused deaths in the same period accounted for 8–30% of known deaths. Yellowstone elk comprise up to 92% of the winter diet of wolves, the overall kill rates of Yellowstone wolves on elk in winter being estimated at 22 ungulates per wolf annually. This is higher than the 12 ungulates per wolf rate predicted in the ESA.[41]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Meanwhile, wolf packs often claim kills made by cougars, which has driven that species back out of valley hunting grounds to their more traditional mountainside territory.[34]\",\n \"Gray wolf In Alaska, the gray wolf population is estimated at 6,000–7,000, and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons, with bag limits and other restrictions. As of 2002, there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone, and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho. The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act (ESA) protection in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan in 1974, and was re-classed from endangered to threatened in 2003. Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and, as of late 2002, number 28 individuals in eight packs.[191] A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County, Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times. DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region.[192]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Once the wolves were gone, elk populations began to rise. Over the next few years conditions of Yellowstone National Park declined drastically. A team of scientists visiting Yellowstone in 1929 and 1933 reported, \\\"The range was in deplorable conditions when we first saw it, and its deterioration has been progressing steadily since then.\\\" By this time many biologists were worried about eroding land and plants dying off. The elk were multiplying inside the park and deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood suffered from overgrazing. The park service started trapping and moving the elk and, when that was not effective, killing them. Elk population control methods continued for more than 30 years. Elk control prevented further degradation of the range, but didn't improve its overall condition. At times, people would mention bringing wolves back to Yellowstone to help control the elk population. Yellowstone's managers were not eager to bring back wolves, especially after so successfully extirpating them from the park. Elk control continued into the 1960s. In the late 1960s, local hunters began to complain to their congressmen that there were too few elk, and the congressmen threatened to stop funding Yellowstone. Killing elk was given up as control method which allowed elk populations to again rise. As elk populations rose, the quality of the range decreased affecting many other animals. Without wolves, coyote populations increased dramatically which adversely impacted the pronghorn antelope population.[9] However, it was the overly large elk populations that caused the most profound changes to the ecosystem of Yellowstone with the absence of wolves.[10]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone The final EIS opened the way for re-introduction, but not without opposition. The Sierra Club and National Audubon Society opposed the re-introduction plan on the grounds that Experimental populations were not protected enough once the wolves were outside the park. The Farm Bureau's of Idaho, Wyoming and Montana opposed the plan on the basis that the wrong subspecies of wolf—Canis lupus occidentalis (northwestern wolf (Canada)) instead of Canis lupus irremotus (Northern Rocky Mountains wolf) was selected for reintroduction. These objections were overcome and in January 1995, the process of physically reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone began.[18]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone The reintroduction of wolves in 1995 has significantly decreased the coyote population, although those who remain often scavenge from wolf kills. Throughout the restoration project, coyote research has continued, with an eye toward identifying the interactions between coyotes and wolves and on assessing the effects of wolves on coyote populations. During planning and environmental assessment of the effects of wolf restoration, biologists anticipated that coyotes would compete with the larger canid, perhaps resulting in disruption of packs and numerical declines.[9]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone By the 1960s, cultural and scientific understanding of ecosystems was changing attitudes toward the wolf and other large predators. In the early 1960s, Douglas Pimlott, a noted Canadian wildlife biologist was calling for the restorations of wolves in the northern rockies. In 1970 American wolf expert, David Mech published The Wolf: The Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species (1970, 1981), an enlightening study of the wolf and its impact on its environment.[13] In 1978, when wildlife biologist John Weaver published his seminal study Wolves of Yellowstone, he concluded the report with the following recommendation:\",\n \"Wolf The species' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada, with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and small portions of Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Montana. A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials.[196] Canadian wolves began to naturally re-colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979, and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986.[197] The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994.[198] From 1995–1996, wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho. In addition, the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998. The gray wolf is found in approximately 80% of its historical range in Canada, thus making it an important stronghold for the species.[4]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Wolf kills are scavenged by and thus feed a wide array of animals, including, but not limited to, ravens, wolverines, bald eagles, golden eagles, grizzly bears, black bears, jays, magpies, martens and coyotes.[34]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone The wolves became significant predators of coyotes after their reintroduction. Since then, in 1995 and 1996, the local coyote population went through a dramatic restructuring. Until the wolves returned, Yellowstone National Park had one of the densest and most stable coyote populations in America due to a lack of human impacts. Two years after the wolf reintroductions, the pre-wolf population of coyotes had been reduced to 50% through both competitive exclusion and intraguild predation. Coyote numbers were 39% lower in the areas of Yellowstone where wolves were reintroduced. In one study, about 16% of radio-collared coyotes were preyed upon by wolves. Yellowstone coyotes have had to shift their territories as a result, moving from open meadows to steep terrain. Carcasses in the open no longer attract coyotes; when a coyote is chased on flat terrain, it is often killed. They feel more secure on steep terrain where they will often lead a pursuing wolf downhill. As the wolf comes after it, the coyote will turn around and run uphill. Wolves, being heavier, cannot stop and the coyote gains a large lead. Though physical confrontations between the two species are usually dominated by the larger wolves, coyotes have been known to attack wolves if they outnumber them. Both species will kill each other's pups given the opportunity.[32][33]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone In 1991 Congress directed the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to develop an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the express purpose of reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone National Park and regions of Central Idaho. The final statement was published on April 14, 1994 and seriously examined five potential alternatives for reestablishing wolves in Yellowstone and central Idaho.[16]\",\n \"Gray wolf The species' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada, with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and small portions of Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Montana. A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials.[185] Canadian wolves began to naturally re-colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979, and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986.[186] The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994.[187] From 1995–1996, wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho. In addition, the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998. The gray wolf is found in approximately 80% of its historical range in Canada, thus making it an important stronghold for the species.[3]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone There still remains, even in the United States, some areas of considerable size in which we feel that both red and gray [wolves] may be allowed to continue their existence with little molestation. …Where are these areas? Probably every reasonable ecologist will agree that some of them should lie in the larger national parks and wilderness areas: for instance Yellowstone and its adjacent national forests. …Why, in the necessary process of extirpating wolves from livestock ranges of Wyoming and Montana, were not some of the uninjured animals used to restock Yellowstone?\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Historically, the wolf populations originally native to Yellowstone were classed under the subspecies C. l. irremotus. When the issue of what subspecies to use for the introduction was raised, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service representatives stated that the taxonomy of gray wolves had been revised numerous times, and that C. l. irremotus was not a distinct subspecies, but a geographical variant. Three publications were made on the appropriateness of using a founding population of Canadian wolves: Brewster and Fritz supported the motion, while Nowak determined that the original Yellowstone wolves were more similar to C. l. nubilus, a subspecies already present in Minnesota, and that the Canadian animals proposed by Brewster and Fritz were of the subspecies C. l. occidentalis, a significantly larger animal. The rationale behind Brewster and Fritz's favor was that wolves show little genetic diversity, and that the original population was extinct anyway. This was contradicted by Nowak, who contested that Minnesotan wolves were much more similar in size and shape to the original population than the proposed Canadian wolves, though he conceded that C. l. occidentalis was probably already migrating southward even before human intervention. The final use of Canadian wolves for the reintroduction was not without criticism: the American Society of Mammalogists criticized the project's lack of deference to the principle of Bergmann's rule, stating that the wolves used for the introduction were 30% larger than the original park wolves, and were adapted to much colder climates. Finally, the society questioned the legality under the ESA of \\\"recovering\\\" a taxon of wolf by expanding the historic range of a less similar type, when more closely related founder stock still remained available.[42] Doug Smith states that the size difference between the introduced wolves and the original wolves was actually only a 6-7 percent difference and Minnesotan wolves had no experience with elk and bison and were not adapted to mountainous terrain.[43]\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country In northeast Oregon, also in July 2008, wolf howls were heard by biologists who identified at least 2 adults and 2 pups. This was the first confirmed breeding pair in Oregon.[76] By December 2011, Oregon's gray wolf population had grown to 24. One of the Oregon gray wolves, known as OR-7, traveled more than 700 miles (1,100 km) to the Klamath Basin and crossed the border into California.[77] Wolf OR-7 became the first wolf west of the Cascades in Oregon since the last bounty was claimed in 1947.[78] Oregon's wolf population increased to 77 wolves in 15 packs with 8 breeding pairs as of the end of 2015.[73] As a result, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife proposed to delist wolves from their protected species list.[79] On January 14, 2009, the United States Department of the Interior removed the Canadian gray wolf from the Endangered Species List in every American state except Wyoming.[80] This move was blocked by lawsuits filed by conservation groups, but was successfully delisted on April 15, 2011 by the US Congress as part of a budget bill.[81] On August 31, 2012, Governor Matt Mead of Wyoming announced that wolves were no longer on the endangered species list in the state of Wyoming; therefore, they no longer need special protections from the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The wolf population in Wyoming is then controlled by the state. But on September 23, 2014, wolves in Wyoming are again listed as nonessential experimental population under the Endangered Species Act.[82]\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country The United States as a whole has up to 18,000 wolves, about two thirds of which are in Alaska.[62] They are increasing in number in all their ranges. Usually however, wolves in the United States are mostly seen during the winter months in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and portions of Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Montana, as the majority of wolf populations migrate from the Canada areas to the Northwestern states & some of the Midwestern and Great Lakes States during the winter months for the competition over eating Bison, Elk, White Tailed Deer and other large ungulates, disputed between other carnivores such as Grizzly Bears, Cougars, and Coyotes. Wolf recovery has been so successful that the United States Fish & Wildlife Service removed the western gray wolf from the federal endangered species list on March 28, 2008.[4][63] Due to the controversy over wolf shootings, a coalition of environmental groups sued the federal government to put the gray wolf back on the Endangered Species list.[64] On July 18, 2008, a federal judge ruled in favor of renewed endangered species protection.[65] Alaska has a stable population of 10,500-12,000 wolves, which are legally hunted from August to April ( in deer-rich areas ) as a big game species.[4][66]\",\n \"Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem The park is a commonly cited example of apex predators affecting an ecosystem through a trophic cascade. After the reintroduction of the gray wolf in 1995, researchers noticed drastic changes occurring. Elk, the primary prey of the gray wolf, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing. The respite allowed willows and aspens to grow, creating habitat for beaver,[5] moose, and scores of other species. In addition to the effects on prey species, the gray wolf's presence also affected the park's grizzly bear population. The bears, emerging from hibernation, chose to scavenge off wolf kills to gain needed energy and fatten up after fasting for months. Dozens of other species have been documented scavenging from wolf kills.[6][citation needed]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone As the wolf population in the park has grown, the elk population, their favored prey, has declined. Prior to reintroduction, the EIS predicted that wolves would kill an average 12 elk per wolf annually. This estimate proved too low as wolves are now killing an average of 22 elk per wolf annually.[30] This decline in elk has resulted in changes in flora, most specifically willows, cottonwoods and aspens along the fringes of heavily timbered areas. Although wolf kills are directly attributable to declines in elk numbers, some research has shown that elk behavior has been significantly altered by wolf predation. The constant presence of wolves have pushed elk into less favorable habitats, raised their stress level, lowered their nutrition and their overall birth rate.[31]\",\n \"Apex predator Dramatic changes in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were recorded after the gray wolf, both an apex predator and a keystone species (one with a large effect on its ecosystem), was reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 as a conservation measure. Elk, the wolves' primary prey, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing and allowing willows, aspens and cottonwoods to flourish, creating habitats for beaver, moose and scores of other species.[24] In addition to their effect on prey species, the wolves' presence also affected one of the park's vulnerable species, the grizzly bear: emerging from hibernation, having fasted for months, the bears chose to scavenge wolf kills,[25] especially during the autumn as they prepared to hibernate once again.[26] The grizzly bear gives birth during hibernation, so the increased food supply is expected to produce an increase in the numbers of cubs observed.[27] Dozens of other species, including eagles, ravens, magpies, coyotes and black bears have also been documented as scavenging from wolf kills within the park.[28]\",\n \"Wolf The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture. By the start of the 20th century, the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA, excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region. In Canada, the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921, and in Newfoundland around 1911. It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900. The gray wolf's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s–70s. From 1900–1930, the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada, because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species. The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960, except in Alaska and northern Minnesota. The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s, particularly in southwestern Canada, because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting. This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada. Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s, mostly by poisoning. This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid-1970s.[4]\",\n \"Wolf The extermination of Northern Europe's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages, and continued until the late 19th century. In England, wolf persecution was enforced by legislation, and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII. Wolves lasted longer in Scotland, where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest, which were subsequently burned down. Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684. The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course, with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786.[163] A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647, after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives. By 1960, few wolves remained in Sweden, because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them, with the last specimen being killed in 1966. The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway's last wolf was killed in 1973. The species was decimated in 20th century Finland, despite regular dispersals from Russia. The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900, though its numbers increased after World War II.[164]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Elk or wapiti (Cervus canadensis) are the most abundant large mammal found in Yellowstone; paleontological evidence confirms their continuous presence for at least 1,000 years. Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872, when market hunting of all large grazing animals was rampant. Not until after 1886, when the United States Army was called in to protect the park and wildlife slaughter was brought under control, did the large animals increase in number.[10] In recent years, however, Yellowstone's elk population has plummeted. The Northern Herd, the only herd that winters in the park, has declined from nearly 20,000 animals in 1994 to less than 4,000 in 2013. Ecologists have linked this decline to a declining population of cutthroat trout in Yellowstone Lake, caused by invasive lake trout. With less fish to eat, grizzly bears began to eat more elk calves, causing a steep decline in elk numbers.[11][12]\",\n \"Gray wolf The extermination of Northern Europe's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages, and continued until the late 1800s. In England, wolf persecution was enforced by legislation, and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII. Wolves lasted longer in Scotland, where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest, which were subsequently burned down. Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684. The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course, with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786.[153] A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647, after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives. By 1960, few wolves remained in Sweden, because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them, with the last specimen being killed in 1966. The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway's last wolf was killed in 1973. The species was decimated in 20th century Finland, despite regular dispersals from Russia. The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900, though its numbers increased after World War II.[154]\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country The last wolf in Denmark was shot in 1813, but in 2009, 2010 and 2012 there was speculation that a wolf had crossed the border from Germany due to numerous observations, with the latest in Thy National Park.[28][29] This was confirmed after an autopsy, which also concluded that the particular wolf had died from side effects of a cancerous tumor. It was the first known wolf in Denmark for 199 years.[30] In 2013, three different lone wolves have been observed in Denmark.[31] According to local biologists based on sound recordings, one pair have had pups. Compensation is paid for livestock damage.[32] In July 2017 an adult wolf with eight pups was filmed, making it the first time in 200 years that wolfpups had been born in Denmark[33]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Alternative 1 was the recommended and ultimately adopted alternative:\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Over the next several decades, the bears learned to hunt and forage for themselves from non-human food sources, and their population slowly grew.[5] On March 22, 2007, grizzly bears were taken off of the endangered species list. In the 30 years since the grizzly was listed as a threatened species, the Yellowstone population increased from 126 to 500. \\\"The grizzly is a large predator that requires a great deal of space, and conserving such animals is a challenge in today's world,\\\" Deputy Interior Secretary Lynn Scarlett said in announcing the decision. \\\"I believe all Americans should be proud that, as a nation, we had the will and the ability to protect and restore this symbol of the wild.\\\" [6]\",\n \"Gray wolf The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture. By the start of the 20th century, the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA, excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region. In Canada, the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921, and in Newfoundland around 1911. It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900. The gray wolf's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s–70s. From 1900–1930, the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada, because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species. The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960, except in Alaska and northern Minnesota. The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s, particularly in southwestern Canada, because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting. This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada. Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s, mostly by poisoning. This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid-1970s.[3]\",\n \"Wolverine The Wildlife Conservation Society reported in June 2009 that a wolverine researchers had been tracking for almost three months had crossed into northern Colorado. Society officials had tagged the young male wolverine in Wyoming near Grand Teton National Park and it had traveled southward for about 500 miles. It was the first wolverine seen in Colorado since 1919, and its appearance was also confirmed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife.[55] In May 2016 the same wolverine was killed by a cattle ranch-hand in North Dakota, ending a >800 mile trip by this lone male wolverine, dubbed M-56. This was the first verified sighting of a Wolverine in North Dakota in 150 years.[56] In February 2014, a wolverine was seen in Utah, the first confirmed sighting in that state in 30 years.[57]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone The Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan represents a \\\"road map\\\" to recovery 'of the gray wolf in' the Rocky Mountains. The primary goal of the plan is to remove the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf from the endangered and threatened species list by securing and maintaining a minimum of 10 breeding pairs of wolves in each of the three recovery areas for a minimum of three successive years.\",\n \"Wolves in Great Britain Scottish folklore tells of how an old man in Morayshire named MacQueen of Findhorn killed the last wolf in 1743.[8]\",\n \"Wolves in Great Britain The wolves later caused such damage to the cattle herds of Sutherland that in 1577, James VI made it compulsory to hunt wolves three times a year.[1] Stories of the killing of the alleged last wolf of Scotland vary. Official records indicate that the last Scottish wolf was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron in 1680 in Killiecrankie (Perthshire),[1][10] but there are reports that wolves survived in Scotland up until the 18th century,[8] and a tale even exists of one being seen as late as 1888.[11]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone With the reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park, much interest has been shown regarding the effects of a restored wolf population on both grizzly bears and black bears. Grizzly bears, black bears, and gray wolves have historically coexisted in much of the same range throughout a large portion of North America.\",\n \"Wildlife management Elk overpopulation in Yellowstone is thought by many wildlife biologists, such as Douglas Smith, to have been primarily caused by the extirpation of wolves from the park and surrounding environs. After wolves were removed, elk herds increased in population, reaching new highs during the mid-1930s. The increased number of elk apparently resulted in overgrazing in parts of Yellowstone. Park officials decided that the elk herd should be managed. For approximately thirty years, the park elk herds were culled: Each year some were captured and shipped to other locations, a certain number were killed by park rangers, and hunters were allowed to take more elk that migrated outside the park. By the late 1960s the herd populations dropped to historic lows (less than 4,000 for the Northern Range herd). This caused outrage among both conservationists and hunters. The park service stopped culling elk in 1968. The elk population then rebounded. Twenty years later there were 19,000 elk in the Northern Range herd, a historic high.\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Coyotes live an average of about 6 years, although one Yellowstone coyote lived to be more than 13 before she was killed and eaten by a cougar.[9] The coyote is a common predator in the park, often seen alone or in packs, traveling through the park's wide open valleys hunting small mammals. But they are widely distributed and their sign can also be found in the forests and thermal areas throughout Yellowstone. They are capable of killing large prey, especially when they cooperatively hunt.\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone In 1970, the park took a gamble and initiated an intensive bear management program. The objectives of this change was restoring the grizzly bear and black bear populations to subsistence on natural forage and reducing bear-caused injuries to humans. As part of the bear management program implemented in 1970, regulations prohibiting the feeding of bears were strictly enforced. Some experts believed that the bears would not survive this change. As the bears became more desperate for food and more aggressive, more of them were encountered in camps and in the next several years, over 100 grizzly bears had to be euthanized, putting the park bear population on the brink of extinction. On July 28, 1975, under the authority of the Endangered Species Act, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed the grizzly bear in the lower 48 states as a threatened species.[5]\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country The Northern Rocky Mountain states (Wyoming, Idaho and Montana) have an approximate population of 1,657 wolves in 282 packs (including 85 breeding pairs).[73]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Mountain lions were significantly reduced by predator control measures during the early 20th century. It is reported that 121 lions were removed from the park between the years 1904 and 1925. At that time, the remaining population was estimated to be 12 individuals. Mountain lions apparently existed at very low numbers between 1925 and 1940. Reports of lions in Yellowstone have increased steadily from 1 each year between 1930 and 1939 to about 16 each year between 1980 and 1988. However, increases in visitor travel in Yellowstone and improvements in record keeping during this period probably contributed to this trend.\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country On October 27, 2014, a collared wolflike canid was seen in north of Grand Canyon, in November 2014, the same animal was videoed,[85] it was confirmed to be a northwestern wolf from the Northern Rocky Mountains in November 21, 2014.[86] On December 28, 2014, it was shot dead in southwestern Utah near Arizona border.[87]\",\n \"Gray wolf In Central Europe, wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century, because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899.[154] In Switzerland, wolves were extinct in the twentieth century; they are naturally coming back from Italy since the 1990s.[155] In 1934, Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection, though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point.[156] The last free-living wolf to be killed on the soil of present-day Germany before 1945 was the so-called \\\"Tiger of Sabrodt\\\", which was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia) in 1904. Today, wolves have returned to the area.[157] Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800–813, when he established the louveterie, a special corps of wolf hunters. The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but was re-established in 1814. In 1883, up to 1,386 wolves were killed, with many more by poison.[154]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Scientists have been researching and studying the impacts on the Yellowstone ecosystem since re-introduction in 1995.\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country Two gray wolves were captured in north-central Washington state in July 2008, one of which was a nursing female. This is the first evidence of reproducing wolves in the state since the 1930s.[74] As of the end of 2014, Washington has at least 68 wolves in 16 packs with 5 breeding pairs.[75]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park.[103] Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide.[104] The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known.[105] These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.\",\n \"Coyote In areas where the ranges of coyotes and gray wolves overlap, interference competition and predation by wolves has been hypothesized to limit local coyote densities. Coyote ranges expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries following the extirpation of wolves, while coyotes were driven to extinction on Isle Royale after wolves colonized the island in the 1940s. One study conducted in Yellowstone National Park, where both species coexist, concluded that the coyote population in the Lamar River Valley declined by 39% following the reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s, while coyote populations in wolf inhabited areas of the Grand Teton National Park are 33% lower than in areas where they are absent.[107][108] Wolves have been observed to not tolerate coyotes in their vicinity, though coyotes have been known to trail wolves to feed on their kills.[95]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Moose (Alces alces shirasi Nelson), the largest member of the deer family, were reportedly very rare in northwest Wyoming when Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872. Subsequent protection from hunting and wolf control programs may have contributed to increased numbers but suppression of forest fires probably was the most important factor, since moose here depend on mature fir forests for winter survival.