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# Skin and Eye Infections ## Introduction The human body is covered in skin, and like most coverings, skin is designed to protect what is underneath. One of its primary purposes is to prevent microbes in the surrounding environment from invading underlying tissues and organs. But in spite of its role as a protective ...
# Skin and Eye Infections ## Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Skin and Eyes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the major anatomical features of the skin and eyes 2. Compare and contrast the microbiomes of various body sites, such as the hands, back, feet, and ey...
# Skin and Eye Infections ## Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common bacterial pathogens that cause infections of the skin and eyes 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial diseases affecting the...
# Skin and Eye Infections ## Viral Infections of the Skin and Eyes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common viruses associated with infections of the skin and eyes 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases affecting the skin and eyes ...
# Skin and Eye Infections ## Mycoses of the Skin ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common fungal pathogens associated with cutaneous and subcutaneous mycoses 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific fungal diseases affecting the skin Many fungal in...
# Skin and Eye Infections ## Protozoan and Helminthic Infections of the Skin and Eyes ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify two parasites that commonly cause infections of the skin and eyes 2. Identify the major characteristics of specific parasitic diseases affecting ...
# Respiratory System Infections ## Introduction The respiratory tract is one of the main portals of entry into the human body for microbial pathogens. On average, a human takes about 20,000 breaths each day. This roughly corresponds to 10,000 liters, or 10 cubic meters, of air. Suspended within this volume of air are...
# Respiratory System Infections ## Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Respiratory Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the major anatomical features of the upper and lower respiratory tract 2. Describe the normal microbiota of the upper and lower respiratory t...
# Respiratory System Infections ## Bacterial Infections of the Respiratory Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common bacteria that can cause infections of the upper and lower respiratory tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial...
# Respiratory System Infections ## Viral Infections of the Respiratory Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common viruses that can cause infections of the upper and lower respiratory tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases...
# Respiratory System Infections ## Respiratory Mycoses ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common fungi that can cause infections of the respiratory tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific fungal diseases of the respiratory tract Fungal patho...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Introduction The urogenital system is a combination of the urinary tract and reproductive system. Because both systems are open to the external environment, they are prone to infections. Some infections are introduced from outside, whereas others result from imbalances in the microbi...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Urogenital Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare the anatomy, function, and normal microbiota associated with the male and female urogenital systems 2. Explain how microorganisms, in general, o...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Bacterial Infections of the Urinary System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common bacterial pathogens that can cause urinary tract infections 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial diseases affecting ...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Bacterial Infections of the Reproductive System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common bacterial pathogens that can cause infections of the reproductive system 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial d...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Viral Infections of the Reproductive System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common viruses that cause infections of the reproductive system 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases affecting the re...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Fungal Infections of the Reproductive System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Summarize the important characteristics of vaginal candidiasis Only one major fungal pathogen affects the urogenital system. is a genus of fungi capable of exis...
# Urogenital System Infections ## Protozoan Infections of the Urogenital System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common protozoan pathogen that causes infections of the reproductive system 2. Summarize the important characteristics of trichomoniasis Only ...
# Digestive System Infections ## Introduction Gastrointestinal (GI) diseases are so common that, unfortunately, most people have had first-hand experience with the unpleasant symptoms, such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal discomfort. The causes of gastrointestinal illness can vary widely, but such diseases can b...
# Digestive System Infections ## Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Digestive System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the major anatomical features of the human digestive system 2. Describe the normal microbiota of various regions in the human digestive system 3...
# Digestive System Infections ## Microbial Diseases of the Mouth and Oral Cavity ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the role of microbial activity in diseases of the mouth and oral cavity 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific oral diseases and infections D...
# Digestive System Infections ## Bacterial Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common bacteria that can cause infections of the GI tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial diseases affecting th...
# Digestive System Infections ## Viral Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common viruses that can cause infections of the GI tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases affecting the GI trac...
