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# Solutions and Colloids ## Solubility Imagine adding a small amount of sugar to a glass of water, stirring until all the sugar has dissolved, and then adding a bit more. You can repeat this process until the sugar concentration of the solution reaches its natural limit, a limit determined primarily by the relative s...
# Solutions and Colloids ## Colligative Properties The properties of a solution are different from those of either the pure solute(s) or solvent. Many solution properties are dependent upon the chemical identity of the solute. Compared to pure water, a solution of hydrogen chloride is more acidic, a solution of ammon...
# Solutions and Colloids ## Colloids As a child, you may have made suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water, known as tempera paint. These suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures composed of relatively large particles that are visible (or that can be se...
# Kinetics ## Introduction The lizard in the photograph is not simply enjoying the sunshine or working on its tan. The heat from the sun’s rays is critical to the lizard’s survival. A warm lizard can move faster than a cold one because the chemical reactions that allow its muscles to move occur more rapidly at higher...
# Kinetics ## Chemical Reaction Rates A rate is a measure of how some property varies with time. Speed is a familiar rate that expresses the distance traveled by an object in a given amount of time. Wage is a rate that represents the amount of money earned by a person working for a given amount of time. Likewise, the...
# Kinetics ## Factors Affecting Reaction Rates The rates at which reactants are consumed and products are formed during chemical reactions vary greatly. Five factors typically affecting the rates of chemical reactions will be explored in this section: the chemical nature of the reacting substances, the state of subdi...
# Kinetics ## Rate Laws As described in the previous module, the rate of a reaction is often affected by the concentrations of reactants. Rate laws (sometimes called differential rate laws) or rate equations are mathematical expressions that describe the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and the co...
# Kinetics ## Integrated Rate Laws The rate laws discussed thus far relate the rate and the concentrations of reactants. We can also determine a second form of each rate law that relates the concentrations of reactants and time. These are called integrated rate laws. We can use an integrated rate law to determine the...
# Kinetics ## Collision Theory We should not be surprised that atoms, molecules, or ions must collide before they can react with each other. Atoms must be close together to form chemical bonds. This simple premise is the basis for a very powerful theory that explains many observations regarding chemical kinetics, inc...
# Kinetics ## Reaction Mechanisms Chemical reactions very often occur in a step-wise fashion, involving two or more distinct reactions taking place in sequence. A balanced equation indicates what is reacting and what is produced, but it reveals no details about how the reaction actually takes place. The reaction mech...
# Kinetics ## Catalysis Among the factors affecting chemical reaction rates discussed earlier in this chapter was the presence of a catalyst, a substance that can increase the reaction rate without being consumed in the reaction. The concepts introduced in the previous section on reaction mechanisms provide the basis...
# Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts ## Introduction Imagine a beach populated with sunbathers and swimmers. As those basking in the sun get too hot, they enter the surf to swim and cool off. As the swimmers tire, they return to the beach to rest. If the rate at which sunbathers enter the surf were to equal the rate at...
# Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts ## Chemical Equilibria The convention for writing chemical equations involves placing reactant formulas on the left side of a reaction arrow and product formulas on the right side. By this convention, and the definitions of “reactant” and “product,” a chemical equation represents th...
# Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts ## Equilibrium Constants The status of a reversible reaction is conveniently assessed by evaluating its reaction quotient (. For a reversible reaction described by the reaction quotient is derived directly from the stoichiometry of the balanced equation as where the subscript c deno...
# Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts ## Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle A system at equilibrium is in a state of dynamic balance, with forward and reverse reactions taking place at equal rates. If an equilibrium system is subjected to a change in conditions that affects these reaction rates differently (a...
# Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts ## Equilibrium Calculations Having covered the essential concepts of chemical equilibria in the preceding sections of this chapter, this final section will demonstrate the more practical aspect of using these concepts and appropriate mathematical strategies to perform various equili...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Introduction Liquid water is essential to life on our planet, and chemistry involving the characteristic ions of water, H+ and OH–, is widely encountered in nature and society. As introduced in another chapter of this text, acid-base chemistry involves the transfer of hydrogen ions from dono...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases The acid-base reaction class has been studied for quite some time. In 1680, Robert Boyle reported traits of acid solutions that included their ability to dissolve many substances, to change the colors of certain natural dyes, and to lose these traits after comi...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## pH and pOH As discussed earlier, hydronium and hydroxide ions are present both in pure water and in all aqueous solutions, and their concentrations are inversely proportional as determined by the ion product of water (Kw). The concentrations of these ions in a solution are often critical det...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases ### Acid and Base Ionization Constants The relative strength of an acid or base is the extent to which it ionizes when dissolved in water. If the ionization reaction is essentially complete, the acid or base is termed strong; if relatively little ioniz...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Hydrolysis of Salts ### Salts with Acidic Ions Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations and anions, either of which may be capable of undergoing an acid or base ionization reaction with water. Aqueous salt solutions, therefore, may be acidic, basic, or neutral, depending on the relati...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Polyprotic Acids Acids are classified by the number of protons per molecule that they can give up in a reaction. Acids such as HCl, HNO3, and HCN that contain one ionizable hydrogen atom in each molecule are called monoprotic acids. Their reactions with water are: Even though it contains fou...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Buffers A solution containing appreciable amounts of a weak conjugate acid-base pair is called a buffer solution, or a buffer. Buffer solutions resist a change in pH when small amounts of a strong acid or a strong base are added (). A solution of acetic acid and sodium acetate (CH3COOH + CH3...
# Acid-Base Equilibria ## Acid-Base Titrations As seen in the chapter on the stoichiometry of chemical reactions, titrations can be used to quantitatively analyze solutions for their acid or base concentrations. In this section, we will explore the underlying chemical equilibria that make acid-base titrimetry a usefu...
# Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes ## Introduction The mineral fluorite, CaF2 , is commonly used as a semiprecious stone in many types of jewelry because of its striking appearance. Deposits of fluorite are formed through a process called hydrothermal precipitation in which calcium and fluoride ions dissolved in ...
# Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes ## Precipitation and Dissolution Solubility equilibria are established when the dissolution and precipitation of a solute species occur at equal rates. These equilibria underlie many natural and technological processes, ranging from tooth decay to water purification. An understa...
# Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes ## Lewis Acids and Bases In 1923, G. N. Lewis proposed a generalized definition of acid-base behavior in which acids and bases are identified by their ability to accept or to donate a pair of electrons and form a coordinate covalent bond. A coordinate covalent bond (or dative bo...
# Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes ## Coupled Equilibria As discussed in preceding chapters on equilibrium, coupled equilibria involve two or more separate chemical reactions that share one or more reactants or products. This section of this chapter will address solubility equilibria coupled with acid-base and co...
# Thermodynamics ## Introduction Among the many capabilities of chemistry is its ability to predict if a process will occur under specified conditions. Thermodynamics, the study of relationships between the energy and work associated with chemical and physical processes, provides this predictive ability. Previous cha...
# Thermodynamics ## Spontaneity Processes have a natural tendency to occur in one direction under a given set of conditions. Water will naturally flow downhill, but uphill flow requires outside intervention such as the use of a pump. Iron exposed to the earth’s atmosphere will corrode, but rust is not converted to ir...
# Thermodynamics ## Entropy In 1824, at the age of 28, Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot () published the results of an extensive study regarding the efficiency of steam heat engines. A later review of Carnot’s findings by Rudolf Clausius introduced a new thermodynamic property that relates the spontaneous heat flow accomp...
# Thermodynamics ## The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics ### The Second Law of Thermodynamics In the quest to identify a property that may reliably predict the spontaneity of a process, a promising candidate has been identified: entropy. Processes that involve an increase in entropy of the system (ΔS > 0) ar...
# Thermodynamics ## Free Energy One of the challenges of using the second law of thermodynamics to determine if a process is spontaneous is that it requires measurements of the entropy change for the system and the entropy change for the surroundings. An alternative approach involving a new thermodynamic property def...
# Electrochemistry ## Introduction Another chapter in this text introduced the chemistry of reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions. This important reaction class is defined by changes in oxidation states for one or more reactant elements, and it includes a subset of reactions involving the transfer of electrons betwee...
# Electrochemistry ## Review of Redox Chemistry Since reactions involving electron transfer are essential to the topic of electrochemistry, a brief review of redox chemistry is provided here that summarizes and extends the content of an earlier text chapter (see chapter on reaction stoichiometry). Readers wishing add...