\",\n \"Ecology of the Rocky Mountains The restoration of the gray wolf to the Yellowstone National Park not only restores an important ecosystem component (the wolf) and process (predation by wolves) to bring the park into better ecological balance, but it also is economically sound. After weighing the costs (including full reimbursement to ranchers for the loss of livestock) and benefits (increased revenues from hunting and tourism), economists estimated (before the actual restoration took place) a net $18 million return during the first year after the wolves were returned, and about $110 million in 20 years. More tourists are expected to visit the area of the Yellowstone National Park and to stay longer in hope of hearing or seeing wolves in the wild. Compensatory payments to ranchers for the loss of cattle and sheep to wolves averaged about $1,800 per year in northwestern Montana.[1]\",\n \"Cougar The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey, mostly in winter. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens.[99] Conversely, lone female wolves are vulnerable to predation, and have been reported ambushed and killed by cougars.[100] Various accounts of cougars killing lone female wolves, including a six-year-old female, have also been documented.[101][102][103] Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves.[104] In nearby Sun Valley, Idaho, a cougar/wolf encounter that resulted in the death of the cougar was documented.[105] One researcher in Oregon noted: \\\"When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table.\\\"[106]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) were once very numerous in western United States and were an important food source for humans. The \\\"Sheepeaters\\\", a band of Shoshone people, lived year-round in Yellowstone until 1880. Their principal food was bighorn sheep and they made their bows from sheep horns. By 1900, during an \\\"epoch of relentless destruction by the skin hunters\\\", bighorn numbers were reduced to a few hundred in the United States. In 1897 about 100-150 were estimated to be present in the park. By 1912, despite a disease (scab) contracted from domestic sheep, bighorns in the park had increased to more than 200 and travelers could find them with fair certainty by devoting a few days to searching around Mount Everts, Mount Washburn or other well-known ranges. In winter, small bands of sheep could then be seen every day between Mammoth and Gardiner. Bighorn sheep usually live 10–15 years in the wild.\",\n \"Wolf In Central Europe, wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century, because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899.[164] In Switzerland, wolves were extinct in the twentieth century; they are naturally coming back from Italy since the 1990s.[165] In 1934, Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection, though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point.[166] The last free-living wolf to be killed on the soil of present-day Germany before 1945 was the so-called \\\"Tiger of Sabrodt\\\", which was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia) in 1904. Today, wolves have returned to the area.[167] Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800–813, when he established the louveterie, a special corps of wolf hunters. The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but was re-established in 1814. In 1883, up to 1,386 wolves were killed, with many more by poison.[164]\",\n \"Wolf Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period, an extermination known as ōkami no kujo. The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching, which the Meiji government promoted at the time, and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign. The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23, 1905 near Washikaguchi (now called Higashi Yoshiro).[186] The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves, which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan, before it separated from mainland Asia, 20,000 years ago during the Pleistocene. During the Holocene, the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō, thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago. Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7,000–13,000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures. C. l. hattai (formerly native to Hokkaidō) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax, as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey, as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia.[187]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acre/31,250 square-mile (8,093,712 ha/80,937 km2) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a region that includes Grand Teton National Park, adjacent National Forests and expansive wilderness areas in those forests. The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the contiguous United States, considered the world's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone.[12] With the successful wolf reintroduction program, which began in the 1990s, virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can still be found there.\",\n \"Red wolf Red wolves may have been the first New World wolf species encountered by European colonists, and were originally distributed throughout the eastern United States from the Atlantic Ocean to central Texas, and in the north from the Ohio River Valley, northern Pennsylvania and southern New York south to the Gulf of Mexico.[9] The red wolf was nearly driven to extinction by the mid-1900s due to aggressive predator-control programs, habitat destruction, and extensive hybridization with coyotes. By the late 1960s, it occurred in small numbers in the Gulf Coast of western Louisiana and eastern Texas. Fourteen of these survivors were selected to be the founders of a captive-bred population, which was established in the Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium between 1974 and 1980. After a successful experimental relocation to Bulls Island off the coast of South Carolina in 1978, the red wolf was declared extinct in the wild in 1980 to proceed with restoration efforts. In 1987, the captive animals were released into the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge on the Albemarle Peninsula in North Carolina, with a second release, since reversed, taking place two years later in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.[14] Of 63 red wolves released from 1987–1994,[15] the population rose to as many as 100–120 individuals in 2012, but has declined to 40 individuals in 2018.[16]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Bison are the largest grazing mammals in Yellowstone National Park. They are obligate herbivores, a grazer of grasslands and sedges in the meadows, the foothills, and even the high-elevation, forested plateaus of Yellowstone. Bison males, called bulls, can weigh upwards of 1,800 pounds. Females (cows) average about 1,300 pounds. Both stand approximately six feet tall at the shoulder, and can move with surprising speed to defend their young or when approached too closely by people. Bison breed from mid-July to mid-August, and bear one calf in April and May. Some wolf predation of bison is documented in Canada and has recently been observed in Yellowstone. Bison live an average lifespan of 20–25 years in the wild.[2]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Similarly, after the wolves' reintroduction, their increased predation of elk benefited Yellowstone's grizzly bear population, as it led to a significant increase in the growth of berries in the national park, an important food source for the grizzly bears.[37]\",\n \"Gray wolf Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period, an extermination known as ōkami no kujo. The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching, which the Meiji government promoted at the time, and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign. The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23, 1905 near Washikaguchi (now called Higashi Yoshiro).[175] The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves, which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan, before it separated from mainland Asia, 20,000 years ago during the Pleistocene. During the Holocene, the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō, thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago. Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7,000–13,000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures. C. l. hattai (formerly native to Hokkaidō) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax, as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey, as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia.[176]\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country The wolf has been extirpated from Mexico since the 1970s when the U.S. and Mexican governments cooperated to capture all remaining wild Mexican wolves and initiate a captive-breeding program in an attempt to save the local subspecies.[83] The Mexican Wolf was reintroduced into the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona in 1998 as part of a captive breeding program.[66] There are at least 42 wild Mexican wolves in the southwest United States in 2008.[66][83] In 2014, there are around 83 Mexican wolves in the wild.[84]\",\n \"Ecology of the Rocky Mountains Grizzly bears once roamed throughout the Rocky Mountains and the western Great Plains. They were hunted relentlessly by European settlers in the 19th century and early 20th century. The last known grizzly bear in Colorado was killed in 1979. The decline of the bears to just 2% of their original range tells of the human-caused extirpation of large predators in the Rocky Mountain region. Only 700-900 grizzly bears may be alive today in the conterminous United States, with 300 grizzlies alive in the Canadian Rockies.[25] During the last 20 years, about 88% of all grizzly bears studied in the northern Rocky Mountains were killed by humans.[1] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is considering delisting the grizzly in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming.[26]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Reintroduction of Experimental Populations Alternative – The purpose of this alternative is to accomplish wolf recovery by reintroducing wolves designated as nonessential experimental populations to Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho and by implementing provisions within Section 10(j) of the ESA to conduct special management to address local concerns. The states and tribes would be encouraged to implement the special rules for wolf management outside national parks and national wildlife refuges under cooperative agreement with the FWS.\",\n \"Grizzly bear In early March 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to withdraw Endangered Species Act protections from grizzly bears in and around Yellowstone National Park. The population has risen from 136 bears in 1975 to an estimated 700 in 2017, and was \\\"delisted\\\" in June 2017.[145][147][146]\",\n \"Brown bear Brown bears regularly intimidate gray wolves (Canis lupus) away from their kills, with wolves occurring in most of the brown bear's worldwide distribution.[7] In Yellowstone National Park, brown bears pirate wolf kills so often, Yellowstone's Wolf Project director Doug Smith wrote, \\\"It's not a matter of if the bears will come calling after a kill, but when.\\\" Similarly, in Denali National Park, grizzly bears routinely rob wolf packs of their kills.[252] On the contrary, in Katmai National Park and Preserve, wolves, even lone wolves, may manage to displace brown bears at carrion sites.[364] Despite the high animosity between the two species, most confrontations at kill sites or large carcasses end without bloodshed on either side. Though conflict over carcasses is common, on rare occasions the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. To date, there are only a few cases of fully-grown wolves being killed by brown bears and none of wolves killing healthy adult brown bears.[243][365][366] Given the opportunity, however, both species will prey on the other's cubs.[252][367] Conclusively, the individual power of the bear against the collective strength of the wolf pack usually results in a long battle for kills or domination.\",\n \"Wolves and moose on Isle Royale During the winter of 1997 a particularly virile wolf (later named \\\"Old Gray Guy\\\" and wolf No. 93) crossed the 15 miles of ice to Isle Royale. Old Gray Guy was larger and more territorial than the other Isle Royale wolves. His own pack grew to an unusually large 10 wolves, and displaced and drove to extinction one of the other 4 packs.[20] He was so-named because as he aged his fur became very pale, an unusual phenomenon. It was determined that by 2009, 56% of the wolves on Isle Royale had descended from Old Gray Guy.[20]\",\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone Therefore I recommend restoring this native predator by introducing wolves to Yellowstone\",\n \"List of gray wolf populations by country On 12 March 2012, a grey wolf, mistakenly thought to be a coyote, was shot on Newfoundland. It was the first confirmed grey wolf on Newfoundland since ca. 1930.[61]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has stated that bison are the \\\"likely source\\\" of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle.[93] Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter.[94] The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and in Elk Island National Park in Alberta.[95]\",\n \"Evolution of the wolf The wolf was exterminated in the southern part of their historic geographical range in North America by the middle of the 20th century. An mDNA study of 34 wolf remains from North America dated between 1856 and 1915 found their genetic diversity to be twice that of modern wolves in these regions, and two thirds of the haplotypes identified were unique. These results indicate that a historic population of several hundred thousand wolves once existed in Mexico and the western US.[136][115]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.[55]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone The Canada lynx is listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. Biologists studying the lynx in Yellowstone believe it has persisted in the park in some number since the park's creation in 1872. A four-year study completed in 2005 concluded there is a small resident population of lynx in the park, but it is rarely seen directly or indirectly (tracks) by either biologists or visitors.[8]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population.[99] Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods.[100] Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears.[100] Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.[101]\",\n \"Ecology of the Rocky Mountains These numbers, added with the estimated number of wolves in northwestern Montana (130), puts the total number of wolves in the Northern U.S. Rocky Mountain recovery area at over 1000 individuals. This includes approximately 134 packs (two or more wolves traveling together) and 71 breeding pairs (male and female that successfully rear a litter of at least two until Dec. 31). The recovery goal for the area was 30 breeding pairs total, and this number has been surpassed for some time.[30] In addition, there are at least 120 grey wolves in the Canadian Rockies.[31]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Bears were once commonly observed along roadsides and within developed areas of Yellowstone National Park. Bears were attracted to these areas by the availability of human foods in the form of handouts and unsecured camp groceries and garbage. Although having bears readily visible along roadsides and within developed areas was very popular with the park visitors, it was also considered to be the primary cause of an average of 48 bear-caused human injuries per year from 1930 through 1969. Rocky Mountain grizzly bears have killed several people in the park since the 1970s.[4]\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone From 1980 to 2002, over 62 million people visited Yellowstone National Park (YNP). During the same period, 32 people were injured by bears. Grizzly bear-inflicted injuries to humans in developed areas averaged approximately 1 per year during the 1930s through the 1950s and 4 per year during the 1960s. Human injuries from black bears have decreased from averages of 46 per year from 1931 to 1969, to 4 per year during the 1970s and less than one (0.17) per year from 1980 to 2002. The chance of being injured by a bear while in the park is approximately 1 in 1.9 million. Five known bear-caused human fatalities and 1 possible fatality have occurred within the park. In addition, 1 fatality occurred in the Gallatin National Forest outside of the park.\",\n \"List of animals of Yellowstone Yellowstone is the only place in the lower 48 states where a population of wild American bison has persisted since prehistoric times, although fewer than 50 native bison remained there in 1902. Fearing extinction, the park imported 21 bison from two privately owned herds, as foundation stock for a bison ranching project that spanned 50 years at the Lamar Buffalo Ranch in Yellowstone's Lamar Valley. Activities there included irrigation, hay-feeding, roundups, culling, and predator control, to artificially ensure herd survival. By the 1920s, some intermingling of the introduced and wild bison had begun. With protection from poaching, the native and transplanted populations increased. In 1936, bison were transplanted to historic habitats in the Firehole River and Hayden Valley. In 2003, the entire population numbered 1,477. Bison were trapped and herds periodically reduced until 1967, when only 397 bison were counted parkwide. All bison herd reduction activities were phased out after 1966, again allowing natural ecological processes to determine bison numbers and distribution. Presently, the park's bison population is estimated at about 4,000.\",\n \"Wolves in Great Britain In the forty-third year of Edward III's rule, a Thomas Engaine held lands in Pytchley in the county of Northampton, on the condition that he find special hunting dogs to kill wolves in the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex and Buckingham. In the eleventh year of Henry VI's reign (1433), a Sir Robert Plumpton held a bovate of land called “Wolf hunt land” in Nottingham, by service of winding a horn and chasing or frightening the wolves in Sherwood Forest. The wolf is generally thought to have become extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII (1485–1509), or at least very rare. By this time, wolves had become limited to the Lancashire forests of Blackburnshire and Bowland, the wilder parts of the Derbyshire Peak District, and the Yorkshire Wolds. Indeed, wolf bounties were still maintained in the East Riding until the early 19th century.[5]\",\n \"Wolves and moose on Isle Royale However, in December 2016, the National Park Service (NPS) put forward a plan in which they would add 20 to 30 wolves to the island in order to prevent the pack from disappearing completely.[27]\",\n \"Wolfdog In 2008, Dr. Gregory S. Barsh, a professor of genetics and pediatrics at the Stanford University School of Medicine used molecular genetic techniques to analyze DNA sequences from 150 wolves, half of them black, in Yellowstone National Park, which covers parts of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. It was discovered that a gene mutation responsible for the protein beta-defensin 3, known as the K locus, is responsible for the black coat color in dogs.[29] After finding that the same mutation was responsible for black wolves in North America and the Italian Apennines, he set out to discover the origin of the mutation. Barsh and his colleagues concluded that the mutation arose in dogs 13,000 to 120,000 years ago, with a preferred date of 47,000 years ago after comparing large sections of wolf, dog, and coyote genomes.[27] At the University of California, Los Angeles, Robert K. Wayne, a canine evolutionary biologist, stated that he believed that dogs were the first to have the mutation. He further stated that even if it originally arose in Eurasian wolves, it was passed on to dogs who, soon after their arrival, brought it to the New World and then passed it to wolves and coyotes.[30] Black wolves with recent dog ancestry tend to retain black pigment longer as they age.[31]\",\n \"Banff National Park In the mid-1980s gray wolves recolonized the Bow Valley in Banff National Park. They had been absent for 30 years due to systematic predator control hunting which began in 1850. Wolves filtered back to Banff and recolonized one zone of the Bow Valley in 1985 and another in 1991.[71][76] A high level of human use surrounding a third zone at Banff townsite has deterred the wolves from that area.[77] The wolves are important in controlling elk populations and improve the balance of the ecosystem. A routine park study to monitor the wolves in Banff has now grown into the Southern Rockies Canine Project – the largest wolf research project in North America.[78] The estimated wolf population in Banff National Park and the surrounding areas is now 60–70 animals.[71]\",\n \"Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the timber wolf, coyote, the threatened Canadian lynx, and grizzly bears.[7] Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and cougar.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["History of wolves in Yellowstone It is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park by 1926,[1] although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933.[3] However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored study revealed that during the period 1927 to 1977, there were several hundred probable sightings of wolves in the park.[4] Between 1977 and the re-introduction in 1995, there were additional reliable sightings of wolves in the park, most believed to be singles or pairs transiting the region.[5]"],"string":"[\n \"History of wolves in Yellowstone It is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park by 1926,[1] although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933.[3] However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored study revealed that during the period 1927 to 1977, there were several hundred probable sightings of wolves in the park.[4] Between 1977 and the re-introduction in 1995, there were additional reliable sightings of wolves in the park, most believed to be singles or pairs transiting the region.[5]\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":199,"cells":{"_id":{"kind":"string","value":"test930"},"query":{"kind":"string","value":"who presides over the highest criminal court in a district"},"gt_ids":{"kind":"list like","value":["doc33199"],"string":"[\n \"doc33199\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_qrels":{"kind":"list like","value":[1],"string":"[\n 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\"doc33199\",\n \"doc33200\",\n \"doc1934989\",\n \"doc554450\",\n \"doc450107\",\n \"doc2394510\",\n \"doc2394509\",\n \"doc33205\",\n \"doc1741929\",\n \"doc593856\",\n \"doc1430735\",\n \"doc33201\",\n \"doc1867994\",\n \"doc600671\",\n \"doc33206\",\n \"doc2227622\",\n \"doc2466678\",\n \"doc1926254\",\n \"doc904871\",\n \"doc1938212\",\n \"doc1565692\",\n \"doc2460660\",\n \"doc2178698\",\n \"doc1638609\",\n \"doc130866\",\n \"doc1088164\",\n \"doc2172411\",\n \"doc987249\",\n \"doc547437\",\n \"doc2227621\",\n \"doc2075660\",\n \"doc554464\",\n \"doc166216\",\n \"doc615108\",\n \"doc265655\",\n \"doc2208973\",\n \"doc2178728\",\n \"doc2598652\",\n \"doc287223\",\n \"doc1425741\",\n \"doc554452\",\n \"doc1638610\",\n \"doc2178671\",\n \"doc615106\",\n \"doc2031483\",\n \"doc1938214\",\n \"doc600650\",\n \"doc2520768\",\n \"doc1387039\",\n \"doc1024829\",\n \"doc116388\",\n \"doc2075196\",\n \"doc287208\",\n \"doc2486658\",\n \"doc102580\",\n \"doc1926250\",\n \"doc945525\",\n 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This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides the High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court is also a court of Sessions when it exercises its jurisdiction on criminal matters under the Code of Criminal procedure. The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Governor with on the advice of state chief justice In addition to the district judge there may be a number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.[1]","District Courts of India However, the district judge has supervisory control over Additional and Assistant District Judges, including decisions on the allocation of work among them. The District and Sessions judge is often referred to as \"district judge\" when he presides over civil matters and \"sessions judge\" when he presides over criminal matters.[2] Being the highest judge at district level, the District Judge also enjoys the power to manage the state funds allocated for the development of judiciary in the district.","List of High Courts of India Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a District and Sessions Judge. He is known as a District Judge when he presides over a civil case, and a Sessions Judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a High Court judge. Below him, there are courts of civil jurisdiction, known by different names in different states. Under Article 141 of the Constitution, all courts in India (which includes High Courts) are bound by the judgments and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence.","United States district court A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a \"United States District Judge\". Other federal judges, including circuit judges and Supreme Court Justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to the advice and consent of the Senate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the President's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known as senatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.","List of high courts in India Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a district and sessions judge. He is known as district judge when he presides over a civil case, and sessions judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a high court judge. Below him, there are courts of civil jurisdiction, known by different names in different states. Under Article 141 of the constitution, all courts in India — including high courts — are bound by the judgments and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence.","Government of the District of Columbia The Superior Court of the District of Columbia is the local trial court. It hears cases involving criminal and civil law. The court also handles specialized cases in the following areas: family court, landlord and tenant, probate, tax, and traffic offenses. All appeals of Superior Court decisions go to the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. The Court consists of a chief judge and 61 associate judges. The Court is assisted by the service of 24 magistrate judges, as well as retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Judges are appointed to the court by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for fifteen-year terms.[6]","Government of the District of Columbia The District of Columbia Court of Appeals is the highest court. Established in 1970, it is equivalent to a state supreme court, except that its authority is derived from the United States Congress rather than from the inherent sovereignty of the states. The Court of Appeals should not be confused with the District's federal appellate court, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The Court of Appeals is authorized to review all final orders, judgments, and specified interlocutory orders of the associate judges of the Superior Court, to review decisions of administrative agencies, boards, and commissions of the District government, and to answer questions of law presented by the Supreme Court of the United States, a United States court of appeals, or the highest appellate court of any state. The court consists of a chief judge and eight associate judges. The court is assisted by the service of retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Despite being the District's local appellate court, judges are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for 15-year terms. The DC Courts are a Federal agency.[6]","District Courts of India The District Court or Additional District court exercises jurisdiction both on original side and appellate side in civil and criminal matters arising in the District. The territorial and pecuniary jurisdiction in civil matters is usually set in concerned state enactments on the subject of civil courts. On the criminal side, jurisdiction is exclusively derived from the criminal procedure code. As per this code the maximum sentence a Sessions Judge of district court may award to a convict is capital punishment.","Judiciary of Colombia The ordinary jurisdiction is divided into judicial districts which function as appellate courts (Superior tribunals). Each district has a superior court, which hears appeals from and supervise the lower courts in the district. The court is composed of three judges which are appointed by the Supreme Court. Criminal trials make use of an eight hundred .","Judiciary of India The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Government. In addition to the district judge there may be number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.[29] The district judge is also called \"Metropolitan session judge\" when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is designated \"Metropolitan area\" by the state Government.[30] The district court has appellate jurisdiction over all subordinate courts situated in the district on both civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are, Junior Civil Judge Court, Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.In addition 'Family Courts\" are established to deal with matrimonial disputes alone. The Principal judge of family court is equivalent to District Judge.","Judiciary United States Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President of the United States and approved by the United States Senate. The Supreme Court justices serve for a life term or until retirement. The Supreme Court is located in Washington, D.C. The United States federal court system consists of 94 federal judicial districts. The 94 districts are then divided into twelve regional circuits. The United States has five different types of courts that are considered subordinate to the Supreme Court: United States bankruptcy courts, United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, United States Court of International Trade, United States courts of appeals, and United States district courts.[16][17]","District Courts of India The district judge is also called \"metropolitan session judge\" when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is designated \"metropolitan area\" by the state . Other courts subordinated to district court in the metropolitan area are also referred to with \"metropolitan\" prefixed to the usual designation. An area is designated a metropolitan area by the concerned state Government if population of the area exceeds one million or more than that.[3]","Court of Appeal (England and Wales) The Criminal Division was established in 1966 with the merger of the Court of Criminal Appeal into the Court of Appeal. It hears all appeals from the Crown Court which are in connection with a trial on indictment (i.e. with a jury) and where the Crown Court has sentenced a defendant committed from the Magistrates' Court. It also exercises the jurisdiction to order the issue of writs of venire de novo.[19] The Criminal Division, while bound by the Supreme Court, is more flexible with binding itself, due to the heightened stakes in a case where a possible penalty is a prison sentence.[20] The Division is led by the Lord Chief Justice, currently Lord Burnett of Maldon, assisted by the Vice-President of the Criminal Division, currently Lady Justice Hallett.[21]","United States Attorney The U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia has the additional responsibility of prosecuting local criminal cases in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, the equivalent of a municipal court for the national capital. The Superior Court is a federal Article I court. [20][21]","District Courts of India The district court has appellate jurisdiction over all subordinate courts situated in the district on both civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are, Junior Civil Judge (JCJ) Court,[4] Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.","Superior Court of the District of Columbia The Court consists of a chief judge and 61 associate judges. The Court is assisted by the service of 24 magistrate judges, as well as retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. When a vacancy occurs on the court, the D.C. Judicial Nomination Commission invites applications and sends three candidates' names to the President of the United States, who sends one nomination to the U.S. Senate for advice and consent. If the Senate confirms a judge, he or she serves for a 15-year term, which is renewable. The Superior Court and the D.C. Court of Appeals, known collectively as the D.C. Courts, comprise the judicial branch of D.C. local government.[3]","Court of Appeal of England and Wales The Criminal Division was established in 1966 with the merger of the Court of Criminal Appeal into the Court of Appeal. It hears all appeals from the Crown Court which are in connection with a trial on indictment (i.e. with a jury) and where the Crown Court has sentenced a defendant committed from the Magistrates' Court. It also exercises the jurisdiction to order the issue of writs of venire de novo.