# Digestive System Infections ## Protozoan Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common protozoans that can cause infections of the GI tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific protozoan diseases affecting ...
# Digestive System Infections ## Helminthic Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common helminths that cause infections of the GI tract 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific helminthic diseases affecting GI ...
# Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections ## Introduction Yellow fever was once common in the southeastern US, with annual outbreaks of more than 25,000 infections in New Orleans in the mid-1800s.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “The History of Yellow Fever.” http://www.cdc.gov/travel-training/local/Hi...
# Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections ## Anatomy of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the major anatomical features of the circulatory and lymphatic systems 2. Explain why the circulatory and lymphatic systems lack norm...
# Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections ## Bacterial Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify and compare bacteria that most commonly cause infections of the circulatory and lymphatic systems 2. Compare the major c...
# Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections ## Viral Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify common viral pathogens that cause infections of the circulatory and lymphatic systems 2. Compare the major characteristics o...
# Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections ## Parasitic Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify common parasites that cause infections of the circulatory and lymphatic systems 2. Compare the major characteristics of ...
# Nervous System Infections ## Introduction Few diseases inspire the kind of fear that rabies does. The name is derived from the Latin word for “madness” or “fury,” most likely because animals infected with rabies may behave with uncharacteristic rage and aggression. And while the thought of being attacked by a rabid...
# Nervous System Infections ## Anatomy of the Nervous System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the major anatomical features of the nervous system 2. Explain why there is no normal microbiota of the nervous system 3. Explain how microorganisms overcome defenses of ...
# Nervous System Infections ## Bacterial Diseases of the Nervous System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common bacteria that can cause infections of the nervous system 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial diseases affecting the nerv...
# Nervous System Infections ## Acellular Diseases of the Nervous System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common acellular pathogens that can cause infections of the nervous system 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases affecting t...
# Nervous System Infections ## Fungal and Parasitic Diseases of the Nervous System ### Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Identify the most common fungi that can cause infections of the nervous system 2. Compare the major characteristics of specific fungal diseases affecting the...
# Essential Ideas ## Introduction Your alarm goes off and, after hitting “snooze” once or twice, you pry yourself out of bed. You make a cup of coffee to help you get going, and then you shower, get dressed, eat breakfast, and check your phone for messages. On your way to school, you stop to fill your car’s gas tank,...
# Essential Ideas ## Chemistry in Context Throughout human history, people have tried to convert matter into more useful forms. Our Stone Age ancestors chipped pieces of flint into useful tools and carved wood into statues and toys. These endeavors involved changing the shape of a substance without changing the subst...
# Essential Ideas ## Phases and Classification of Matter Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, and it is all around us. Solids and liquids are more obviously matter: We can see that they take up space, and their weight tells us that they have mass. Gases are also matter; if gases did not ta...
# Essential Ideas ## Physical and Chemical Properties The characteristics that distinguish one substance from another are called properties. A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical composition. Familiar examples of physical properties include density, col...
# Essential Ideas ## Measurements Measurements provide much of the information that informs the hypotheses, theories, and laws describing the behavior of matter and energy in both the macroscopic and microscopic domains of chemistry. Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the ...
# Essential Ideas ## Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty, provided the number of objects being counted does not change while the counting process is underway. The result of such a counting measurement is an example of an exact number....