# Electrochemistry ## Galvanic Cells As demonstration of spontaneous chemical change, shows the result of immersing a coiled wire of copper into an aqueous solution of silver nitrate. A gradual but visually impressive change spontaneously occurs as the initially colorless solution becomes increasingly blue, and the ...
# Electrochemistry ## Electrode and Cell Potentials Unlike the spontaneous oxidation of copper by aqueous silver(I) ions described in section 17.2, immersing a copper wire in an aqueous solution of lead(II) ions yields no reaction. The two species, Ag+(aq) and Pb2+(aq), thus show a distinct difference in their redox ...
# Electrochemistry ## Potential, Free Energy, and Equilibrium So far in this chapter, the relationship between the cell potential and reaction spontaneity has been described, suggesting a link to the free energy change for the reaction (see chapter on thermodynamics). The interpretation of potentials as measures of o...
# Electrochemistry ## Batteries and Fuel Cells There are many technological products associated with the past two centuries of electrochemistry research, none more immediately obvious than the battery. A battery is a galvanic cell that has been specially designed and constructed in a way that best suits its intended ...
# Electrochemistry ## Corrosion Corrosion is usually defined as the degradation of metals by a naturally occurring electrochemical process. The formation of rust on iron, tarnish on silver, and the blue-green patina that develops on copper are all examples of corrosion. The total cost of corrosion remediation in the ...
# Electrochemistry ## Electrolysis Electrochemical cells in which spontaneous redox reactions take place (galvanic cells) have been the topic of discussion so far in this chapter. In these cells, electrical work is done by a redox system on its surroundings as electrons produced by the redox reaction are transferred ...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Introduction The development of the periodic table in the mid-1800s came from observations that there was a periodic relationship between the properties of the elements. Chemists, who have an understanding of the variations of these properties, have been able to u...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Periodicity We begin this section by examining the behaviors of representative metals in relation to their positions in the periodic table. The primary focus of this section will be the application of periodicity to the representative metals. It is possible to div...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements in nature. However, compounds that contain ions of most representative metals are abundant. In this section, we will con...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids A series of six elements called the metalloids separate the metals from the nonmetals in the periodic table. The metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. These elements look meta...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals The nonmetals are elements located in the upper right portion of the periodic table. Their properties and behavior are quite different from those of metals on the left side. Under normal conditions, more than half ...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. The sun and other stars are composed largely of hydrogen. Astronomers estimate that 90% of the atoms in the universe are hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is a compone...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates The chemistry of carbon is extensive; however, most of this chemistry is not relevant to this chapter. The other aspects of the chemistry of carbon will appear in the chapter covering organic chemistry. In this...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen Most pure nitrogen comes from the fractional distillation of liquid air. The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen by volume. This means there are more than 20 million tons of nitrogen over every square mile of the...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus The industrial preparation of phosphorus is by heating calcium phosphate, obtained from phosphate rock, with sand and coke: The phosphorus distills out of the furnace and is condensed into a solid or burned to ...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen Oxygen is the most abundant element on the earth’s crust. The earth’s surface is composed of the crust, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. About 50% of the mass of the earth’s crust consists of oxygen (combined with other...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur Sulfur exists in nature as elemental deposits as well as sulfides of iron, zinc, lead, and copper, and sulfates of sodium, calcium, barium, and magnesium. Hydrogen sulfide is often a component of natural gas and oc...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens The elements in group 17 are the halogens. These are the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. These elements are too reactive to occur freely in nature, but their compounds are widely distr...
# Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases The elements in group 18 are the noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name “noble” because they were assumed to be nonreactive since they have filled valence shells...
# Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry ## Introduction We have daily contact with many transition metals. Iron occurs everywhere—from the rings in your spiral notebook and the cutlery in your kitchen to automobiles, ships, buildings, and in the hemoglobin in your blood. Titanium is useful in the manufacture o...
# Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry ## Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds Transition metals are defined as those elements that have (or readily form) partially filled d orbitals. As shown in , the in groups 3–11 are transition elements. The , also called inner...
# Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry ## Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals The hemoglobin in your blood, the chlorophyll in green plants, vitamin B-12, and the catalyst used in the manufacture of polyethylene all contain coordination compounds. Ions of the metals, especially the transition metals, ...
# Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry ## Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds The behavior of coordination compounds cannot be adequately explained by the same theories used for main group element chemistry. The observed geometries of coordination complexes are not consistent with ...
# Organic Chemistry ## Introduction All living things on earth are formed mostly of carbon compounds. The prevalence of carbon compounds in living things has led to the epithet “carbon-based” life. The truth is we know of no other kind of life. Early chemists regarded substances isolated from organisms (plants and an...
# Organic Chemistry ## Hydrocarbons The largest databaseThis is the Beilstein database, now available through the Reaxys site (www.elsevier.com/online-tools/reaxys). of organic compounds lists about 10 million substances, which include compounds originating from living organisms and those synthesized by chemists. The...
# Organic Chemistry ## Alcohols and Ethers In this section, we will learn about alcohols and ethers. ### Alcohols Incorporation of an oxygen atom into carbon- and hydrogen-containing molecules leads to new functional groups and new families of compounds. When the oxygen atom is attached by single bonds, the molecul...
# Organic Chemistry ## Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters Another class of organic molecules contains a carbon atom connected to an oxygen atom by a double bond, commonly called a carbonyl group. The trigonal planar carbon in the carbonyl group can attach to two other substituents leading to several sub...
# Organic Chemistry ## Amines and Amides Amines are molecules that contain carbon-nitrogen bonds. The nitrogen atom in an amine has a lone pair of electrons and three bonds to other atoms, either carbon or hydrogen. Various nomenclatures are used to derive names for amines, but all involve the class-identifying suffi...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Introduction The chemical reactions that we have considered in previous chapters involve changes in the electronic structure of the species involved, that is, the arrangement of the electrons around atoms, ions, or molecules. Nuclear structure, the numbers of protons and neutrons within the nuc...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Nuclear Structure and Stability Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The chapter on atoms, molecules, and ions introduced the basic idea of nuclear structure, that the nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, with the exception of neutron...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Nuclear Equations Changes of nuclei that result in changes in their atomic numbers, mass numbers, or energy states are nuclear reactions. To describe a nuclear reaction, we use an equation that identifies the nuclides involved in the reaction, their mass numbers and atomic numbers, and the othe...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Radioactive Decay Following the somewhat serendipitous discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel, many prominent scientists began to investigate this new, intriguing phenomenon. Among them were Marie Curie (the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, and the only person to win two Nobel Prizes in diffe...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Transmutation and Nuclear Energy After the discovery of radioactivity, the field of nuclear chemistry was created and developed rapidly during the early twentieth century. A slew of new discoveries in the 1930s and 1940s, along with World War II, combined to usher in the Nuclear Age in the mid-...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Uses of Radioisotopes Radioactive isotopes have the same chemical properties as stable isotopes of the same element, but they emit radiation, which can be detected. If we replace one (or more) atom(s) with radioisotope(s) in a compound, we can track them by monitoring their radioactive emission...
# Nuclear Chemistry ## Biological Effects of Radiation The increased use of radioisotopes has led to increased concerns over the effects of these materials on biological systems (such as humans). All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells,...
# Essential Ideas ## Introduction Your alarm goes off and, after hitting “snooze” once or twice, you pry yourself out of bed. You make a cup of coffee to help you get going, and then you shower, get dressed, eat breakfast, and check your phone for messages. On your way to school, you stop to fill your car’s gas tank,...
# Essential Ideas ## Chemistry in Context Throughout human history, people have tried to convert matter into more useful forms. Our Stone Age ancestors chipped pieces of flint into useful tools and carved wood into statues and toys. These endeavors involved changing the shape of a substance without changing the subst...
# Essential Ideas ## Phases and Classification of Matter Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, and it is all around us. Solids and liquids are more obviously matter: We can see that they take up space, and their weight tells us that they have mass. Gases are also matter; if gases did not ta...
# Essential Ideas ## Physical and Chemical Properties The characteristics that distinguish one substance from another are called properties. A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical composition. Familiar examples of physical properties include density, col...
# Essential Ideas ## Measurements Measurements provide much of the information that informs the hypotheses, theories, and laws describing the behavior of matter and energy in both the macroscopic and microscopic domains of chemistry. Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the ...