[16] The Criminal Division, while bound by the Supreme Court, is more flexible with binding itself, due to the heightened stakes in a case where a possible penalty is a prison sentence.[17] The Division is led by the Lord Chief Justice, currently Sir Ian Burnett, assisted by the Vice-President of the Criminal Division, currently Lady Justice Hallett.[18]","Texas Court of Criminal Appeals The Court is composed of a Presiding Judge and eight judges (unlike the Texas Supreme Court which is composed of a Chief Justice and eight Justices). Each judge serves a six-year term beginning January 1 and ending December 31, and they are elected in staggered partisan elections. Although all nine seats are elected at large, the Presiding Judge seat is separately designated from the other seats.","State court (United States) Generally, state courts are common law courts, and apply their respective state laws and procedures to decide cases. They are organized pursuant to and apply the law in accordance with their state's constitution, state statutes, and binding decisions of courts in their state court hierarchy. Where applicable, they also apply federal law. Generally, a single judicial officer, usually called a judge, exercises original jurisdiction by presiding over contested criminal or civil actions which culminate in trials. The decisions of lower courts may be reviewed by a panel of a state court of appeals (known as a \"court of appeal\" in three states). Generally, there is a state supreme court that oversees the court system. In matters that involve issues of federal law, the final decision of a state supreme court (including refusals to hear final appeals) may be appealed to the United States Supreme Court (which also has the discretion to refuse to hear them).","Criminal jurisdiction The United States district courts have original, exclusive subject matter jurisdiction over \"all offenses against the laws of the United States.\"[5]","United States District Court for the District of Arizona Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","United States District Court for the Southern District of New York The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York has 28 authorized judgeships, filled by judges appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Eighteen judges who have taken senior status are eligible to continue hearing cases. As of June 1, 2016, the Chief Judge of the District is Judge Colleen McMahon, succeeding Judge Loretta Preska, whose seven-year term as Chief Judge expired. Senior Judge Charles S. Haight, Jr. sits by designation with the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut.","Judge In a district court (käräjäoikeus), ordinary judges work with the title käräjätuomari and the chairman is laamanni (lawspeaker). They are assisted by notaries (notaari), assessors (asessori) and referendaries (viskaali) who may sometimes even chair sessions. In appeals courts (hovioikeus) an ordinary judge has the title hovioikeudenneuvos, the chairman of a section is hovioikeudenlaamanni and the court is led by a presidentti. In the Supreme Court, judges are titled oikeusneuvos and the court is led by a presidentti.","United States District Court for the Central District of California The United States Attorney for the Central District represents the United States Government in civil and criminal cases before the court. The United States Attorney has been Nicola T. Hanna since January 5, 2018. United States Attorneys are appointed to their positions by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. They work in the Executive Branch of government under the Department of Justice and are not officials in the Judicial Branch. United States Attorneys report to the Attorney General of the United States.[4]","United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","Pennsylvania Pennsylvania is divided into 60 judicial districts,[129] most of which (except Philadelphia) have magisterial district judges (formerly called district justices and justices of the peace), who preside mainly over preliminary hearings in felony and misdemeanor offenses, all minor (summary) criminal offenses, and small civil claims.[129] Most criminal and civil cases originate in the Courts of Common Pleas, which also serve as appellate courts to the district judges and for local agency decisions.[129] The Superior Court hears all appeals from the Courts of Common Pleas not expressly designated to the Commonwealth Court or Supreme Court. It also has original jurisdiction to review warrants for wiretap surveillance.[129] The Commonwealth Court is limited to appeals from final orders of certain state agencies and certain designated cases from the Courts of Common Pleas.[129] The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania is the final appellate court. All judges in Pennsylvania are elected; the chief justice is determined by seniority.[129]","Prosecutor The titles of prosecutors in state courts vary from state to state and level of government (i.e. city, county and state) and include the terms District Attorney (in New York, California, Texas, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, Wisconsin, Oregon, and Oklahoma[3]), City Attorney, Commonwealth's Attorney (in Kentucky and Virginia), County Attorney (in Arizona),[4] County Prosecutor (in New Jersey,[5] Ohio and Indiana[6]), District Attorney General (in Tennessee), Prosecuting Attorney (in Hawaii, Idaho, Michigan, Washington counties, and West Virginia, and in Missouri except cities that have \"City Attorney\" prosecutors), State's Attorney (in Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, and Vermont), State Prosecutor, Attorney General (in Delaware and Rhode Island), and Solicitor (South Carolina).[7] Prosecutors are most often chosen through local elections, and typically hire other attorneys as deputies or assistants to conduct most of the actual work of the office. United States Attorneys, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, represent the federal government in federal court, in both civil and criminal cases. Private attorneys general can bring criminal cases on behalf of private parties in some states.","State supreme court Territories and federal district","Judiciary of Texas The Texas Supreme Court has constitutional responsibility for the efficient administration of the judicial system and possesses the authority to make rules of administration applicable to the courts[13] in addition to promulgation and amend rules governing procedure in trial and appellate courts, and rules of evidence.[14] The chief justice of the Supreme Court, presiding judge of the Court of Criminal Appeals, chief justices of each of the 14 courts of appeals, and judges of each of the trial courts are generally responsible for the administration of their respective courts.[13]","Superior Court of the District of Columbia The first judicial systems in the new District of Columbia were established by the United States Congress in 1801.[1] The Circuit Court of the District of Columbia (not to be confused with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, which it later evolved into) was both a trial court of general jurisdiction and an appellate court, and it heard cases under both local and federal law. Congress also established justices of the peace and an orphans' court, which were combined in 1870 into a new local court called the Police Court. The Police Court had jurisdiction over misdemeanors (concurrently with the federal courts) as well as equity powers.[1][2] In 1909, Congress converted the Police Court into the Municipal Court, which became a court of record with jury trials in 1921.[1] In 1963, Congress again converted the Municipal Court into the Court of General Sessions. Its jurisdiction was broader, although in criminal cases the federal courts retained concurrent jurisdiction. Under the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970, the Court of General Sessions was combined with the Juvenile Court (established in 1906) and the D.C. Tax Court (established as the local Board of Tax Appeals in 1937) to form the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, a trial court of general and mostly exclusive jurisdiction for D.C.[1]","Magistrates' court (England and Wales) District judges (magistrates' courts), formerly known as a stipendiary magistrates, are professional lawyers permanently employed by the Ministry of Justice. They sit alone to preside over proceedings in more serious cases, usually involving remand, and in committal hearings. To qualify for the position, a law degree and 5 years of experience are necessary.","United States district court Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to the United States court of appeals in the federal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to the United States Supreme Court.","U.S. state States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court, Superior Court or Circuit Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.","United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their circuits, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless the circuit justice (i.e., the Supreme Court justice responsible for the circuit) is also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the circuit judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","United States Virgin Islands The U.S. Virgin Islands have a District Court, Superior Court and the Supreme Court. The District Court is responsible for federal law, while the Superior Court is responsible for U.S. Virgin Islands law at the trial level and the Supreme Court is responsible for appeals from the Superior Court for all appeals filed on or after January 29, 2007. Appeals filed prior to that date are heard by the Appellate Division of the District Court. Appeals from the federal District Court are heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. District Court judges are appointed by the U.S. president, while Superior Court and Supreme Court judges are appointed by the governor.","United States magistrate judge In criminal proceedings, magistrate judges preside over misdemeanor and petty offense cases, and as to all criminal cases (felony and misdemeanor) may issue search warrants, arrest warrants, and summonses, accept criminal complaints, conduct initial appearance proceedings and detention hearings, set bail or other conditions of release or detention, hold preliminary hearings and examinations, administer oaths, conduct extradition proceedings, and conduct evidentiary hearings on motions to suppress evidence in felony cases for issuance of reports and recommendations to the district judge.","Judge The justices of the supreme courts usually hold higher offices than any other judges in a jurisdiction, including a justice of the peace, a judge who holds police court in some jurisdictions and who may also try small claims and misdemeanors. However, the state of New York inverts this usual order. The initial trial court in this state is called the Supreme Court of New York, and its judges are called \"justices\". The next highest appellate court is the Supreme Court, Appellate Division, whose judges are also called \"justices\". However, the highest court in New York is called the New York Court of Appeals, whose members are called \"judges\".","County court Appeals are to a higher judge (circuit judge hears district judge appeals), the High Court of Justice or to the Court of Appeal, as the case may be.","Supreme court The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the \"Supreme Judicial Court\"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.","United States District Court for the Northern District of California Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","United States district court A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called \"chambers\") and staff, and many of them work full-time. A federal judge is addressed in writing as \"The Honorable John/Jane Doe\" or \"Hon. John/Jane Doe\" and in speech as \"Judge\" or \"Judge Doe\" or, when presiding in court, \"Your Honor\".","United States District Court for the Central District of California Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","Judge A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the barristers of the case, assesses the credibility and arguments of the parties, and then issues a ruling on the matter at hand based on his or her interpretation of the law and his or her own personal judgment. In some jurisdictions, the judge's powers may be shared with a jury. In inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate.","United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit When Congress established this court in 1893 as the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, it had a Chief Justice, and the other judges were called Associate Justices, which was similar to the structure of the Supreme Court. The Chief Justiceship was a separate seat: the President would appoint the Chief Justice, and that person would stay Chief Justice until he left the court.","United States District Court for the District of New Jersey Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","Criminal jurisdiction The Sixth Amendment calls for trial “by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed.” Within the federal court system, Rule 18 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure specifies which federal court may hear a particular criminal case:","United States Attorney United States Attorneys (also known as chief federal prosecutors and, historically, as United States District Attorneys)[1][2][3] represent the United States federal government in United States district courts and United States courts of appeals.","Judiciary of Sri Lanka District Courts are lower courts, headed by a District Judge who is vested with original civil jurisdiction.[4][1]","High Court of Justice The Queen's Bench Division – or King's Bench Division when the monarch is male – has two roles. It hears a wide range of common law cases and also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Until 2005, the head of the QBD was the Lord Chief Justice. The post of President of the Queen's Bench Division was created by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, leaving the Lord Chief Justice as President of the Courts of England and Wales, Head of the Judiciary of England and Wales and Head of Criminal Justice.[4] Sir Igor Judge was the first person to hold this office, appointed in October 2005.[4][5]","Supreme Court of the Gambia Section 126 sets out the jurisdiction of the court: the Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for The Gambia and also has appellate and other jurisdiction as defined by the Constitution. It does not have original jurisdiction in any criminal matter. The court may overrule a previous decision \"when it appears right to do so\", and all other courts are bound to follow the decisions of the Supreme Court on a matter of law. Section 67(2)(b) states that when the Speaker acts on a notification of misconduct by the President, he must appoint a tribunal led by the Chief Justice and consisting of other members who must have held high judicial office.[4]","Chief Justice of Ghana The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and at least nine other judges. The Chief Justice is expected to preside at all sittings of the Supreme Court whenever he or she is present.[14] The Chief Justice oversees the administration of the Court of Appeal of which he or she is the most senior member.[15] He or she is also a member and administrator of the High Court[16] and the Regional Tribunals.[17]","Beryl A. Howell She was nominated by President Barack Obama on July 14, 2010 and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on December 22, 2010. She received her judicial commission on December 27, 2010. She became Chief Judge on March 17, 2016. A 2015 analysis by Ravel Law found Howell to be the second most-cited district court judge appointed in the past five years.[13][4]","Supreme court The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.","Wyoming Wyoming's highest court is the Supreme Court of Wyoming, with five justices presiding over appeals from the state's lower courts. Wyoming is unusual in that it does not have an intermediate appellate court, like most states. This is largely attributable to the state's population and correspondingly lower caseload. Appeals from the state district courts go directly to the Wyoming Supreme Court. Wyoming also has state circuit courts (formerly county courts), of limited jurisdiction, which handle certain types of cases, such as civil claims with lower dollar amounts, misdemeanor criminal offenses, and felony arraignments. Circuit court judges also commonly hear small claims cases as well.","Judiciary of Scotland The Lord President of the Court of Session is the head of the country's judiciary and the presiding judge of the College of Justice (which comprises the Court of Session and High Court of Justiciary.) The current Lord President is Lord Carloway, who was appointed in December 2015 having previously served as Lord Justice Clerk[13] When presiding over criminal cases in the High Court of Justiciary the Lord President is known as the Lord Justice-General, an office that can be traced back to the ancient justiciars. In 1830, the Court of Session Act 1830 united the offices of Lord President of the Court of Session and Lord Justice General, with the person appointed as Lord President assuming the office of Lord Justice General ex officio.[14]","Texas Court of Criminal Appeals The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals (CCA) is the court of last resort for all criminal matters in the State of Texas, United States. The Court, which is based in the Supreme Court Building in Downtown Austin,[1] is composed of a Presiding Judge and eight judges.","United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","Courts of England and Wales Magistrates' courts are the criminal court where all criminal proceedings are commenced. They are presided over by a bench of lay magistrates (a.k.a. justices of the peace), or a legally trained district judge (formerly known as a stipendiary magistrate), sitting in each local justice area. There are no juries. They have jurisdiction to hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals. Youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates' courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge. Youth magistrates have a wider catalogue of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths (which for adults would normally be dealt with by the Crown Court). Youth courts are not open to the public for observation, only the parties involved in a case being admitted.","United States District Court for the Southern District of Georgia Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","Washington court system Each of Washington's 39 counties also has a state District Court. These are courts of limited jurisdiction that hear traffic infractions, criminal traffic citations, misdemeanors and gross misdemeanors, civil cases with an amount in controversy less than $100,000, and small claims suits.[2] The District Court conducts trials and other attendant hearings.[3] District Court judges are elected and serve four-year terms.","Arkansas Most cases begin in district court, which is subdivided into state district court and local district court. State district courts exercise district-wide jurisdiction over the districts created by the General Assembly, and local district courts are presided over by part-time judges who may privately practice law. 25 state district court judges preside over 15 districts, with more districts created in 2013 and 2017. There are 28 judicial circuits of Circuit Court, with each contains five subdivisions: criminal, civil, probate, domestic relations, and juvenile court. The jurisdiction of the Arkansas Court of Appeals is determined by the Arkansas Supreme Court, and there is no right of appeal from the Court of Appeals to the high court. The Arkansas Supreme Court can review Court of Appeals cases upon application by either a party to the litigation, upon request by the Court of Appeals, or if the Arkansas Supreme Court feels the case should have been initially assigned to it. The twelve judges of the Arkansas Court of Appeals are elected from judicial districts to renewable six-year terms.","Law of Nigeria The Customary Court of Appeal of a state/FCT is the highest Customary law court in a state/FCT. It is presided over by a Judge who has the title: President of the Customary Court of Appeal of the state/FCT and is assisted by other Judges.[citation needed]","Supreme Court of the United States The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.","President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom From 1900 to 1969, when the Lord Chancellor was not present, a former Lord Chancellor would preside at judicial sittings of the House of Lords. If no former Lord Chancellor was present, the most senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary present would preside, seniority being determined by rank in the peerage. In the years following World War II, it became less common for Lord Chancellors to have time to gain judicial experience in office, making it anomalous for former holders of the office to take precedence. As a result, on 22 May 1969, the rules were changed such that if the Lord Chancellor was not present (as was normally the case) the most senior Law Lord, by appointment as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary rather than peerage, would preside.[2] In 1984, the system was amended to provide that judges be appointed Senior and Second Senior Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, rather than taking the roles by seniority. The purpose of the change was to allow an ailing Lord Diplock to step aside from presiding, yet remain a Law Lord.[3]","Superior Court of the District of Columbia In criminal cases, the government is represented by the Office of the United States Attorney for the District of Columbia or the Office of the Attorney General for the District of Columbia, depending on the nature and severity of the charges.","United States federal judicial district Each district has its own United States district court (with a bankruptcy court under its authority), including judges, clerks, court reporters, and other support personnel, all employed by the judicial branch of the government and overseen by the Administrative Office of the Courts in Washington, D.C. There is also a United States Attorney in each district, who acts as the federal government's lawyer in the district, both prosecuting federal criminal cases and defending the government (and its employees) in civil suits against them; the U.S. Attorney is not employed by the judicial branch but by the Department of Justice, part of the executive branch. There is also a Federal Public Defender who represents people charged with federal crimes who cannot afford to hire their own lawyers; some FPDs cover more than one judicial district. Each district also has a United States Marshal who serves the court system.","Beryl A. Howell Beryl Alaine Howell (born December 3, 1956)[1] is the Chief United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia.","Judiciary of New York (state) The Court of Appeals, sitting in Albany and consisting of seven judges, is the state's highest court. The Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court is the principal intermediate appellate court. The New York State Supreme Court is the trial court of general jurisdiction in civil cases statewide and in criminal cases in New York City. Outside New York City, the 57 individual County Courts hear felony criminal cases. There are a number of local courts in different parts of the state, including the New York City Civil Court and New York City Criminal Court.","District attorney In the United States, a district attorney (DA) is the chief prosecutor in a local government area, typically a county. The exact name of the office varies by state.","Michigan The Michigan judiciary consists of two courts with primary jurisdiction (the Circuit Courts and the District Courts), one intermediate level appellate court (the Michigan Court of Appeals), and the Michigan Supreme Court. There are several administrative courts and specialized courts. District courts are trial courts of limited jurisdiction, handling most traffic violations, small claims, misdemeanors, and civil suits where the amount contended is below $25,000. District courts are often responsible for handling the preliminary examination and for setting bail in felony cases. District court judges are elected to terms of six years. In a few locations, municipal courts have been retained to the exclusion of the establishment of district courts. There are 57 circuit courts in the State of Michigan, which have original jurisdiction over all civil suits where the amount contended in the case exceeds $25,000 and all criminal cases involving felonies. Circuit courts are also the only trial courts in the State of Michigan which possess the power to issue equitable remedies. Circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction from district and municipal courts, as well as from decisions and decrees of state agencies. Most counties have their own circuit court, but sparsely populated counties often share them. Circuit court judges are elected to terms of six years. State appellate court judges are elected to terms of six years, but vacancies are filled by an appointment by the governor. There are four divisions of the Court of Appeals, being located in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Marquette. Cases are heard by the Court of Appeals by panels of three judges, who examine the application of the law and not the facts of the case, unless there has been grievous error pertaining to questions of fact. The Michigan Supreme Court consists of seven members who are elected on non-partisan ballots for staggered eight-year terms. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction only in narrow circumstances, but holds appellate jurisdiction over the entire state judicial system.","United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","District Courts of India A district judge or Additional judge may be removed from his office by the governor on conformation from the high court collegiam.","Mexico The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice, the national supreme court, which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.[110]","Superior court In a number of jurisdictions in the United States, the Superior Court is a state trial court of general jurisdiction with power to hear and decide any civil or criminal action which is not specially designated to be heard in some other courts. California, Connecticut, Washington, Maine, the District of Columbia, and Georgia are all examples of such jurisdictions. In other states, equivalent courts are also known as courts of common pleas (Pennsylvania, Ohio, and others), circuit courts (Illinois, Michigan, Oregon and others), district courts (Louisiana, Texas, Hawaii and others) or, in the case of New York, supreme courts.","Judiciary of Texas District court judges are required to be licensed attorneys. In addition to judicial powers, district judges also have administrative duties as well. District judges may remove county officials [2], officials of a general-law municipality [3], and municipal court judges [4] under certain circumstances. Also, they appoint and supervise the county auditor, oversee the operations of the adult and juvenile probation offices, and are granted \"supervisory\" jurisdiction over the county commissioners court.","United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York has 15 authorized judgeships, filled by judges appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Fourteen judges who have taken senior status are eligible to continue hearing cases. On April 3, 2016, Judge Dora Irizarry became Chief Judge of the Court. Judge Jack B. Weinstein, widely regarded as among the most respected and influential Judges in America, is currently a Senior Judge in this district. Unlike many other judges at Judge Weinstein's level of seniority, he continues to maintain a full docket of cases, including many of the biggest corporate cases considered anywhere in the country.","Judiciary of Malaysia There are generally two types of trials, criminal and civil. The hierarchy of courts begins from the Magistrates' Court, Sessions Court, High Court, Court of Appeal, and finally, the Federal Court.[1] The jurisdiction of the courts in civil or criminal matters are contained in the Subordinate Courts Act 1948 and the Courts of Judicature Act 1964. Article 121 of the Constitution provides for two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction, the High Court in Malaya, and the High Court in Sabah and Sarawak. Thus this creates two separate local jurisdiction of the courts – for Peninsular Malaysia and for East Malaysia. The highest position in the judiciary of Malaysia is the Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Malaysia (also known as the Chief Justice of Malaysia), followed by the President of the Court of Appeal, the Chief Judge of Malaya, and the Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak. The superior courts are the High Court, Court of Appeal, and the Federal Court, while the Magistrates' Courts and the Sessions Courts are classified as subordinate courts.","United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","State supreme court Because state supreme courts generally hear only appeals, some courts have names which directly indicate their function – in the states of New York and Maryland, and in the District of Columbia, the highest court is called the \"Court of Appeals\". In New York, the \"Supreme Court\" is the trial court of general unlimited jurisdiction and the intermediate appellate court is called the \"Supreme Court—Appellate Division\". Maryland's jury trial courts are called \"Circuit Courts\" (non-jury trials are usually conducted by the \"District Courts,\" whose decisions may be appealed to the Circuit Courts), and the intermediate appellate court is called the \"Court of Special Appeals\". West Virginia mixes the two; its highest court is called the \"Supreme Court of Appeals\".","Judiciary of Texas There is a local administrative district judge in each county, as well as a local administrative statutory county court judge in each county that has a statutory county court.[13] In counties with two or more district courts, a local administrative district judge is elected by the district judges in the county for a term not to exceed two years; in counties with two or more statutory county courts, a local administrative statutory county court judge is elected by the statutory county court judges for a term not to exceed two years.[15] The local administrative judge is charged with implementing the local rules of administration, supervising the expeditious movement of court caseloads, and other administrative duties.[16]","United States District Court for the Northern District of Mississippi Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.","Federal judiciary of the United States The United States district courts (one in each of the 94 federal judicial districts, as well three territorial courts) are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)","High Court (Hong Kong) Chief Judge of the High Court","Judiciary Justices of the Mexican Supreme Court are appointed by the President of Mexico, and then are approved by the Mexican Senate to serve for a life term. Other justices are appointed by the Supreme Court and serve for six years. Federal courts consist of the 21 magistrates of the Supreme Court, 32 circuit tribunals and 98 district courts. The Supreme Court of Mexico is located in Mexico City. Supreme Court Judges must be of ages 35 to 65 and hold a law degree during the five years preceding their nomination.[15]","District attorney Except in the smallest counties, a district attorney leads a staff of prosecutors, who are most commonly known as assistant district attorneys (ADAs). The majority of prosecutions will be delegated to ADAs, with the district attorney prosecuting the most important cases and having overall responsibility for their agency and its work. Depending upon the system in place, DAs may be appointed by the chief executive of the jurisdiction or elected by local voters.","State Courts of Singapore The Presiding Judge of the State Courts, a position held by a Supreme Court Judge or Judicial Commissioner, has overall responsibility for the administration of the State Courts. The Presiding Judge leads a team of judicial officers who adjudicate on cases brought before the State Courts. He is assisted administratively by the Deputy Presiding Judge / Registrar and the Corporate and Court Services Division.","Chief Justice of the United States The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments. When the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the court's meetings. In the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the U.S. Senate. Additionally, the presidential oath of office is typically administered by the Chief Justice (although the Constitution does not assign this duty to anyone in particular).","Military justice The military crimes that go to court are handled by civilian courts that have military members. The district court has a learned civilian judge and two military members. One of them is an officer and the other a warrant officer, an NCO or a private. The court of appeals, that acts as the first instance for the prosecution of officers with at least major's rank, will have a military member who has at least a major's rank. The Supreme Court of Finland has two officers with at least colonel's rank as members when handling military crimes.