# Essential Ideas ## Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results It is often the case that a quantity of interest may not be easy (or even possible) to measure directly but instead must be calculated from other directly measured properties and appropriate mathematical relationships. For example, consider measuring ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Introduction Lung diseases and lung cancers are among the world's most devastating illnesses partly due to delayed detection and diagnosis. Most noninvasive screening procedures aren't reliable, and patients often resist more accurate methods due to discomfort with the procedures or wi...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Early Ideas in Atomic Theory The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day. In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of small, finite particles that they ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Evolution of Atomic Theory If matter is composed of atoms, what are atoms composed of? Are they the smallest particles, or is there something smaller? In the late 1800s, a number of scientists interested in questions like these investigated the electrical discharges that could be produ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Atomic Structure and Symbolism The development of modern atomic theory revealed much about the inner structure of atoms. It was learned that an atom contains a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by a much larger volume of space ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Chemical Formulas A molecular formula is a representation of a molecule that uses chemical symbols to indicate the types of atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of atoms of each type in the molecule. (A subscript is used only when more than one atom of a given type is presen...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## The Periodic Table As early chemists worked to purify ores and discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped together by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping includes lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K): These elements all are sh...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Ionic and Molecular Compounds In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus of each atom (and thus the identity of the element) remains unchanged. Electrons, however, can be added to atoms by transfer from other atoms, lost by transfer to other atoms, or shared with other atoms. The tran...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Chemical Nomenclature Nomenclature, a collection of rules for naming things, is important in science and in many other situations. This module describes an approach that is used to name simple ionic and molecular compounds, such as NaCl, CaCO3, and N2O4. The simplest of these are binar...
# Composition of Substances and Solutions ## Introduction Swimming pools have long been a popular means of recreation, exercise, and physical therapy. Since it is impractical to refill large pools with fresh water on a frequent basis, pool water is regularly treated with chemicals to prevent the growth of harmful bac...
# Composition of Substances and Solutions ## Formula Mass and the Mole Concept Many argue that modern chemical science began when scientists started exploring the quantitative as well as the qualitative aspects of chemistry. For example, Dalton’s atomic theory was an attempt to explain the results of measurements tha...
# Composition of Substances and Solutions ## Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas The previous section discussed the relationship between the bulk mass of a substance and the number of atoms or molecules it contains (moles). Given the chemical formula of the substance, one may determine the amount of the subs...
# Composition of Substances and Solutions ## Molarity Preceding sections of this chapter focused on the composition of substances: samples of matter that contain only one type of element or compound. However, mixtures—samples of matter containing two or more substances physically combined—are more commonly encountere...
# Composition of Substances and Solutions ## Other Units for Solution Concentrations The previous section introduced molarity, a very useful measurement unit for evaluating the concentration of solutions. However, molarity is only one measure of concentration. This section will describe some other units of concentrat...
# Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions ## Introduction Solid-fuel rockets are a central feature in the world’s space exploration programs, including the new Space Launch System being developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to replace the retired Space Shuttle fleet (). The engines of thes...
# Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions ## Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations An earlier chapter of this text introduced the use of element symbols to represent individual atoms. When atoms gain or lose electrons to yield ions, or combine with other atoms to form molecules, their symbols are modified or combined ...
# Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions ## Classifying Chemical Reactions Humans interact with one another in various and complex ways, and we classify these interactions according to common patterns of behavior. When two humans exchange information, we say they are communicating. When they exchange blows with their fi...
# Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions ## Reaction Stoichiometry A balanced chemical equation provides a great deal of information in a very succinct format. Chemical formulas provide the identities of the reactants and products involved in the chemical change, allowing classification of the reaction. Coefficients pro...
# Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions ## Reaction Yields The relative amounts of reactants and products represented in a balanced chemical equation are often referred to as stoichiometric amounts. All the exercises of the preceding module involved stoichiometric amounts of reactants. For example, when calculating the...
# Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions ## Quantitative Chemical Analysis In the 18th century, the strength (actually the concentration) of vinegar samples was determined by noting the amount of potassium carbonate, K2CO3, which had to be added, a little at a time, before bubbling ceased. The greater the weight of pota...
# Thermochemistry ## Introduction Chemical reactions, such as those that occur when you light a match, involve changes in energy as well as matter. Societies at all levels of development could not function without the energy released by chemical reactions. In 2012, about 85% of US energy consumption came from the com...
# Thermochemistry ## Energy Basics Chemical changes and their accompanying changes in energy are important parts of our everyday world (). The macronutrients in food (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) undergo metabolic reactions that provide the energy to keep our bodies functioning. We burn a variety of fuels (gaso...