# Essential Ideas ## Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty, provided the number of objects being counted does not change while the counting process is underway. The result of such a counting measurement is an example of an exact number....
# Essential Ideas ## Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results It is often the case that a quantity of interest may not be easy (or even possible) to measure directly but instead must be calculated from other directly measured properties and appropriate mathematical relationships. For example, consider measuring ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Introduction Lung diseases and lung cancers are among the world's most devastating illnesses partly due to delayed detection and diagnosis. Most noninvasive screening procedures aren't reliable, and patients often resist more accurate methods due to discomfort with the procedures or wi...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Early Ideas in Atomic Theory The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day. In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of small, finite particles that they ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Evolution of Atomic Theory If matter is composed of atoms, what are atoms composed of? Are they the smallest particles, or is there something smaller? In the late 1800s, a number of scientists interested in questions like these investigated the electrical discharges that could be produ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Atomic Structure and Symbolism The development of modern atomic theory revealed much about the inner structure of atoms. It was learned that an atom contains a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, surrounded by a much larger volume of space ...
# Atoms, Molecules, and Ions ## Chemical Formulas ### Molecular and Empirical Formulas A molecular formula is a representation of a molecule that uses chemical symbols to indicate the types of atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of atoms of each type in the molecule. (A subscript is used only when more ...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Introduction In 1054, Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a “guest star” in the sky, visible even during the day, which then disappeared slowly over the next two years. The sudden appearance was due to a supernova explosion, which was much brigh...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Electromagnetic Energy The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms and was able to demonstrate that white light consists of the individual colors o...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## The Bohr Model Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded by lighter and even tinier electrons continually moving about the nucleus was well est...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Development of Quantum Theory Bohr’s model explained the experimental data for the hydrogen atom and was widely accepted, but it also raised many questions. Why did electrons orbit at only fixed distances defined by a single quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, and...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations) Having introduced the basics of atomic structure and quantum mechanics, we can use our understanding of quantum numbers to determine how atomic orbitals relate to one another. This allows us to determ...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Periodic Variations in Element Properties The elements in groups (vertical columns) of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number and distribution of electrons in their v...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## The Periodic Table As early chemists worked to purify ores and discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped together by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping includes lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium ...
# Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements ## Ionic and Molecular Compounds In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus of each atom (and thus the identity of the element) remains unchanged. Electrons, however, can be added to atoms by transfer from other atoms, lost by transfer to other atoms, or sha...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Introduction It has long been known that pure carbon occurs in different forms (allotropes) including graphite and diamonds. But it was not until 1985 that a new form of carbon was recognized: buckminsterfullerene. This molecule was named after the architect and inventor R...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Ionic Bonding As you have learned, ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more el...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Covalent Bonding Ionic bonding results from the electrostatic attraction of oppositely charged ions that are typically produced by the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms. A different type of bonding results from the mutual attraction of atoms for ...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Chemical Nomenclature Nomenclature, a collection of rules for naming things, is important in science and in many other situations. This module describes an approach that is used to name simple ionic and molecular compounds, such as NaCl, CaCO3, and N2O4. The simplest of th...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Lewis Symbols and Structures Thus far in this chapter, we have discussed the various types of bonds that form between atoms and/or ions. In all cases, these bonds involve the sharing or transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms. In this section, we will explore the...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Formal Charges and Resonance In the previous section, we discussed how to write Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. As we have seen, however, in some cases, there is seemingly more than one valid structure for a molecule. We can use the concept of formal ch...
# Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry ## Molecular Structure and Polarity Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and ...
# Advanced Theories of Bonding ## Introduction We have examined the basic ideas of bonding, showing that atoms share electrons to form molecules with stable Lewis structures and that we can predict the shapes of those molecules by valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. These ideas provide an important ...
# Advanced Theories of Bonding ## Valence Bond Theory As we know, a scientific theory is a strongly supported explanation for observed natural laws or large bodies of experimental data. For a theory to be accepted, it must explain experimental data and be able to predict behavior. For example, VSEPR theory has gained...
# Advanced Theories of Bonding ## Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Thinking in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals is one way for us to explain how chemical bonds form in diatomic molecules. However, to understand how molecules with more than two atoms form stable bonds, we require a more detailed model. As an example, let us...