[5]:Ch. 3 and ยง3 These members are not named for a specific case but serve for two-year terms. The military members of the district court are selected by the court of appeals on the motion of the Commander of the Finnish Army. The military members of the Courts of Appeals are selected by the Ministry of Justice on motion of the Ministry of Defence. The military members of the Supreme Court are selected by the President of Finland.[5]:ยง11","Magistrate Members of the second group are known as District Judges (Magistrates' Courts). Unlike magistrates, District Judges (Magistrates' Courts) sit alone. They are appointed by open competition through a process administered by the JAC and are required to be qualified solicitors, barristers, or chartered legal executives. Some also sit in the family court. Questions have been raised by the Magistrates' Association as to the legal safeguards of a single District Judge allowed to hear a case, decide the outcome, and pass sentence without reference to another party.[6]","United States federal judge The primary function of the federal judges is to resolve matters brought before the United States federal courts. Most federal courts in the United States are courts of general jurisdiction, meaning that they hear both civil and criminal cases falling within their jurisdiction. District Court judges are recognized as having such authority as is needed to dispose of matters brought before them, ranging from setting the dates for trials and hearings to holding parties in contempt or otherwise sanctioning them for improper behavior.","District attorney The United States Judiciary Act of 1789, Section 35, provided for the appointment of a person in each judicial district to prosecute federal crimes and to represent the United States in all civil actions to which it was a party. Initially, there were 13 districts to cover the 11 States that had by that time ratified the constitution. Each State was a district, except for Massachusetts and Virginia which formed two. Districts were added when additional States were admitted. The statute did not confer a title upon these local agents of federal authority, but subsequent statutes and court decisions referred to them most frequently as \"district attorneys\". In 1948, the Judicial Code adopted the term \"United States attorneys\".[2]","Crown Court The judges who normally sit in the Crown Court are High Court judges, Circuit judges and Recorders.[8] Circuit judges also sit in the County Court. Recorders are barristers or solicitors in private practice, who sit part-time as judges. The most serious cases (treason, murder, rape etc.) are allocated to High Court judges and Senior Circuit judges. The remainder are dealt with by Circuit judges and Recorders, although Recorders will normally handle less serious work than Circuit judges. The allocation is conducted according to directions given by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales.[9]","United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court As of 2017, Chief Justice John Roberts has appointed all of the current judges, four of whom were nominated to their District Court judgeships by a Democratic President.[2]","Chief Justice of the United States Article I, section 3 of the U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice shall preside over impeachment trials of the President of the United States in the U.S. Senate. Two Chief Justices, Salmon P. Chase and William Rehnquist, have presided over the trial in the Senate that follows an impeachment of the president – Chase in 1868 over the proceedings against President Andrew Johnson and Rehnquist in 1999 over the proceedings against President Bill Clinton. Both presidents were subsequently acquitted.","Magistrate In Portugal, besides being used in the scope of the judiciary to designate prosecutors and judges, the term magistrado was also used to designate certain government officials, like the former civil governors of district. These were referred as \"administrative magistrates\" to distinguish them from the judiciary magistrates. The President of Portugal is considered the Supreme Magistrate of the Nation.","Judiciary of New York (state) Once a judge is elected or appointed, the Chief Judge, in consultation with the Chief Administrative Judge, Administrative Judges, Supervising Judges and the Presiding Justice of the relevant Appellate Division, assigns judges to a court and a part, not necessarily the court and county in which they were elected or appointed, including to the Supreme Court (but not its Appellate Division or Appellate Term) as Acting Supreme Court Judges.[45][46]","Government of Maryland District Court judges are appointed by the Governor to ten-year terms, subject to Senate confirmation. Unlike other judges in the state, they do not stand for election. As of October 2003, some 105 judges, including the Chief Judge, who is designated by the Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals, serve on the Court. As the District Court's administrative head, its Chief Judge appoints administrative judges for each of the twelve districts, subject to the approval of the Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals. Administered centrally, the District Court of Maryland is funded totally by the State.","Magistrate 1.The Chief Judicial Magistrate [CJM] (including Additional Chief Judicial Magistrates.) CJMs hear all types of criminal cases. All magistrates' courts are controlled by the CJM. The CJM looks over the work of judicial magistrates, but cannot take any action against them. The CJM can only report the misbehavior of judicial magistrates to the High Court. A court of Chief Judicial Magistrates can sentence a person to jail up to ten years and impose fines of up to ₹30,000 (US$440). The CJM is the most senior among all magistrates in their district."],"string":"[\n \"District Courts of India The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides the High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court is also a court of Sessions when it exercises its jurisdiction on criminal matters under the Code of Criminal procedure. The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Governor with on the advice of state chief justice In addition to the district judge there may be a number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.[1]\",\n \"District Courts of India However, the district judge has supervisory control over Additional and Assistant District Judges, including decisions on the allocation of work among them. The District and Sessions judge is often referred to as \\\"district judge\\\" when he presides over civil matters and \\\"sessions judge\\\" when he presides over criminal matters.[2] Being the highest judge at district level, the District Judge also enjoys the power to manage the state funds allocated for the development of judiciary in the district.\",\n \"List of High Courts of India Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a District and Sessions Judge. He is known as a District Judge when he presides over a civil case, and a Sessions Judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a High Court judge. Below him, there are courts of civil jurisdiction, known by different names in different states. Under Article 141 of the Constitution, all courts in India (which includes High Courts) are bound by the judgments and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence.\",\n \"United States district court A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a \\\"United States District Judge\\\". Other federal judges, including circuit judges and Supreme Court Justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to the advice and consent of the Senate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the President's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known as senatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.\",\n \"List of high courts in India Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a district and sessions judge. He is known as district judge when he presides over a civil case, and sessions judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a high court judge. Below him, there are courts of civil jurisdiction, known by different names in different states. Under Article 141 of the constitution, all courts in India — including high courts — are bound by the judgments and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence.\",\n \"Government of the District of Columbia The Superior Court of the District of Columbia is the local trial court. It hears cases involving criminal and civil law. The court also handles specialized cases in the following areas: family court, landlord and tenant, probate, tax, and traffic offenses. All appeals of Superior Court decisions go to the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. The Court consists of a chief judge and 61 associate judges. The Court is assisted by the service of 24 magistrate judges, as well as retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Judges are appointed to the court by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for fifteen-year terms.[6]\",\n \"Government of the District of Columbia The District of Columbia Court of Appeals is the highest court. Established in 1970, it is equivalent to a state supreme court, except that its authority is derived from the United States Congress rather than from the inherent sovereignty of the states. The Court of Appeals should not be confused with the District's federal appellate court, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The Court of Appeals is authorized to review all final orders, judgments, and specified interlocutory orders of the associate judges of the Superior Court, to review decisions of administrative agencies, boards, and commissions of the District government, and to answer questions of law presented by the Supreme Court of the United States, a United States court of appeals, or the highest appellate court of any state. The court consists of a chief judge and eight associate judges. The court is assisted by the service of retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Despite being the District's local appellate court, judges are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for 15-year terms. The DC Courts are a Federal agency.[6]\",\n \"District Courts of India The District Court or Additional District court exercises jurisdiction both on original side and appellate side in civil and criminal matters arising in the District. The territorial and pecuniary jurisdiction in civil matters is usually set in concerned state enactments on the subject of civil courts. On the criminal side, jurisdiction is exclusively derived from the criminal procedure code. As per this code the maximum sentence a Sessions Judge of district court may award to a convict is capital punishment.\",\n \"Judiciary of Colombia The ordinary jurisdiction is divided into judicial districts which function as appellate courts (Superior tribunals). Each district has a superior court, which hears appeals from and supervise the lower courts in the district. The court is composed of three judges which are appointed by the Supreme Court. Criminal trials make use of an eight hundred .\",\n \"Judiciary of India The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Government. In addition to the district judge there may be number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.[29] The district judge is also called \\\"Metropolitan session judge\\\" when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is designated \\\"Metropolitan area\\\" by the state Government.[30] The district court has appellate jurisdiction over all subordinate courts situated in the district on both civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are, Junior Civil Judge Court, Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.In addition 'Family Courts\\\" are established to deal with matrimonial disputes alone. The Principal judge of family court is equivalent to District Judge.\",\n \"Judiciary United States Supreme Court justices are appointed by the President of the United States and approved by the United States Senate. The Supreme Court justices serve for a life term or until retirement. The Supreme Court is located in Washington, D.C. The United States federal court system consists of 94 federal judicial districts. The 94 districts are then divided into twelve regional circuits. The United States has five different types of courts that are considered subordinate to the Supreme Court: United States bankruptcy courts, United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, United States Court of International Trade, United States courts of appeals, and United States district courts.[16][17]\",\n \"District Courts of India The district judge is also called \\\"metropolitan session judge\\\" when he is presiding over a district court in a city which is designated \\\"metropolitan area\\\" by the state . Other courts subordinated to district court in the metropolitan area are also referred to with \\\"metropolitan\\\" prefixed to the usual designation. An area is designated a metropolitan area by the concerned state Government if population of the area exceeds one million or more than that.[3]\",\n \"Court of Appeal (England and Wales) The Criminal Division was established in 1966 with the merger of the Court of Criminal Appeal into the Court of Appeal. It hears all appeals from the Crown Court which are in connection with a trial on indictment (i.e. with a jury) and where the Crown Court has sentenced a defendant committed from the Magistrates' Court. It also exercises the jurisdiction to order the issue of writs of venire de novo.[19] The Criminal Division, while bound by the Supreme Court, is more flexible with binding itself, due to the heightened stakes in a case where a possible penalty is a prison sentence.[20] The Division is led by the Lord Chief Justice, currently Lord Burnett of Maldon, assisted by the Vice-President of the Criminal Division, currently Lady Justice Hallett.[21]\",\n \"United States Attorney The U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia has the additional responsibility of prosecuting local criminal cases in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, the equivalent of a municipal court for the national capital. The Superior Court is a federal Article I court. [20][21]\",\n \"District Courts of India The district court has appellate jurisdiction over all subordinate courts situated in the district on both civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts, on the civil side (in ascending order) are, Junior Civil Judge (JCJ) Court,[4] Principal Junior Civil Judge Court, Senior Civil Judge Court (also called sub-court). Subordinate courts, on the criminal side (in ascending order) are, Second Class Judicial Magistrate Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate Court, Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.\",\n \"Superior Court of the District of Columbia The Court consists of a chief judge and 61 associate judges. The Court is assisted by the service of 24 magistrate judges, as well as retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. When a vacancy occurs on the court, the D.C. Judicial Nomination Commission invites applications and sends three candidates' names to the President of the United States, who sends one nomination to the U.S. Senate for advice and consent. If the Senate confirms a judge, he or she serves for a 15-year term, which is renewable. The Superior Court and the D.C. Court of Appeals, known collectively as the D.C. Courts, comprise the judicial branch of D.C. local government.[3]\",\n \"Court of Appeal of England and Wales The Criminal Division was established in 1966 with the merger of the Court of Criminal Appeal into the Court of Appeal. It hears all appeals from the Crown Court which are in connection with a trial on indictment (i.e. with a jury) and where the Crown Court has sentenced a defendant committed from the Magistrates' Court. It also exercises the jurisdiction to order the issue of writs of venire de novo.[16] The Criminal Division, while bound by the Supreme Court, is more flexible with binding itself, due to the heightened stakes in a case where a possible penalty is a prison sentence.[17] The Division is led by the Lord Chief Justice, currently Sir Ian Burnett, assisted by the Vice-President of the Criminal Division, currently Lady Justice Hallett.[18]\",\n \"Texas Court of Criminal Appeals The Court is composed of a Presiding Judge and eight judges (unlike the Texas Supreme Court which is composed of a Chief Justice and eight Justices). Each judge serves a six-year term beginning January 1 and ending December 31, and they are elected in staggered partisan elections. Although all nine seats are elected at large, the Presiding Judge seat is separately designated from the other seats.\",\n \"State court (United States) Generally, state courts are common law courts, and apply their respective state laws and procedures to decide cases. They are organized pursuant to and apply the law in accordance with their state's constitution, state statutes, and binding decisions of courts in their state court hierarchy. Where applicable, they also apply federal law. Generally, a single judicial officer, usually called a judge, exercises original jurisdiction by presiding over contested criminal or civil actions which culminate in trials. The decisions of lower courts may be reviewed by a panel of a state court of appeals (known as a \\\"court of appeal\\\" in three states). Generally, there is a state supreme court that oversees the court system. In matters that involve issues of federal law, the final decision of a state supreme court (including refusals to hear final appeals) may be appealed to the United States Supreme Court (which also has the discretion to refuse to hear them).\",\n \"Criminal jurisdiction The United States district courts have original, exclusive subject matter jurisdiction over \\\"all offenses against the laws of the United States.\\\"[5]\",\n \"United States District Court for the District of Arizona Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Southern District of New York The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York has 28 authorized judgeships, filled by judges appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Eighteen judges who have taken senior status are eligible to continue hearing cases. As of June 1, 2016, the Chief Judge of the District is Judge Colleen McMahon, succeeding Judge Loretta Preska, whose seven-year term as Chief Judge expired. Senior Judge Charles S. Haight, Jr. sits by designation with the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut.\",\n \"Judge In a district court (käräjäoikeus), ordinary judges work with the title käräjätuomari and the chairman is laamanni (lawspeaker). They are assisted by notaries (notaari), assessors (asessori) and referendaries (viskaali) who may sometimes even chair sessions. In appeals courts (hovioikeus) an ordinary judge has the title hovioikeudenneuvos, the chairman of a section is hovioikeudenlaamanni and the court is led by a presidentti. In the Supreme Court, judges are titled oikeusneuvos and the court is led by a presidentti.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Central District of California The United States Attorney for the Central District represents the United States Government in civil and criminal cases before the court. The United States Attorney has been Nicola T. Hanna since January 5, 2018. United States Attorneys are appointed to their positions by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. They work in the Executive Branch of government under the Department of Justice and are not officials in the Judicial Branch. United States Attorneys report to the Attorney General of the United States.[4]\",\n \"United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"Pennsylvania Pennsylvania is divided into 60 judicial districts,[129] most of which (except Philadelphia) have magisterial district judges (formerly called district justices and justices of the peace), who preside mainly over preliminary hearings in felony and misdemeanor offenses, all minor (summary) criminal offenses, and small civil claims.[129] Most criminal and civil cases originate in the Courts of Common Pleas, which also serve as appellate courts to the district judges and for local agency decisions.[129] The Superior Court hears all appeals from the Courts of Common Pleas not expressly designated to the Commonwealth Court or Supreme Court. It also has original jurisdiction to review warrants for wiretap surveillance.[129] The Commonwealth Court is limited to appeals from final orders of certain state agencies and certain designated cases from the Courts of Common Pleas.[129] The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania is the final appellate court. All judges in Pennsylvania are elected; the chief justice is determined by seniority.[129]\",\n \"Prosecutor The titles of prosecutors in state courts vary from state to state and level of government (i.e. city, county and state) and include the terms District Attorney (in New York, California, Texas, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, Wisconsin, Oregon, and Oklahoma[3]), City Attorney, Commonwealth's Attorney (in Kentucky and Virginia), County Attorney (in Arizona),[4] County Prosecutor (in New Jersey,[5] Ohio and Indiana[6]), District Attorney General (in Tennessee), Prosecuting Attorney (in Hawaii, Idaho, Michigan, Washington counties, and West Virginia, and in Missouri except cities that have \\\"City Attorney\\\" prosecutors), State's Attorney (in Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, and Vermont), State Prosecutor, Attorney General (in Delaware and Rhode Island), and Solicitor (South Carolina).[7] Prosecutors are most often chosen through local elections, and typically hire other attorneys as deputies or assistants to conduct most of the actual work of the office. United States Attorneys, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, represent the federal government in federal court, in both civil and criminal cases. Private attorneys general can bring criminal cases on behalf of private parties in some states.\",\n \"State supreme court Territories and federal district\",\n \"Judiciary of Texas The Texas Supreme Court has constitutional responsibility for the efficient administration of the judicial system and possesses the authority to make rules of administration applicable to the courts[13] in addition to promulgation and amend rules governing procedure in trial and appellate courts, and rules of evidence.[14] The chief justice of the Supreme Court, presiding judge of the Court of Criminal Appeals, chief justices of each of the 14 courts of appeals, and judges of each of the trial courts are generally responsible for the administration of their respective courts.[13]\",\n \"Superior Court of the District of Columbia The first judicial systems in the new District of Columbia were established by the United States Congress in 1801.[1] The Circuit Court of the District of Columbia (not to be confused with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, which it later evolved into) was both a trial court of general jurisdiction and an appellate court, and it heard cases under both local and federal law. Congress also established justices of the peace and an orphans' court, which were combined in 1870 into a new local court called the Police Court. The Police Court had jurisdiction over misdemeanors (concurrently with the federal courts) as well as equity powers.[1][2] In 1909, Congress converted the Police Court into the Municipal Court, which became a court of record with jury trials in 1921.[1] In 1963, Congress again converted the Municipal Court into the Court of General Sessions. Its jurisdiction was broader, although in criminal cases the federal courts retained concurrent jurisdiction. Under the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970, the Court of General Sessions was combined with the Juvenile Court (established in 1906) and the D.C. Tax Court (established as the local Board of Tax Appeals in 1937) to form the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, a trial court of general and mostly exclusive jurisdiction for D.C.[1]\",\n \"Magistrates' court (England and Wales) District judges (magistrates' courts), formerly known as a stipendiary magistrates, are professional lawyers permanently employed by the Ministry of Justice. They sit alone to preside over proceedings in more serious cases, usually involving remand, and in committal hearings. To qualify for the position, a law degree and 5 years of experience are necessary.\",\n \"United States district court Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to the United States court of appeals in the federal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to the United States Supreme Court.\",\n \"U.S. state States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court, Superior Court or Circuit Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.\",\n \"United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their circuits, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless the circuit justice (i.e., the Supreme Court justice responsible for the circuit) is also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the circuit judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"United States Virgin Islands The U.S. Virgin Islands have a District Court, Superior Court and the Supreme Court. The District Court is responsible for federal law, while the Superior Court is responsible for U.S. Virgin Islands law at the trial level and the Supreme Court is responsible for appeals from the Superior Court for all appeals filed on or after January 29, 2007. Appeals filed prior to that date are heard by the Appellate Division of the District Court. Appeals from the federal District Court are heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. District Court judges are appointed by the U.S. president, while Superior Court and Supreme Court judges are appointed by the governor.\",\n \"United States magistrate judge In criminal proceedings, magistrate judges preside over misdemeanor and petty offense cases, and as to all criminal cases (felony and misdemeanor) may issue search warrants, arrest warrants, and summonses, accept criminal complaints, conduct initial appearance proceedings and detention hearings, set bail or other conditions of release or detention, hold preliminary hearings and examinations, administer oaths, conduct extradition proceedings, and conduct evidentiary hearings on motions to suppress evidence in felony cases for issuance of reports and recommendations to the district judge.\",\n \"Judge The justices of the supreme courts usually hold higher offices than any other judges in a jurisdiction, including a justice of the peace, a judge who holds police court in some jurisdictions and who may also try small claims and misdemeanors. However, the state of New York inverts this usual order. The initial trial court in this state is called the Supreme Court of New York, and its judges are called \\\"justices\\\". The next highest appellate court is the Supreme Court, Appellate Division, whose judges are also called \\\"justices\\\". However, the highest court in New York is called the New York Court of Appeals, whose members are called \\\"judges\\\".\",\n \"County court Appeals are to a higher judge (circuit judge hears district judge appeals), the High Court of Justice or to the Court of Appeal, as the case may be.\",\n \"Supreme court The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the \\\"Supreme Judicial Court\\\"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Northern District of California Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"United States district court A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called \\\"chambers\\\") and staff, and many of them work full-time. A federal judge is addressed in writing as \\\"The Honorable John/Jane Doe\\\" or \\\"Hon. John/Jane Doe\\\" and in speech as \\\"Judge\\\" or \\\"Judge Doe\\\" or, when presiding in court, \\\"Your Honor\\\".\",\n \"United States District Court for the Central District of California Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"Judge A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the barristers of the case, assesses the credibility and arguments of the parties, and then issues a ruling on the matter at hand based on his or her interpretation of the law and his or her own personal judgment. In some jurisdictions, the judge's powers may be shared with a jury. In inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate.\",\n \"United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit When Congress established this court in 1893 as the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, it had a Chief Justice, and the other judges were called Associate Justices, which was similar to the structure of the Supreme Court. The Chief Justiceship was a separate seat: the President would appoint the Chief Justice, and that person would stay Chief Justice until he left the court.\",\n \"United States District Court for the District of New Jersey Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"Criminal jurisdiction The Sixth Amendment calls for trial “by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed.” Within the federal court system, Rule 18 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure specifies which federal court may hear a particular criminal case:\",\n \"United States Attorney United States Attorneys (also known as chief federal prosecutors and, historically, as United States District Attorneys)[1][2][3] represent the United States federal government in United States district courts and United States courts of appeals.\",\n \"Judiciary of Sri Lanka District Courts are lower courts, headed by a District Judge who is vested with original civil jurisdiction.[4][1]\",\n \"High Court of Justice The Queen's Bench Division – or King's Bench Division when the monarch is male – has two roles. It hears a wide range of common law cases and also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Until 2005, the head of the QBD was the Lord Chief Justice. The post of President of the Queen's Bench Division was created by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, leaving the Lord Chief Justice as President of the Courts of England and Wales, Head of the Judiciary of England and Wales and Head of Criminal Justice.[4] Sir Igor Judge was the first person to hold this office, appointed in October 2005.[4][5]\",\n \"Supreme Court of the Gambia Section 126 sets out the jurisdiction of the court: the Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for The Gambia and also has appellate and other jurisdiction as defined by the Constitution. It does not have original jurisdiction in any criminal matter. The court may overrule a previous decision \\\"when it appears right to do so\\\", and all other courts are bound to follow the decisions of the Supreme Court on a matter of law. Section 67(2)(b) states that when the Speaker acts on a notification of misconduct by the President, he must appoint a tribunal led by the Chief Justice and consisting of other members who must have held high judicial office.[4]\",\n \"Chief Justice of Ghana The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and at least nine other judges. The Chief Justice is expected to preside at all sittings of the Supreme Court whenever he or she is present.[14] The Chief Justice oversees the administration of the Court of Appeal of which he or she is the most senior member.[15] He or she is also a member and administrator of the High Court[16] and the Regional Tribunals.[17]\",\n \"Beryl A. Howell She was nominated by President Barack Obama on July 14, 2010 and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on December 22, 2010. She received her judicial commission on December 27, 2010. She became Chief Judge on March 17, 2016. A 2015 analysis by Ravel Law found Howell to be the second most-cited district court judge appointed in the past five years.[13][4]\",\n \"Supreme court The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.\",\n \"Wyoming Wyoming's highest court is the Supreme Court of Wyoming, with five justices presiding over appeals from the state's lower courts. Wyoming is unusual in that it does not have an intermediate appellate court, like most states. This is largely attributable to the state's population and correspondingly lower caseload. Appeals from the state district courts go directly to the Wyoming Supreme Court. Wyoming also has state circuit courts (formerly county courts), of limited jurisdiction, which handle certain types of cases, such as civil claims with lower dollar amounts, misdemeanor criminal offenses, and felony arraignments. Circuit court judges also commonly hear small claims cases as well.\",\n \"Judiciary of Scotland The Lord President of the Court of Session is the head of the country's judiciary and the presiding judge of the College of Justice (which comprises the Court of Session and High Court of Justiciary.) The current Lord President is Lord Carloway, who was appointed in December 2015 having previously served as Lord Justice Clerk[13] When presiding over criminal cases in the High Court of Justiciary the Lord President is known as the Lord Justice-General, an office that can be traced back to the ancient justiciars. In 1830, the Court of Session Act 1830 united the offices of Lord President of the Court of Session and Lord Justice General, with the person appointed as Lord President assuming the office of Lord Justice General ex officio.