# Thermochemistry ## Calorimetry One technique we can use to measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process is known as calorimetry. Calorimetry is used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or from a substance. To do so, the heat is exchanged with a calibrated object (calorimeter). The tem...
# Thermochemistry ## Enthalpy Thermochemistry is a branch of chemical thermodynamics, the science that deals with the relationships between heat, work, and other forms of energy in the context of chemical and physical processes. As we concentrate on thermochemistry in this chapter, we need to consider some widely use...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Introduction In 1054, Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a “guest star” in the sky, visible even during the day, which then disappeared slowly over the next two years. The sudden appearance was due to a supernova explosion, which was much brigh...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Electromagnetic Energy The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms and was able to demonstrate that white light consists of the individual colors o...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## The Bohr Model Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded by lighter and even tinier electrons continually moving about the nucleus was well est...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Development of Quantum Theory Bohr’s model explained the experimental data for the hydrogen atom and was widely accepted, but it also raised many questions. Why did electrons orbit at only fixed distances defined by a single quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, and...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations) Having introduced the basics of atomic structure and quantum mechanics, we can use our understanding of quantum numbers to determine how atomic orbitals relate to one another. This allows us to determ...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Periodic Variations in Element Properties The elements in groups (vertical columns) of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number and distribution of electrons in their v...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Introduction It has long been known that pure carbon occurs in different forms (allotropes) including graphite and diamonds. But it was not until 1985 that a new form of carbon was recognized: buckminsterfullerene. This molecule was named after the architect and inventor R...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Ionic Bonding As you have learned, ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more el...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Covalent Bonding Ionic bonding results from the electrostatic attraction of oppositely charged ions that are typically produced by the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms. A different type of bonding results from the mutual attraction of atoms for ...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Lewis Symbols and Structures Thus far in this chapter, we have discussed the various types of bonds that form between atoms and/or ions. In all cases, these bonds involve the sharing or transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms. In this section, we will explore the...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Formal Charges and Resonance In the previous section, we discussed how to write Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. As we have seen, however, in some cases, there is seemingly more than one valid structure for a molecule. We can use the concept of formal ch...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds A bond’s strength describes how strongly each atom is joined to another atom, and therefore how much energy is required to break the bond between the two atoms. In this section, you will learn about the bond strength of covalent bonds,...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Molecular Structure and Polarity Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and ...
# Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding ## Introduction We have examined the basic ideas of bonding, showing that atoms share electrons to form molecules with stable Lewis structures and that we can predict the shapes of those molecules by valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. These ideas provide an i...
# Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding ## Valence Bond Theory As we know, a scientific theory is a strongly supported explanation for observed natural laws or large bodies of experimental data. For a theory to be accepted, it must explain experimental data and be able to predict behavior. For example, VSEPR theory h...
# Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding ## Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Thinking in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals is one way for us to explain how chemical bonds form in diatomic molecules. However, to understand how molecules with more than two atoms form stable bonds, we require a more detailed model. As an exampl...
# Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding ## Multiple Bonds The hybrid orbital model appears to account well for the geometry of molecules involving single covalent bonds. Is it also capable of describing molecules containing double and triple bonds? We have already discussed that multiple bonds consist of σ and π bond...
# Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding ## Molecular Orbital Theory For almost every covalent molecule that exists, we can now draw the Lewis structure, predict the electron-pair geometry, predict the molecular geometry, and come close to predicting bond angles. However, one of the most important molecules we know, t...
# Gases ## Introduction We are surrounded by an ocean of gas—the atmosphere—and many of the properties of gases are familiar to us from our daily activities. Heated gases expand, which can make a hot air balloon rise () or cause a blowout in a bicycle tire left in the sun on a hot day. Gases have played an important ...