[14]\",\n \"Texas Court of Criminal Appeals The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals (CCA) is the court of last resort for all criminal matters in the State of Texas, United States. The Court, which is based in the Supreme Court Building in Downtown Austin,[1] is composed of a Presiding Judge and eight judges.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"Courts of England and Wales Magistrates' courts are the criminal court where all criminal proceedings are commenced. They are presided over by a bench of lay magistrates (a.k.a. justices of the peace), or a legally trained district judge (formerly known as a stipendiary magistrate), sitting in each local justice area. There are no juries. They have jurisdiction to hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals. Youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates' courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge. Youth magistrates have a wider catalogue of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths (which for adults would normally be dealt with by the Crown Court). Youth courts are not open to the public for observation, only the parties involved in a case being admitted.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Southern District of Georgia Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court, and preside over any panel on which they serve unless circuit judges are also on the panel. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"Washington court system Each of Washington's 39 counties also has a state District Court. These are courts of limited jurisdiction that hear traffic infractions, criminal traffic citations, misdemeanors and gross misdemeanors, civil cases with an amount in controversy less than $100,000, and small claims suits.[2] The District Court conducts trials and other attendant hearings.[3] District Court judges are elected and serve four-year terms.\",\n \"Arkansas Most cases begin in district court, which is subdivided into state district court and local district court. State district courts exercise district-wide jurisdiction over the districts created by the General Assembly, and local district courts are presided over by part-time judges who may privately practice law. 25 state district court judges preside over 15 districts, with more districts created in 2013 and 2017. There are 28 judicial circuits of Circuit Court, with each contains five subdivisions: criminal, civil, probate, domestic relations, and juvenile court. The jurisdiction of the Arkansas Court of Appeals is determined by the Arkansas Supreme Court, and there is no right of appeal from the Court of Appeals to the high court. The Arkansas Supreme Court can review Court of Appeals cases upon application by either a party to the litigation, upon request by the Court of Appeals, or if the Arkansas Supreme Court feels the case should have been initially assigned to it. The twelve judges of the Arkansas Court of Appeals are elected from judicial districts to renewable six-year terms.\",\n \"Law of Nigeria The Customary Court of Appeal of a state/FCT is the highest Customary law court in a state/FCT. It is presided over by a Judge who has the title: President of the Customary Court of Appeal of the state/FCT and is assisted by other Judges.[citation needed]\",\n \"Supreme Court of the United States The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.\",\n \"President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom From 1900 to 1969, when the Lord Chancellor was not present, a former Lord Chancellor would preside at judicial sittings of the House of Lords. If no former Lord Chancellor was present, the most senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary present would preside, seniority being determined by rank in the peerage. In the years following World War II, it became less common for Lord Chancellors to have time to gain judicial experience in office, making it anomalous for former holders of the office to take precedence. As a result, on 22 May 1969, the rules were changed such that if the Lord Chancellor was not present (as was normally the case) the most senior Law Lord, by appointment as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary rather than peerage, would preside.[2] In 1984, the system was amended to provide that judges be appointed Senior and Second Senior Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, rather than taking the roles by seniority. The purpose of the change was to allow an ailing Lord Diplock to step aside from presiding, yet remain a Law Lord.[3]\",\n \"Superior Court of the District of Columbia In criminal cases, the government is represented by the Office of the United States Attorney for the District of Columbia or the Office of the Attorney General for the District of Columbia, depending on the nature and severity of the charges.\",\n \"United States federal judicial district Each district has its own United States district court (with a bankruptcy court under its authority), including judges, clerks, court reporters, and other support personnel, all employed by the judicial branch of the government and overseen by the Administrative Office of the Courts in Washington, D.C. There is also a United States Attorney in each district, who acts as the federal government's lawyer in the district, both prosecuting federal criminal cases and defending the government (and its employees) in civil suits against them; the U.S. Attorney is not employed by the judicial branch but by the Department of Justice, part of the executive branch. There is also a Federal Public Defender who represents people charged with federal crimes who cannot afford to hire their own lawyers; some FPDs cover more than one judicial district. Each district also has a United States Marshal who serves the court system.\",\n \"Beryl A. Howell Beryl Alaine Howell (born December 3, 1956)[1] is the Chief United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia.\",\n \"Judiciary of New York (state) The Court of Appeals, sitting in Albany and consisting of seven judges, is the state's highest court. The Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court is the principal intermediate appellate court. The New York State Supreme Court is the trial court of general jurisdiction in civil cases statewide and in criminal cases in New York City. Outside New York City, the 57 individual County Courts hear felony criminal cases. There are a number of local courts in different parts of the state, including the New York City Civil Court and New York City Criminal Court.\",\n \"District attorney In the United States, a district attorney (DA) is the chief prosecutor in a local government area, typically a county. The exact name of the office varies by state.\",\n \"Michigan The Michigan judiciary consists of two courts with primary jurisdiction (the Circuit Courts and the District Courts), one intermediate level appellate court (the Michigan Court of Appeals), and the Michigan Supreme Court. There are several administrative courts and specialized courts. District courts are trial courts of limited jurisdiction, handling most traffic violations, small claims, misdemeanors, and civil suits where the amount contended is below $25,000. District courts are often responsible for handling the preliminary examination and for setting bail in felony cases. District court judges are elected to terms of six years. In a few locations, municipal courts have been retained to the exclusion of the establishment of district courts. There are 57 circuit courts in the State of Michigan, which have original jurisdiction over all civil suits where the amount contended in the case exceeds $25,000 and all criminal cases involving felonies. Circuit courts are also the only trial courts in the State of Michigan which possess the power to issue equitable remedies. Circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction from district and municipal courts, as well as from decisions and decrees of state agencies. Most counties have their own circuit court, but sparsely populated counties often share them. Circuit court judges are elected to terms of six years. State appellate court judges are elected to terms of six years, but vacancies are filled by an appointment by the governor. There are four divisions of the Court of Appeals, being located in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Marquette. Cases are heard by the Court of Appeals by panels of three judges, who examine the application of the law and not the facts of the case, unless there has been grievous error pertaining to questions of fact. The Michigan Supreme Court consists of seven members who are elected on non-partisan ballots for staggered eight-year terms. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction only in narrow circumstances, but holds appellate jurisdiction over the entire state judicial system.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"District Courts of India A district judge or Additional judge may be removed from his office by the governor on conformation from the high court collegiam.\",\n \"Mexico The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice, the national supreme court, which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.[110]\",\n \"Superior court In a number of jurisdictions in the United States, the Superior Court is a state trial court of general jurisdiction with power to hear and decide any civil or criminal action which is not specially designated to be heard in some other courts. California, Connecticut, Washington, Maine, the District of Columbia, and Georgia are all examples of such jurisdictions. In other states, equivalent courts are also known as courts of common pleas (Pennsylvania, Ohio, and others), circuit courts (Illinois, Michigan, Oregon and others), district courts (Louisiana, Texas, Hawaii and others) or, in the case of New York, supreme courts.\",\n \"Judiciary of Texas District court judges are required to be licensed attorneys. In addition to judicial powers, district judges also have administrative duties as well. District judges may remove county officials [2], officials of a general-law municipality [3], and municipal court judges [4] under certain circumstances. Also, they appoint and supervise the county auditor, oversee the operations of the adult and juvenile probation offices, and are granted \\\"supervisory\\\" jurisdiction over the county commissioners court.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York has 15 authorized judgeships, filled by judges appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Fourteen judges who have taken senior status are eligible to continue hearing cases. On April 3, 2016, Judge Dora Irizarry became Chief Judge of the Court. Judge Jack B. Weinstein, widely regarded as among the most respected and influential Judges in America, is currently a Senior Judge in this district. Unlike many other judges at Judge Weinstein's level of seniority, he continues to maintain a full docket of cases, including many of the biggest corporate cases considered anywhere in the country.\",\n \"Judiciary of Malaysia There are generally two types of trials, criminal and civil. The hierarchy of courts begins from the Magistrates' Court, Sessions Court, High Court, Court of Appeal, and finally, the Federal Court.[1] The jurisdiction of the courts in civil or criminal matters are contained in the Subordinate Courts Act 1948 and the Courts of Judicature Act 1964. Article 121 of the Constitution provides for two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction, the High Court in Malaya, and the High Court in Sabah and Sarawak. Thus this creates two separate local jurisdiction of the courts – for Peninsular Malaysia and for East Malaysia. The highest position in the judiciary of Malaysia is the Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Malaysia (also known as the Chief Justice of Malaysia), followed by the President of the Court of Appeal, the Chief Judge of Malaya, and the Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak. The superior courts are the High Court, Court of Appeal, and the Federal Court, while the Magistrates' Courts and the Sessions Courts are classified as subordinate courts.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"State supreme court Because state supreme courts generally hear only appeals, some courts have names which directly indicate their function – in the states of New York and Maryland, and in the District of Columbia, the highest court is called the \\\"Court of Appeals\\\". In New York, the \\\"Supreme Court\\\" is the trial court of general unlimited jurisdiction and the intermediate appellate court is called the \\\"Supreme Court—Appellate Division\\\". Maryland's jury trial courts are called \\\"Circuit Courts\\\" (non-jury trials are usually conducted by the \\\"District Courts,\\\" whose decisions may be appealed to the Circuit Courts), and the intermediate appellate court is called the \\\"Court of Special Appeals\\\". West Virginia mixes the two; its highest court is called the \\\"Supreme Court of Appeals\\\".\",\n \"Judiciary of Texas There is a local administrative district judge in each county, as well as a local administrative statutory county court judge in each county that has a statutory county court.[13] In counties with two or more district courts, a local administrative district judge is elected by the district judges in the county for a term not to exceed two years; in counties with two or more statutory county courts, a local administrative statutory county court judge is elected by the statutory county court judges for a term not to exceed two years.[15] The local administrative judge is charged with implementing the local rules of administration, supervising the expeditious movement of court caseloads, and other administrative duties.[16]\",\n \"United States District Court for the Northern District of Mississippi Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas Chief judges have administrative responsibilities with respect to their district court. Unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the district court judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in active service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65, and have not previously served as chief judge. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges. The chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position.\",\n \"Federal judiciary of the United States The United States district courts (one in each of the 94 federal judicial districts, as well three territorial courts) are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)\",\n \"High Court (Hong Kong) Chief Judge of the High Court\",\n \"Judiciary Justices of the Mexican Supreme Court are appointed by the President of Mexico, and then are approved by the Mexican Senate to serve for a life term. Other justices are appointed by the Supreme Court and serve for six years. Federal courts consist of the 21 magistrates of the Supreme Court, 32 circuit tribunals and 98 district courts. The Supreme Court of Mexico is located in Mexico City. Supreme Court Judges must be of ages 35 to 65 and hold a law degree during the five years preceding their nomination.[15]\",\n \"District attorney Except in the smallest counties, a district attorney leads a staff of prosecutors, who are most commonly known as assistant district attorneys (ADAs). The majority of prosecutions will be delegated to ADAs, with the district attorney prosecuting the most important cases and having overall responsibility for their agency and its work. Depending upon the system in place, DAs may be appointed by the chief executive of the jurisdiction or elected by local voters.\",\n \"State Courts of Singapore The Presiding Judge of the State Courts, a position held by a Supreme Court Judge or Judicial Commissioner, has overall responsibility for the administration of the State Courts. The Presiding Judge leads a team of judicial officers who adjudicate on cases brought before the State Courts. He is assisted administratively by the Deputy Presiding Judge / Registrar and the Corporate and Court Services Division.\",\n \"Chief Justice of the United States The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments. When the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the court's meetings. In the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the U.S. Senate. Additionally, the presidential oath of office is typically administered by the Chief Justice (although the Constitution does not assign this duty to anyone in particular).\",\n \"Military justice The military crimes that go to court are handled by civilian courts that have military members. The district court has a learned civilian judge and two military members. One of them is an officer and the other a warrant officer, an NCO or a private. The court of appeals, that acts as the first instance for the prosecution of officers with at least major's rank, will have a military member who has at least a major's rank. The Supreme Court of Finland has two officers with at least colonel's rank as members when handling military crimes.[5]:Ch. 3 and ยง3 These members are not named for a specific case but serve for two-year terms. The military members of the district court are selected by the court of appeals on the motion of the Commander of the Finnish Army. The military members of the Courts of Appeals are selected by the Ministry of Justice on motion of the Ministry of Defence. The military members of the Supreme Court are selected by the President of Finland.[5]:ยง11\",\n \"Magistrate Members of the second group are known as District Judges (Magistrates' Courts). Unlike magistrates, District Judges (Magistrates' Courts) sit alone. They are appointed by open competition through a process administered by the JAC and are required to be qualified solicitors, barristers, or chartered legal executives. Some also sit in the family court. Questions have been raised by the Magistrates' Association as to the legal safeguards of a single District Judge allowed to hear a case, decide the outcome, and pass sentence without reference to another party.[6]\",\n \"United States federal judge The primary function of the federal judges is to resolve matters brought before the United States federal courts. Most federal courts in the United States are courts of general jurisdiction, meaning that they hear both civil and criminal cases falling within their jurisdiction. District Court judges are recognized as having such authority as is needed to dispose of matters brought before them, ranging from setting the dates for trials and hearings to holding parties in contempt or otherwise sanctioning them for improper behavior.\",\n \"District attorney The United States Judiciary Act of 1789, Section 35, provided for the appointment of a person in each judicial district to prosecute federal crimes and to represent the United States in all civil actions to which it was a party. Initially, there were 13 districts to cover the 11 States that had by that time ratified the constitution. Each State was a district, except for Massachusetts and Virginia which formed two. Districts were added when additional States were admitted. The statute did not confer a title upon these local agents of federal authority, but subsequent statutes and court decisions referred to them most frequently as \\\"district attorneys\\\". In 1948, the Judicial Code adopted the term \\\"United States attorneys\\\".[2]\",\n \"Crown Court The judges who normally sit in the Crown Court are High Court judges, Circuit judges and Recorders.[8] Circuit judges also sit in the County Court. Recorders are barristers or solicitors in private practice, who sit part-time as judges. The most serious cases (treason, murder, rape etc.) are allocated to High Court judges and Senior Circuit judges. The remainder are dealt with by Circuit judges and Recorders, although Recorders will normally handle less serious work than Circuit judges. The allocation is conducted according to directions given by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales.[9]\",\n \"United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court As of 2017, Chief Justice John Roberts has appointed all of the current judges, four of whom were nominated to their District Court judgeships by a Democratic President.[2]\",\n \"Chief Justice of the United States Article I, section 3 of the U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice shall preside over impeachment trials of the President of the United States in the U.S. Senate. Two Chief Justices, Salmon P. Chase and William Rehnquist, have presided over the trial in the Senate that follows an impeachment of the president – Chase in 1868 over the proceedings against President Andrew Johnson and Rehnquist in 1999 over the proceedings against President Bill Clinton. Both presidents were subsequently acquitted.\",\n \"Magistrate In Portugal, besides being used in the scope of the judiciary to designate prosecutors and judges, the term magistrado was also used to designate certain government officials, like the former civil governors of district. These were referred as \\\"administrative magistrates\\\" to distinguish them from the judiciary magistrates. The President of Portugal is considered the Supreme Magistrate of the Nation.\",\n \"Judiciary of New York (state) Once a judge is elected or appointed, the Chief Judge, in consultation with the Chief Administrative Judge, Administrative Judges, Supervising Judges and the Presiding Justice of the relevant Appellate Division, assigns judges to a court and a part, not necessarily the court and county in which they were elected or appointed, including to the Supreme Court (but not its Appellate Division or Appellate Term) as Acting Supreme Court Judges.[45][46]\",\n \"Government of Maryland District Court judges are appointed by the Governor to ten-year terms, subject to Senate confirmation. Unlike other judges in the state, they do not stand for election. As of October 2003, some 105 judges, including the Chief Judge, who is designated by the Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals, serve on the Court. As the District Court's administrative head, its Chief Judge appoints administrative judges for each of the twelve districts, subject to the approval of the Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals. Administered centrally, the District Court of Maryland is funded totally by the State.\",\n \"Magistrate 1.The Chief Judicial Magistrate [CJM] (including Additional Chief Judicial Magistrates.) CJMs hear all types of criminal cases. All magistrates' courts are controlled by the CJM. The CJM looks over the work of judicial magistrates, but cannot take any action against them. The CJM can only report the misbehavior of judicial magistrates to the High Court. A court of Chief Judicial Magistrates can sentence a person to jail up to ten years and impose fines of up to ₹30,000 (US$440). The CJM is the most senior among all magistrates in their district.\"\n]","isConversational":false},"gt_docs":{"kind":"list like","value":["District Courts of India The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides the High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court is also a court of Sessions when it exercises its jurisdiction on criminal matters under the Code of Criminal procedure. The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Governor with on the advice of state chief justice In addition to the district judge there may be a number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.[1]"],"string":"[\n \"District Courts of India The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides the High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court is also a court of Sessions when it exercises its jurisdiction on criminal matters under the Code of Criminal procedure. The district court is presided over by one District Judge appointed by the state Governor with on the advice of state chief justice In addition to the district judge there may be a number of Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges depending on the workload. The Additional District Judge and the court presided have equivalent jurisdiction as the District Judge and his district court.[1]\"\n]","isConversational":false}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":1,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":500,"offset":100,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc3NTUzNDQ3NSwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL0NvbnRleHR1YWxBSS9ucSIsImV4cCI6MTc3NTUzODA3NSwiaXNzIjoiaHR0cHM6Ly9odWdnaW5nZmFjZS5jbyJ9.4vdZIAkWQodES6PzKM8kchTjblQRG4YW5FnTUSB1ftKmQRfZa8YisOX4vRCwvYMgjH0DBgviLwl3EVQ6qSFxAw","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"test","numRows":500,"numBytesParquet":17597066}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
_id stringlengths 5 8 | query stringlengths 29 100 | gt_ids listlengths 1 4 | gt_qrels listlengths 1 4 | candidate_ids listlengths 100 100 | candidate_docs listlengths 100 100 | gt_docs listlengths 1 4 |
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test3333 | who is regarded as the founder of psychoanalysis | [
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1
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... | [
"Freud's psychoanalytic theories Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) is considered to be the founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology which looks closely at the unconscious drives that motivate people to act in certain ways.",
"Freud's psychoanalytic theories Psychoanalysis was founded by ... | [
"Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques[1] related to the study of the unconscious mind,[2] which together form a method of treatment for mental-health disorders. The discipline was established in the early 1890s by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud and stemmed partly from th... |
test3053 | resistance to airflow in respiratory passageways is influenced by | [
"doc104578"
] | [
1
] | [
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"Airway resistance In respiratory physiology, airway resistance is the resistance of the respiratory tract to airflow during inhalation and expiration. Airway resistance can be measured using body plethysmography.",
"Airway resistance Where air is flowing in a laminar manner it has less resistance than when it is... | [
"Airway resistance Airway resistance is not constant. As shown above airway resistance is markedly affected by changes in the diameter of the airways, therefore diseases affecting the respiratory tract can increase airway resistance. Airway resistance can change over time, for example, in asthma during an attack th... |
test2544 | when did the nfl start playing in london | [
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] | [
1,
1,
1
] | [
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"NFL International Series Starting in the 2007 season, the National Football League (NFL) has hosted regular season American football games outside the United States every year. Collectively officially known through 2016 as the NFL International Series, from 2017 the series currently has two sub-series, the NFL Lon... | [
"NFL International Series Starting in the 2007 season, the National Football League (NFL) has hosted regular season American football games outside the United States every year. Collectively officially known through 2016 as the NFL International Series, from 2017 the series currently has two sub-series, the NFL Lon... |
test3007 | where do most star formation occur in the milky way today | [
"doc103118",
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] | [
1,
1
] | [
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"Milky Way Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little gas cool enough to collaps... | [
"Star formation Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space, sometimes referred to as \"stellar nurseries\" or \"star-forming regions\", collapse and form stars.[1] As a branch of astronomy, star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium (ISM) and... |
test3371 | the use of basso continuo was discontinued during the classical era because | [
"doc115151"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc115187",
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... | [
"Classical period (music) Musical eras and their prevalent styles, forms and instruments seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old approach is simply felt as \"old-fashioned\". The Classical style did not \"die\" suddenly; rather, it gradually got phased out under the weight ... | [
"Classical period (music) The new style was also encouraged by changes in the economic order and social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred lighter, funny comic operas. This led to changes in the way musi... |
test1314 | who is the authority or governing body of mca | [
"doc46476"
] | [
1
] | [
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"Ministry of Corporate Affairs The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) is an Indian government ministry.This Ministry is primarily concerned with administration of the Companies Act 2013, the Companies Act 1956, the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008 & other allied Acts and rules & regulations framed there-und... | [
"Ministry of Corporate Affairs The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) is an Indian government ministry.This Ministry is primarily concerned with administration of the Companies Act 2013, the Companies Act 1956, the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008 & other allied Acts and rules & regulations framed there-und... |
test2422 | where does the last name waters come from | [
"doc83649"
] | [
1
] | [
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"Waters (name) Waters is a surname, derived from \"Wat\", or \"Wa'ter\", an old pronunciation of Gaultier or Walter, and similarly derived from the surname Watson (\"Wat's son\").[1] The name is common from an early date in Wales and Yorkshire.[2][3] The name is currently highly concentrated in the Welsh Borders an... | [
"Waters (name) Waters is a surname, derived from \"Wat\", or \"Wa'ter\", an old pronunciation of Gaultier or Walter, and similarly derived from the surname Watson (\"Wat's son\").[1] The name is common from an early date in Wales and Yorkshire.[2][3] The name is currently highly concentrated in the Welsh Borders an... |
test2351 | which president of the united states was a boy scout | [
"doc81213",
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] | [
1,
1
] | [
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... | [
"Gerald Ford Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America, and earned that program's highest rank, Eagle Scout.[10] He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. Presidency.[10]",
"President of the United States The President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts ... | [
"Boy Scouts of America Eagle Scout is the highest rank one can receive in BSA. A Scout who attains this rank is called an Eagle Scout. Since its introduction in 1911, the Eagle Scout rank has been earned by more than two million young men. Requirements include earning at least 21 merit badges and demonstrating Scou... |
test1155 | for a reflected appraisal to be regarded as important it must be | [
"doc41030"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc41027",
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"... | [
"Reflected appraisal Reflected appraisal is a term used in psychology to describe a person's perception of how others see and evaluate him or her. The reflected appraisal process concludes that people come to think of themselves in the way they believe others think of them (Mead, 1934; Cooley, 1902; Sullivan, 1947)... | [
"Reflected appraisal The extent to which reflected appraisals affect the person being appraised depends upon characteristics of the appraiser and his or her appraisal.[5] Greater impact on the development of a person’s self-concept is said to occur when: (1) the appraiser is perceived as a highly credible source (2... |
test547 | what type of car is a g wagon | [
"doc19961"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc19961",
"doc19962",
"doc19970",
"doc19995",
"doc19990",
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"Mercedes-Benz G-Class The Mercedes-Benz G-Class, sometimes called G-Wagen (short for Geländewagen, \"cross country vehicle\"), is a mid-size four-wheel drive luxury SUV manufactured by Magna Steyr (formerly Steyr-Daimler-Puch) in Austria and sold by Mercedes-Benz. In certain markets, it has been sold under the Pu... | [
"Mercedes-Benz G-Class The Mercedes-Benz G-Class, sometimes called G-Wagen (short for Geländewagen, \"cross country vehicle\"), is a mid-size four-wheel drive luxury SUV manufactured by Magna Steyr (formerly Steyr-Daimler-Puch) in Austria and sold by Mercedes-Benz. In certain markets, it has been sold under the Pu... |
test2667 | most home runs by 2 teammates in a season | [
"doc91417"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc91417",
"doc91416",
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... | [
"50 home run club In total, 29 players have reached the 50 home run club in MLB history and nine have done so more than once.[6] Of these, seventeen were right-handed batters, eleven were left-handed, and one was a switch hitter, meaning he could bat from either side of the plate. Four of these players (including t... | [
"50 home run club In total, 29 players have reached the 50 home run club in MLB history and nine have done so more than once.[6] Of these, seventeen were right-handed batters, eleven were left-handed, and one was a switch hitter, meaning he could bat from either side of the plate. Four of these players (including t... |
test943 | whos jack the ripper in gotham by gaslight | [
"doc33559"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc33560",
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"Gotham by Gaslight Packer reveals that he hired an assassin to kill Bruce's parents. Gordon appears at this time with the police and Batman tells them to arrest Packer. Packer confesses that he is the Ripper and tries to kill Batman, but Gordon shoots Packer dead at the last minute. Batman disappears into the shad... | [
"Gotham by Gaslight Batman interrupts the Ripper as he is about to claim his next victim. Batman chases the Ripper throughout Gotham and the two eventually come to a stop at the grave of Thomas and Martha Wayne, where it is revealed that Jacob Packer is the Ripper. Packer had been trained in medicine and law with t... |
test1926 | what is the difference between pangea and rodinia | [
"doc67581"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc67581",
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"doc67584"... | [
"Rodinia Rodinia (from the Russian родить, rodít, meaning \"to beget, to give birth\",[2] or родина\", ródina, meaning \"motherland, birthplace\")[3][4] is a Neoproterozoic supercontinent that was assembled 1.3–0.9 billion years ago and broke up 750–633 million years ago.[5] Valentine & Moores 1970 were probably th... | [
"Rodinia Rodinia (from the Russian родить, rodít, meaning \"to beget, to give birth\",[2] or родина\", ródina, meaning \"motherland, birthplace\")[3][4] is a Neoproterozoic supercontinent that was assembled 1.3–0.9 billion years ago and broke up 750–633 million years ago.[5] Valentine & Moores 1970 were probably th... |
test3361 | which episode of spongebob is the hash slinging slasher | [
"doc114925",
"doc114927"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc114925",
"doc114926",
"doc114927",
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"doc2629194",
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"doc758953",
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"doc758944",... | [
"Graveyard Shift (SpongeBob SquarePants) Exasperated with his boss's demands and annoyed by SpongeBob's eagerness, Squidward tries to scare SpongeBob into being afraid of the night shift by telling him a made-up story about the \"Hash-Slinging Slasher\", a former fry cook at the Krusty Krab who accidentally cut off... | [
"Graveyard Shift (SpongeBob SquarePants) Exasperated with his boss's demands and annoyed by SpongeBob's eagerness, Squidward tries to scare SpongeBob into being afraid of the night shift by telling him a made-up story about the \"Hash-Slinging Slasher\", a former fry cook at the Krusty Krab who accidentally cut off... |
test1667 | when was the worlds first laptop computer introduced in the market and by whom | [
"doc58992",
"doc58993",
"doc58997"
] | [
1,
1,
1
] | [
"doc58997",
"doc454669",
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"doc58998",
"doc59009",
"doc... | [
"History of laptops The first laptop in the modern form was the Grid Compass 1101, designed by Bill Moggridge in 1979–80, and released in 1983. Enclosed in a magnesium case, it introduced the now familiar clamshell design, in which the flat display folded shut against the keyboard. The computer could be run from ba... | [
"History of laptops The portable micro computer the “Portal\" of the French company R2E Micral CCMC officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris. The Portal was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the studies and developments department of the French firm R2E Micral in 1980 at the ... |
test536 | who plays the dad in drake and josh | [
"doc19431"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc19431",
"doc309289",
"doc309280",
"doc309281",
"doc1524181",
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"doc19451",
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... | [
"List of Drake & Josh characters Walter (Jonathan Goldstein) is Josh's father and Drake and Megan's stepfather. He is a meteorologist for a local TV news program in San Diego, but he is often wrong about the weather. Walter is often clumsy, out of date, and seemingly empty-headed. As a result, he lacks the respect ... | [
"List of Drake & Josh characters Walter (Jonathan Goldstein) is Josh's father and Drake and Megan's stepfather. He is a meteorologist for a local TV news program in San Diego, but he is often wrong about the weather. Walter is often clumsy, out of date, and seemingly empty-headed. As a result, he lacks the respect ... |
test114 | what is the concept of unfair labor practice in labor code | [
"doc4118"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc4118",
"doc4122",
"doc783301",
"doc4119",
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"doc4125",
"do... | [
"Unfair labor practice An unfair labor practice in US labor law refers to certain actions taken by employers or unions that violate the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (49 Stat. 449) 29 U.S.C. § 151–169 (also known as the NLRA and the Wagner Act after NY Senator Robert F. Wagner[1]) and other legislation. Such... | [
"Unfair labor practice An unfair labor practice in US labor law refers to certain actions taken by employers or unions that violate the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (49 Stat. 449) 29 U.S.C. § 151–169 (also known as the NLRA and the Wagner Act after NY Senator Robert F. Wagner[1]) and other legislation. Such... |
test1794 | where was the dukes of hazzard show filmed | [
"doc63183"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc731628",
"doc63183",
"doc63231",
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"doc337993",
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"Georgia (U.S. state) The Dukes of Hazzard, a 1980s TV show, was set in the fictional Hazzard County, Georgia. The first five episodes were shot on location in Conyers and Covington, Georgia as well as some locations in Atlanta. Production was then moved to Burbank, California.[citation needed]",
"The Dukes of Ha... | [
"The Dukes of Hazzard In 1977, Waldron was approached by Warner Bros. with the idea of developing Moonrunners into a television series. Waldron reworked various elements from Moonrunners, and from it was devised what would become The Dukes of Hazzard. Production began in October 1978 with the original intention of ... |
test3124 | where does the synthesis of new dna from existing dna occurs | [
"doc106826"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc106826",
"doc106824",
"doc1622023",
"doc660806",
"doc106825",
"doc106859",
"doc1845775",
"doc1622024",
"doc104215",
"doc1845777",
"doc1097141",
"doc106831",
"doc106827",
"doc56527",
"doc556106",
"doc556108",
"doc104217",
"doc106836",
"doc106868",
"doc56540",
"doc982401",
... | [
"DNA replication In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome.[3] Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as ligase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins a... | [
"DNA replication In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome.[3] Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as ligase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins a... |
test45 | who invented the frisbee and how did it get its name | [
"doc1187"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc352544",
"doc352548",
"doc1187",
"doc1184",
"doc352545",
"doc352556",
"doc352547",
"doc352549",
"doc1185",
"doc352552",
"doc352543",
"doc1230191",
"doc1573341",
"doc1573339",
"doc352540",
"doc352550",
"doc345978",
"doc1573337",
"doc352551",
"doc352546",
"doc352558",
"do... | [
"Frisbee Early versions of the Frisbee date back to 1871, when Yale students tossed around empty pie tins from a nearby bakery named The Frisbie Pie Company.[6] Fred Morrison discovered a market for the modern-day flying disc[7] in 1938 when he and future wife, Lucile, were offered 25 cents for a cake pan that they... | [
"Walter Frederick Morrison In 1946, he sketched out a design (called the Whirlo-Way) for the world's first flying disc. In 1948 an investor, Warren Franscioni, paid for molding the design in plastic. They named it the Flyin-Saucer. After disappointing sales, Fred & Warren parted ways in early 1950. In 1954, Fred b... |
test1107 | compared to the event horizon the photon sphere of a black hole is | [
"doc38832"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc38832",
"doc38833",
"doc668915",
"doc668917",
"doc668914",
"doc38822",
"doc668916",
"doc668931",
"doc38796",
"doc38835",
"doc38827",
"doc668918",
"doc668930",
"doc38823",
"doc892706",
"doc668927",
"doc1979697",
"doc668929",
"doc943294",
"doc1272981",
"doc668934",
"doc66... | [
"Black hole The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. Their orbits would be dynamically ... | [
"Black hole The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. Their orbits would be dynamically ... |
test2039 | when is the president sworn into office (date and time of an odd or even year) | [
"doc71128"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc180414",
"doc53681",
"doc28324",
"doc848379",
"doc1700877",
"doc180418",
"doc213016",
"doc180428",
"doc80283",
"doc180431",
"doc212999",
"doc2212288",
"doc180417",
"doc180416",
"doc180426",
"doc71140",
"doc223576",
"doc180420",
"doc180430",
"doc213000",
"doc28312",
"doc... | [
"United States presidential inauguration The inauguration of the President of the United States is a ceremony to mark the commencement of a new four-year term of the President of the United States. This ceremony takes place for each new presidential term, even if the president is continuing in office for a second t... | [
"Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been... |
test1426 | when did the lion king start on broadway | [
"doc50664"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc50664",
"doc50665",
"doc162361",
"doc182100",
"doc50663",
"doc50692",
"doc50698",
"doc50703",
"doc162310",
"doc162307",
"doc50706",
"doc162309",
"doc50704",
"doc50702",
"doc50691",
"doc50705",
"doc162358",
"doc50707",
"doc50693",
"doc50701",
"doc50716",
"doc50700",
"d... | [
"The Lion King (musical) The musical debuted on July 8, 1997 in Minneapolis, Minnesota at the Orpheum Theatre and was an instant success before premiering on Broadway at the New Amsterdam Theater on October 15, 1997 in many previews with the official opening on November 13, 1997. On June 13, 2006, the Broadway prod... | [
"The Lion King (musical) The musical debuted on July 8, 1997 in Minneapolis, Minnesota at the Orpheum Theatre and was an instant success before premiering on Broadway at the New Amsterdam Theater on October 15, 1997 in many previews with the official opening on November 13, 1997. On June 13, 2006, the Broadway prod... |
test1221 | who used the word physiology for the first time | [
"doc43479"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc43479",
"doc1683668",
"doc43478",
"doc1531522",
"doc43474",
"doc43484",
"doc746386",
"doc253411",
"doc1149575",
"doc1531538",
"doc1531535",
"doc1400654",
"doc1398742",
"doc1551231",
"doc43477",
"doc42002",
"doc2110185",
"doc202852",
"doc1531519",
"doc43480",
"doc160488",
... | [
"Physiology Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term \"physiology\".[13]",
"Human body The study of human physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, around 420 BC,[40] and with Aristotle (384–322 BC) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between structu... | [
"Physiology Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term \"physiology\".[13]"
] |
test983 | who won the most medals at the 2014 winter olympics | [
"doc34495"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc34498",
"doc34495",
"doc108350",
"doc84259",
"doc1077125",
"doc1077126",
"doc34494",
"doc1852007",
"doc84254",
"doc34510",
"doc1852009",
"doc34496",
"doc2031759",
"doc1260548",
"doc2349671",
"doc34501",
"doc84258",
"doc34497",
"doc2031760",
"doc1852008",
"doc539604",
"d... | [
"2014 Winter Olympics medal table Speed skater Ireen Wüst from the Netherlands achieved five medals (two gold and three silver), more than any other athlete. Korean-born Russian short track speed skater Viktor Ahn, Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen, and Belarusian biathlete Darya Domracheva tied for the m... | [
"2014 Winter Olympics medal table Initially, host nation Russia matched the Soviet Union's 1976 achievement of thirteen gold medals,[α] but 4 gold medals (13 overall) were stripped later due to doping. Norway achieved the leading position in the medal table on 24 November 2017, when Russia was stripped of two gold ... |
test2957 | who plays in the new mary poppins movie | [
"doc101166"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc101166",
"doc891703",
"doc101169",
"doc101170",
"doc158644",
"doc158646",
"doc891695",
"doc101171",
"doc101168",
"doc891702",
"doc158656",
"doc158678",
"doc101167",
"doc2010918",
"doc1880922",
"doc891696",
"doc1880912",
"doc1880915",
"doc158657",
"doc158667",
"doc763070",... | [
"Mary Poppins Returns Mary Poppins Returns is an upcoming American musical fantasy film directed by Rob Marshall, with a screenplay by David Magee and from a story by Magee, Marshall, and John DeLuca. A sequel to the 1964 film Mary Poppins, the film stars Emily Blunt as Mary Poppins with Lin-Manuel Miranda, Ben Whi... | [
"Mary Poppins Returns Mary Poppins Returns is an upcoming American musical fantasy film directed by Rob Marshall, with a screenplay by David Magee and from a story by Magee, Marshall, and John DeLuca. A sequel to the 1964 film Mary Poppins, the film stars Emily Blunt as Mary Poppins with Lin-Manuel Miranda, Ben Whi... |
test3174 | who is the announcer for price is right | [
"doc108287"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc291608",
"doc291593",
"doc391796",
"doc391805",
"doc451450",
"doc355214",
"doc391799",
"doc2296",
"doc834250",
"doc108287",
"doc451451",
"doc2308",
"doc2307",
"doc391808",
"doc451452",
"doc391798",
"doc291605",
"doc291606",
"doc516683",
"doc291607",
"doc291623",
"doc391... | [
"The Price Is Right (U.S. game show) Johnny Olson, the announcer for many Goodson-Todman shows of the era, was the program's original announcer until his death in October 1985.[14] Olson was replaced by Rod Roddy in February 1986,[15] who remained with the program until shortly before his death in October 2003.[16]... | [
"George Gray (television personality) After previously appearing with a group of rotating auditioning announcers, Gray officially became the fourth regular announcer on The Price Is Right on April 18, 2011, succeeding Rich Fields.[2]"
] |
test693 | who developed the first printing press in 1430s | [
"doc24805"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc2202043",
"doc24805",
"doc2157450",
"doc79163",
"doc79197",
"doc1731367",
"doc2157455",
"doc2202044",
"doc2202075",
"doc24819",
"doc906515",
"doc2459786",
"doc1731355",
"doc884490",
"doc24812",
"doc2157456",
"doc1731366",
"doc79173",
"doc448979",
"doc2202054",
"doc2202053... | [
"Johannes Gutenberg Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (/joʊˈhɑːnɪs ˈɡuːtənˌbɜːrɡ, -ˈhænɪs-/ yoh-HA(H)N-iss GOO-tən-burg;[1] c. 1400[2] – February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe with the printing press. His introduction of mechanical m... | [
"Printing press Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith by profession, developed, circa 1439, a printing system by adapting existing technologies to printing purposes, as well as making inventions of his own. Printing in East Asia had been prevalent since the Tang dynasty,[3][4] and in Europe, woodblock printing based on e... |
test2016 | explain the process of ultrafiltration in the kidney | [
"doc70536"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc70537",
"doc70536",
"doc1134463",
"doc1197699",
"doc164469",
"doc70540",
"doc70541",
"doc1197700",
"doc1349025",
"doc1431376",
"doc70538",
"doc687442",
"doc70539",
"doc1134466",
"doc858366",
"doc1603828",
"doc1634383",
"doc1134465",
"doc1634369",
"doc256224",
"doc1134444"... | [
"Ultrafiltration (renal) The high hydrostatic pressure forces small molecules in the tubular fluid such as water, glucose, amino acids, sodium chloride and urea through the filter, from the blood in the glomerular capsule across the basement membrane of the Bowman's capsule and into the renal tubules. This process ... | [
"Ultrafiltration (renal) In renal physiology, ultrafiltration occurs at the barrier between the blood and the filtrate in the glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule) in the kidneys. As in nonbiological examples of ultrafiltration, pressure (in this case blood pressure) and concentration gradients lead to a separation... |
test1113 | where did the legend of the easter bunny come from | [
"doc39111"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc39111",
"doc39115",
"doc39121",
"doc368498",
"doc39112",
"doc39123",
"doc2588528",
"doc39113",
"doc39114",
"doc39122",
"doc2644951",
"doc2588527",
"doc302504",
"doc302499",
"doc495418",
"doc495494",
"doc231389",
"doc302569",
"doc495419",
"doc495493",
"doc302563",
"doc23... | [
"Easter Bunny The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the \"Easter Hare\" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in ... | [
"Easter Bunny The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the \"Easter Hare\" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in ... |
test1976 | who are the parents of the three fates | [
"doc69272"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc69272",
"doc778265",
"doc69271",
"doc69282",
"doc69293",
"doc69307",
"doc69296",
"doc69325",
"doc69280",
"doc69302",
"doc1796756",
"doc1796749",
"doc69297",
"doc69281",
"doc69301",
"doc69308",
"doc69310",
"doc1486557",
"doc1796747",
"doc1920799",
"doc770639",
"doc69284"... | [
"Moirai They controlled the mother thread of life of every mortal from birth to death. They were independent, at the helm of necessity, directed fate, and watched that the fate assigned to every being by eternal laws might take its course without obstruction. The gods and men had to submit to them, although Zeus's ... | [
"Moirai They controlled the mother thread of life of every mortal from birth to death. They were independent, at the helm of necessity, directed fate, and watched that the fate assigned to every being by eternal laws might take its course without obstruction. The gods and men had to submit to them, although Zeus's ... |
test466 | who sings i can't take my eyes off of you | [
"doc17132"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc17132",
"doc17134",
"doc17135",
"doc17133",
"doc2397061",
"doc136",
"doc895731",
"doc932411",
"doc661048",
"doc1679476",
"doc2662220",
"doc137",
"doc661052",
"doc895732",
"doc45054",
"doc661051",
"doc1253243",
"doc1394380",
"doc1196259",
"doc1263479",
"doc545987",
"doc1... | [
"Can't Take My Eyes Off You \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind \"Windy\" by The Association.[2] It was co-written by Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli... | [
"Can't Take My Eyes Off You \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind \"Windy\" by The Association.[2] It was co-written by Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli... |
test3404 | who is the man in listen to what the man said | [
"doc115973"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc115969",
"doc115970",
"doc1851790",
"doc115974",
"doc1851789",
"doc115973",
"doc1851788",
"doc115972",
"doc1345420",
"doc115975",
"doc809963",
"doc834845",
"doc1894283",
"doc2267031",
"doc1406454",
"doc1712427",
"doc115971",
"doc306678",
"doc1388415",
"doc1388414",
"doc16... | [
"Listen to What the Man Said \"Listen to What the Man Said\" is a hit single from Wings' 1975 album Venus and Mars. The song featured new member Joe English on drums, with guest musicians Dave Mason on guitar and Tom Scott on soprano saxophone.[1] It was a number 1 single on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US;[2... | [
"Listen to What the Man Said The song is an optimistic love song.[13] Even though love may be blind or may cause separated lovers to suffer, the singer believes that love will prevail.[13] This is in accordance with what “the man” said.[13] “The man” is not explicitly identified, but might be God.[13] Author Vincen... |
test2179 | dominant alleles are always the most common allele in a population | [
"doc76000"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc76000",
"doc75978",
"doc75999",
"doc90590",
"doc76004",
"doc104221",
"doc75998",
"doc75997",
"doc76015",
"doc76002",
"doc75988",
"doc75980",
"doc75981",
"doc310541",
"doc753700",
"doc76012",
"doc75989",
"doc75993",
"doc76028",
"doc75979",
"doc76018",
"doc1371790",
"do... | [
"Dominance (genetics) Dominance is also unrelated to the distribution of alleles in the population. Some dominant alleles are extremely common, while others are extremely rare. The most common allele in a population may be recessive when combined with some rare variants.",
"Dominance (genetics) Dominance in genet... | [
"Dominance (genetics) Dominance is also unrelated to the distribution of alleles in the population. Some dominant alleles are extremely common, while others are extremely rare. The most common allele in a population may be recessive when combined with some rare variants."
] |
test2602 | where do deer mice live in the us | [
"doc89087"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc89101",
"doc89102",
"doc89090",
"doc89087",
"doc89093",
"doc89104",
"doc89103",
"doc89092",
"doc89100",
"doc89091",
"doc1322211",
"doc2426952",
"doc89096",
"doc89095",
"doc89105",
"doc1934811",
"doc89099",
"doc89106",
"doc89088",
"doc89094",
"doc2321609",
"doc426593",
... | [
"Peromyscus maniculatus Peromyscus maniculatus are found in places including Alaska, Canada, and parts of South America.[7] The majority of deer mice nest high up, in large hollow trees. The deer mouse nests alone for the most part but will sometimes nest with a deer mouse of the opposite sex.[15] They are populous... | [
"Peromyscus maniculatus Peromyscus maniculatus is a rodent native to North America. It is most commonly called the deer mouse, although that name is common to most species of Peromyscus, and thus is often called the North American deermouse[2] and is fairly widespread across the continent, with the major exception ... |
test1475 | when can a noun be used as an adjective | [
"doc52619"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc52619",
"doc52620",
"doc2160618",
"doc1174680",
"doc1174689",
"doc2160597",
"doc2160591",
"doc52621",
"doc52624",
"doc597377",
"doc597379",
"doc923329",
"doc2160604",
"doc1658352",
"doc559559",
"doc1658356",
"doc1658355",
"doc923332",
"doc818861",
"doc1174686",
"doc216059... | [
"Noun adjunct In grammar, a noun adjunct or attributive noun or noun (pre)modifier is an optional noun that modifies another noun; it is a noun functioning as a pre-modifier in a noun phrase. For example, in the phrase \"chicken soup\" the noun adjunct \"chicken\" modifies the noun \"soup\". It is irrelevant whethe... | [
"Noun adjunct In grammar, a noun adjunct or attributive noun or noun (pre)modifier is an optional noun that modifies another noun; it is a noun functioning as a pre-modifier in a noun phrase. For example, in the phrase \"chicken soup\" the noun adjunct \"chicken\" modifies the noun \"soup\". It is irrelevant whethe... |
test1022 | who played the girl in my two dads | [
"doc35993",
"doc35996"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc35993",
"doc583740",
"doc583741",
"doc35996",
"doc583745",
"doc583742",
"doc583746",
"doc1149927",
"doc583743",
"doc583744",
"doc2162093",
"doc1942717",
"doc449638",
"doc878150",
"doc35995",
"doc878155",
"doc441350",
"doc373404",
"doc878148",
"doc1359566",
"doc1679547",
... | [
"Staci Keanan Staci Keanan (born Anastasia Love Sagorsky on June 6, 1975)[1][2] is a former American actress and attorney. Keanan is best known for her roles in the television series My Two Dads (1987–1990) and Step by Step (1991–1998). She has also been credited as Stacy Keenan and Staci Love.",
"My Two Dads My ... | [
"Staci Keanan Staci Keanan (born Anastasia Love Sagorsky on June 6, 1975)[1][2] is a former American actress and attorney. Keanan is best known for her roles in the television series My Two Dads (1987–1990) and Step by Step (1991–1998). She has also been credited as Stacy Keenan and Staci Love.",
"Staci Keanan At... |
test1720 | points outside the production possibilities curve represent combinations of products that are | [
"doc61014",
"doc61022"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc61022",
"doc61021",
"doc61014",
"doc1358899",
"doc61020",
"doc61035",
"doc61032",
"doc61013",
"doc1358896",
"doc61034",
"doc61024",
"doc1358897",
"doc61033",
"doc61019",
"doc61015",
"doc61016",
"doc61028",
"doc61029",
"doc61026",
"doc61018",
"doc61017",
"doc61023",
"d... | [
"Production–possibility frontier Any point that lies either on the production possibilities curve or to the left of it is said to be an attainable point: it can be produced with currently available resources. Points that lie to the right of the production possibilities curve are said to be unattainable because they... | [
"Production–possibility frontier Graphically bounding the production set for fixed input quantities, the PPF curve shows the maximum possible production level of one commodity for any given production level of the other, given the existing state of technology. By doing so, it defines productive efficiency in the co... |
test1012 | who has the most gold gloves at shortstop | [
"doc35763"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc35763",
"doc126693",
"doc35764",
"doc1721180",
"doc35762",
"doc745227",
"doc126697",
"doc2433483",
"doc1529539",
"doc452196",
"doc64039",
"doc126694",
"doc1555466",
"doc246326",
"doc573659",
"doc745213",
"doc126690",
"doc452198",
"doc1529540",
"doc1721136",
"doc1529542",
... | [
"List of Gold Glove Award winners at shortstop Ozzie Smith, known as \"the Wizard of Oz\", has won the most Gold Glove Awards at shortstop; he captured 13 awards in his 19 seasons with the St. Louis Cardinals.[6] Omar Vizquel is second among shortstops with 11 wins; he won two with the San Francisco Giants in the N... | [
"List of Gold Glove Award winners at shortstop Ozzie Smith, known as \"the Wizard of Oz\", has won the most Gold Glove Awards at shortstop; he captured 13 awards in his 19 seasons with the St. Louis Cardinals.[6] Omar Vizquel is second among shortstops with 11 wins; he won two with the San Francisco Giants in the N... |
test1546 | the vascular layer of the eye is the | [
"doc55333"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc414334",
"doc55332",
"doc1386120",
"doc55333",
"doc414336",
"doc2278168",
"doc2537806",
"doc50123",
"doc1309665",
"doc2171576",
"doc1309667",
"doc50109",
"doc2537812",
"doc1336510",
"doc2351266",
"doc50124",
"doc414335",
"doc50107",
"doc945113",
"doc2351280",
"doc437607",... | [
"Choroid The Choroid, also known as the choroidea or choroid coat, is the vascular layer of the eye, containing connective tissues, and lying between the retina and the sclera. The human choroid is thickest at the far extreme rear of the eye (at 0.2 mm), while in the outlying areas it narrows to 0.1 mm.[1] The chor... | [
"Uvea The uvea is the vascular middle layer of the eye. It is traditionally divided into three areas, from front to back, the:"
] |
test1974 | who proved that cells come from other cells | [
"doc69253"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc69252",
"doc908536",
"doc69239",
"doc69253",
"doc69248",
"doc660785",
"doc69251",
"doc1531554",
"doc69245",
"doc723932",
"doc560267",
"doc69244",
"doc69249",
"doc102187",
"doc2329503",
"doc2249727",
"doc69247",
"doc1482603",
"doc908538",
"doc710587",
"doc1482593",
"doc1... | [
"Cell theory 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells",
"Rudolf Virchow Virchow is credited with several very important discoveries. His most widely known scientific contribution is his cell theory, which built on the work of Theodor Schwann. He was one of the first to accept the work of Robert Remak, who ... | [
"Cell theory However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[15] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect abo... |
test3132 | why is the indian ocean the warmest in the world | [
"doc106974"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc106974",
"doc106976",
"doc106967",
"doc106969",
"doc106977",
"doc106980",
"doc106978",
"doc106981",
"doc1902408",
"doc106970",
"doc1788461",
"doc482470",
"doc106975",
"doc106968",
"doc1149987",
"doc2168214",
"doc106973",
"doc106999",
"doc1844136",
"doc1788460",
"doc114999... | [
"Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 0.7–1.2 °C (1.3–2.2 °F) during 1901–2012.[6] Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming o... | [
"Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 0.7–1.2 °C (1.3–2.2 °F) during 1901–2012.[6] Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming o... |
test786 | when did it change from bc to ad | [
"doc28039",
"doc28060"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc2268338",
"doc28039",
"doc402298",
"doc28038",
"doc28043",
"doc28048",
"doc28044",
"doc28061",
"doc402297",
"doc1434137",
"doc28060",
"doc563682",
"doc1995551",
"doc464626",
"doc464628",
"doc1434133",
"doc28056",
"doc1995552",
"doc28041",
"doc28047",
"doc464629",
"doc20... | [
"Century Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor introduced the anno Domini system in AD 525, counting the years since the birth of Christ. This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years befo... | [
"Anno Domini This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC... |
test2356 | is there horse riding in the commonwealth games | [
"doc81541"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc81541",
"doc311213",
"doc311215",
"doc538387",
"doc311278",
"doc311248",
"doc81543",
"doc1641840",
"doc68397",
"doc311214",
"doc81542",
"doc311224",
"doc311217",
"doc311246",
"doc2251872",
"doc41953",
"doc2516940",
"doc311218",
"doc311219",
"doc311267",
"doc311270",
"do... | [
"2018 Commonwealth Games The current regulations state that from the 26 approved sports administered by Commonwealth Governing Bodies, a minimum of ten core sports and maximum of seventeen sports must be included in any Commonwealth Games schedule. The current approved sports include the 10 core sports: athletics, ... | [
"2018 Commonwealth Games The current regulations state that from the 26 approved sports administered by Commonwealth Governing Bodies, a minimum of ten core sports and maximum of seventeen sports must be included in any Commonwealth Games schedule. The current approved sports include the 10 core sports: athletics, ... |
test1693 | who did the central powers defeat on the eastern front before concentrating back on france | [
"doc60052"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc741256",
"doc2317140",
"doc741284",
"doc37521",
"doc37458",
"doc1791935",
"doc804166",
"doc741286",
"doc733797",
"doc111739",
"doc741259",
"doc37459",
"doc741314",
"doc37600",
"doc1949120",
"doc37480",
"doc741282",
"doc741293",
"doc741281",
"doc741262",
"doc225096",
"do... | [
"Eastern Front (World War I) Central Powers victory",
"History of Hungary In the east, the Central Powers repelled attacks from the Russian Empire. The Eastern front of the so-called Entente Powers allied with Russia completely collapsed. Austria-Hungary withdrew from the defeated countries.[citation needed]\nOn ... | [
"Bulgaria during World War I The military convention between Bulgaria and the Central Powers laid down the general plan for its campaign against the Kingdom of Serbia. It severely limited the control of the Bulgarian High Command over the Bulgarian 1st Army, which was designated part of a combined German, Bulgarian... |
test419 | what nfl coach has the most wins ever | [
"doc15659"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc15659",
"doc1835646",
"doc754844",
"doc843104",
"doc754848",
"doc413367",
"doc263282",
"doc413368",
"doc754845",
"doc2270717",
"doc2322413",
"doc566796",
"doc263275",
"doc263283",
"doc15658",
"doc1756745",
"doc2436166",
"doc1226574",
"doc1154162",
"doc1610464",
"doc754849... | [
"List of National Football League head coaches with 50 wins At the time of the 1970 NFL–AFL merger, George Halas, head coach, founder and owner of the Chicago Bears, held the record for most wins as a head coach. He retired from coaching after the 1967 season with 324 wins, including six playoff wins. Twenty-eight ... | [
"List of National Football League head coaches with 50 wins At the time of the 1970 NFL–AFL merger, George Halas, head coach, founder and owner of the Chicago Bears, held the record for most wins as a head coach. He retired from coaching after the 1967 season with 324 wins, including six playoff wins. Twenty-eight ... |
test2445 | where is the intermountain region located on a map | [
"doc84332"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc84332",
"doc84340",
"doc84338",
"doc676367",
"doc1246375",
"doc84334",
"doc1246376",
"doc84333",
"doc84335",
"doc1246373",
"doc84336",
"doc676368",
"doc286620",
"doc1246374",
"doc84339",
"doc84337",
"doc286618",
"doc676375",
"doc286633",
"doc1246383",
"doc743919",
"doc8... | [
"Intermountain West The Intermountain West, or Intermountain Region, is a geographic and geological region of the Western United States. It is located between the front ranges of the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada on the west.",
"Intermountain West The intermountain states are... | [
"Intermountain West The Intermountain West, or Intermountain Region, is a geographic and geological region of the Western United States. It is located between the front ranges of the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada on the west."