# Gases ## Gas Pressure The earth’s atmosphere exerts a pressure, as does any other gas. Although we do not normally notice atmospheric pressure, we are sensitive to pressure changes—for example, when your ears “pop” during take-off and landing while flying, or when you dive underwater. Gas pressure is caused by the ...
# Gases ## Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law During the seventeenth and especially eighteenth centuries, driven both by a desire to understand nature and a quest to make balloons in which they could fly (), a number of scientists established the relationships between the macroscopi...
# Gases ## Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions The study of the chemical behavior of gases was part of the basis of perhaps the most fundamental chemical revolution in history. French nobleman Antoine Lavoisier, widely regarded as the “father of modern chemistry,” changed chemistry from a qua...
# Gases ## Effusion and Diffusion of Gases If you have ever been in a room when a piping hot pizza was delivered, you have been made aware of the fact that gaseous molecules can quickly spread throughout a room, as evidenced by the pleasant aroma that soon reaches your nose. Although gaseous molecules travel at treme...
# Gases ## The Kinetic-Molecular Theory The gas laws that we have seen to this point, as well as the ideal gas equation, are empirical, that is, they have been derived from experimental observations. The mathematical forms of these laws closely describe the macroscopic behavior of most gases at pressures less than ab...
# Gases ## Non-Ideal Gas Behavior Thus far, the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, has been applied to a variety of different types of problems, ranging from reaction stoichiometry and empirical and molecular formula problems to determining the density and molar mass of a gas. As mentioned in the previous modules of this chapt...
# Liquids and Solids ## Introduction Leprosy has been a devastating disease throughout much of human history. Aside from the symptoms and complications of the illness, its social stigma led sufferers to be cast out of communities and isolated in colonies; in some regions this practice lasted well into the twentieth c...
# Liquids and Solids ## Intermolecular Forces As was the case for gaseous substances, the kinetic molecular theory may be used to explain the behavior of solids and liquids. In the following description, the term particle will be used to refer to an atom, molecule, or ion. Note that we will use the popular phrase “in...
# Liquids and Solids ## Properties of Liquids When you pour a glass of water, or fill a car with gasoline, you observe that water and gasoline flow freely. But when you pour syrup on pancakes or add oil to a car engine, you note that syrup and motor oil do not flow as readily. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure o...
# Liquids and Solids ## Phase Transitions We witness and utilize changes of physical state, or phase transitions, in a great number of ways. As one example of global significance, consider the evaporation, condensation, freezing, and melting of water. These changes of state are essential aspects of our earth’s water ...
# Liquids and Solids ## Phase Diagrams In the previous module, the variation of a liquid’s equilibrium vapor pressure with temperature was described. Considering the definition of boiling point, plots of vapor pressure versus temperature represent how the boiling point of the liquid varies with pressure. Also describ...
# Liquids and Solids ## The Solid State of Matter When most liquids are cooled, they eventually freeze and form crystalline solids, solids in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a definite repeating pattern. It is also possible for a liquid to freeze before its molecules become arranged in an orderly ...
# Liquids and Solids ## Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids Over 90% of naturally occurring and man-made solids are crystalline. Most solids form with a regular arrangement of their particles because the overall attractive interactions between particles are maximized, and the total intermolecular energy is minim...
# Solutions and Colloids ## Introduction Coral reefs are home to about 25% of all marine species. They are being threatened by climate change, oceanic acidification, and water pollution, all of which change the composition of the solution known as seawater. Dissolved oxygen in seawater is critical for sea creatures, ...
# Solutions and Colloids ## The Dissolution Process An earlier chapter of this text introduced solutions, defined as homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances. Often, one component of a solution is present at a significantly greater concentration, in which case it is called the solvent. The other components of t...
# Solutions and Colloids ## Electrolytes When some substances are dissolved in water, they undergo either a physical or a chemical change that yields ions in solution. These substances constitute an important class of compounds called electrolytes. Substances that do not yield ions when dissolved are called nonelectr...