] |
test2283 | who is often associated with printing the first book using moveable type in germany | [
"doc79163",
"doc79197"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc2202043",
"doc448979",
"doc79197",
"doc2157450",
"doc906515",
"doc448974",
"doc2202075",
"doc2202064",
"doc2202048",
"doc1731367",
"doc2321145",
"doc2202044",
"doc79163",
"doc24805",
"doc2202054",
"doc2157455",
"doc1674065",
"doc2202053",
"doc2202055",
"doc314243",
"doc21... | [
"Johannes Gutenberg Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (/joʊˈhɑːnɪs ˈɡuːtənˌbɜːrɡ, -ˈhænɪs-/ yoh-HA(H)N-iss GOO-tən-burg;[1] c. 1400[2] – February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe with the printing press. His introduction of mechanical m... | [
"Movable type The world's first movable type printing press technology for printing paper books was made of porcelain materials and was invented around AD 1040 in China during the Northern Song Dynasty by the inventor Bi Sheng (990–1051).[1] Subsequently in 1377, the world's oldest extant movable metal print book, ... |
test1702 | where does the seven ages of man come from | [
"doc60485"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc60485",
"doc60479",
"doc60486",
"doc260370",
"doc260394",
"doc60480",
"doc60481",
"doc439231",
"doc439232",
"doc1673235",
"doc260366",
"doc1558672",
"doc260354",
"doc60484",
"doc1042409",
"doc1673249",
"doc1968904",
"doc647542",
"doc483076",
"doc439247",
"doc1673242",
"... | [
"All the world's a stage Likewise the division of human life into a series of ages was a commonplace of art and literature, which Shakespeare would have expected his audiences to recognize. The number of ages varied: three and four being the most common among ancient writers such as Aristotle. The concept of seven ... | [
"All the world's a stage Likewise the division of human life into a series of ages was a commonplace of art and literature, which Shakespeare would have expected his audiences to recognize. The number of ages varied: three and four being the most common among ancient writers such as Aristotle. The concept of seven ... |
test3282 | what is the difference between pvc and pvdc | [
"doc112373"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc1722406",
"doc1722384",
"doc1722402",
"doc1722413",
"doc611046",
"doc1722408",
"doc1722417",
"doc1722385",
"doc1722423",
"doc1064403",
"doc1722393",
"doc1722416",
"doc1722425",
"doc1722405",
"doc1722388",
"doc1722392",
"doc1968895",
"doc112374",
"doc1722411",
"doc1722415",
... | [
"Polyvinyl chloride PVC is a polymer with good insulation properties, but because of its higher polar nature the electrical insulating property is inferior to non polar polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.",
"Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride (/ˌpɒlivaɪnəl ˈklɔːraɪd/),[5] also known as polyvinyl o... | [
"Blister pack Polyvinylidene chloride or PVDC can be coated onto a PVC film to obtain very high moisture and oxygen barrier properties depending on the coating weight. PVDC coated blister films are the most common and prevailing barrier films used for pharmaceutical blister packs. PVDC coatings are also the most ec... |
test321 | what is one yellow line on a road | [
"doc12246"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc12242",
"doc12263",
"doc12244",
"doc12246",
"doc1240313",
"doc12253",
"doc12248",
"doc12254",
"doc12247",
"doc12243",
"doc12252",
"doc12266",
"doc1240357",
"doc12241",
"doc12245",
"doc12265",
"doc1240354",
"doc639801",
"doc12256",
"doc12250",
"doc12261",
"doc1240335",
... | [
"Yellow line (road marking) A single yellow line is a road marking that is present on the side of the carriageway in the United Kingdom. It indicates that parking or waiting at that roadside is prohibited at certain times of day. The exact times vary by area and are indicated by signs at the roadside. Stopping to l... | [
"Yellow line (road marking) In Canada, Japan, Lebanon, and in some areas in the United States a single yellow line is used to separate traffic coming from opposite directions, where passing is allowed but with extreme caution."
] |
test88 | where is the setting for beauty and the beast | [
"doc2834"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc285712",
"doc2832",
"doc2835",
"doc2834",
"doc2833",
"doc666653",
"doc285723",
"doc392484",
"doc285730",
"doc337499",
"doc1332308",
"doc24307",
"doc1332304",
"doc2836",
"doc285727",
"doc666663",
"doc666654",
"doc285714",
"doc1332302",
"doc285717",
"doc285755",
"doc28572... | [
"Beauty and the Beast (1991 film) Beauty and the Beast is a 1991 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 30th Disney animated feature film and the third released during the Disney Renaissance period, it is based on the Frenc... | [
"Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) In Rococo-era France, an enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a coldhearted prince, a rose for shelter. When he refuses, she reveals her identity as an enchantress and transforms him into a beast and his servants into h... |
test2097 | are they still making games for xbox one | [
"doc72882"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc699527",
"doc1283190",
"doc161475",
"doc72843",
"doc72914",
"doc72846",
"doc1022626",
"doc2139829",
"doc1022627",
"doc91791",
"doc161474",
"doc1070978",
"doc161473",
"doc72913",
"doc161470",
"doc91790",
"doc2209608",
"doc1070968",
"doc1283179",
"doc91792",
"doc72911",
"... | [
"List of Xbox games compatible with Xbox One During Microsoft's E3 2017 press conference on June 11, 2017, Microsoft announced that roughly 50% of Xbox One users had played an Xbox 360 game on Xbox One through the system's backward-compatibility feature.[1] Based on popular demand, Phil Spencer, Microsoft's Head of... | [
"Xbox One Since June 2017, games may be promoted with additional icons that denote compatibility with hardware enhancements found in newer Xbox One models, including support for high-dynamic-range (HDR) colors (on Xbox One S and Xbox One X), native rendering at 4K resolution (Xbox One X), and specific optimizations... |
test3013 | why does overexpression of rtks lead to cancer development | [
"doc103349"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc103349",
"doc270561",
"doc270548",
"doc703559",
"doc103330",
"doc270559",
"doc235626",
"doc2217438",
"doc103334",
"doc103358",
"doc103356",
"doc703555",
"doc103353",
"doc103354",
"doc840659",
"doc2012739",
"doc1614598",
"doc2418245",
"doc103355",
"doc235628",
"doc2418213"... | [
"Tyrosine kinase By 2004, 58 receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) were known, grouped into 20 subfamilies. They play pivotal roles in diverse cellular activities including growth (by signaling neurotrophins), differentiation, metabolism, adhesion, motility, death.[10] RTKs are composed of an extracellular domain, which... | [
"Tyrosine kinase By 2004, 58 receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) were known, grouped into 20 subfamilies. They play pivotal roles in diverse cellular activities including growth (by signaling neurotrophins), differentiation, metabolism, adhesion, motility, death.[10] RTKs are composed of an extracellular domain, which... |
test1388 | what was the population of the roman empire at its height | [
"doc49235",
"doc49238",
"doc49250"
] | [
1,
1,
1
] | [
"doc49250",
"doc2405839",
"doc2405816",
"doc49235",
"doc328832",
"doc2405841",
"doc502251",
"doc49238",
"doc2405832",
"doc426884",
"doc2405838",
"doc2405837",
"doc328941",
"doc230195",
"doc717089",
"doc1844298",
"doc180928",
"doc2056958",
"doc263244",
"doc230161",
"doc2405843... | [
"Roman Empire The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (reigned 98–117),[43] encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres. The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants[47] accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population[48] and made it the largest... | [
"Roman Empire The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Rōmānum; Classical Latin: [ɪmˈpɛ.ri.ũː roːˈmaː.nũː] Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial ho... |
test1991 | how many stores does lowes have in canada | [
"doc69809"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc69809",
"doc69813",
"doc69796",
"doc69787",
"doc69811",
"doc69799",
"doc69795",
"doc1800385",
"doc666902",
"doc69810",
"doc2271993",
"doc2579923",
"doc69812",
"doc68681",
"doc69788",
"doc2271997",
"doc666903",
"doc1800388",
"doc2520091",
"doc68682",
"doc1845886",
"doc18... | [
"Lowe's Based in Toronto, Ontario, Lowe's opened its first three stores in Canada on December 10, 2007, in Hamilton, Brampton and Brantford. On February 1, 2008, they opened three more stores in Toronto, East Gwillimbury, and a second store in Brampton as well as a new location in Maple (Vaughan).[29] Currently, ad... | [
"Lowe's Based in Toronto, Ontario, Lowe's opened its first three stores in Canada on December 10, 2007, in Hamilton, Brampton and Brantford. On February 1, 2008, they opened three more stores in Toronto, East Gwillimbury, and a second store in Brampton as well as a new location in Maple (Vaughan).[29] Currently, ad... |
test1445 | who is the singer of kal ho na ho | [
"doc51507"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc51507",
"doc51508",
"doc51509",
"doc1299676",
"doc1299685",
"doc1299689",
"doc1299677",
"doc2995",
"doc1299682",
"doc2529817",
"doc51511",
"doc1102357",
"doc51510",
"doc1299686",
"doc1923498",
"doc1299683",
"doc1923503",
"doc1299693",
"doc1299688",
"doc2529838",
"doc11023... | [
"Kal Ho Naa Ho (song) Kal Ho Naa Ho (Hindi: कल हो ना हो, English: Tomorrow May Never Come) is a Hindi song from the 2003 Hindi film Kal Ho Naa Ho directed by Nikhil Advani. The song is one of the most popular Hindi film songs all time. The song was composed by Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy with lyrics penned by Javed Akhtar a... | [
"Kal Ho Naa Ho (song) Kal Ho Naa Ho (Hindi: कल हो ना हो, English: Tomorrow May Never Come) is a Hindi song from the 2003 Hindi film Kal Ho Naa Ho directed by Nikhil Advani. The song is one of the most popular Hindi film songs all time. The song was composed by Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy with lyrics penned by Javed Akhtar a... |
test3363 | authorities involved in formulating accounting standard in india | [
"doc114950"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc114950",
"doc2008841",
"doc114951",
"doc2008840",
"doc471123",
"doc2008706",
"doc2008708",
"doc311420",
"doc114955",
"doc2008791",
"doc2008843",
"doc2008842",
"doc114953",
"doc471159",
"doc2008827",
"doc2474142",
"doc319419",
"doc2008709",
"doc1635747",
"doc311417",
"doc6... | [
"Indian Accounting Standards Indian Accounting Standard (abbreviated as Ind-AS) is the Accounting standard adopted by companies in India and issued under the supervision and control of Accounting Standards Board (ASB), which was constituted as a body in the year 1977. ASB is a committee under Institute of Chartered... | [
"Indian Accounting Standards Indian Accounting Standard (abbreviated as Ind-AS) is the Accounting standard adopted by companies in India and issued under the supervision and control of Accounting Standards Board (ASB), which was constituted as a body in the year 1977. ASB is a committee under Institute of Chartered... |
test1778 | when is the last time the vikings were in the nfc championship | [
"doc62730"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc62683",
"doc62676",
"doc309634",
"doc309636",
"doc1583549",
"doc62720",
"doc1583550",
"doc62678",
"doc62694",
"doc62677",
"doc309637",
"doc62693",
"doc62673",
"doc62706",
"doc309667",
"doc62701",
"doc647947",
"doc62727",
"doc309644",
"doc62691",
"doc998988",
"doc405653"... | [
"Minnesota Vikings Since the team's first season in 1961, the Vikings have had one of the highest winning percentages in the NFL.[10] As of 2017, they have won at least three games in every season except in 1962, and are one of only six NFL teams to win at least 15 games in a regular season. The Vikings have won on... | [
"Minnesota Vikings The Minneapolis Miracle was the final play of the 2017/18 Divisional Round game against the New Orleans Saints.[100] The Vikings were trailing by one point and needed a field goal or touchdown to secure a trip to the NFC Championship Game. With less than ten seconds remaining in the game quarterb... |
test2703 | when did first fast and furious come out | [
"doc92513"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc817157",
"doc817140",
"doc817139",
"doc92513",
"doc279644",
"doc817151",
"doc817160",
"doc817158",
"doc817161",
"doc817159",
"doc92514",
"doc817154",
"doc817143",
"doc817144",
"doc817152",
"doc279651",
"doc279650",
"doc688618",
"doc817153",
"doc279648",
"doc817156",
"do... | [
"The Fast and the Furious (2001 film) The Fast and the Furious was released on June 22, 2001 in North America and ranked #1 at the box office, earning $40,089,015 during its opening weekend. Its widest release was 2,889 theaters. During its run, the film has made a domestic total of $144,533,925 along with a foreig... | [
"The Fast and the Furious The Fast and the Furious (also known as Fast & Furious) is an American franchise based on a series of action films that is largely concerned with illegal street racing, heists and espionage, and includes material in various other media that depicts characters and situations from the films.... |
test3214 | what is the angle of the tower of pisa | [
"doc110038"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc110038",
"doc110037",
"doc110050",
"doc110036",
"doc110041",
"doc110042",
"doc110052",
"doc110040",
"doc110054",
"doc110047",
"doc110043",
"doc110044",
"doc1804821",
"doc110049",
"doc110039",
"doc110058",
"doc110051",
"doc110048",
"doc110057",
"doc110055",
"doc110053",
... | [
"Leaning Tower of Pisa The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183.27 feet) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 metres (185.93 feet) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0.06 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).[1] The tower has 296 or 294 st... | [
"Leaning Tower of Pisa The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183.27 feet) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 metres (185.93 feet) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0.06 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).[1] The tower has 296 or 294 st... |
test877 | where can the mona lisa be found today | [
"doc31319"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc31319",
"doc31358",
"doc742642",
"doc31357",
"doc31333",
"doc31337",
"doc31318",
"doc31334",
"doc31339",
"doc742646",
"doc31328",
"doc31330",
"doc31331",
"doc603580",
"doc31360",
"doc603584",
"doc31359",
"doc31338",
"doc31332",
"doc2003084",
"doc1853246",
"doc31327",
... | [
"Mona Lisa The painting is thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, and is in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. It had been believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. Recent academic work sugges... | [
"Mona Lisa The painting is thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, and is in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. It had been believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. Recent academic work sugges... |
test2712 | who is written in the book of life | [
"doc92918"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc92918",
"doc92919",
"doc92920",
"doc92917",
"doc92923",
"doc92922",
"doc222153",
"doc222160",
"doc92924",
"doc222155",
"doc222158",
"doc92921",
"doc222156",
"doc222165",
"doc222157",
"doc222161",
"doc222172",
"doc1322719",
"doc741505",
"doc222171",
"doc1263794",
"doc222... | [
"Book of Life In the Hebrew Bible the Book of Life - the book or muster-roll of God - records forever all people considered righteous before God. God has such a book, and to be blotted out of it signifies death.[1] It is with reference to the Book of Life that the holy remnant is spoken of as being written unto lif... | [
"Book of Life In the Hebrew Bible the Book of Life - the book or muster-roll of God - records forever all people considered righteous before God. God has such a book, and to be blotted out of it signifies death.[1] It is with reference to the Book of Life that the holy remnant is spoken of as being written unto lif... |
test2941 | is there going to be a bates motel season 6 | [
"doc100719"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc100719",
"doc796696",
"doc796693",
"doc100722",
"doc2156441",
"doc100720",
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"doc796702",
"doc796706",
"doc1369144",
"doc796703",
"doc597312",
"doc796701",
"doc5173"... | [
"Bates Motel (season 5) The fifth and final season[1] of Bates Motel premiered on February 20, 2017, and concluded on April 24, 2017. The season consisted of 10 episodes and aired on Mondays at 10 p.m. ET/PT on A&E.[2] The series itself is described as a \"contemporary prequel\" to the 1960 film Psycho, following t... | [
"Bates Motel (season 5) The fifth and final season[1] of Bates Motel premiered on February 20, 2017, and concluded on April 24, 2017. The season consisted of 10 episodes and aired on Mondays at 10 p.m. ET/PT on A&E.[2] The series itself is described as a \"contemporary prequel\" to the 1960 film Psycho, following t... |
test2001 | who has the highest score in pac man | [
"doc70163"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc17409",
"doc17420",
"doc17410",
"doc70163",
"doc17408",
"doc17401",
"doc1840815",
"doc70175",
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"doc70179",
"doc70176",
"doc1524420",
"doc1840816",
"doc2083130",
"doc70180",
"doc1524422",
"doc17445",
"doc70... | [
"Pac-Man The first person to be credited with achieving this score is Billy Mitchell of Hollywood, Florida, who claimed to perform the feat in about six hours.[34][35] In April 2018, Twin Galaxies removed all of Billy Mitchell's scores for several different games, saying that there was evidence of cheating in his s... | [
"Billy Mitchell (video game player) William James \"Billy\" Mitchell, Jr. (born July 17, 1965) is an American video game player. He has recorded high scores on classic games from the golden age of arcade video games. David Ramsey, writing for the Oxford American in 2006, called Mitchell \"probably the greatest arca... |
test1922 | where did they film the theory of everything | [
"doc67472"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc67472",
"doc67468",
"doc67454",
"doc67453",
"doc890872",
"doc67481",
"doc67456",
"doc67473",
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"doc67470",
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"doc67484",
"doc67474",
"doc67482",
"doc67487",
"doc67466",
"doc67485",
"doc67489",
"doc67483",
"doc67467",
"doc243... | [
"The Theory of Everything (2014 film) By 8 October 2013, principal photography had begun, with the shooting being done at Cambridge University, and at other locations in Cambridgeshire and across the United Kingdom.[21] Prior to the start of principal photography, Working Title had begun shooting on the lawn in fro... | [
"The Theory of Everything (2014 film) By 8 October 2013, principal photography had begun, with the shooting being done at Cambridge University, and at other locations in Cambridgeshire and across the United Kingdom.[21] Prior to the start of principal photography, Working Title had begun shooting on the lawn in fro... |
test702 | who does the foreign corrupt practices act apply to | [
"doc25063"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc25063",
"doc1278895",
"doc25062",
"doc25072",
"doc25074",
"doc25070",
"doc25079",
"doc25066",
"doc667252",
"doc2589018",
"doc25064",
"doc25065",
"doc25076",
"doc25071",
"doc25069",
"doc25067",
"doc25077",
"doc25091",
"doc25073",
"doc25075",
"doc1107486",
"doc25068",
"... | [
"Foreign Corrupt Practices Act The idea of Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) is to make it illegal for companies and their supervisors to influence foreign officials with any personal payments or rewards.[4][page needed] The FCPA applies to any person who has a certain degree of connection to the United States a... | [
"Foreign Corrupt Practices Act The idea of Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) is to make it illegal for companies and their supervisors to influence foreign officials with any personal payments or rewards.[4][page needed] The FCPA applies to any person who has a certain degree of connection to the United States a... |
test981 | who sang you and i travel to the beat of a different drum | [
"doc34447"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc34448",
"doc34447",
"doc34452",
"doc1302746",
"doc2237621",
"doc1494321",
"doc34451",
"doc1494320",
"doc1494322",
"doc1240844",
"doc2237622",
"doc1031430",
"doc1494318",
"doc969160",
"doc595671",
"doc171832",
"doc2431589",
"doc1240843",
"doc34450",
"doc1494317",
"doc98775... | [
"Different Drum The song first became popular in 1967 when recorded by the Stone Poneys featuring Linda Ronstadt, who took their version of \"Different Drum\" to #12 on the Cash Box Top 100, #13 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and #16 in Record World magazine. The song did best in New Zealand, where it reached #5.[... | [
"Different Drum \"Different Drum\" is a song written by Mike Nesmith in 1965 and originally recorded by the northern bluegrass band the Greenbriar Boys and included on their 1966 album, Better Late than Never!."
] |
test2269 | what true story is the movie fargo based on | [
"doc78513"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc78512",
"doc78514",
"doc78513",
"doc78501",
"doc78519",
"doc78515",
"doc78504",
"doc78516",
"doc78517",
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"doc78532",
"doc78518",
"doc78503",
"doc78509",
"doc78533",
"doc104119",
"doc78508",
"doc78520",
"doc104116",
"doc104110",
"doc868671",
"doc78506",
"doc... | [
"Fargo (film) This is a true story. The events depicted in this film took place in Minnesota in 1987. At the request of the survivors, the names have been changed. Out of respect for the dead, the rest has been told exactly as it occurred.",
"Fargo (film) The brothers have modified their explanation more than onc... | [
"Fargo (film) Closing credits, however, bear the standard all persons fictitious disclaimer for a work of fiction.[6] Regarding this apparent discrepancy, the Coen brothers claimed that they based their script on an actual criminal event, but wrote a fictional story around it. \"We weren't interested in that kind o... |
test2259 | meaning of song someone saved my life tonight | [
"doc78305"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc78303",
"doc78306",
"doc78304",
"doc78318",
"doc78308",
"doc78322",
"doc78309",
"doc78321",
"doc78311",
"doc78314",
"doc78320",
"doc821603",
"doc78310",
"doc78319",
"doc78313",
"doc2084702",
"doc78316",
"doc78305",
"doc78315",
"doc78307",
"doc78317",
"doc78312",
"doc8... | [
"Someone Saved My Life Tonight \"Someone Saved My Life Tonight\" is an Elton John song from his album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy.",
"Someone Saved My Life Tonight As a sign of respect and gratitude to Baldry, Taupin wrote him into the song as the \"someone\" in the title, and also as \"Sugar Bear... | [
"Someone Saved My Life Tonight Taupin's lyric refers to a time in 1968, before John was popular as a musician, when John was engaged to be married to girlfriend Linda Woodrow. John and Woodrow were sharing a flat with Taupin in Furlong Road in Highbury, London, hence the opening line \"When I think of those East En... |
test1326 | how okd was sean white in his first olympics | [
"doc46943"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc46942",
"doc46943",
"doc46941",
"doc46948",
"doc46939",
"doc46955",
"doc46947",
"doc46940",
"doc46950",
"doc46949",
"doc380157",
"doc2432539",
"doc380158",
"doc559157",
"doc1789996",
"doc46946",
"doc46953",
"doc46945",
"doc2266327",
"doc523600",
"doc46954",
"doc46952",
... | [
"Shaun White Following in his older brother Jesse White's[4] footsteps, White switched from skiing to snowboarding at age six, and by age seven he received his first sponsorship. White has participated in four Winter Olympics in his career. At the 2006, 2010, and 2018 Winter Olympics, White won gold in the snowboar... | [
"Shaun White At the 2006 Winter Olympics, White won gold in the half-pipe.[5] After his first run in qualifications, White was almost out of competition, scoring only 37.7. On his second run, he recorded a score of 45.3. In the finals, White recorded a score of 46.8 (50 is the highest possible score) to win. Fellow... |
test319 | who played the wicked witch in wicked on broadway | [
"doc12211",
"doc12219"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc178864",
"doc178857",
"doc178824",
"doc12223",
"doc178831",
"doc1828553",
"doc12211",
"doc248283",
"doc12224",
"doc178860",
"doc248288",
"doc178892",
"doc12219",
"doc178894",
"doc178858",
"doc178886",
"doc178907",
"doc178823",
"doc178884",
"doc178859",
"doc178895",
"doc... | [
"Wicked (musical) The West End production reunited the show's original creative team with Idina Menzel, who had originated the role of Elphaba in the Broadway production.[79] Original London cast members included Helen Dallimore as Glinda, Miriam Margolyes as Madame Morrible, Adam Garcia as Fiyero, Martin Ball as D... | [
"Rachel Tucker Rachel Kelly Tucker (born 29 May 1981) is a Northern Irish singer and actress who competed as one of the finalists in the BBC talent show-themed television series I'd Do Anything in 2008. She is perhaps best known for playing Elphaba in the hit musical Wicked in the West End, where she played the rol... |
test1995 | who is the first indian woman to be canonized as a saint | [
"doc69946"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc69946",
"doc1952438",
"doc624181",
"doc69947",
"doc69965",
"doc69951",
"doc69966",
"doc2167230",
"doc69948",
"doc69970",
"doc69971",
"doc69972",
"doc69958",
"doc2167263",
"doc2167260",
"doc2167221",
"doc2110389",
"doc69957",
"doc69953",
"doc69949",
"doc69973",
"doc19858... | [
"Saint Alphonsa Saint Alphonsa, F.C.C., (born Anna Muttathupadathu; 19 August 1910 – 28 July 1946) was an Indian religious sister and educator. She was the first woman of Indian origin to be canonised as a saint by the Catholic Church, and the first canonised saint of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, an Eastern ... | [
"Saint Alphonsa Saint Alphonsa, F.C.C., (born Anna Muttathupadathu; 19 August 1910 – 28 July 1946) was an Indian religious sister and educator. She was the first woman of Indian origin to be canonised as a saint by the Catholic Church, and the first canonised saint of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, an Eastern ... |
test1170 | when was the last time the ducks won the stanley cup | [
"doc41457"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc41457",
"doc41473",
"doc41514",
"doc41494",
"doc41515",
"doc41458",
"doc41496",
"doc41516",
"doc471024",
"doc541071",
"doc41481",
"doc41482",
"doc41464",
"doc41471",
"doc41480",
"doc41463",
"doc41456",
"doc41517",
"doc41472",
"doc41479",
"doc275105",
"doc41461",
"doc4... | [
"Anaheim Ducks The club was founded in 1993 by The Walt Disney Company as the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, a name based on the 1992 film The Mighty Ducks. Disney sold the franchise in 2005 to Henry and Susan Samueli, who along with General Manager Brian Burke, changed the name of the team to the Anaheim Ducks before th... | [
"Anaheim Ducks The club was founded in 1993 by The Walt Disney Company as the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, a name based on the 1992 film The Mighty Ducks. Disney sold the franchise in 2005 to Henry and Susan Samueli, who along with General Manager Brian Burke, changed the name of the team to the Anaheim Ducks before th... |
test2255 | how many seasons are there for lost girl | [
"doc78188"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc2314687",
"doc2314686",
"doc78186",
"doc78188",
"doc2314722",
"doc2314741",
"doc2314699",
"doc2314714",
"doc2314721",
"doc2314688",
"doc78189",
"doc2314703",
"doc2314743",
"doc1924818",
"doc2314765",
"doc2314707",
"doc2314709",
"doc2314742",
"doc181763",
"doc2314715",
"do... | [
"Lost Girl Following good ratings and positive reviews, it was renewed for a second season on November 12, 2010 (two months after its premiere),[10] with the episodes order afterwards increased to 22 episodes;[11] a third season on December 9, 2011;[12] a fourth season on February 28, 2013;[13] and a fifth on Febru... | [
"List of Lost Girl episodes Following good ratings and positive reviews, it was renewed for a second season on November 12, 2010 (two months after its premiere),[9] and the episodes order afterwards increased to 22 episodes;[10] a third season on December 9, 2011;[11] a fourth season on February 28, 2013;[12] and a... |
test2089 | where is the limbic system located and what is its function | [
"doc72591"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc72591",
"doc72594",
"doc72592",
"doc72596",
"doc72598",
"doc1404782",
"doc72613",
"doc72615",
"doc72612",
"doc606589",
"doc72614",
"doc72593",
"doc281128",
"doc72595",
"doc72608",
"doc2206118",
"doc72605",
"doc1057275",
"doc1665850",
"doc1700175",
"doc249111",
"doc72611... | [
"Limbic system The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the cerebrum.[1] It has also been referred to as the paleomammalian cortex. It is not a separate system but a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon.[2] ... | [
"Limbic system The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the cerebrum.[1] It has also been referred to as the paleomammalian cortex. It is not a separate system but a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon.[2] ... |
test2635 | how many flights do ryanair have a day | [
"doc90251"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc90231",
"doc90189",
"doc90187",
"doc90188",
"doc90251",
"doc90279",
"doc1641186",
"doc90290",
"doc90252",
"doc90282",
"doc90237",
"doc90296",
"doc90202",
"doc90289",
"doc90219",
"doc90297",
"doc90205",
"doc90197",
"doc90293",
"doc82831",
"doc90223",
"doc90192",
"doc90... | [
"Ryanair Plans are underway to add 50 new aircraft to Ryanair's fleet every year for the next five years in a strategy to reach 160 million passengers by the early 2020s, up from 120 million passengers today. [69]",
"Ryanair Since its establishment in 1984,[1] Ryanair has grown from a small airline, flying the sh... | [
"Ryanair Ryanair was subject to widespread criticism[111][112][113][114][115] after it announced that it would be cancelling between 40 and 50 flights per day (about 2% of total daily flights) during September and October 2017. Flights were cancelled with very little notice, sometimes only hours before departure. P... |
test2112 | who discovered that neural communication between cells occurs through chemicals | [
"doc73481"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc973445",
"doc73481",
"doc1035540",
"doc745660",
"doc1071306",
"doc1350999",
"doc412163",
"doc1211609",
"doc1144553",
"doc34492",
"doc254596",
"doc1211612",
"doc973441",
"doc1023890",
"doc1351033",
"doc1160184",
"doc1350990",
"doc267365",
"doc973455",
"doc2186244",
"doc182... | [
"Neurotransmitter Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical. However, through the careful histological examinations by Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the synaptic cleft, was discovered. The p... | [
"Synapse Santiago Ramón y Cajal proposed that neurons are not continuous throughout the body, yet still communicate with each other, an idea known as the neuron doctrine.[2] The word \"synapse\" – from the Greek synapsis (συνάψις), meaning \"conjunction\", in turn from συνάπτεὶν (συν (\"together\") and ἅπτειν (\"to... |
test84 | which government had more power under the articles of confederation | [
"doc2628"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc2654",
"doc2107781",
"doc1728814",
"doc2643",
"doc2107772",
"doc2628",
"doc2629",
"doc32904",
"doc2635",
"doc2661",
"doc2637",
"doc2630",
"doc722178",
"doc906914",
"doc2632",
"doc2646",
"doc8912",
"doc2638",
"doc2107777",
"doc1728805",
"doc2663",
"doc2689",
"doc2656",... | [
"Articles of Confederation Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirtee... | [
"Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution.[1] It was approved, after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777), by t... |
test656 | who sang buddy can you spare a dime | [
"doc23422"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc23422",
"doc23423",
"doc23424",
"doc23425",
"doc23426",
"doc1236785",
"doc1236783",
"doc1236775",
"doc1236787",
"doc1236781",
"doc1236779",
"doc23427",
"doc1236741",
"doc298880",
"doc787366",
"doc459415",
"doc2133767",
"doc661048",
"doc1276646",
"doc1236788",
"doc264634",... | [
"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? \"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?\", also sung as \"Buddy, Can You Spare a Dime?\", is one of the best-known American songs of the Great Depression. Written in 1930 by lyricist E. Y. \"Yip\" Harburg and composer Jay Gorney, \"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?\" was part of the 1932 music... | [
"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? \"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?\", also sung as \"Buddy, Can You Spare a Dime?\", is one of the best-known American songs of the Great Depression. Written in 1930 by lyricist E. Y. \"Yip\" Harburg and composer Jay Gorney, \"Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?\" was part of the 1932 music... |
test2037 | where does sleeping freshmen never lie take place | [
"doc71102"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc71100",
"doc71101",
"doc71106",
"doc71112",
"doc71102",
"doc71117",
"doc71104",
"doc71116",
"doc71103",
"doc71109",
"doc71108",
"doc71111",
"doc71105",
"doc71107",
"doc71115",
"doc294241",
"doc836204",
"doc71113",
"doc442701",
"doc836196",
"doc836188",
"doc2532744",
"... | [
"Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie is a 2005 young adult novel by David Lubar. It is a story about the high school experiences of a fourteen-year-old boy named Scott Hudson. The book was one of the ALA's book picks for 2006.[1]",
"Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie follo... | [
"Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie Scott Hudson enters J.P. Zenger High as a freshman, along with his three best friends, Mitch, Patrick, and Kyle, and quickly realizes that it is very different from middle school. Upperclassmen are intimidating and will steal any lunch money along with loose change if you stand in the w... |
test1587 | who starred in the movie summer of 42 | [
"doc56384"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc56384",
"doc56383",
"doc56397",
"doc56406",
"doc56415",
"doc56407",
"doc56400",
"doc1966978",
"doc56418",
"doc56386",
"doc56417",
"doc56387",
"doc56396",
"doc56401",
"doc56385",
"doc2256505",
"doc2248398",
"doc56405",
"doc56402",
"doc56403",
"doc977262",
"doc56398",
"... | [
"Summer of '42 The film was directed by Robert Mulligan, and starred Gary Grimes as Hermie, Jerry Houser as his best friend Oscy, Oliver Conant as their nerdy young friend Benjie, Jennifer O'Neill as Hermie's mysterious love interest, and Katherine Allentuck and Christopher Norris as a pair of girls whom Hermie and... | [
"Summer of '42 The film was directed by Robert Mulligan, and starred Gary Grimes as Hermie, Jerry Houser as his best friend Oscy, Oliver Conant as their nerdy young friend Benjie, Jennifer O'Neill as Hermie's mysterious love interest, and Katherine Allentuck and Christopher Norris as a pair of girls whom Hermie and... |
test1443 | first dynasty to issue gold coins in india | [
"doc51472"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc51473",
"doc51466",
"doc51472",
"doc2382959",
"doc51474",
"doc51456",
"doc51463",
"doc1891502",
"doc51489",
"doc51451",
"doc2217258",
"doc221959",
"doc51492",
"doc2207014",
"doc1095074",
"doc51469",
"doc51453",
"doc51487",
"doc2145029",
"doc51462",
"doc51470",
"doc51452... | [
"Coinage of India The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess.[18] Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I's accession to the throne.[18]Son of Chandragupta I-Samudragu... | [
"Coinage of India The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.[1]"
] |
test1158 | the battle of salamis was significant because it | [
"doc41067",
"doc41070"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc41067",
"doc41070",
"doc1489970",
"doc41118",
"doc41117",
"doc47488",
"doc41069",
"doc41119",
"doc41068",
"doc41092",
"doc41096",
"doc1489944",
"doc41076",
"doc41082",
"doc482515",
"doc41098",
"doc888854",
"doc41116",
"doc41095",
"doc41074",
"doc41071",
"doc41078",
"d... | [
"Battle of Salamis The Battle of Salamis (/ˈsæləmɪs/; Ancient Greek: Ναυμαχία τῆς Σαλαμῖνος, Naumachia tēs Salaminos) was a naval battle fought between an alliance of Greek city-states under Themistocles and the Persian Empire under King Xerxes in 480 BC which resulted in a decisive victory for the outnumbered Gree... | [
"Battle of Salamis The Battle of Salamis (/ˈsæləmɪs/; Ancient Greek: Ναυμαχία τῆς Σαλαμῖνος, Naumachia tēs Salaminos) was a naval battle fought between an alliance of Greek city-states under Themistocles and the Persian Empire under King Xerxes in 480 BC which resulted in a decisive victory for the outnumbered Gree... |
test235 | when was how deep is your love released | [
"doc8502"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc8502",
"doc1739958",
"doc8513",
"doc1739960",
"doc1739959",
"doc8503",
"doc1739970",
"doc8506",
"doc8515",
"doc1739963",
"doc1739961",
"doc8519",
"doc1739968",
"doc8514",
"doc1739965",
"doc8509",
"doc8512",
"doc8511",
"doc1739972",
"doc8524",
"doc1739967",
"doc8525",
... | [
"How Deep Is Your Love (Bee Gees song) \"How Deep Is Your Love\" is a pop ballad and Rap based, written, and recorded by the Bee Gees in 1977 and released as a single in September of that year. It was ultimately used as part of the soundtrack to the film Saturday Night Fever. It was a number three hit in the United... | [
"How Deep Is Your Love (Bee Gees song) \"How Deep Is Your Love\" is a pop ballad and Rap based, written, and recorded by the Bee Gees in 1977 and released as a single in September of that year. It was ultimately used as part of the soundtrack to the film Saturday Night Fever. It was a number three hit in the United... |
test2983 | who sings the skye boat song on outlander | [
"doc102333"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc102341",
"doc102333",
"doc595320",
"doc102316",
"doc102334",
"doc102326",
"doc102313",
"doc102336",
"doc102332",
"doc102322",
"doc102328",
"doc102338",
"doc102327",
"doc102329",
"doc102311",
"doc102314",
"doc102330",
"doc102312",
"doc102339",
"doc102319",
"doc102317",
"... | [
"The Skye Boat Song A modified version of \"The Skye Boat Song\" is used as the theme music for the TV Series Outlander sung by Raya Yarbrough and arranged by Bear McCreary. Notably, the word \"lad\" used in the version by Robert Louis Stevenson is replaced by \"lass\" to reflect the story.",
"The Skye Boat Song ... | [
"The Skye Boat Song Bear McCreary adapted the song as the opening titles of the 2014 TV series Outlander, sung by Raya Yarbrough, changing the text of Robert Louis Stevenson's poem Sing Me a Song of a Lad That Is Gone (1892) to fit the story.[7][8][1]"
] |
test2204 | what are the different types of mountain biking | [
"doc76791"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc76791",
"doc2641468",
"doc2641478",
"doc265883",
"doc2641461",
"doc2641460",
"doc76808",
"doc76792",
"doc76818",
"doc76811",
"doc2641471",
"doc76820",
"doc2641469",
"doc2641472",
"doc2641473",
"doc76819",
"doc76809",
"doc76825",
"doc1363413",
"doc76812",
"doc76817",
"do... | [
"Mountain biking Mountain biking is the sport of riding bicycles off-road, often over rough terrain, using specially designed mountain bikes. Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain. Mountain biking can generally be ... | [
"Mountain biking Mountain biking is the sport of riding bicycles off-road, often over rough terrain, using specially designed mountain bikes. Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain. Mountain biking can generally be ... |
test2597 | who sang the them song for as told by ginger | [
"doc88928"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc88928",
"doc88913",
"doc88930",
"doc88929",
"doc1956780",
"doc1376092",
"doc88927",
"doc284905",
"doc640944",
"doc88921",
"doc2598712",
"doc1563840",
"doc107879",
"doc88914",
"doc1149350",
"doc1025254",
"doc453507",
"doc1223468",
"doc88915",
"doc773321",
"doc1376094",
"... | [
"As Told by Ginger The opening theme, \"I'm in Between\", was written for the show by series composer, Jared Faber, and Emily Kapnek.[29] The song was first recorded with vocals by Melissa Disney, in character as Ginger. But this version was replaced before initial North American broadcasts with another version per... | [
"As Told by Ginger The opening theme, \"I'm in Between\", was written for the show by series composer, Jared Faber, and Emily Kapnek.[29] The song was first recorded with vocals by Melissa Disney, in character as Ginger. But this version was replaced before initial North American broadcasts with another version per... |
test545 | where does the phrase dressed to the nines | [
"doc19901"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc19900",
"doc19901",
"doc19905",
"doc19903",
"doc166966",
"doc166968",
"doc166972",
"doc166965",
"doc19902",
"doc166971",
"doc1949770",
"doc166974",
"doc166976",
"doc166969",
"doc166975",
"doc166967",
"doc2350890",
"doc19906",
"doc2350884",
"doc2108486",
"doc166978",
"do... | [
"To the nines \"To the nines\" is an English idiom meaning \"to perfection\" or \"to the highest degree\" or to dress \"buoyantly and high class\". In modern English usage, the phrase most commonly appears as \"dressed to the nines\" or \"dressed up to the nines\".[1][2]",
"To the nines The phrase is said to be S... | [
"To the nines The phrase is said to be Scots in origin.[2] The earliest written example of the phrase is from the 1719 Epistle to Ramsay by the Scottish poet William Hamilton:[3]"
] |
test624 | which of these mountain ranges in india's longest railway tunnel constructed | [
"doc22254"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc2070004",
"doc22254",
"doc22253",
"doc1412481",
"doc1182571",
"doc1182572",
"doc1182573",
"doc1182545",
"doc1182551",
"doc1182567",
"doc1182546",
"doc1182555",
"doc1182562",
"doc22251",
"doc444140",
"doc565219",
"doc1182543",
"doc1182544",
"doc1417204",
"doc1182576",
"doc... | [
"List of rail tunnels in India by length Most of the tunnels listed below are located in the Western Ghats, the only mountain range in the country that has good railway connectivity. There are longer tunnels that are under construction in the Himalayas in Jammu & Kashmir, as part of the JUSBRL Project.Pir Panjal Ra... | [
"Pir Panjal Range The Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel, an 11.215 kilometres (6.969Â mi) railway tunnel, passes through the Pir Panjal Range in Jammu and Kashmir. It connects Quazigund and Banihal and is a part of the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla railway project. The tunnel was commissioned on 26 June 2013 for regular serv... |
test1620 | who has won india's next super star | [
"doc57282"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc57282",
"doc57509",
"doc57567",
"doc1750070",
"doc57562",
"doc57314",
"doc57285",
"doc57470",
"doc57290",
"doc57427",
"doc57296",
"doc57497",
"doc57486",
"doc57370",
"doc57298",
"doc57377",
"doc57302",
"doc57355",
"doc57300",
"doc2006977",
"doc57554",
"doc57522",
"doc... | [
"India's Next Superstars India's Next Superstars is a talent-searcher Indian reality show, which premiered on Star Plus and is streamed on Hotstar.[1] Karan Johar and Rohit Shetty are the judges for the show. [2] Aman Gandotra and Natasha Bharadwaj are declared winners of 2018 season, alongside Shruti Sharma who wo... | [
"India's Next Superstars India's Next Superstars is a talent-searcher Indian reality show, which premiered on Star Plus and is streamed on Hotstar.[1] Karan Johar and Rohit Shetty are the judges for the show. [2] Aman Gandotra and Natasha Bharadwaj are declared winners of 2018 season, alongside Shruti Sharma who wo... |
test623 | how long were the pyramids the tallest structure | [
"doc22219"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc1309554",
"doc22219",
"doc82216",
"doc1636749",
"doc22218",
"doc82212",
"doc1797869",
"doc268388",
"doc1542144",
"doc82214",
"doc15087",
"doc1309552",
"doc268366",
"doc1493518",
"doc1730244",
"doc22223",
"doc1797865",
"doc1068311",
"doc449539",
"doc1797868",
"doc493296",
... | [
"History of construction Great Pyramid of Giza, the tallest building in the world for over 3800 years",
"History of the world's tallest buildings The earliest structures now known to be the tallest in the world were the Egyptian pyramids, with the Great Pyramid of Giza, at an original height of 146.5 metres (481 ... | [
"History of the world's tallest buildings The earliest structures now known to be the tallest in the world were the Egyptian pyramids, with the Great Pyramid of Giza, at an original height of 146.5 metres (481 ft), being the tallest man–made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, until the construction of Lin... |
test1378 | what is the main character's name in layer cake | [
"doc48902",
"doc48904"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc48904",
"doc48902",
"doc48912",
"doc48917",
"doc48905",
"doc48916",
"doc48903",
"doc48909",
"doc48907",
"doc48919",
"doc48918",
"doc48915",
"doc48908",
"doc48910",
"doc48911",
"doc48906",
"doc1161405",
"doc1958530",
"doc1161397",
"doc2023468",
"doc1161396",
"doc926246",... | [
"Layer Cake (film) A 30-something man (XXXX), is a London underworld criminal who has established himself as one of the biggest cocaine suppliers in the city, with effective legitimate cover. Considering himself a businessman and patience as a prime virtue, XXXX leaves the darker aspects of the business to his henc... | [
"Layer Cake (film) Layer Cake (also occasionally stylised as",
"Layer Cake (film) A 30-something man (XXXX), is a London underworld criminal who has established himself as one of the biggest cocaine suppliers in the city, with effective legitimate cover. Considering himself a businessman and patience as a prime v... |
test2552 | how to write time and date in military | [
"doc87777",
"doc87781"
] | [
1,
1
] | [
"doc87777",
"doc87771",
"doc87791",
"doc87781",
"doc1833203",
"doc87776",
"doc408114",
"doc1725244",
"doc456105",
"doc87772",
"doc456103",
"doc87773",
"doc1725237",
"doc87774",
"doc925903",
"doc148513",
"doc1725236",
"doc2009147",
"doc2455285",
"doc925904",
"doc148517",
"do... | [
"Date and time notation in the United States The United States military normally uses the \"dd mmm yyyy\" format for correspondence. The common month-day-year format is used when corresponding with civilians.[3][4] The military date notation is similar to the date notation in British English but is read cardinally ... | [
"Date and time notation in the United States The United States military normally uses the \"dd mmm yyyy\" format for correspondence. The common month-day-year format is used when corresponding with civilians.[3][4] The military date notation is similar to the date notation in British English but is read cardinally ... |
test1964 | who owns spirit of the suwannee music park | [
"doc69019"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc69018",
"doc69017",
"doc69016",
"doc1868641",
"doc69019",
"doc1868636",
"doc1868638",
"doc1735884",
"doc894897",
"doc1868635",
"doc350959",
"doc1093962",
"doc1868639",
"doc1868631",
"doc1742206",
"doc1942123",
"doc195060",
"doc1742208",
"doc2516477",
"doc1868622",
"doc919... | [
"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park, nestled in Live Oak, Florida, with 3 miles of the Suwannee river bordering the park, hosts over 25 diverse, fun events throughout the year. AURA Music and Arts Festival, Suwannee Hulaween, Wanee Music Festival, Springfest, Suwannee Festival of Li... | [
"Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park The Cornett family has been making improvements to the park to enhance and improve its entertainment, hiking, canoeing, camping and other activities. The park offers varied camping options including primitive camping, RV camping and furnished park models. A tree house is also avai... |
test736 | who were some leaders during the progressive era that fought for equal rights | [
"doc26180"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc26180",
"doc272088",
"doc26189",
"doc117247",
"doc2062066",
"doc286742",
"doc152083",
"doc1830562",
"doc117254",
"doc88203",
"doc26205",
"doc26231",
"doc26188",
"doc294779",
"doc26203",
"doc26233",
"doc1044731",
"doc2595999",
"doc26196",
"doc26177",
"doc26223",
"doc2618... | [
"Progressive Era Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made \"scientific\" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political s... | [
"Progressive Era Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made \"scientific\" the social sciences, especially history,[4] economics,[5] and political s... |
test1671 | when were 2 dollar bills stopped being made | [
"doc59085"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc59086",
"doc59088",
"doc59104",
"doc59089",
"doc59093",
"doc59085",
"doc59109",
"doc59108",
"doc59110",
"doc59105",
"doc57965",
"doc254819",
"doc254807",
"doc59099",
"doc336773",
"doc59100",
"doc59102",
"doc59097",
"doc59094",
"doc2150421",
"doc59096",
"doc59087",
"do... | [
"United States two-dollar bill The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first used in March 1862.[2] The denomination was continuously used until the 1960s; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two-dollar bill was assigned to. In ... | [
"United States two-dollar bill The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throug... |
test2264 | when did cable stayed bridges increase in popularity | [
"doc78438"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc78438",
"doc78440",
"doc78441",
"doc78439",
"doc2157841",
"doc78437",
"doc78451",
"doc78453",
"doc78455",
"doc1548845",
"doc2146885",
"doc78445",
"doc78452",
"doc78449",
"doc78442",
"doc2146898",
"doc1778760",
"doc78443",
"doc1184858",
"doc78450",
"doc2157837",
"doc7844... | [
"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th. Early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bri... | [
"Cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th. Early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bri... |
test937 | when was the last wolf pack killed in yellowstone | [
"doc33382"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc33384",
"doc33377",
"doc33382",
"doc33383",
"doc33379",
"doc299227",
"doc33380",
"doc1874878",
"doc123544",
"doc33397",
"doc33399",
"doc33378",
"doc33409",
"doc123543",
"doc33410",
"doc33390",
"doc33396",
"doc299228",
"doc2583050",
"doc33386",
"doc81473",
"doc33398",
... | [
"History of wolves in Yellowstone Updated research in the 1980s verified that the last official killing of wolves in the park took place in 1926 when two pups found near Soda Butte Creek were killed by park rangers.[7] The last reported wolf killed in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (prior to today’s legal hunt... | [
"History of wolves in Yellowstone It is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park by 1926,[1] although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933.[3] However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored st... |
test930 | who presides over the highest criminal court in a district | [
"doc33199"
] | [
1
] | [
"doc33199",
"doc33200",
"doc1934989",
"doc554450",
"doc450107",
"doc2394510",
"doc2394509",
"doc33205",
"doc1741929",
"doc593856",
"doc1430735",
"doc33201",
"doc1867994",
"doc600671",
"doc33206",
"doc2227622",
"doc2466678",
"doc1926254",
"doc904871",
"doc1938212",
"doc1565692... | [
"District Courts of India The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides the High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court i... | [
"District Courts of India The highest court in each district is that of the District and Sessions Judge. This is the principal court of original civil jurisdiction besides the High Court of the State and which derives its jurisdiction in civil matters primarily from the code of civil procedure. The district court i... |
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